The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines 4

CHE 140: CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

2 / 2011

THE CANNED TUNA INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES Overview, Market and Economics, Manufacturing, HSE, R&D

Prepared By: Mark Joseph M. Banaria Department of Chemical Engineering University of the Philippines Diliman

Overview

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CHE 140: CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES

2 / 2011

THE CANNED TUNA INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES Overview, Market and Economics, Manufacturing, HSE, R&D

Prepared By: Mark Joseph M. Banaria Department of Chemical Engineering University of the Philippines Diliman

3

Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Overview ..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.1. Background ..................................................................................................................... 8 1.2. Industry Setup ................................................................................................................. 8 1.3. History of the Industry ....................................................................................................10 1.3.1. Tuna Fishing Industry ...............................................................................................10 1.3.2. Fish Canning Industry ..............................................................................................11 1.3.3. Canned Tuna Industry ..............................................................................................11 1.4. Products .........................................................................................................................12 1.4.1. Canned Tuna ...........................................................................................................12 1.4.2. Fish Meal and other Byproducts ..............................................................................12 1.5. Century Pacific Group ....................................................................................................12 2. Market and Economics .........................................................................................................14 2.1. Economics of Production ...............................................................................................15 2.1.1. Supply......................................................................................................................15 2.1.2. Demand ...................................................................................................................18 2.2. International Trade..........................................................................................................19 2.2.1. Import ......................................................................................................................19 2.2.2. Export ......................................................................................................................20 2.2.3. Market Segmentation ...............................................................................................22 2.3. Competition ....................................................................................................................24 2.3.1. Local ........................................................................................................................24 2.3.2. International .............................................................................................................24 2.4. Global Market Outlook ...................................................................................................25 2.4.1. Regulations on Fishing .............................................................................................25 2.4.2. Global Industry Setup ..............................................................................................25 3. Manufacturing .......................................................................................................................26 3.1. Raw Materials .................................................................................................................27 3.1.1. Tuna .........................................................................................................................27

Overview

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3.1.2. Ingredients and Additives.........................................................................................27 3.1.3. Packaging ................................................................................................................27 3.2. Manufacturing Process...................................................................................................28 3.2.1. History of Canning Process......................................................................................28 3.2.2. Principles of Canning ...............................................................................................28 3.2.3. Overview of the Tuna Canning Process ...................................................................29 3.2.4. Handling of Raw Tuna ..............................................................................................32 3.2.5. Storage and Freezing ...............................................................................................32 3.2.6. Pre-Treatment ..........................................................................................................33 3.2.7. Pre-Cooking .............................................................................................................34 3.2.8. Skinning and Cleaning .............................................................................................35 3.2.9. Filling and Seaming ..................................................................................................36 3.2.10. Thermal Processing ...............................................................................................36 3.2.11. Pressure Cooling.......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.3. Process and Quality Control ...........................................................................................38 3.3.1. Handling of Fish .......................................................................................................38 3.3.2. Pre-Cooking Settings ...............................................................................................38 3.3.3. Retort Temperature, Pressure and Time ..................................................................39 3.3.4. Quality of Seam........................................................................................................39 3.4. Equipment Design and Safety Engineering.....................................................................40 3.4.1. Industrial Boilers ......................................................................................................40 3.4.2. Bandsaws ................................................................................................................40 3.4.3. Racks and Conveyors ..............................................................................................41 3.4.4. Baskets and Cutting Tools .......................................................................................42 3.4.5. Steam Cookers ........................................................................................................42 3.4.6. Seaming and Filling Machines..................................................................................43 3.4.7. Retorts .....................................................................................................................44 4. Health, Safety and the Environment ......................................................................................47 4.1. Occupational Safety .......................................................................................................48 4.1.1. Cuts from Slicing Equipment ...................................................................................48 4.1.2. Bumps from Moving Parts and Equipment ..............................................................48 4.1.3. Burns and Thermal Injuries ......................................................................................49

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4.1.4. Orthopedic Injuries ...................................................................................................49 4.1.5. Infections from Bacterial Contaminant in Raw Material ............................................49 4.1.6. Chemical Injuries ......................................................................................................49 4.1.7. Slippage ...................................................................................................................50 4.2. Process Safety ...............................................................................................................50 4.2.1. Hazardous Inorganic Reagents ................................................................................50 4.2.2. Biological Wastes.....................................................................................................50 4.2.3. Flammables .............................................................................................................50 4.3. Waste Management .......................................................................................................50 4.3.1. Wastewater ..............................................................................................................50 4.3.2. Solid Waste ..............................................................................................................53 4.3.3. Gas Emissions .........................................................................................................54 4.4. Resource Consumption and Conservation .....................................................................54 4.4.1. Water .......................................................................................................................54 4.4.2. Energy......................................................................................................................55 5. Research and Development ..................................................................................................57 5.1. Process Development ....................................................................................................58 5.1.1. Tank Breeding of Tuna .............................................................................................58 5.1.2. Raw Packing ............................................................................................................58 5.1.3. Automation of Cleaning and Retort ..........................................................................58 5.2. Product Development .....................................................................................................58 5.2.1. Canning of Bangus ..................................................................................................58 6. Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................59

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Canned tuna industry setup in the Philippines .............................................................................. 9 Figure 2. Annual Total Philippine Production (in 1000 MT) ........................................................................ 15 Figure 3. Allocation of Total Philippine Production .................................................................................... 16 Figure 4. Total Production by Century Pacific Group ................................................................................. 17 Figure 5. Total sold and unsold canned tuna ............................................................................................. 18

Overview

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Figure 6. Quantity of Philippine canned tuna sold to both local and internetional markets ...................... 19 Figure 7. World Imports of Canned Tuna ................................................................................................... 20 Figure 8. Annual Philippine Production for Export ..................................................................................... 21 Figure 9. World Exports of Canned Tuna ................................................................................................... 21 Figure 10. Destination of Philippine Exports by Share ............................................................................... 22 Figure 11. Market Share of Canned Food Companies in 2010 .................................................................. 22 Figure 12. Market Sizes in the Asia Pacific Ragion .................................................................................... 23 Figure 13. World market sizes by region .................................................................................................... 24 Figure 14. Overview of the Canning Process ............................................................................................. 31 Figure 15. Cleaning and Skinning Station .................................................................................................. 35 Figure 16. Hermetic Sealing Process of Canned Goods. ........................................................................... 36 Figure 17. A Steam Boiler ........................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 18. Letft: Bandsaw Equipment. Right: A bandsaw equipment in use in a tuna processing facility 41 Figure 19. Tuna Racks. ............................................................................................................................... 41 Figure 20. Steam Cooker ............................................................................................................................ 43 Figure 21. Tuna Filling and Seaming Equipment ........................................................................................ 43 Figure 22. Retort Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 23. Correct operation of a bandsaw equipment .............................................................................. 48 Figure 24. Proper Lifiting Posture ............................................................................................................... 49 Figure 25. Wastewater generation of a tuna canning plant in Thailand ..................................................... 51 Figure 26. Checklist for Designing a Wastewater Treatment Operation ................................................... 52 Figure 27. Schematic diagram of a typical fish processing wastewater treatment plant .......................... 53 Figure 28.Wastewater consumption of a tuna canning plant in Thailand .................................................. 55 Figure 29.Energy consumption of a tuna canning plant in Thailand .......................................................... 56

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. ActiveTuna Canneries in 2009 ...................................................................................................... 15 Table 2. Typical Retort Conditions for Canned tuna .................................................................................. 39 Table 3. Solid Waster Generation a tuna canning plant in Thailand .......................................................... 53 Table 4. Emissions from common boiler fuels ............................................................................................ 54 Table 5. Efficiency of venturi scrubbers ..................................................................................................... 54

