The Carpet cellar New collection

CHAPTER ONE - BEGINNER’S

GUIDE TO ORIENTAL CARPETS AND KILIMS.

The origin of oriental carpets and kilims can be traced back to the Neolithic age of 7000 B.C. Certain products of the era consisting of warp and weft were textile resembling flat weave kilims have been found. It is anticipated by the researchers that they may have originated in the dry steppe regions inhabited by the nomads. The nomadic tribes of the region did carpet weaving and instead of slaughtering their animals they wove their wool into carpets. There is one primary thing to understand about the ancient carpets is that they were generally created in ‘the labor of love’ and not manufactured with the intention to resell them. Broadly categorizing, there are two main types of carpets based on the dates of origin. These two categories are Antique Carpets and New Carpets. The antique carpets were all originally manufactured in Persia (Iran), Turkey, Afghanistan, Turkmen, China and India a hundred years ago, carpets that are forty years and older are known as Semi Antique Rugs. From Northwestern Persia, the medallion carpets with hunting scene designs date back to 1522. Known simply as “hunting carpets,’ these very rare specimens are recognizable by their scenes depicting armed horsemen fighting wild beasts. Also from the Persian region is the Kashan arabesque carpet from the early 20th century. The Kashan Carpets are recognizable by their soft and fluid style, as well as by their elaborate, densely decorated fields. Carpets with floral decoration were common in northern India since the beginning of the 16th century. Chinese carpets from the 18th century with symbolic motifs are largely dominated by dragons, and symbols of the emperor, ready to conquer the flaming pearl (purity). This carpet type, intended to serve auspicious purposes, is important and the most typical of this region. In India, carpets were mainly used for prayers back in the late 17th century. Depending on the work center there are two main categories within which carpets can be differentiated under. Namely Workshop carpets which were made in big towns and cities in organized carpet workshops by master weavers and Tribal rugs which were made in villages woven by illiterate tribal nomads. They were woven on portable looms in which the width of the loom is restricted and hence tribal rugs are generally small and narrow in size. They used to live lives of subsistence farming and

would use locally produced wools from their own herd of animals comprising of goat, sheep, camel, horse, yak, etc. The tribal carpets were made by members of a family each one possessing a different level of skill and hence lead to imperfections in weave, design, and symmetry. These are not considered to be defects as these were not made with the intention to resell them and more for a utilitarian purpose.

Each weaving centre has its own designs, colors, knotting and look. The dating and provenance of each carpet can be ascertained depending upon these various factors. Also, the type of knots can be very different as there are many styles to choose from. As yet it is difficult to point out when the first carpet and the art of carpet making originated, the general areas demarcated where the carpets may have been first produced are the Persia (Iran), Turkmenistan, central Asia Mongolia and China referred to as the "Carpet belt". The carpets were at one point so highly regarded and valued that they were considered better than money. According to a legend, the great Egyptian Queen Cleopatra actually presented herself to Caesar - rolled up inside a carpet. Marco Polo discovered some of the earliest fine Orientals in the 13th century whilst traveling in Persia. CHAPTER TWO - CONSTRUCTION Materials Wool, cotton and silk are the primary materials for carpets. Because of its availability throughout the Orient, wool (from sheep, goats or less durable camel hair) is the most widely used fiber for carpet making. In antique carpets, especially those made by nomadic tribes, wool was used for both the pile and the foundation. Cotton, a strong fiber, is suitable for the underlying foundation. It was also used in the pile to create white areas. Since it is the crop of a cultivated plant, however cotton is not found in the carpets produced by nomadic tribes. Because of its soft quality and shine, silk is the most precious of the materials, used mainly in the pile, alone or combined with wool, exclusively by specialized city workshops. Wool, cotton and silk are spun into yarn by twisting the fibers. Type of Knots

Generally speaking, the carpets are considered to be better if the knot counts are higher as calculated per square inch. The higher the knots, the finer the definition and thus more clearer the pattern. The carpets can be made in curvilinear designs (floral) that appear very intricate and are hence more costlier as they take more time and need better skilled craftsman. There are two basic kinds of knot which were used throughout the orient: the symmetrical knot, also known as the Ghiordes, or the Turkish knot, because it was used mainly in Turkey; and the asymmetrical knot, also known as the Senneh. A variant of these two systems is the jufti knot. It is also known as the “false” knot because, although derived from a Khorasan practice where it was used for relief effects, the jufti knot served in modern production to increase the weaving speed, resulting in less durable carpets. Dyes and Colors The colors used were plenty and one could use up to fifty colors in one carpet that were natural dyed. In those days just dyeing the handspun yarn which has a

much better hand feel as compared with modern day machine spun

yarn could take up to 6 months just to dye the wool. Today one can chemical dye the pieces within 20 days and people tend to use lesser number of colors. However with chemical dyes, one cannot achieve the intensity and depth of color that vegetable dyes radiate. The dyes used generally in the olden days were all natural extracted out of plants, rocks, minerals and sometimes even insects such as cochineal or laq. The advantage with natural dyes was that they did not generally fade and last a lifetime. Natural dye colors are derived from the following elements : REDS : Madder

