The City Shaped - Spiro Kostof
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Urban design and architectural landscape book from traditional design and historical theory...
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3/4/2015
MorrowJones: Transformation at the Urban Edge: Urbanization in Exurbia (2000)
LECTURE NOTES for Urban Structure and Functions (Spring 2003) based on Kostof, Spiro. 1991. The City Shaped. London: Thames and Hudson. Kostof, Sprio. 1992. The City Assembled. London: Thames and Hudson. By Emily Talen, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Also available at the UIUC website: http://www.urban.uiuc.edu/Courses/up404/index.htm
LECTURE NOTES Kostof, Spiro. 1991. The City Shaped. London: Thames and Hudson. Introduction, The City Shaped Chapter 1, The City Shaped, Organic Patterns Chapter 2, The City Shaped, The Grid Chapter 3, The City Shaped, City as Diagram Chapter 4, Part 1, The City Shaped, The Grand Manner Chapter 4, Part 2, The City Shaped, The Grand Manner Chapter 5, The City Shaped, The Urban Skyline Kostof, Sprio. 1992. The City Assembled. London: Thames and Hudson. Chapter 1, The City Assembled, The City Edge Chapter 2, The City Assembled, Urban Divisions Chapter 3, The City Assembled, Public Places Chapter 4, The City Assembled, The Street
LECTURE NOTES The City Shaped
Introduction The City as Artifact Urban form and process In the tradition of: Camillo Sitte Joseph Stubben Gordon Cullen Kevin Lynch Rob and Leon Krier Dimensions: 1. Theories and actual townmaking 2. Socioeconomic change visàvis the persistence of the artifact (buildings) How and why did cities take their shape? Form as a receptacle of meaning Cities are consciously shaped Need understanding of cultural conditions What is meant by PROCESS 2 senses 1. people, forces, institutions Who designs cities? What procedures and laws do they use? 2. Physical change through time physical traits of the urban landscape how do certain forms come about? Affiliates of Method https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Lewis Mumford, The City in History a sequential narrative Kevin Lynch, Good City Form city selfperception Cosmic Monumental axis Enclosure and protected gates Dominant landmarks Reliance on the regular grid Spatial organization by hierarchy Practical model Colonial towns and company towns Speculative grid towns Organic model Boundary and optimum size Cohesive Balanced state Olmsted, Ebenezer Howard, Patrick Geddes, Lewis Mumford Urban morphology M.R.G.. Conzen 1. the town plan itself street system plot pattern building arrangement Edmund Bacon, Design of Cities 2. the land use pattern uses of ground and space 3. the building fabric threedimensional mark of physical structures Preindustrial Small size 100,000 max population No land use specialization Two social classes Center is government, religion, and houses of the elite Industrial city Prefigured by capitalism Land as source of income Socialist city No capitalist ownership of land Dominance of central planning Neolithic settlements: Jericho, Catal Huyuk Mesopotamia (between Tigris and Euphrates): About 3500 B.C. Nile valley about 3000 B.C. Millennium later Indus Valley New World Main points: not a diffusion uneven over space and time Chicken vs. egg problem Jane Jacobs Defense
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No single causative factor Early City Form 1. city as "art" 2. city as "civitas" Greek polis What is a City? 1. Wirth, Mumford 2. Kostof: a. Energized crowding b. Clusters c. Physical delineation d. Specialized work differentiation e. Source of income f. Written records g. Connected with countryside h. Monumentalism i. Buildings and people
Chapter 1 The City Shaped Organic Patterns Planned vs. unplanned cities Planned Premeditated overseeing authority Spontaneous determined by history geography life of citizens Can also have the "planned organic" "Disintegration" of rational order 1. Freeing of movement from geometric order 2. Reorganization of the blocks 3. New public spaces Evolution of organic patterns Physical determinants of irregular city forms vs. Social determinants Physical determinants: Cities as organisms Topography Land division Synoecism Social determinants: The law and social order Order vs. disorder Origins of the planned picturesque Alberti, early Renaissance architectural theorist, De re Aedificatoria: Were the irregular effects of some cities