1. OVERVIEW

Overview

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1.1. Background Fishing and fish processing are among the strongest and most important industries in the Philippines. Both are major contributors to the livelihood, food security and economic growth of the country. Over 1 million people or 5 percent of the labor force are employed in the Philippine fishing and fish processing industry, which contributed to 4% of the GDP in 2009 (ELG, 2010). The largest and most profitable subsidiary of Philippine fisheries is tuna production which includes fishing, storing, and canning or freeze packing for export. In 2009, more than 400,000 MT of tuna were landed and the industry generated 280 million USD worth of exports and 120,000 jobs (ELG, 2010). The main export product is canned tuna, comprising around 80% of the total tuna exports in 2009 (ELG, 2010; Nuku’alofa, 2010). The Philippines has an estimated coastline of 36,289 km and 2,700 sq km of coral reefs which are vital to a strong fishing industry (Vera, 2005). These rich and vast coral reefs support the high marine biodiversity and fish population in the surrounding waters. The Philippine seas and the adjacent Pacific Ocean are home to more than 2000 species of fish, including dense clusters of yellowfin tuna, skipjack, mackerel, round scad, and more than 60 other species of high commercial value. The extensive coastlines provide numerous access points for fishing and cargo vessels operating within or close to Philippine marine territory. Natives were the first to occupy the coastlines, building small villages and catching fish for sustenance using artisanal instruments such as spears (Vera, 2005). In the latter decades, many commercialized fishing ports have been built since many operators have found abundant space for both docking stations and fishing spots in the Philippines. The municipal fishers have also followed suit, and have started to catch fish beyond sustenance to make profit (Vera, 2005). In 2009, municipal fishers accounted for almost 30 % of the total tuna landings in the Philippines. Aside from commercial and municipal fishers, foreign fishing boats have also landed tuna in the Philippines by orders from local processing units such as canneries and block packers, and from secondary buyers in countries like Germany and the US (Nuku’alofa, 2010). For the past five years, annual tuna landings in the Philippines have reached millions of tons and have been constantly increasing. In 2009, the landings from all commercial, municipal and foreign fishers are a combined 4 million MT (Nuku’alofa, 2010). Fishing centers have been assembled in Zamboanga and General Santos to systematically collate the massive amounts catch from the various fishing groups and effectively sell them to local manufacturers and exporters. The General Santos Fish Port Complex (GSFPC) in Mindanao is currently the main landing site for most pacific and Philippine catch, especially for tuna (Vera, 2005; ELG, 2010). Six of the 8 active tuna canneries in the Philippines are also located at GSFPC, where important support facilities like refrigerators, loading docks and transport equipment for tuna are directly available. The GSFPC provides the 75,000 direct jobs for the locals and generates foreign exchange earnings of about 160 million USD (ELG, 2010).

1.2. Industry Setup The Philippines exports 90% of its total national production. The local industry developed as a major global supplier of canned tuna in the past decade through the initiative of local and foreign fishers to land fish at GSFPC and of foreign distributors to source the product from Philippine canneries instead of manufacturing their own. In the current setup, foreign fishing boats that choose to land fish in the

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Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

Philippines gain the convenience of returning to sea more quickly from unloading, avoid the spoilage or decomposition of fish, and save energy that would have been used for refrigeration on a longer trip. Distributors of canned tuna in foreign countries are keen on sourcing canned tuna from the Philippines because local canneries are able to sell the product at an affordable price. Low labor costs, short transport distances from catching, landing and processing, and reduced refrigeration requirements are the primary factors that allow the local industry to remain profitable despite selling at a low price. Figure 1 shows the Philippine canned tuna industry setup. The vast fleet of foreign and local commercial purse sieners and municipal long liners land tuna in the Philippines, primarily at GSFPC. From the total inventory of stored tuna, canneries order desired quantities for processing according to availability of tuna, production capacity and demand forecasts. The canneries produce the canned tuna as well as major byproduct items such as fish oil capsules and fish meal, which are all sent to the control lab for quality assurance. All quality approved products are then packaged for export and local sale and sent to the appropriate warehouse or cargo dock. From there, company sales managers take over the sales allocation and delivery schemes.

Figure 1. Canned tuna industry setup in the Philippines Source: (Nuku’alofa, 2010; CPG, 2010; Vera, 2005; Bratt, 2010)

Overview

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1.3. History of the Industry 1.3.1. Tuna Fishing Industry Early accounts of tuna fishing in the Philippines date back to the 1900’s during the start of the American regime (1898 – 1944). Natives from Davao, Cotabato and Zamboanga were known to have caught tuna for direct consumption (Vera, 2005). At this time, no commercial tuna fishing operations were in place. Commercial tuna fishing was first observed in the Japanese occupation (1942 – 1944). Accounts by native fishermen and the US Fish and Wildlife cite the operation of at least five Japanese owned long liners and several pole and fish catchers (Thomas, 1999; Vera, 2005). Tuna fishing by locals started in the 1950’s when the American fishers were restricted from Venezuelan and Columbian waters and packers were forced to find alternative sources for tuna. The rising demand for Philippine tuna encouraged several commercial fisheries in Mindanao to venture into tuna fishing. However, the lack of on-board refrigeration in most of the Philippine boats constrained local fishing operation to near shore locations, and the tuna supply remained inadequate. To successfully accommodate the American demand, commercial fisheries, and local packers established collecting and buying stations in Mindanao. Advanced commercial fishing boats with on-board refrigeration started to dock at the Zamboanga city port and frozen tuna was bought at an intermediate price then exported to the US (Thomas, 1999; Vera, 2005). As more companies participated in buying and exporting of tuna in Zamboanga, exports increased annually until the 1970’s. In 1969, tuna exports rose from 841 MT to 11,376 MT in 1970 (Vera, 2005). At this point issues of correctly freezing tuna resurfaced because freezing facilities were not appropriately expanded to accommodate the increasing quantity of tuna being handled. Around 2030 % of the exports were rejected and the soon, the demand plummeted. Many companies ceased operations as the tuna industry in Zamboanga began to stumble. The Philippine tuna industry was revived in the mid 1970’s when Japanese clients started sourcing sashimi-grade Yellowfin tuna from General Santos. The high value of the product attracted investors and operators to participate in the General Santos tuna industry. Simultaneously, the introduction of fish aggregating devices (FAD’s) was revolutionizing the industry by reducing the searching and catching of huge volumes of tuna into a single, quick step. (Vera, 2005) The successful use of FAD’s and the continually expanding tuna landing operations in General Santos, gave way to the establishment of more fisheries, exporting stations, and processing facilities. In the same way, more foreign clients started to request tuna from the Philippines (Tambuyog, 2000; Vera, 2005)

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1.3.2. Fish Canning Industry Several fruit canning companies have been operating in the Philippines since the 1930’s. As the canning technology advanced, a process was soon developed for the canning of fish. During this time, commercial canneries were hesitant to venture into fish canning because of the erratic fish supply by local fisheries and the lack of an established market (Reyes, 1972). In 1936, the government established a pilot fish canning plant with an annual capacity of 1 MT. The operations did not last and were immediately closed (Reyes, 1972). The first local commercial sardine canning operation was started in 1938 by Aboitz and Company. The plant was situated in Cebu and had a capacity of 10 MT. In 1940, the National Food Corporation purchased the plant (Reyes, 1972). In 1937 a bangus canning operation of 20 MT per year was established in Capiz. Two other fish canning operations were started, one in Guagua Pampanga (Reyes, 1972). During and in the aftermath of the Second World War, all fish canning operations were ceased as economic conditions in the country deteriorated. Only in the 1970’s did the fish canning industry resume operation. In 1972, Sta. Monica became the first to start operation. In 1973 already 3 companies were in operation, and by 1980, the industry had grown to 25 companies (Thomas, 1999; Vera, 2005). Common fish being canned are Mackerel, Herring and Sardines (Tumangday, 1979). In the late 1970’s, local fish canneries were facing issues of unregulated competition with more advanced and efficient foreign companies that were allowed to sell in the country for a low price. In 1973, 33,000 MT of canned fish were imported and only 2,500 MT were produced by local canneries. In 1976, an import quota was established at 25,000 MT. The import quota gave investors the confidence to further venture into fish canning. In the same year, the local production had ballooned to 22,000 MT (Lacson, 1979).

1.3.3. Canned Tuna Industry The establishment of several fish canneries in the late 1970’s became a vital boon to the tuna export industry. The frozen tuna previously being exported to canneries were now being processed locally. This positively benefitted the tuna industry by eliminating refrigeration costs of transporting frozen fish and by adding value to an already profitable export product (Vera, 2005). To date, the Philippines has become one of the top exporters of canned tuna in the world (ELG, 2010; Miyake, et al., 2010). In 1986, the first local canned tuna brand was introduced to the Philippine market by Century Canning Corp. Other companies have explored the local tuna market but have immediately retracted. From 1986 to 2009 Century has dominated the local canned tuna market. (CPG, 20042009) The coming of the San Marino canned tuna in 2010 marked the first time in more than two decades that a company other than Century has participated in the local canned tuna market.