Root

Reds/various

Cochineal

Insect

Blue/red

Lac

Insect

Pink

Kermes

Insect

Red

Safflower

Flower head

Red/yellow

Cudbear

Lichen

Red

BLUES :

Indigo

Leaves

Blue

Indigo (Dyer’s Wood)

Leaves

Blue

Spurge

Root

Yellow

Onion

Skin

Yellow/Brownish Yellow

St John’s Wort

All, save roots

Yellow

Tanners’ Sumach

Leaves

Yellow/Brown/black

Buckthorn

Berries

Intense Yellow

Dyer’s Chamomile

Flowers

Yellow

Wild Chamomile

Flower

Yellow

Chamomile

Flowers

Yellow

Saffron

Stigma

Yellow/Orange

Dyer’s Weed

All, save roots

Bright yellow

Sage

Stem, leaves

Yellow

Dyer’s Sumach

Wood

Yellow/Orange

Bastard hemp

All

Brilliant Yellow

YELLOWS:

ORANGES : Orange is made by combining red and yellow dyes; madder, not cochineal, is used for the red colorant. Quercetin produces a very bright orange, apigenin less brilliant, and luteolin results in a reddish orange. The dried leaves of henna are popular for dyeing wool. PURPLES : Purple or violet is made by combining red and blue. The woolen yarn is first dyed with indigo and then by either madder or cochineal. The purple found in most Anatolian kilims contains no indigo, but is derived instead from two madder dyes using an iron mordant. GREENS : Green is produced by mixing yellow and blue. The various yellow dyes combined with indigo or indigo sulphonic acid result in differing tones of green. Pistachio and olive leaves produce a light green. BROWNS :

Brown is most often derived from walnut husks. These make a direct dye which is easy to use. Natural brown wool is also abundant. BLACKS : Black is achieved by combining plants with tannin content with iron. This introduction of iron and the processing necessary damages the wool, so that it tends to corrode with time. Plant sources of tannin are the knobbly oak of the Quercus family, oak apples, tanner’s sumach, and the skin of the pomegranate. WHITES : Cotton is used to achieve a pure white, and natural wool yields an ivory white The colors used were plenty and one could use up to fifty colors in one carpet. In those days just dyeing the handspun yarn which has a much better hand feel as compared with modern day machine spun yarn could take up to six months just to dye the wool. Today the same process is a three week procedure. Abrash Abrash is a technical term used for the gradations in shade within a single color. There may be various reasons for the abrash. The tribal nomads use wool from their own livestock and wool being a natural fiber and the DNA properties of each animals fibers being different, the amount of dye absorbed can vary from one plant to another. Also, when you do natural dyeing, and use different flowers out of different shrubs, the consistency of dye may vary from one plant to another. Some of these are also called shade bands and occur as the wool is not dyed at the same time, and may change over a period of a time. An abrash is one of the easiest ways for a layman to figure out if a carpet has been vegetable dyed or not. Hence, the Abrash should not be considered a defect but an unusual technical and aesthetic feature. CHAPTER 3 – PERSIAN CARPETS Like Anatolia (Turkey), Persia was a cultural melting pot for various civilizations from the Mediterranean, the Middle East, central Asia and even eastern Asia, except that in Persia carpet making was more a redefined art and a social tradition than an expression of religious belief. Although no specimens from before the 16th century has