PLANNED? https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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England starting 1750: picturesque gardens John Nash's Regent Street Gothic Revival A social agenda recovery of village life Early industrial model villages: Port Sunlight, 1887 Bourneville, 1890's Picturesque suburb: Bournemouth at Dorset, 1830s In U.S., planned picturesque = nonurban Andrew Jackson Downing cottages Glendale, Ohio, 1851 F.L. Olmsted Riverside, IL, 1869 Garden City paradigm Howard, 1898, ToMorrow, A Peaceful Path to Social Reform 1902, Garden Cities of ToMorrow Garden Cities = planned picturesque Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, Letchworth, begun 1902 Rejection of block system of land division BeauxArts urbanism (town square) and organic Garden cities Unwin/Parker: Letchworth, first garden city, begun 1902 Louis de Soissons: Welwyn Garden City Barry Parker: Wythenshawe, outside Manchester, 1930 Influence of Radburn (Stein/Wright), neighborhood unit, parkway Less acceptance in U.S.: communal ownership not possible traffic issue Garden suburbs Unwin/Parker: Hampstead Garden Suburb, 1907 New Earswick, outside York Ealing Tenants' garden suburb, 190610 Henri Sellier 16 citesjardins around Paris, 19161939 Krupp family/Georg Metzendorf Margarethenhohe, near Essen, 1912 In U.S.: Country Club District, Kansas City https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Forest Hills Gardens, Queens Both started before 1915 Both early examples of restrictions by consent Yorkship Village, Camden, NJ Radburn, 1928 American Parker and Unwin: Clarence Stein and Henry Wright Effect of Radburn after WW II: FHA, organized in 1934, official pamphlets: "planning profitable neighborhoods" favored curvilinear adaptations of street grid Conservation Grand Manner vs. preservation Camillo Sitte (18431903): The Art of Building Cities: Citybuilding according to artistic principles Urban space The outdoor room Patrick Geddes Modernism and the Planned Picturesque Ernst May, Romerstadt, near Frankfurt, 192729 Martin Wagner (18851957); from Berlin After WW II, rejection of: historic picturesque of European (continent) cities Garden cities and their offshoots Counterreaction to modernist ahistoricism Historic Preservation "Townscape" of Gordon Cullen, 1961 New Urbanism Rob Krier, Urban Space (1975) Colin Rowe, Collage City (1978)
Chapter 2 The City Shaped The Grid The nature of rectilinear planning equal distribution of land easy parceling defense surveillance of population Basic issues 1. size and shape of blocks 2. open spaces and their distribution 3. accommodation of public buildings 4. nature of the street grid 5. termination of grid 6. relation between grid and topography 7. effect of grid in 3dimensions hybrid versions of the grid: loose approximations gridded extensions grids combined with other geometric principles curvilinear grid of the modern residential development https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Egalitarianism is not “natural” to grids Not intrinsically democratic But there are examples 2 main purposes of grid: 1. facilitate orderly settlement or colonization 2. to modernize Different motivations 1. military 2. religious ideas 3. capitalism 4. industrial planning critics: grid is too timid grid is dry, mathematical The grid in the ancient world Preclassical antiquity: Mohenjo Daro and Harappa Babylon 5th c., Hippodamus of Miletus Roman Grids: Large, square blocks Standardized fort plan New towns in the middle ages Grid reemerges 1100 new towns extensions 1,000 new towns in 3 areas: Southern France The Bastides Switzerland, Austria, Germany City states of Italy – Siena, Florence Rise of Bastides defense economic policies religion The Renaissance in Europe Around 1600: Bastions Baroque urbanism Passage to America L’Enfant vs. grid Laws of the Indies L.A., San Antonio “pueblos” Classical inspiration (Vitruvius) Continuation of bastides: two main axes intersecting public square at intersection The plaza is the key England in the New World https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Williamsburg (settled in 1633) Jamestown, 1607 Charleston and Savannah, 18th century 1785, National Land Ordinance establishes grid as standard 1811, Commissioner’s Plan of New York new meaning of grid “Closed grid” vs.