Overview

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1.4. Products 1.4.1. Canned Tuna Canned tuna has become a popular dietary choice for its high unsaturated fat and protein content, low sodium content, extensive shelf life, and the affordable price at which it is sold (Gillet, 2001; Reyes, 1972). Canned tuna may be classified according to the liquid medium; in oil, or in brine. In the Philippines tuna is also canned in flavored vegetable broths to emulate native dishes and encourage locals to further patronize the product. Nutritionists have studied the chemical contents of both oil and brine canned tuna and have found particular differences. Advantages of Canned Tuna in oil: • Canned tuna in oil has been found to retain more protein and internal moisture than those in brine. • The overall product contains less salt. • The texture and flavor are more desirable Advantages of Canned Tuna in Brine: • Canned tuna in brine is generally less expensive than canned tuna in oil. • It contains only half as much calories as canned tuna in oil. • The Omega-3 content is mostly retained because it is naturally immiscible in brine

1.4.2. Fish Meal and other Byproducts Tuna canning companies pride themselves in only using the best parts of the tuna. To avoid making waste of the innards, heads and black meat, most tuna canning plants include an adjacent processing facility for the parts of the fish that don’t reach the can. Because these parts are rich in proteins and nutrients, they still have important use for animal consumption and for the extraction of unsaturated fish oil. Processing usually includes dehydration and crushing to create fish meal powder, a suitable aquaculture feed (FAO, Fishery Industries Division, 1986). The fish oil byproduct of the fish meal process is packaged as capsules and retailed by pharmaceutical industries. In Thailand, canned tuna plants process undesired fish parts by crushing, cooking, and canning for the consumption of domestic pet cats (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007).

1.5. Century Pacific Group Century pacific group was established in 1978 by Mr. Ricardo S. Po, Sr. as a pioneering tuna canning facility focusing mainly on processing and exporting the abundant supply of tuna in Philippine waters (CPG, 2010). In 1983 they ventured into the local sardine industry immediately becoming one of the top five sardine producers in the country. In the coming years Century Pacific would venture into other

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food industries such as corned beef in 1995, powdered milk manufacture and fast food operation in 2001, canned bangus in 2008, and processed meats in 2009. Since its inauguration in 1978, Century Pacific Group has expanded to 10 companies all involved in the manufacture of food and fast food operation. Of these companies 3 are involved in tuna canning. Century Caning Corporation (CCC) Century Canning Corporation (CCC) is the marine and tuna enterprise of Century Pacific Group in the Philippines (CCC, 2010). CCC produces three different brands of canned tuna; Century Tuna, Bluebay Tuna and Fresca Tuna. Century Tuna ranks as their number one brand, especially in metro manila and in other developed areas where their target market is the health conscious and high budget class. Fresca tuna caters to the budget and taste conscious Filipinos Hence, Freska is categorized in a different branding scheme and sold at a lower price range. The Bluebay Tuna brand caters to a wider range of buyers with its non-specific and non-aggressive branding campaign and middling price range. Century Canning Corporation operates a tuna canning facility in General Santos City with an average annual production of 9725 MT from 2005-2009 (CPG, 2004-2009). General Tuna Corporation (GTC) General Tuna Corporation serves as the export arm of Century Pacific Group. The company manufactures private label canned, pouched and frozen tuna products . Initially located in Taguig, the plant transferred to General Santos in 1999 to benefit from the proximity to the tuna source in the Western Pacific Ocean (GTC, 2010). GTC manufactures four main tuna products, unlabeled canned tuna, frozen tuna loins, tuna in pouches and fish meal, with canned tuna being the primary product. Since 1983, GTC has consistently ranked as one of the top canned tuna exporters in the country. In 2009, they owned 47% of international market shares for Philippine canned tuna (CPG, 2004-2009). Pacifica Agro-Industrial Corporation (PAIC) PAIC is the main fish meal and fish oil production leg of CPG. The company markets its fish meal and fish oil both as industrial commodities and premium branded products. Fish meal and fish oil of premium or international standard quality are marketed under the Proteus brand (PAIC, 2010).

2. MARKET AND ECONOMICS

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2.1. Economics of Production 2.1.1. Supply Majority of the raw tuna are supplied to the canneries by Philippine purse sieners and ring netters as well as carriers from overseas operations. Chilled tuna is also imported to supplement the supply requirements of the canneries (Nuku’alofa, 2010). As of 2009, there are 8 active tuna canneries in the Philippines; 6 from General Santos, and 2 from Zamboanga City (ELG, 2010). The companies operating the canneries are listed in Table 1. Table 1. ActiveTuna Canneries in 2009

Cannery

Location

Century Philbest Ocean Seatrade Alliance Celebes Permex Marimar

General Santos General Santos General Santos General Santos General Santos General Santos Zamboanga Zamboanga

There are two Philippine-owned and operated canneries in Papua New Guinea one in Madang and another one in Lae processing around 50,000 MT per year (Vera, 2005). The total production of the 8 tuna canneries operating in the Philippines from 2005-2009 are shown in Figure 2. 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Total (MT)

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

86958

121073

129263

150358

147333

Figure 2. Annual Total Philippine Production (in 1000 MT) Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

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The percentage and quantity of local and export production are shown in Figure 3.

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2005

2006

2007

Local

2008

2009

Export

160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Export (MT)

79122

113369

119056

138255

136069

Local (MT)

7836

7704

10207

12103

11264

Figure 3. Allocation of Total Philippine Production Top: By Percentage, Bottom: By quantity Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

As illustrated in Figures 2 and 3Figure 2, the total production of Philippine canneries have increased annually from 2004-2008. Technological advancements in the fishing and canning sector, and increasing global and local demand have been primary proponents of the steady industrial growth (Miyake, et al., 2010). There is a noticeable jump in production in 2006, brought by the GSFPC Expansion Project which included additional docking sites for large fishing vessels and ancillary storage facilities. The GSFPC Expansion Project is one of the projects under the US$ 100 million supplier’s credit facility in the field of agricultural modernization and development granted by the People’s Republic of

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China to the Philippines through the China Agricultural Machinery Import Export Corporation (CAMC) (PNM, 2006). In 2009, local production decreased by a slight percentage as a result of the 2009 legislation by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), banning all purse siene fishing activities in the upper pacific ocean for two years (Nuku’alofa, 2010). The current policy by WCPFC is further discussed in 2.4.1. The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) has since requested the compliance of all tuna fisheries in the Philippines. Data from Figure 3 show that only an average of 7.8% of the total production has been allocated for local consumption, and the rest are made for export. The high surplus through the past decade indicates the abundance of the tuna in Philippine waters and the increasing production power of the local industry (Gillet, 2001). From 1986 to 2009, canned tuna for the local market has been primarily produced by CCC, as no other local cannery has been able to challenge the foremost century tuna brand and take a profitable share of the market. The rest of the local canneries have focused on the export of unlabeled canned tuna to shift to a larger market and avoid the necessity for competitive advertising. The annual production of Century Pacific Group is shown in Figure 4. It follows the same trend as the total domestic production, also exhibiting a decrease in production in 2009. 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Total (MT)

44945

60910

66061

76962

75104

GTC (MT)

37187

53283

55956

64980

63953

CCC (MT)

7758

7627

10105

11982

11151

Figure 4. Total Production by Century Pacific Group Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

From 2005-2009, CPG produced 99% of the local supply and 47% of the total Philippine canned tuna exports, ranking number 1 in both categories. The two factories operated by CPG in GSFPC are considered to be the most advanced, operating at the largest scale and lowest cost among all local canneries.

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2.1.2. Demand Figure 5 shows the quantity and percentage of sold and unsold canned tuna from 2005-2009. Average utilization for Philippine canned tuna from 2005-2009 is 98% locally and 94% globally. 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Unsold

5211

5544

7547

12324

6254

Sold

81747

115529

121715

138035

141079

160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Sold (MT) Unsold (MT)

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

81747

115529

121715

138035

141079

5211

5544

7547

12324

6254

Figure 5. Total sold and unsold canned tuna Top: By Percentage, Bottom: By quantity Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

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The demand for canned tuna does not change significantly from 2005-2007, but significantly declines in 2008 as a result of high tariff on Philippine canned tuna in European countries, especially Germany, and the rise of Ecuador as a global competitor. For the most part of 2008, African and South American canneries enjoyed lower raw material prices, and zero tariff in the US and Europe, creating a huge bias against the more expensive Philippine product. In 2009, lowering of raw material and fuel prices, and collaborative tariff cutbacks have restored the demand for Philippine canned tuna to a higher level. Figure 5 shows the quantity of Philippine canned tuna sold locally and sold as export in 2005-2009. 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Sold as Export (MT)

74063

107972

111677

126089

129994

Sold Locally (MT)

7684

7558

10038

11945

11085

Figure 6. Quantity of Philippine canned tuna sold to both local and internetional markets Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

The increase in the production capacity, the dietary preferences of the market shifting to the more healthy canned tuna, and the population growth have all combined to expand the sale of canned tuna (Vera, 2005; Nuku’alofa, 2010; Heilig, 2004; Gillet, 2001). Hence, the rise in quantity sold per year. At large, tuna remains as an important food security item that’s sold at a lower price, and is healthier than other food choices, whether or not of the same preparation. Several factors have been identified to affect demand but not utilization has remained above 90% for the past five years.