survived, we do know from literary sources that in very early times, several local tribes and those of Seljuk origin were already making carpets in different regions of Persia. Some of the well known weaving centers in Persia are as follows: Afshari The Kerman province does not only produce city rugs, as the area, particularly to the south and west, is inhabited by villagers and nomads who weave brightly colored rugs in rectilinear designs. While rugs of this region are almost universally attributed to the Afshari, a Turkic tribe with elements also in Azerbaijan and Khurasan, the ethnic picture is far more complex. The Afshari are a minority population but they are considered to be the most important. The warp and weft of the rugs of this region have traditionally been of wool, but recently cotton is coming into the villages, it is now unclear just what pieces are made by sedentary people and what by nomads. Earlier, Afshari carpets were single wefted, but now virtually all are double wefted and were most often dyed red. The weave is generally of a medium density, tending recently toward the coarser. Afshari products are seldom larger than 5'6" X 7' and have a striped kilim band at the ends or sometimes a few rows of brocade. Pieces around 15 feet or more in length often show European features in the design, and many seem to be rural adaptations of Kerman city rugs. While these pieces are clearly Afshari in terms of their wool foundation, colors, and borders associated with "tribal" sources, most have asymmetrical knots and depressed alternate warps. The sides are often finished with a reinforced overcast in alternating bands of varying colors. There is great variation in design, and many motifs found elsewhere are given a fresh approach. Another common design consists of lozenge-shaped panels, arranged diagonally across the rug and filled with stylized flowers, remotely suggestive of some older Kerman patterns. Medallion designs are common, particularly those with flowers and a stylized vase at each end of the field. These do not appear to be original designs so much as crude, rural adaptations of city rugs, although this in no way detracts from their charm. Kashan

Kashan lies about halfway between Tehran and Isfahan, and has been a major center of textile production. More than any other major Iranian city, Kashan is an oasis, surrounded by gravel plains too arid for farming and standing near no river. The area receives its water from abundant springs in the Kuh-i-Sefid, which issue five miles north of Kashan in the town of Fin and these springs have supported one of the earliest known settlements on the Iranian plateau. The more abundant wool rugs of Kashan are less distinctive. Still, they are among the most tightly woven Persian rugs, averaging 196 knots to the square inch, there are finer grades as well. As would be expected, Kashans are asymmetrically knotted on a cotton foundation, except for a small number of earlier pieces with silk warps. The wefts are often dyed blue. The first carpets in the 1890’s resembled the Sarok of its time, with some stiffness to the drawing. This soon gave way to styles suggestive of the Kerman tradition, with naturalistically drawn floral designs. The field was usually covered with decorative motifs, while the ground color was usually a madder red or indigo. Some ivory ground pieces are also found. Work in Kashan is carried out in homes rather than workshops with the weaving done almost exclusively by the women. A high level of quality is maintained, whether the rugs originate within the city or in surrounding villages, although there are some villages that specialize in a lower grade of rug, which was traditionally marketed under the label "Aroon." Baluchi The historical references to Baluchis occur in the 10th century when they first inhabited an area south of Kerman. But the Baluchi rugs reaching Western markets, however, are ordinarily made several hundred miles to the north of Baluchistan, in Khurasan and northwestern Afghanistan by Baluchi people who live there. Rugs of the Baluchi tribesmen are often so distinctive that they can recognized at a glance. The area inhabited by the rug making Baluchis is also home to a number of other people of substantially different ethnic origins but close enough culturally to make similar rugs. Over the years their work has often been labeled as Baluchi, but the last several decades have witnessed a laborious process of sorting and classifying large numbers of rugs.

A classic Baluchi rug is a relatively thin, narrow, loose fabric, with a wool foundation that contains some goat hair. The sides are usually formed of a three- or four-cord selvage of dark goat hair. Small dowry rugs and a type of pillow known as a "balisht" are among the finest Baluchi pieces and may contain silk. They are usually doublewefted and asymmetrically knotted, the ends are finished with a long kilim band decorated with stripes of plain weave. The knotting varies from about 40 knots to the square inch to well above 150 in the best pieces. Alternate warps may be slightly depressed. The color tonalities were somber until the introduction of bright synthetic dyes. Classically the Baluchi was woven in deep blues, rust reds, dark brown, and black, with occasional bits of yellow, orange, and green, and a sparing use of white, mostly for outlining. Baluchi rugs of Iran and Afghanistan show enough similarities that they are best described here under the same general heading. It is probable that until a century ago the rugs were so alike that they could not be distinguished by their country of origin. Late nineteenth-century pieces were also much the same in quality, but now the typical Persian Baluchi has become a finer fabric, although the Afghan type may well be truer to the original model.

KERMAN With numerous weaving villages in its vicinity, Kerman has long been one of the major carpet producing areas of Persia. Its geographical position distanced the city from the usual commercial channels, except for the ancient caravan route to India. This, and the arid climate, has made Kerman the poorest of the five major provinces of Iran. Development of the carpet industry is poorly documented in Kerman, as elsewhere; although there is clear evidence that weaving occurred during Safavid times. Kerman textiles of various types thus developed to meet the prevailing styles demanded by commerce. A large and spectacular Kerman carpet in a garden design - which quite possibly dates from as early as the sixteenth century - is displayed in the Central Museum in Jaipur, where there is evidence that it was brought from Persia in the early seventeenth century. This, and several other Kerman carpets, was for several centuries in the collection of the maharajas of Jaipur.