“Open grid” Grid dominates in Western U.S. Spanish vs. American system The speculative grid Railroad companies adopt grid Laying out the grid Role of topography Surveyors and theorists Groma used to determine right angles Hippodamus of Miletus rational arrangement of buildings and circulation Theoretical geometry, rather than empiricism of surveyors Roman surveyors Used arithmetic, geometry, law The Town Planner as Artist Florentine towns of 14th century trigonometry Beyond practical surveying Virtruvius, 1st c. B.C. Alberti’s De Re Aedificatoria, published 1485 Cataneo and Scamozzi’s treatises also Alberti, Early Renaissance Ichnographic plan 2dimensional record of solids and voids Cities in diagram Pietro Cataneo’s I Quattro primilibri di architettura, 1554 Vincenzo Scamozzi’s L’idea della architettura universale, 1615 Coordinated Systems of Town and Country Columbus, OH David Rusk – Cities without suburbs Roman land survey (centuriation) Spanish in the New World Town in the middle Common lands reserved around the town English in North America The Jeffersonian gridding of America: The National Survey: 1785 Determined the placement of many towns The square township system “Freehold” vs. “Leasehold” https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Gridded extensions Amsterdam Creative extension plan Compare with other extensions Uncoordinated patchworks The Closed Grid: Frame, Accent, and Open Spaces The Walled Frame Spindleform plan The walled grid: Roman foursquare castrum Bastions Street Rhythms arrangement of streets creation of strong center open spaces interspersed creating a focus: 2 axes cross at middle The Distribution of Squares French, English, Spanish bastides: 1. single block in the middle 2. market sits at the crossroads American court house square types The grid could also be multicentered Centrality/hierarchy vs. provision of public open space Savannah Philadelphia Plan (1683) When control is lost: Encroaching on parks Crowding of blocks Block Organization grid vs. modern urban densities 3dimensional form size and density of blocks size and shape of blocks The burgage plot in Europe: deep parcel narrow street frontage outbuildings becomes either slum housing or monotonous rows of identical houses parallels in U.S. Philadelphia: From “green country town” to row houses New York City: 2,000 blocks created in 1811 by 1850, tenement housing covered 90 % of site https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Tenement House Act of 1879 “ dumbbell tenement” New law in 1901 required building on 2 city lots Grids ease transition to larger building types In Paris, radical surgery Less traumatic at city edge Otto Wagner’s scheme for edge of Vienna, 1910 James Hobrecht plan of Berlin, 1860 Mietskasernen (tenenments blocks) Ildefonso Cerda’s Barcelona plan The Grid in the 20th Century From 1880s to 1920, the perimeter block Berlage’s Amsterdam plan, 1915 Early reformers try to transform grid Traditional grid seen as oppressive Solution inturned superblock surrounded by major traffic arterials Chicago City Club, 1915 Then, superblock planning becomes aligned with modernism: C.I.A.M., 1933, “Athens Charter” maxigrid The completely modern city: Chandigarh and Brasilia Le Corbusier (18871965) Chandigarh, founded 1951: Influence of Ville Radieuse plan (The Radiant City, 1933) analogy of human body fragmentation planned class segregation Problems with the modernist city: Oversimplification About replacement, not modification Decontextualization Le Corbusier Reduction of society to clockwork order Milton Keynes, founded 1967 Modernist grid Last of the English New Towns Key point about modernist grid: The traffic arteries delimit the boundaries of urban districts Rather than define blocks Final assessment of grid (by Kostof): Ceaseless usefulness Free of ideological posturing The grid is what you make it https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Chapter 3 The City Shaped City as Diagram The inflexible city contrast to the organic and the grid Circles and Polygons Arcosanti Soleri's interpretation of the city of the future 5,000 people in a solarpowered megastructure Palmanova Laid out 1593, completed 1623 military town In center, a hexagon with 6 streets radiating out Scamozzi Ideal cities change: "squaring of Circleville" Utopias and Ideal Cities geometric shapes circles and squares rigid centrality radial convergence Utopias: Thomas More's Amaurot, the capital of Utopia Ideal cities: specific physical context Other sources of geometric order: Terpen Cosmology Specialized