2.2. International Trade 2.2.1. Import Import of canned tuna in the Philippines has been continually regulated by the government in favor of the local canning manufacturers. The current state of Philippine canned tuna imports have been the result of three major factors; the import quota imposed by the government during the late

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1970’s, the affordability of locally produced canned tuna compared to tariff-laden imports, and the decision of a number of countries to cease cannery production in favor of importing unlabeled products (Miyake, et al., 2010; Lacson, 1979). Form 2005-2009, imports of canned tuna to the Philippines come mainly from the US, Korea, and European countries Belgium and Spain. In contrast to the vast annual export volumes of 117174 MT per year in 2005-2009, the amount of canned tuna imports from 2005-2009 averages only 86.68 MT per year—a magnitude difference of 1000 (NSO, 2000-09). In the current global setup, several countries from Europe and the US have become importers of both unlabeled and labeled tuna from coastal fishing countries like the Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia where the overall costs of production are effectively minimized through savings in transport, refrigeration, and labor expenses. The top importers of canned tuna from 1976-2007, as shown in Figure 7, are the US, UK, Italy, France and Germany (Miyake, et al., 2010). Naturally, these countries are also the top markets of canned tuna exports by the producing countries.

Figure 7. World Imports of Canned Tuna Source: (Miyake, et al., 2010)

2.2.2. Export In the past decade, the increasing landings of tuna in GSFPC and Zamboanga have given canneries ample opportunity to increase annual production volumes. From 2005 to present, the Philippines has slowly established its presence as one of the top exporters of canned tuna in the world. Figure 8 shows the increasing annual export volume of Philippine canneries from 2005-2008. Again, the slight decrease in 2009 is an effect of the two year pacific tuna fishing ban by WCPFC. In Figure 9, world export volumes are diagrammed for the top exporting countries in 1976-2006. As shown, Thailand has consistently led the world in canned tuna exports (Miyake, et al., 2010). In 2009, Thailand continues to lead all countries but the Philippines has gotten closer, jumping to third place and owning 15% of the global market share (CPG, 2004-2009).

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160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 Export (MT)

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

79122

113369

119056

138255

136069

Figure 8. Annual Philippine Production for Export Source: (CPG, 2004-2009)

Figure 9. World Exports of Canned Tuna Source: (Miyake, et al., 2010)

The total export volume of the Philippines in 2009 is 136069 MT. Figure 10 shows the destination of the Philippine exports in 2009. Of the total Philippine exports in 2009, 47% is produced by GTC. Most exports are sent to the USA followed by major European importers Germany, France, UK, and the Netherlands

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Others 25%

USA 34%

Kuwait 3% Germany 17%

UK 12%

Netherlands 3% France 6%

Figure 10. Destination of Philippine Exports by Share Source: (NSO, 2000-09)

2.2.3. Market Segmentation The market size of canned fish in the Philippines remains the largest and most profitable among all canned food products (Euromonitor, 2010). Figure 11 shows the market shares of different canned food industries in the Philippines.

Figure 11. Market Share of Canned Food Companies in 2010 Source: (Euromonitor, 2010)

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Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

As illustrated, CCC which produces canned tuna owns 22% of the total market in 2010. Pacific meat, which produces sardines and corned beef, own the second largest share of 12% while fruit companies Del Monet Ltd, ,Liberty Gold Fruit Co., and Dole Food Co. Inc. own 10%, 8%, and 5% respectively. Maunlad Corp., which produces sardines rounds out the top 6 with 6%. Three of the top six companies are canned fish producers and collectively own 42%. The primary proponents for the sale of canned fish are affordability and taste. Corned beef and canned pork products sell for a significantly higher price than canned sardines and tuna. Also, there is a high Filipino preference for flavored broths which are not present in canned meat. Figure 12 shows the market size for canned and preserved seafood in the Asia pacific region.

Figure 12. Market Sizes in the Asia Pacific Ragion Scource: (Euromonitor, 2010)

Since 2005, Japan has consistently ranked as the number one consumer of canned seafood. The Philippines and south Korea had the same consumption in 2005, but the Philippine consumption has since increased and maintained the second place ranking. Fish is the primary protein source of the Japanese diet and justifies the constantly high consumption. The Philippines ranks second primarily due to ability of local canneries to optimize production and turn the competition with meat products to their favor by selling at significantly lower prices. Figure 13 shows the market sizes in the world by region. Western Europe owned at least 30% of the total consumption from 2005 – 2010, followed by Latin America, then Asia Pacific. Naturally, the top three consumers of canned seafood are the countries near the most productive fishing areas. North America consumes at 9% because of the low fish density and expensive fish manufacturing. The low consumption by Australia may be a discrepancy caused by its correspondingly low population.

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Figure 13. World market sizes by region Source: (Euromonitor, 2010)

2.3. Competition 2.3.1. Local Century Tuna and other CCC brands have dominated the Philippine canned tuna market from 1986 to 2009. In 2005-2009, CCC owned 99% of the local tuna market. In 2010, business reports have shown that tuna canning new-comer San Marino, a subsidiary of CDO corporation, has taken 7% of the local market share (CPG, 2004-2009). The primary proponent to San Marino’s success has been identified to be their aggressive brand campaign and innovative product presentation. In spite of the early success of San Marino, Century is still projected to dominate the local market in the coming years because of the limited production and distribution capacity of the smaller San Marino company. Other factors that may affect the local canned tuna market is the introduction of a competing product such as canned and frozen bangus preparations. It may be in the best interest of Century Canning because they own the only active bangus canning plant in the Philippines, but for San Marino, the introduction of canned bangus threatens to directly diminish the available market.

2.3.2. International CPG market data (CPG, 2004-2009) and the NERBAC industry profile on canned tuna (ELG, 2010), record the Philippines as the third leading canned tuna exporter, owning 15% of the global market.

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The primary competition for Philippine canned tuna exports are the high value, high quantity and low cost canned tuna product of Thailand—Chicken of the Sea. The Chicken of the Sea brand has been leading the canned tuna industry for many years and their label automatically adds value to their canned tuna product (Vera, 2005; Miyake, et al., 2010). Moreover, the Thai based cannery has earned the largest revenue for capital over many years and has now made the most cumulative investment on canning technology. Other factors that affect the competition for canned tuna exports are diplomatic relations with trade partners, the performance of the upstream segment, the fish stock in the respective oceans, labor, commercial and industrial policies by the respective governments, and environmental resolutions imposed by international organizations and the tariff policies of the importing countries (Vera, 2005; Miyake, et al., 2010; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2010; Nuku’alofa, 2010).

2.4. Global Market Outlook 2.4.1. Regulations on Fishing As the demand for tuna and other fish products increase and the capacity of catching and processing improves, the degree of over fishing surges. Studies by international organizations have predicted an impending exhaustion of tuna and other fish stocks especially in the Pacific, if the current pace of fishing operations remains at an excessive level (Nuku’alofa, 2010). In the past two years, there has been a collective effort by regulating bodies and participating companies to control fishing activities and operate at a sustainable level (Miyake, et al., 2010; Nuku’alofa, 2010). In January of 2010, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) imposed a two-year ban on fishing in the northern Pacific Ocean (Espejo, 2010). Several member countries of the WCPFC have been affected by the fishing ban, and naturally, the overall production by the Philippines and affected countries have started to decline in 2009. Tuna canning and fishing yield by WCPFC members in the next two years is expected decline as a result of the reduced capacity to fish. In the long term, fishing volumes not only by WCPFC members but of the rest of the world are expected to decline from the peak fishing levels in 2008 to a sustainable level as prescribed and mandated by the appropriate international organization (Miyake, et al., 2010; Nuku’alofa, 2010).

2.4.2. Global Industry Setup As the coastal countries further take on the canning responsibilities of developed countries, Philippine, Indonesian and Thai exports are expected to increase while canning activities in developed countries slowly diminish. The leading canning countries are also expected to gain the necessary technologies to further reduce the production costs of canned tuna (Miyake, et al., 2010). However, in the long term, fish canning prices will tend to be dependent on the seasonality, and availability of fish, more than the production costs involved. The world population is expected to grow quicker than the expansion of fish stocks and food security will soon become a critical issue. Ultimately, production costs will lower but raw tuna prices will rocket so canned tuna prices are still expected to increase (Miyake, et al., 2010; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2010).