The pattern of Kerman rugs is usually curvilinear floral and medallion motifs. They also carry animal motifs and repetitive patterns. Some have the pictorials that are said to be too realistic for a carpet. Kerman rugs are woven in a variety of intricate designs from cartoons. The colors generally have softer hues. They are soft red, green, blue, yellow and ivory. The antique and semi-antique rugs have red and blue combinations. The introductions of pastel colors like turquoise, orange, champagne and beige are more contemporary. They are made of fine, lustrous wool knotted with the Persian knots. They are generally large in size but smaller ones are also available. The wrap and weft are of cotton and pile of wool; they are not very thick and have a soft texture. The knotting is medium to high quality with 130 to 840 knots per square inch. QASHGA’I The Qashga’i people speak a Turkish dialect similar to that of Azerbaijan, and there is evidence that they are, at least partially, Seljuk remnants who entered Fars from the north during the thirteenth century, possibly to avoid the Mongols. Several sources quote the tradition that the word “Qashga’i” derives from the Turkic verb qachmak, “to flee,” in reference to their flight from the Mongols. There is much conflicting information in print about the Qashga’i sub tribes, and there have been periodic fluctuations in the importance of various groups. Qashga’i rugs are, as one would expect, are all wool, usually with ivory warps and often with dark or red-dyed wefts. There have been times when some rugs from the Qashga’i workshop have been woven on cotton. The typical Qashga’i rug is asymmetrically knotted, and only the gabbehs are ordinarily symmetrically knotted. The edges are often finished with a barber's pole overcast in several different colors, at times with extra tassels of colored wool. There may be a narrow, striped, plain weave band at both ends. The Qashga’i fabric is probably both the finest, and the easiest to distinguish, as it consistently has asymmetrical knots with deeply depressed alternate warps, red wefts, and a fine weave. At least during the last century, most Qashga’i work has probably not been at all nomadic, as workshops have been established where many Qashga’i live year round.

Khotan What one notices most prominently about Khotan and the other cities along the fringes of the Takla Makan is that they are indeed isolated oases, separated by large stretches of terrain so barren and forbidding that one wonders how the desert was ever crossed by camel caravan. The edge of the oasis is a line. On one side there is greenery, and on the other utter desolation, often enveloped in a dusty haze that limits visibility. The water for this miracle comes from rivers bringing snow-melt from the nearby mountains, and there is sufficient in Khotan to irrigate an area about 30 by 40 miles. In this setting, with great groves of poplar trees interspersed among abundant crops, there are a number of separate cities and towns with a population currently estimated at 1.4 million. Khotan city itself contains perhaps one tenth of this total. What this means in terms of rug production is that Khotan is not so much a city as a region. It is large enough that there can be substantial diversity in weaving techniques from one town to the next, depending upon the particular setting in which weaving takes place. There are more than 30 carpet factories, and there are hundreds of Uighur homes have between two and five active looms each. In one home with three large looms, carpets normally have blue fields and the traditional pomegranate design is usually attributed to Yarkand. Half a dozen others of the same type were in use within the household, and the pomegranate design has a special meaning to wool wefts, passing three times between the rows of knots. The weavers felt that cotton was a better weft material. Conversely, the largest of the factories was producing rugs in designs unrecognizable as being from Eastern Turkestan. Another revealed rugs made of locally grown silk in Persian designs; some were described as 300 and 350 lines per foot. It soon became clear that within the confines of the Khotan Oasis there was still substantial carpet weaving. Not one technique or design dominated, and there seemed to be a clear differentiation between materials woven for the official carpet sell- market. Almost certainly there has long been a variety of designs and structures used in the various towns and villages of the Khotan Oasis. ISFAHAN