Environments The Design of Regimentation Military camps Roman castrum Spanish presidio Monasteries communitarian socialism, 19th c. Industrial villages Saltaire, Yorkshire creation of Sir Titus Salt Nadelburg, Vienna Pullman, Chicago Port Sunlight, Liverpool Krupp works, Essen 3 parts to industrial town: factory or plant church worker's housing Saltaire, 1851, completed 1860 https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Holy Cities religious symbolism: Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat (Cambodia) spatial structure of heaven The Political Diagram Centrality monocentric Linear systems Beijing New Delhi Laid out by Edward Lutyens British symbolism King's way, Queen's way, Government House spatial structure based on: Race Occupational rank SES Modernism and the power diagram Brasilia Dedicated in 1960 quintessential modern city Corbusian influence Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer Monumental axis Uniform superblocks Centralized systems Concentric organization Tokyo Townplanning mandalas Progressive social declension Radial organization Concentric space and street rays that join center to edge Unknown to Greeks and Romans Renaissance began to see radial design Humanistic perfection Leonardo da Vinci diagram Sforzinda's Example By Filarete, designed 146064 significance: archetype for humanist city of High Renaissance Versailles Radial concentric together with an axis Widespread in 17th and 18th centuries The Functional Diagram The Logic of Defense Traffic and radialconcentricity Canberra Walter Burley and Marion Mahoney Griffin 1912 constellation of stars Ebenezer Howard ToMorrow: A peaceful path to social reform, 1898 (later Garden Cities of ToMorrow) The Reality: https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Suburban decentralization Edge cities New circulation systems Loss of monocentricity due to: Automobile Cheaper suburban land highway interchanges Suburban labor pools The Secular/Socialist Diagram City design and ideal social relations Panopticon extreme example of surveillance Social classes in harmony Better bond with nature Communitarian socialism 3 leading figures: Ebenezer Howard Charles Fourier (17721837) Robert Owen (17711858) Final assessment by Kostof: "In the end, all ideal cityforms are a little dehumanizing" "The city as diagram, in the end, is the story of dreamers who want the complexity and richness of urban structure without the problems, tensions, volatility." Chapter 4, Part 1 The City Shaped The Grand Manner Washington, D.C. Major Pierre L'Enfant, 1791 Baroque planning in U.S. McMillan Committee, 1901 restoration of plan Columbian Exposition of 1893 Influence of Burnham Classical city vs. city of commerce Civic patriotism vs. poverty and disease Components of Baroque Aesthetic: 1. focal points 2. topography, links 3. landscaping 4. vistas 5. public spaces 6. dramatic effects 7. superimposed Historical Review Antiquity Pergamon 3rd and 2nd centuries, BC terraces and platforms no master plan Ancient Rome Avenues and public open spaces public buildings and monuments https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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European Baroque Capital cities Absolutism Roots in: Renaissance 14th century in Florence CounterReformation Authoritarianism Astronomy New conception of space Contribution of Baroque: continuous plane uniform facades First articulation of Baroque urbanism: master plan of Rome under Sixtus V (158590) architect Domenico Fontana succession of long, straight streets piazzas and central obelisks Geometric order for its own sake Grand Manner outside Italy French baroque: Statesponsored urbanism Specific contributions: Treelined streets Residential square continuous uniform facades City Beautiful in U.S. Totalitarian regimes Hitler, Stalin Baroque and modernism Planning in the Grand Manner Not based on utilitarian need Based on magnificence Topography Artificiality Geometric abstractions Edward Lutyens, New Delhi Expansiveness Redesign of London after 1666 Christopher Wren John Evelyn Grand Manner vs. City Diagram Visual vs. political symbolism The Grand Manner as Theater Progression: •perspective, Italian paintings, early 15th c. •stage scenery •garden design https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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•city squares and streets Sebastiano Serlio, "L'Architettura" A