3. MANUFACTURING

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3.1. Raw Materials 3.1.1. Tuna The main inputs in Pacific tuna canneries are skipjack and yellowfin tuna. These can be found in the southern Philippine seas and in various pockets in the pacific. The tuna species are uniquely warm blooded, thus they are able to move quickly underwater and conserve more energy. Tuna are highly predatory and their diet consists of small to medium sized fish. Tuna has become an important commercial product because it can be caught in huge volumes through low cost operations such as purse seining. Also, scientific studies have discovered that tuna contains very high levels of Omega-3 and protein, which are important nutrients in the human diet. Tuna meat is widely used in different cuisines for its pleasant neutral flavor profile and firm texture. Special care is required when handling carcasses of tuna because tuna tissues immediately produce histamine, a potentially toxic compound, at ambient conditions. Tuna is also known to contain a certain amount of mercury and it is essential that all processed tuna meat do not contain lethal amounts.

3.1.2. Ingredients and Additives 3.1.2.1. Spices and seasonings Spices and seasonings are added to provide the base flavor. Other Ingredients may include cuts of vegetables and broth ingredients. Philippine canneries source ingredients from varying places including Thailand, China and Macau, where dried seasoning is produced and sold at a lower cost. Vegetables and perishable ingredients components are sourced and prepared locally. 3.1.2.2. Liquid meduim Generally, a liquid medium is added to prevent oxygen from occupying space in the can and to serve as a flavor carrier. Tuna is usually canned in brine or oil, but tomato and other broths are also used to create different flavors. As with spices and other ingredients, liquid additives are not specifically sourced.

3.1.3. Packaging 3.1.3.1. Metal Cans Canned packaging consists of steel plates that are electrolytically plated with tin. Tin plate is used in canning to prevent corrosion and protect the steel layer from rusting or reducing into the product. In contrast to stainless steel, tin plate can be disposed without danger and is less expensive than zinc plating. However, in fish canning, a layer of zinc lacquer is still added to prevent sulphides from decolorizing either the steel or the tin plate.

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3.1.3.2. Print labels Print labels usually consist of glued print material around the cans. Labels are best mechanically applied to eliminate lead time. These materials are easy to produce and can be conveniently sourced from local suppliers.

3.2. Manufacturing Process 3.2.1. History of Canning Process The canning process was invented by a Frenchman named Bon Appert during the 1800’s, in the hope of finding a food preservation technology that would allow French soldiers to stay in camp for longer periods of time without having to resupply. Napoleon awarded Appert with 12000 francs for the discovery. Appert discovered that heating food close to the boiling point of water then sealing them in glass jars prohibited the spoilage for long periods of time. At the time, microorganisms were yet to be discovered and the process was attributed to coincidence. In later decades, Englishman Peter Durand refined the process by switching from glass to the tin containers benefitting the process by providing a cheaper, more durable and lighter material. He was also the first to apply the method of double folding the can and the cap to form a hermetic seal.

3.2.2. Principles of Canning The contents of canned food are ideal growth media for both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms that cause spoilage and produce toxins. Aerobic spoilage is usually easy to detect by smell and essentially prohibited through hermetic sealing. Conversely, anaerobic byproducts are difficult recognize and spoilage of such type is easily overlooked. The worst case is that anaerobic byproducts reach toxic levels in food without the consumer ever noticing. Hence, there is every reason to heat to canned food products and eliminate anaerobic microorganisms that aggressively produce lethal toxins. The most hazardous known microorganism with a significant possibility of being present in canned food is Clostridium botulinum, which is known to produce the botulinum toxin that kills within less than one hour of ingestion. To minimize the ingestion of botulinum and other deadly anaerobic toxins, it is important to treat the sealed cans with enough heat until the slowest heating point (SHP) of the can is raised to the lethal temperature and exposed at the optimum time. The optimum time of exposure is calculated by assuming that bacterial presence at lethal temperature follows a negative semi-logarithmic plot versus time, as shown in Figure 14. In this form, the bacterial death rate is impossible to reduce to zero, but a remaining population of 10-12 is considered to be commercially safe (Warne, 1988). The time to reach 10-12 from an assumed starting bacterial population is the optimum time. The value D in the plot indicates the time required to reduce the population by one order of magnitude.

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Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

Figure 14. Semi-log rate of bacterial destruction at lethal temperature Source: (Warne, 1988)

The total time of heating is the sum of the time required to heat the SHP to the lethal temperature, and the optimum time of exposure. Because heating systems in vary in heating mechanisms, it becomes difficult to assess the effectiveness of a sterilization process using total time as a basis. Instead, the value Fo is used. Fo is the cumulative effective lethal time, also called the process severity or sterilization rate, and is measured in minutes. With Fo values, a parameter has been set to comparatively assess the lethal effect of different sterilization processes. Fo values for common fish products like tuna and sardines are readily available in literature from various experimental measurements by different research bodies. Alternatively, many models that are based on thermal conductivity concepts are also available for the estimation of Fo values. (Bratt, 2010; Warne, 1988). However, for all canning operations, empirical calculation of Fo values from equipment and material testing is still mandatory because overestimation of equipment performance and miscalculation of material thermal properties may cause inadequate thermal treatment. This, in turn, may allow the survival of harmful organisms and the accumulation of toxins. (Warne, 1988).

3.2.3. Overview of the Tuna Canning Process The procedure of canning fish has been established in the 1920’s. There have been many developments in the mechanization and sanitation of the process, but the principles and basic steps have not changed significantly over the years. The basic flow of the manufacturing process is shown in Figure 15 while the CPG manufacturing operation is shown in Figure 16.

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Figure 15. General Canned Tuna Process Flow Source: (Warne, 1988)

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Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

Figure 16. Overview of the CPG Canning Process Source: (CPG, 2010)

As shown above, the first operation in tuna canning is the receipt of either frozen or fresh tuna from landings by fishing boats. Frozen tuna are thawed then sent to butchering. Butchering involves removal of the heads and innards of the fish. The butchered fish are then stacked in wheeled racks that are rolled into an industrial steam pre-cooker. The precooked tuna are then sprayed with mist

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and upon cooling, are sent to a conveyor line with hundreds of stations for cleaning and skinning the cooked tuna. The cleaned tuna called loins, are mechanically cut, weighed and placed inside empty cans. Hot liquid medium is poured to form steam that exhausts the air from the top of the can, then hermetically sealed by machine. The sealed cans are placed in pallets which are rolled into the retort unit to get sterilized. The sterilized cans are cooled to room temperature and are sent to the labeling and numbering station. Figure 16 diagrams the current state of the tuna at different parts of the process. For Figure 15 and Figure 16, the process flow remains exactly similar. The CPG flow is only more specific, showing the steps in adding liquid additives, quality check and metal detection. The general flow diagram shows the important inputs and outputs of each process.

3.2.4. Handling of Raw Tuna As soon as tuna is caught and slain, the tissues start to deteriorate and natural oils begin to oxidize and eventually cause the meat to turn rancid and lose nutrients. Oxidized omega 3 in fish produces such a foul odor that most people refuse to ingest it. On the other hand, the absence of blood flow starves the muscle tissues and causes the deterioration of proteins. Because both instances only happen at ambient temperatures, immediate freezing generally keeps the fish quality at a desirable level. Additionally, the lack of an immune system allows bacterial contaminants to produce histamine, and other toxic compounds. This is especially true for tuna because of the presence of the high concentrations histidine in the meat. Histidine is converted to histamine by a bacterial enzyme called histidine decarboxylase. These bacteria are most active at ambient to warm temperatures; hence, the further need for immediate and constant freezing. Generally, tuna caught twelve hours away from the landing site have to be refrigerated in brine or blast frozen to retard the deterioration and oxidation of the fish and prohibit most harmful bacterial activity. Commercial ships, which are only allowed to fish away from the shore, have built in refrigeration systems that allow them to stay in the water for several days until maximum capacity is reached, all without sacrificing the quality of the fish. Municipal fishers are allowed to fish closer to the coast, thus, they are able to deliver fresh tuna without refrigeration. Canneries receive both fresh tuna from the municipal fishers and frozen tuna from commercial ships and immediately perform a temperature and histamine test to assure raw material safety and quality.