The Iranian city of Isfahan has long been one of the centers for production of the famous Persian Rug. Weaving in Isfahan flourished in the Safavid era. But when the Afghans invaded Iran, ending the Safavid dynasty, the craft also became stagnant. Isfahani carpets today are among the most wanted in world markets, having many customers in western countries. Isfahani rugs and carpets usually have ivory backgrounds with blue, rose, and indigo motifs. Isfahani rugs and carpets often have very symmetrical and balanced designs. They usually have a single medallion that is surrounded with vines and palmettos. These rugs and carpets usually have excellent quality. The most famous master weaver in Isfahan is Serafian. Isfahan rugs are knotted on either silk or cotton foundations, with up to 400 Persian knots per in2, using exceptionally good quality (often Kurk) wool for the pile, which is normally clipped quite low. In contemporary items the palette is normally more pastel, and technical perfection is generally of greater importance than artistic flair. CHAPTER FOUR – INDIAN CARPETS Mughal Jail collection is a reproduction of the 16th century ‘Pashmina Jail’ carpets that were made in Indian prisons during the Mughal King Akbar’s reign. King Akbar, who was illiterate himself, was a great patron of the arts. In order to provide a livelihood to the prisoners once they got out of jail, he imported master weavers from Persia where the carpet trade was flourishing at the time. This was looked upon well as they taught them a new skill to earn a livelihood once they were free. They used the finest ingredients in making these famed jewels and the wool used was Pashmina (like cashmere). They used the best type of ingredients to make natural dyes. The sizes were massive as these were commissioned for the Mughal courts and no expenses were spared. The ‘jail birds ‘ took a lot of pride in their work that they outshone their masters and since very few pieces were made and salvaged, these carpets have become extremely desirable and rare. In fact ,there was a 16th century Mughal carpet from Agra Jail that recently sold at a Sotheby’s auction in New York for a million dollars. Then there was a decline in

the production of carpets in jails once the Mughal rule ended but was restarted by the British Imperial rule once they colonized India.

COTTON JAIL CARPETS When the British colonized India, there was a recognizable rise in jail weavings. They restarted the prisoner reform movement and taught carpet (flat weaving) and dhurry weaving on hand looms to the prisoners in Indian Jails. These were generally geometric designs made in cotton pile as it was abundantly available in India at the time. Cotton was also much more affordable as compared to wool and was made in coarse knot counts of 50-150 knots per sq. inch. Indigo was abundantly used and the commonly used colors were lighter pastel hues of ivory, blue, yellow, green, etc. The carpets that are produced in India today are generally all Persian designs and we have lost out on the authentic Indian patterns.

Maharaja Kashmir These were some fabulous carpets made in Kashmir(North India) during the British rule. They started making them in the late 1800’s up to the mid 1900’s. These were mostly woven by a British company called Mitchell & Sons and others. They employed the finest Kashmiri weavers to hand knot these carpets. These were generally commissioned for the maharaja’s of India, and were meant as gifts for visiting dignitaries or some were even commissioned for their magnificent palaces. They used to use the finest goat wool that grew in the high altitudes of the Himalayan range where the wool was very soft and lustrous. These were generally reproductions of Persian decorative carpets from the 18th and 19th centuries and were unusually made in a very sophisticated color palette of lighter pastel hues. CHAPTER FIVE – NEW INDIAN CARPETS MUGHAL JAIL COLLECTION

Mughal jail collection are reproductions of 16th century ‘Pashmina Jail’ carpets that were made in Indian prisons during the Mughal emperor Akbar’s reign.King Akbar ,was illiterate himself, was a great patron of the arts. In order to provide a livelihood to the prisoners once they got out of jail, he imported master weavers from Persia where the carpet trade was flourishing at the time. This was looked upon well as they taught them a new skill to earn a livelihood once they were out of Jail. They used the finest ingredients in making these famed jewels .The wool used was Pashmina(like cashmere).They used the best type of ingredients to make natural dyes. The sizes were massive as these were commissioned for the Mughal courts and no expenses were spared. The ‘jail birds ‘ took a lot of pride in their work that they outshone their masters and since very few pieces were made and salvaged, these carpets have become extremely desirable and rare. In fact ,there was a 16th century Mughal carpet from Agra jail that recently sold at a Sotheby’s auction in New York for a million dollars. Then there was a decline in the production of carpets in jails once the Mughal rule ended but was restarted by the British Imperial rule once they colonized India. The designs made in India after the 16th century had a Persian influence where as the ones made earlier had their own unique identity. The carpets that are produced in India today are generally all Persian designs and we have lost out on the authentic Indian patterns which is what we are endeavoring to revive. There is wool available from New Zealand, South America and also from India but the Australian merino wool is world renowned. The Jehapanaah Collection The Jehapanaah Collection is an extension of this collection and we are taking inspiration from these regal court designs of carpets that are there in the various museums of the world and reproducing them in colors according to sophisticated designs and trends. New silk