dramatization of urban form Drama serves different types of regimes The Grand Manner and Landscape Design Strong links Andre Le Notre (Louis XIV) Versailles, 1665 Power over nature In U.S: Grand Manner + English Garden Grand Manner + Garden City The Design of Heights Platforms Stairs Ramps devices for suspense and human movement Chapter 4, Part 2 The City Shaped The Grand Manner Baroque Elements The straight street 1. public order 2. shortest paths between 2 points 3. straights streets can express an ideology The "Baroque" diagonal Accidental: 1) accommodating a prior stretch of road 2) coming together of 2 different sections of urban layout The deliberate diagonal Cut through grid with diagonals Came to be known as the "American grid" Daniel Hudson Burnham (18461912) trickle down urban development Trivium and polyvium Boulevards and Avenues Starts with a defensive wall trees planted on ramparts (late 16th c.) Not intended as transportation arteries Avenue origin is rural https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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They were axes to an estate, a farm, a village garden design = allee From allee to urban avenue Dutch treelined canal street treelined avenue in Versailles Urban boulevard: 3 distinct strips sidewalks roadway for traffic rows of trees Very different from the traditional street In U.S., treelined streets were not urban, but residential Uniformity and the continuous frontage Symbol of order and speed Celebration of standardization and uniformity 18th c. = Age of Enlightenment, belief in human reason tall buildings Otto Wagner's 1911 Grosstadt A modern reaffirmation of the Grand Manner Modernists hated this restraint of the skyscraper What is the danger of uniformity? Can be excessive, and therefore boring Purpose of the vista Framing a distant view Markers and monuments freestanding monuments: Accent a vista Fix the space of a formal square Triumphal arches Columns Equestrian statues Ceremonial axis Grand Manner is about staging power Grand Manner taken over by modernism Postmodern Baroque A rejection of modernism Ricardo Bofill everyday life takes center stage Seaside Baroque urbanism domesticated by the Garden City movement Chapter 5 The City Shaped https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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The Urban Skyline Skylines are urban signatures Public vs. private skylines Tall buildings have existed throughout history These were public Skyscrapers = private enterprise Primacy of public order over private interests is made palpable on the skyline In modern times, the skyscraper is the pride of corporations, of capitalism Before Industrial Revolution: Buildings of communal importance (religion or political power) After Industrial Revolution: Confusion of skyline priorities The Skyline Portrayed Often the artist's conception Military might Civic pride Souvenir's Skyline features Make impression by: 1. landscape (either flat lands or hills) 2. preeminent buildings sacred heights domes and belltowers Landmarks of the secular city Domes, belfries Later, secular images Skyline Principles Height A relative matter Restrictions on highrises NYC zoning ordinance of 1916 Shape Abstract forms consciously removed from historicist towers Approach Previously, city was composed Now hard to "read" A matter of density compact core vs. dispersal The modern skyline The traditional public symbols of the skyline were overcome Civic and religious could no longer be distinguished by height At first, monumental towers Forging the Stadtkrone (crown of the city) A symbol of communal life https://www.hnet.org/~urban/teach/syllabi/talen2003syl2_cs.htm
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Bruno Taut, 1919 Die Stadtkrone The traditional city had: Organic collectivity Skyscraper = Monument to selfinterest First skyscrapers in 1880s in NYC and Chicago 1890 on, steel frames the skyline of business response for public buildings: classical monumentalism end of 19th c., in U.S., private enterprise valued at expense of public realm willingness to find communal pride in office buildings However, early skyscrapers were able to have connection to the street Towers of glass Modernism takes over Who should be allowed to define the skyline? Private developers vs. community
Prepared for the archive on 22 September 2003.
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