3.2.5. Freezing, Storing and Thawing Depending on the process requirements, fresh tuna is either sent directly to pre-treatment or stored in a refrigerated and sanitized facility, while frozen tuna is thawed then sent to processing or stored and refrigerated. For all the reasons mentioned above, tuna that do not directly go to processing are frozen and stored in temperature maintained facilities. There are many methods of freezing tuna; using chilled air or saltwater, freezing in blocks of ice, and blast freezing. Freezing methods are optimized to quickly bring the temperature of the tuna without extracting the moisture out. The ideal temperature for storing oily fish such as tuna is -30oC to inhibit oxidation of the fatty acids, and to preserve the quality and safety of the fish. Although it takes months for the fish meat to

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deteriorate at this temperature, the cumulative effect of the gradual omega 3 oxidation will eventually turn the fish rancid. For this reason raw tuna stocks are best utilized at once and stored as short as possible. Management of frozen stocks in storage is therefore essential, and constant rotation of inventory should be observed. Prior to processing, frozen fish from storage are thawed in sanitized, temperature controlled facilities. Temperatures are generally kept below 20oC to prevent bacterial contamination, excessive dehydration and localization of heat. Sanitation is also chief concern because once the surface temperature rises, bacterial inoculation and activity become imminent. Common methods of thawing are air thawing, air blast thawing, water thawing, and integrated coking and thawing. Air thawing means leaving the fish to thaw by itself while maintaining the correct temperature. Lag times in air thawing are usually too long and are impractical in tropical conditions due to high ambient temperatures. Moreover, the huge space requirement for massive scale operations translates to high air conditioning costs. In air blast thawing, saturated air is circulated through a chamber to maintain a high temperature gradient with the surface of the fish. Air saturation is particularly important to eliminate the concentration gradient of moisture between the air and the fish, which would lead to eventual dehydration. Fish are lined in trolleys with racks to maximize air flow while saving space. The drawback of using air blast systems is that the inner portion of the fish remains cold while the surface has already thawed to a temperature that encourages deterioration. To complete the thawing process while avoiding the deterioration at the surface, the fish are placed in a chilled storage to equalize temperature before processing. Water thawing is done by immersion in or spraying of chilled water. The advantage with water thawing is a more even temperature distribution through the cross section of the fish compared to air thawing methods. The high water requirement is only practical for areas with enough supply as the residual water from the process contains dissolved organic solids and bacterial contaminants and is hardly reusable. There is no general time prescription for thawing tuna as initial temperatures, target temperatures and sizes vary greatly among processes.

3.2.6. Pre-Treatment Pre-treatment of fish includes physical preparations such as butchering and evisceration, and grading. Grading is done to homogenize the process feed in terms of fish type, size, and inlet temperature, while the purpose of butchering and evisceration is to remove the heads, tails and intestines, which smell unpleasant and are inedible. Size grading is done by machine in specialized conveyors that have specific widths for the appropriate tuna sizes, and manually by weighing on a scale and using a length measuring device. Generally, large yellowfin tuna at 3-6 feet from longliners stay in a separate process from that of medium sized skipjack at 1-2 feet from purse seiners. Butchering and evisceration of large tuna is usually done by hand with the aid of cutting tools such as bandsaws and knives. It may also include cutting the meat into smaller manageable portions. On the other hand, sheer quantities of medium sized fish are difficult to carve by hand and are usually

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sent through a conveyor with a bandsaw attachment to remove the head and tails. Evisceration is usually done by hand afterwards. Both steps may be done by machine, but the yield is significantly greater when done by hand. Hand working also makes inspection and quality check easier to accomplish. Low labor costs in developing countries also make it more practical and cost efficient to have pre-treatment done by hand. Throughout the process, it is important to keep proper sanitation of all surfaces, tools and hands to prevent the spoilage and contamination of the meat. Hygiene and sanitation prescriptions by the world health organization (WHO) and the food and agriculture organization (FAO) for the handling and treatment of raw fish are commonly applied. A byproduct of this process is a substantial amount of heads, intestines and other unwanted material. This is commonly sent to an annex plant to be manufactured into fish meal, a product that returns income.

3.2.7. Pre-Cooking Pre-cooking of tuna is done to allow convenient cleaning and skinning of the meat, to evaporate some of the moisture from the fish and in some cases, add flavor and develop the texture. The ideal precooking method for tuna is steaming at 100-102oC in atmospheric pressure because it is economical, produces even heating and does not dissolve as much nutrients away as boiling. A new method of pre-cooking is done in vacuum conditions to expand the meat pores and allow the penetration of steam. Vacuum pre-cooking has been observed to increase yield and minimize cooking time. Atmospheric steam cooking is commonly done in an enclosed horizontal steam chamber, as illustrated in . Fish are first put in a chain of trolleys with holding racks. These racks are filled with tuna and the train of trolleys is rolled into the precooking chamber. The door is sealed until the steam treatment finishes. An alternative to the horizontal pre-cooking chambers is the box type steamer that accommodates a single but highly stacked trolley. Vertical steamers are now rarely used because of the inefficient steam circulation and its low holding capacity. In contrast to atmospheric steam cooking, the system pressure in vacuum cooking is purposely lowered using pumps before the introduction of steam. Vacuum pre-cookers are usually designed in a similar way as horizontal steam pre-cookers to accommodate a large quantity of fish. In addition to expanding meat pores, the vacuum in the chamber also improves the circulation of steam. The time of pre-cooking is primarily dependent on the initial temperature, target temperature and the size of the fish. To ensure the thorough cooking of tuna, a target backbone temperature is set usually at 50-70oC. The temperature in the backbone indicates the temperature at the thickest and slowest heating portion of the fish meat. The usual cooking time for large fish is 8 hours and 1 hour for small fish. In most plants, the fish are cooled through misting right after pre-cooking to reduce the possibility of bacterial infection at warm temperatures. Misting is used instead of quenching to avoid breaking the structure of the fish and losing soluble nutrients to the water.

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Figure 17. Schematic diagram of a horizontal tune precooker Source: (JBT)

3.2.8. Skinning and Cleaning The cooked fish are sent to long conveyor lines with adjacent tables manned by designated fish cleaners. The objective of cleaning the cooked fish is to remove the skin, bones and black met that disrupt the flavor and texture of the product.

Figure 18. Cleaning and Skinning Station

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Similar to pre-treatment, skinning and cleaning involves the use of sharp tools such as knives. Cleaning and skinning is done in a two way conveyor line with a series of side tables, as shown in Figure 15. Workers at the skinning line pick the tuna from the conveyor, skin them and put them in baskets or trays and return them to the line. The workers from the cleaning line pick up the baskets, and remove the black meat on their tables and return the baskets to the conveyor. Important considerations in cleaning the fish are to avoid contamination of the fish by particles from the tools, hands of the worker and the working surface. All surfaces of contact have to be remained sanitized when working.

3.2.9. Filling and Seaming Tuna filling and packing is usually done automatically using packing machines. In filling each can, the weight of the tuna content is always kept the same. However, this may also be done manually by pre-weighing on the tuna filling a top loading balance. In another part of the process, the liquid medium and other ingredients are also prepared for filling. After the can is filled with tuna, the prepared broth is also added to the can. The broth is maintained hot to create a pocket of steam above the filling of the can and avoid the inclusion of oxygen in the sealed product. It is also important to keep the filling hot because when a cold liquid is used, the moisture content will expand in the can during retort and break the seal. The most important part in sealing is to assure that there are no leaks, because any minor leak encourages the growth and entry of bacteria. Seal leakage may also lead to inorganic contamination and chemical change in the product. Hermetic sealing of canned tuna is done in two consecutive foldings by machine. The step by step process of sealing is diagramed Figure 16. As in the figure, folding 1 is shown in the middle picture while the second and final fold is shown on the right.

Figure 19. Hermetic Sealing Process of Canned Goods. Source: (Myrseth, 1985)

3.2.10. Thermal Processing and Pressure Cooling Thermal processing is the primary process of food canning. This is where the cans are heated according the calculated Fo values. Thermal processing is commonly known as sterilization or retorting. The common sterilizing unit used in food canning is similar in form to a horizontal precooker, having an entry for a chain of trolleys. The sterilization unit is an air tight chamber that could

37

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accommodate temperatures above 100oC and counter act the pressure buildup in the can using steam, superheated water or a combination of both. In other systems, air is also used to minimize temperature localization. The filled and sealed cans are put into a chain of pallets similar to pre-cooking trolleys, but without the racks. The cans are stacked randomly in the pallets to promote spaces within the stacks for steam to pass through. After loading, the pallets are rolled into the horizontal retort unit and steam is introduced until temperature in the chamber is raised to 121oC. Throughout, the pressure of the system is controlled to counteract the pressure buildup in the can. Figure 20 illustrates how the temperatures in the can and chamber are maintained to achieve the target sterilization value Fo. The diagram also shows the counter-pressure levels in the chamber. (Bratt, 2010; Warne, 1988)

Figure 20. Retort process variables plot. T,P v time Source: (Bratt, 2010)

The retort process may be divided into three phases according to the time partitions in Figure 20. Phase one is the heating time or time required for the SHP to reach the desired temperatures. Phase two is optimum time of exposure to the lethal temperature and phase 3 is pressure release and cooling. In phase one, the temperature in the retort chamber—in Figure 20: Temperature of water inside autoclave—increases as controlled in the process. Heat conduction to the surface of the can causes the temperature of the product inside the can to rise correspondingly. Phase two begins as soon as the target retort chamber temperature is reached. The pressure and temperature are held constant to the optimum time. In this part of the process Fo, or the cumulative lethal effect, is shown to rapidly increase as a result of the bacterial exposure to lethal temperature.