carpets

The most important thing with silk carpets is the type of raw silk used. There are mainly three grades of raw mulberry silk that are cultivated for Indian silk carpets. The finest raw silk comes from China then from Kashmir and the poorest quality comes from South India. The problem with Kashmiri and South Indian silk unlike woolen and Chinese raw silk carpets is that the pile does not bounce back up again when someone walks on the carpet. Also after a few years it tends to become a bit hard and matted. There is obviously a price difference in qualities not only in raw material costs but also in the spinning and weaving charges as the Chinese silk, being much finer , requires highly skilled and experienced craftsmen. All the 3 qualities are made out of handspun silk and are manufactured in Kashmir. In silk carpets, they can have a silk or a cotton foundation. Silk having a finer micron(thinness of fiber) is considered to have a detailed definition of lines and patterns. Hence the knots per square inch increase which would mean that more time is needed to hand knot each piece. A carpet with cotton foundation is very slightly more durable as compared to one with silk. Some unscrupulous traders also sometimes cut off the cotton fringes(tassels) and add silk ones instead and pass of silk on cotton foundation carpets as silk on silk foundation. The price difference can be more than double. The knot counts of silk on cotton ranges from 300 knots to 500 knots per square inch. The knots in silk on silk range from 400 knots and can reach as high as 2000 knots per sq inch. The silk carpets we are selling at The Carpet Cellar are generally between 600 to 900 knots. CHAPTER SIX – CENTRAL ASIAN CARPETS WESTERN TURKESTAN Saryk - The Saryk are alleged to be an offshoot of the Salor, and the two groups have apparently long lived in close proximity. Saryk main carpets are likely to be squarer than other types. The structural feature most commonly associated with Saryk weaving is the symmetrical knot, which appears on virtually all early rugs

thought to be Saryk, although on later rugs with Saryk designs and colors, the asymmetrical knot becomes increasingly common. The earliest Saryk bags and main carpets are often described as having a more intense red than Saryk rugs of later generations, which become progressively darker. Several different types of Saryk main carpets have been identified. Most common are examples in which the major gul has a cross like figure in the center, with lobes at each end. The gradual darkening of the colors, as with the main carpets, could well relate to changes in local fashion, but, so far, none of the speculations as to why more late Saryk rugs have asymmetrical knots has been convincing. Salor - The subject of Salor rugs may be approached in two ways, depending upon whether one wants a tidy picture in which a particular gul defines tribal origin, or whether one can accept a complex, confusing situation in which the lines that separate Tekke and Salor rugs become increasingly blurred. The first approach begins with the theory that the classic identifying feature of Salor rugs is an octagonal gul with small turret-like projections on its circumference. The warps are ivory, with alternate ones deeply depressed, and the wefts of two-ply brown wool, occasionally dyed light red. They are less supple than most Turkmen rugs, with a fairly long pile and some use of a bluish red silk, but no cotton. The basically red field color ranges from a rather light rust red to a deep, rich brick red, and at times some of the reds appear to have eroded slightly more than the other colors. While most of the reds are madder, both lac and cochineal have been found in S-group pieces, usually in small patches. The wool is of extremely high quality. Tekke - During the late eighteenth century, as Persian power over Turkestan waned, the Tekkes reasserted their control over the narrow band of steppe land between the Kopet Dagh and the Kara Kum Desert, along with the region of Tedjend, where the Hari Rud disappears into the desert. Traditionally, the Tekke rug is identified by its characteristic gul, which varies surprisingly little from one specimen to the next, although older examples may show a more rounded configuration. It appears primarily on Tekke main carpets and smaller carpets of more recent origin, but virtually never on bags and other household items. Occasionally one finds a rare piece with the Tekke gul in a Chaudor or other type of structure and color scheme. Recently, however, the Goklan, of North western Iran, have adopted a somewhat ovoid form of the Tekke gul for many large

rugs, and a somewhat simplified Tekke gul is used by Yomut groups from the same region.

EASTERN TURKESTAN Tibet Tibetan rugs can usually be distinguished from Chinese ones by color and design as well as structure. They tend to be brighter, and the design elements are more whimsical, less formal, and perhaps less sophisticated. While in China the dragon is dignified and even threatening, in Tibet it is a figure of myth and almost always a more joyous creature. These designs perhaps reflect more of a folk tradition, although there are clearly examples with a formal religious significance. A number of rugs show crossed patterns, a Tibetan symbol of power, particularly natural power such as lightning and thunder. There are four broad categories of design on Tibetan carpets: 1) medallion, 2) pictorial^) repeating floral trellis, 4) repeating geometric devices There are also door carpets, with a quartered field and an extra stripe across the top analogous to the extra bottom stripes in Turkmen ensis. Some of the older pieces show a threemedallion format perhaps based upon Eastern Turkestan models.