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After the exact time of exposure, the heat source is immediately closed and the heating medium is released. This is done to avoid over processing the contents of the can and possibly compromise the texture and quality of the tuna. However, by removing the heating medium, the pressure in the chamber

3.2.11. Labeling, Distribution and Logistics

3.3. Process and Quality Control 3.3.1. Handling of Fish Temperature of fish upon receipt Checking the temperature of the tuna upon receipt helps assure the freshness of the tuna. Warm tuna deliveries are very likely to be contaminated with bacteria and the tissues have started to decompose and produce histamine. Histamine content To it is important to have histamine testing areas. This is a sure way to avoid the manufacture of toxic fish. It is ideal to check for histamine content before storage and after thawing to assure raw material safety and also to immediately discover faults in the refrigeration systems Temperature in storage facility Temperatures in storage facilities have to always be maintained below 4oC to avoid slow freezing that destroys the texture and drains the moisture of the fish. Moreover, when temperatures in the storage facility rise, bacteria may start to thrive on the huge volumes of stored fish and cause mass spoilage. Temperature and sanitation in thawing facility There is a high chance of microbial contamination during thawing because the temperature no longer prohibits the growth of bacteria. Plant operators work around this problem by maintaining at sanitized thawing area and by a constant spray of water that quickly rinses contaminants.

3.3.2. Pre-Cooking Settings Precooking time is an important quality variable because this step is where most of the nutrients are lost and the texture changes. Overcooking the fish produces a low nutrient, rough texture product while undercooking might encourage bacterial growth and cause spoilage. A prescribed cooking time range has to be set in a processing plant to avoid the creation of a bad quality product. The backbone temperature is measured using an electronic temperature probe. As

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soon as the desired backbone temperature is reached, the trolleys are brought out and the fish are left to cool.

3.3.3. Retort Temperature, Pressure and Time Table 2 shows the typical retort conditions for canning tuna Table 2. Typical Retort Conditions for Canned tuna Source: (Warne, 1988)

Can dimensions

Retorting time

Diam.

Height

115.6 °C

121.1 °C

(mm)

(mm)

(min)

(min)

74

35

50

35

84

46.5

70

55

74

118.5

100

85

154

109.5

230

200

There are four main types of retorts classified according to heating medium; saturated steam retorts, full immersion retorts, steam/air retorts and cascading water retorts. Saturated steam retorts Operation starts by flushing out air through a venting valve by continuous steam injection. When all of the air has been vented out, the temperature in the chamber is raised to its scheduled value by introducing saturated steam and maintaining pressures above atmospheric. The temperature is maintained through pressure controls until the designated holding time. The steam valve is then closed and pressure is released simultaneously with the injection of cooling water. Saturated steam retorts are simple to operate because the properties of saturated steam at given pressure are easy to predict. For example, at 2 bars of pressure, the temperature rises to 120oC. Temperature control is easily done by reading and manipulating the steam pressure.

3.3.4. Quality of Seam The quality of the hermetic seal is vital in prohibiting the entry of microbes and oxygen. Seam quality is manually checked using a micrometer and also by visual observation. There are also machines developed for mechanically checking the seam quality. Seam quality is checked before and after the retorting process. It is done after the retorting process because high cold water content in the can may lead to pressure buildup inside the can during retort. This in turn strains the seam and may cause leaks. Cans with defective seams are immediately removed form the production line.

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3.4. Equipment Design and Safety Engineering 3.4.1. Industrial Boilers Industrial boilers are used in tuna processing to produce steam that is used in retort and precooking. Industrial boilers are always well insulated to prevent burns from contact. Pump fans and moving components are enclosed, and pressure relief valves placed conveniently to prevent system overload. Figure 17 Shows a photo of an industrial boiler commonly used to produce steam.

3.4.2. Bandsaws Bandsaws are used to cut the heads and tails of both frozen tuna. Bandsaws usually include a safety jig and a sliding table to maximize the distance of the operator to the blade. Figure 18 shows a photo of a bandsaw equipment and one being used in actual tuna processing.

Figure 21. A Steam Boiler

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Figure 22. Letft: Bandsaw Equipment. Right: A bandsaw equipment in use in a tuna processing facility

3.4.3. Racks and Conveyors Racks and conveyors are used to transports the tuna and from the precooker then among each worker assigned in cleaning and skinning. Figure 19 shows a photo of tuna racks used in operation.

Figure 23 (left). Tuna Racks. Figure 23 (right). Cleaning tables around a central conveyor Source: (JBT)

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3.4.4. Baskets and Cutting Tools Baskets and cutting tools are used by workers in the skinning and cleaning section. Safety concerns are primarily in the correct handling of knives. As illustrated in Figure 24, container baskets for the tuna containers are color coded to indicate the current state of the content; wheter skinned, cleaned, or just pre-cooked.

Figure 24. Color coded ontainer baskets for cleaning and skinning tuna

3.4.5. Steam Cookers Steam cookers are horizontal chambers used in precooking and are designed to contain as much as ten racks at a time. Steam cookers have pressure release valves, insulated walls and temperature controls to ensure the safety of the product and the operator.

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Figure 25. Vacuum Steam Pre-Cooker

3.4.6. Seaming and Filling Machines Advanced models of seaming machines are completely enclosed to keep the operator and maintenance personnel safe from high speed moving parts and the hot liquid medium used. Figure 21 shows a tuna filling and seaming equipment with fully enclosed components.

Figure 26. Tuna Filling and Seaming Equipment

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3.4.7. Retorts sdfdsds

Figure 27. Retort Equipment

3.5. Equipment Design and Safety Engineering 3.5.1. Industrial Boilers

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Figure 28. General Layout of a Canned tuna Facility

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4. HEALTH, SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4. Health, Safety and the Environment

48

4.1. Occupational Safety 4.1.1. Cuts from Slicing Equipment Butchering and cleaning of fish require the use of a bandsaw and knives. It is important to follow proper ergonomic when handling knives and to use use of jigs and moving tables help in avoiding being cut by a bandsaw. Figure 23show a diagram of how a bandsaw equipment is properly operated with a jig and a sliding table (Health and Safety Executive, 2000).

Figure 29. Correct operation of a bandsaw equipment Source: (Health and Safety Executive, 2000)

4.1.2. Bumps from Moving Parts and Equipment Filling machines are designed to operate at speeds of 300 cans per minute and should not be handled when in operation. Moving parts should be properly enclosed to avoid accidental contact. Proper personnel training should be strictly implemented to avoid mishandling of precooking equipment. Workers should always be properly positioned at any point in any active location especially around opening cooker doors, and moving racks. Planning the placement of equipment is important to ensure that there is enough space to transport the fish from evisceration without crossing any essential pathways within the facility. Setting of transport traffic lines ensures that workers know not to stand in the way of moving trolleys.

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4.1.3. Burns and Thermal Injuries Proper insulating garments are required for all workers operating precooking and retort equipment. Standard operating procedures prescribed by the equipment manufacturer and safety sanctioning bodies should be followed at all times to avoid injury risks (Health and Seafety Executive, 1997). Workers handling frozen ingredients are required to wear gloves. When entering cold storage rooms, workers are required to wear proper insulating garments and dry boots (Health and Seafety Executive, 1997).

4.1.4. Orthopedic Injuries It is best to observe proper posture as prescribed in standard operating procedures either by the company or a concerned and credible organization (Health and Seafety Executive, 1997) when transporting heavy loads of frozen fish to and from storage. These types of injuries may also be prevented by allotting a controlled amount of weight to be carried by the worker. Figure 24 shows the proper posture for lifting rectangular heavy loads (IAPA, 2008).

Figure 30. Proper Lifiting Posture Source: (IAPA, 2008)

4.1.5. Infections from Bacterial Contaminant in Raw Material The use of sanitary gloves and spraying water help in eliminating contact between the fish and the worker. It is important to provide proper hygienic areas for eating and resting that are away or sealed from raw product.

4.1.6. Chemical Injuries Wearing gloves and boots prevent contact between chlorinated water and the personnel during retort.

4. Health, Safety and the Environment

50

4.1.7. Slippage Slippage may be avoided by effectively installing drains and using less water for the sprays in the misting area, retort area, athawing area and precooking area. Proper personnel awareness is also a key to safe operation.