The Tibetan carpet has probably changed faster and adapted more completely to market demands. This may be due to the carpet’s relatively minor role as an indigenous art, or to the fact that, at least in Tibet itself, the industry is firmly controlled by a central government agency. Consequently, Tibetan carpets now are found in a full range of sizes from scatter rugs to room sized pieces. Designs range from the traditional motifs of dragons, Chinese-inspired floral figures, and pictorial scenes, to abstract contemporary patterns suitable for the most modern Western homes. Woolen pile is the norm, the warp and wefts are variable. Some rugs show a simple hand spun wool, while others have machine spun cotton obtained from India. CHAPTER SEVEN – KILIMS

The wide variety of materials, techniques and colorings has evolved and developed in response to resources, practical needs and tribal influences. All these different components and techniques can be analyzed or isolated in order to help identify the possible age and origin of a flat weave. Tribal kilims are woven by illiterate tribal nomads who move from place to place on horses and camels .they make these carpets for their own tribal tents. These are generally rectilinear designs or have abstract geometrical designs. These are woven on portable looms in which the width of the loom is restricted and hence tribal kilims are generally small and narrow in size. These kilims can be woven on Vertical or sometimes horizontal framed looms. The tribals though illiterate themselves have an amazing sense of colors and aesthetics as they have been involved in this art form for centuries. They generally use bright natural dyes in the hues of reds and rust. The tribal kilims were made by members of a family each one possessing a different level of skill and hence lead to imperfections in weave, design, and symmetry. These are not considered to be defects as these were not made with the intention to resell them and more for a utilitarian purpose. There are around 7-8 different types of weaves in kilims. Senneh weave Senneh weave is the slit reversible weave, and has tiny slits to create the design. It is also used as a wall hanging for an entrance of a tent like a curtain and when the sun’s rays pass through it, it creates a beautiful effect in the tent, or in a room. Another type is the Soumak Kilim which appears to be like a chain stitch embroidery but is actually a weft wrapping technique woven on a handloom . The strip weaves are typical tribal pieces as they are woven on small portable looms which are carried by the tribal nomads from place to place. The width of the loom is narrow and restricted so in order to make larger sizes they make lots of small pieces and sew it together to form one large piece along the length. In some instances they make two pieces and join them along the length.

Kilims are generally made in abstract geometrical designs and are not symmetrical. They are made in small sizes to fit into tents and are also generally narrow & long owing to the sizes of looms. These are also all naturally dyed. The wool used here is again indigenous to the region and they use horse hair, camel hair, goat and yak wool and sometimes even cashmere. Materials Throughout the kilim-producing countries, the materials used for weaving sheep's wool, the hair of the goat, camel and horse, and cotton - are all readily available close at hand. The production of kilims only became so prolific and socially important within the various ethnic cultures because of the surplus of these raw materials. The nomads, who in better times have flocks of many thousands of sheep, shear large quantities of wool each year. In the past their insular and self-sufficient lifestyle, in which they had little contact with trading bazaars, would have enabled the women to make many more fabrics, rugs and bags than were immediately required. The excess would have been stored, and could gain value by being exchanged for both essential utensils and contracts for land, irrigation and marriage. The value of a textile would have been determined by its comparative qualities of workmanship, materials, colour and design, and therefore, over time, the weavers would try to improve on all aspects of the finished flat weave with the available materials in order to increase the potential worth of the work. Wool - The prehistoric sheep had a coat of matted hair more like felt than a fleece that could be shorn, but since the domestication of sheep some ten millennia past and subsequent selective breeding and husbandry, the fleece has evolved into alongstapled, soft fiber that can be spun. Sheep were amongst the first animals known to be domesticated by man, and care of the flock led primitive people into a pastoralist existence. Certainly wool has always been the dominant source of yarn in Central Asia and North Africa. The characteristics of wool are quite different from hair, cotton and silk. Minute scales on the surface of the fiber 'knit' the wool together when it is felted or spun; it also has a high oil content of about forty percent, so that the cloth not only insulates but also wears well. There are two breeds of original wild sheep from which the domestic sheep has developed, the mouflon and the urial. Both have an inner coat of soft felted wool and an outer coat of longer wool.

The various pastoral groups require different qualities from their flocks, whether it be the quantity of meat, wool, and milk, or the hardiness to survive the climate, the periods of scant food and water, or the long migrations, and these requirements have been met by cross-breeding. Each tribe and region supports breeds that can be identified and named - the Kermani, Baluchi, Rukhshani arid Kurdi, for example. Other types, such as the merino, native of Australia and New Zealand, have been imported for breeding from other parts of the world to increase quality and quantity. The colour of the wool can vary enormously froth breed to breed, ranging from ivory white and light brown to dark reddish brown, grey and black. The quality of wool from any breed depends on the climate and pasture. The famous fleeces from Khorassan have derived their lustrous shine, softness and excellent dyetaking qualities from the equable climate and lush grazing lands, as well as from the attention given over centuries to sheep breeding for carpet wool. In the hot, sandy desert areas, the wool is much harsher. Shearing - Shearing is done by hand and takes place once or twice a year, initially when the coldest winter weather is over when the flocks have been moved to the summer pastures. In warmer coastal areas shearing can take place as early as March, whereas in the mountainous areas with a continental climate as late as June. The wool is repeatedly washed and scoured until it is clean and the natural oil content is as desired. The washing process is important not only to remove the dirt from the fleece, but also to prepare the wool for dyeing. Spinning - Spinning is a very laborious and seemingly never-ending task, usually done by all the community. Not all wool used in the carpet and kilim business is hand-spun, for there is an economic advantage in buying machine-spun wool.

Hair Goat, camel and horse hair are also used in flat weaving, but in limited quantities. Goat hair, taken from close to the animal's skin, has a silky sheen, and is used as warp yarn in some bags and horse covers; it is also sometimes found spun into sheep's wool to give a soft fringe on the warps of a kilim. The long, tough outer hair of the goat is used to make hard-wearing selvedges and as a warp material for some

Central Asian nomadic weavings. Camel hair is extremely durable and is a better insulator than wool. Cotton Cotton grows wild in most of the fertile valleys of Central Asia and North Africa, and has been cultivated commercially and collectively by sedentary farmers in large quantities for most of this century. Cotton is used primarily as a ground material, and has numerous advantages over wool. It is in plentiful supply, is strong, does not change or lose shape and can be spun into relatively thin strands for fine weaving. Although used primarily for warps, it is often used for highlighting designs and patterns, for, unlike white wool which turns cream or ivory with age, cotton retains its original brightness. Cotton does, however, mat together and never holds dye with the luster and sheen of wool.

Other Materials. Silk kilims were once produced in Aleppo, Syria, and in the Safavid period they were made in Sennah workshops for the fashions and ephemeral desires of the Persian court, yet nowadays silk is rarely used for flat weaving, except in the Kayseri region of Anatolia. Occasionally silk can be found as a supplementary weft decoration in bags and trappings, particularly on a dowry piece. More unusual materials are very popular with certain tribes and groups; metal threads, artificial fibers in lurid colors, beads, shells and coins are items of rarity and thus fascination to nomadic people, who shop in a small bazaar perhaps once a year. The attraction of such fripperies for the nomads only serves to highlight the differences in culture and wealth between their world and the West. Methods of Weaving Twill - This is a type of weaving that requires a more complex loom construction. Twill weaves may be either warp-faced or weft-faced and the most common is of a '2:2' structure, where both the warps and wefts interlace over two and under two, producing a diagonal direction to the weave. Slit weave - This is the commonest of all flat weaving techniques, and until about twenty years ago a slit woven structure was considered the only defining aspect of a kilim. The advantages to slit weave are that it ensures that the rug can be

completely reversible with the same weave and pattern on both sides, and also it produces a clear, sharp definition to the boundaries of each colour block. Dovetailing or Single-interlock Weave - This is similar to slit weave, except that the wefts at the edge of each colour block share the same warp. There is therefore no slit or gap left between the colors, so it is possible to delineate patterns vertically without having to step or crenellate the weave to maintain the structure. Double-interlock Weave - 'Double interlocking' describes the looping of each weft to interlock with two adjacent wefts. By this method, a very crisp outline is created between the colors, and the structure remains strong, without the disadvantages of slits or the doubling up of wefts on one warp, as with dovetailing. The resulting rug is, however, not reversible, as a ridge of interlocks is formed on the back. Extra Weft Inserts and Curved Wefts - This method of weaving is found in all flat weaves as a corrective to the line of the wefts, and on occasion as an idiosyncratic design element, but it is used most extensively by the Kurdish weavers of Sennah in Iran, who have developed it into a sophisticated way of drawing flowing patterns and representational motifs that are characteristic of their kilims. Weft-faced Patterning - In weft-faced patterning, colored wefts are woven so that they only show on the front face of the weave when they are needed for part of a pattern that involves two or more colors. When the weft is not being used on the face of the weave it floats freely on the back of the fabric. The face and back of the textile therefore look completely different and are often a reverse image of one another.