4.2. Process Safety 4.2.1. Hazardous Inorganic Reagents There are two main hazardous reagents used in fish canning; chlorine for sanitizing the retort cooling water and ammonia as refrigerant in cooling systems. Periodic maintenance of compressors and fluid ducts are very important to avoid exposing ammonia. During handling of chlorinated water workers are required to wear eye and hand protectors.

4.2.2. Biological Wastes Improper placement of biological waste such as intestines and head of the fish may breed bacteria and insects that cause sickness. Water lines are also be contaminated if waste is deposited on the soil.

4.2.3. Flammables Boiler fuel must be kept at a distance from high temperature areas in the facility to avoid ignition. For the same reason, fuel storage tanks are best coated with fire proof insulating material.

4.3. Waste Management 4.3.1. Wastewater The primary sources of wastewater in tuna canning plants are cooling precooking and thawing. Thawing contributes additional water from the melting of ice while also contributing to dissolved solids from fish particles. In cooling of precooked tuna, water is used for rinsing and may dissolve minimal amounts of fish particles. Precooking contributes the most dissolved waste due to the presence of fish oils. Waste water from retorting is from the condensed steam and cooling water. Figure 25 shows a diagram of waste water effluents by share (Munlika, et al., 2005).

Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

51

10% 21% 7%

Reort and Cooling Can Washing

2%

Cooling Thawing Evisceration

26%

34%

Precooking

Figure 31. Wastewater generation of a tuna canning plant in Thailand Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

Wastewater from tuna processing contain a high concentration oils and are usually sent to primary and secondary treatment (Munlika, et al., 2005). The pretreatment of wastewater usually includes screening, gritting, and oil removal. In primary treatment, suspended solids are settled and 60% are removed and 30% of the BOD is also removed. Secondary treatment of seafood involves biological treatment to remove the high loads of organic waste. Both anaerobic and aerobic remediation maybe applied depending on the desired sludge quality. 90% of both BOD and SS are removed. Further details of wastewater treatment design are determined according the quality of wastewater. Figure 26 shows a checklist for designing a wastewater treatment operation.

4. Health, Safety and the Environment

Figure 32. Checklist for Designing a Wastewater Treatment Operation Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

An example of a general tuna canning wastewater treatment facility is shown in Figure 27.

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Banaria, The Canned Tuna Industry in the Philippines, 2011

53

Figure 33. Schematic diagram of a typical fish processing wastewater treatment plant Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

4.3.2. Solid Waste The primary source of solid waste from tuna canning operations is in evisceration and loining. This type of waste requires careful handling and transit because it may breed harmful microorganisms and cause the spread of disease. Table 3 shows the amounts of solid waste generated per process (Munlika, et al., 2005). Table 3. Solid Waster Generation a tuna canning plant in Thailand Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

Process

Waste Generation (kg/t)

Eviscerating

240

Cleaning

400

4. Health, Safety and the Environment

54

Seaming

50

Organic

640

Inorganic

50

Most of the biological waste are to fish meal processing to extend the utilizartion of the fish and to lessen the deposition of untreated biological waste in the ground.

4.3.3. Gas Emissions The primary source of emissions is the boiler. Boilers use different kinds of combustible fuel that emit harmful compounds even when burned efficiently. In Table 4, emissions from different kinds of boiler fuel maybe compared (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007). Table 4. Emissions from common boiler fuels

LPG-F (g/L)

PM 0.2

SO2 0.5

CO 0.23

HC 0.084

NO2 1.35

Coal (g/kg)

12.5

12

1

0.5

7.5

Fuel oil (g/l)

2.75

10

0.5

0.35

9.6

Gas Emissions are commonly treated in venturi scrubbers to remove dust and pollutants. Table 5shows efficiency data of venturi scrubbers (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007). Table 5. Efficiency of venturi scrubbers

Pollutant

Type

Efficiency

Gaseous

SO2, NO2, HC

30-60%

PM

PM10

90-99%

4.4. Resource Consumption and Conservation 4.4.1. Water Water consumption is in almost every step in the tuna canning process, with cooling of precooked fish rating as the step with the highest water consumption. In cooling, large amounts of water are used to quickly cool precooked tuna. In thawing, water is used for melting frozen fish blocks while in retorting and precooking water comes in the form of steam coming from a boiler. Can cooling and washing comprise the rest of the total water consumption. Figure 28 shows the water consumption in a tuna canning plant (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007).

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1% 9%

6% 9% Reort and Cooling Can Washing

16%

Cooling Thawing Evisceration Precooking 59%

Figure 34.Wastewater consumption of a tuna canning plant in Thailand Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

Apart from the mentioned operations water is also used in washing and rinsing of working spaces and tools.

4.4.2. Energy Tuna canning plants consume electrical energy for refrigeration, water pumps and sprays and automated packing equipment. In retorting and precooking, the production of steam consumes energy from fuel oils, LPG or coal. The amount of energy consumed depends on the scale of the operation, lead times between storage and processing and degree of automation. Figure 29 shows the energy consumption in a tuna processing plant by share (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007).

4. Health, Safety and the Environment

1%

56

21%

37%

Cooling Retort Cand Seaming

1%

Can Washing 1%

Unloading of Fish Precooking 39%

Figure 35.Energy consumption of a tuna canning plant in Thailand Source: (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007)

Energy is also used in tuna processing but are not included in figure 29 are transporting of product or intermediate between facilities, lighting and ventilation, and electronic control devices such as thermostats (Duangpaseuth, et al., 2007).

5. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

5. Research and Development

58

5.1. Process Development 5.1.1. Tank Breeding of Tuna In 2009, Time Magazine named Hagen Stehr’s Clean Seas tuna breeding facility as one of the year’s the best inventions. The difficulty with tank breeding is getting the adults to breed in a controlled environment and if they do breed, taking hatching the eggs would pose the next big problem. If, in the future, tuna are to be successfully cultured, then the canned tuna industry should once again rise and prices could be conveniently lowered.

5.1.2. Raw Packing A new way of canning has been recently introduced; raw pack tuna. In raw pack tuna, the fish is filled raw into the can and cooking only occurs in retort. The main advantage for raw packing tuna is that the integrity of the flesh is retained and a big percentage of the nutrients commonly lost in precooking such as omega 3 and some proteins are retained.

5.1.3. Automation of Cleaning and Retort Several tuna equipment manufacturers have also been introducing fully automated tuna canning lines to prevent injuries and assure product consistency. JBT technologies have started to produce fully automated batch retort systems that would change the industry in a positive way by eliminating the perpetual need for a thermal process specialist in the vicinity of the retort equipment.

5.2. Product Development 5.2.1. Canning of Bangus In 2008 Century Canning Corp launched its canned bangus line, becoming the first company in many decades to venture into the canning of bangus. This could have been a business compromise to the recent fishing ban imposed by WCPFC. The opening of the canned bangus industry in the Philippines opens a lot of opportunities because bangus can be cultured, unlike tuna that have to be caught.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY AMEC Earth & Environmental Limited. 2003. Management of Wastes from Atlantic Seafood Processing Operations. s.l. : NATIONAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION ATLANTIC REGIONAL TEAM Environment Canada Atlantic Region, 2003. Bratt, L. 2010. Fish Canning Handnook. s.l. : A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2010. Brown, Sandra. Canning Seafood Safely. s.l. : Washington State University. CCC. 2010. Century Canning Corp. Century Pacific Group. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 2 21, 2011.] http://www.centurypacific.com.ph/our_businesses_century_canning.html. COWI Consulting Engineers and Planners AS, Denmark. Cleaner Production Assessment in Fish Processing. s.l. : United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics . CPG. 2010. Canned Tuna Process Flow. s.l. : Century Pacific Group, 2010. —. 2010. Century Pacific Group - Heritage. Century Pacific Group. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 2 21, 2011.] http://www.centurypacific.com.ph/our_heritage.html. —. 2004-2009. Century Pacific Group Audited Financial Statements. 2004-2009. Duangpaseuth, S, Das, Q and Chotchamlong, N. 2007. Seafood Processing. s.l. : Asian Institute of Technology, School of Environment, Resource & Development, 2007. ELG. 2010. Industry Brief on Processed Fish. s.l. : NERBAC, Philippines, 2010. Espejo, E. 2010. Philippines to seek lifting of ban in tuna fishing. s.l. : asiancorresponedent.com, 2010. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 2010. THE STATE OF WORLD FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE. Rome : FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 2010. ISSN 1020-5489. FAO, Fishery Industries Division. 1986. The production of fish meal and oil. s.l. : FAO Fish. Tech. Pap., 1986. ISBN 92-5-102464-2. GAA. 2009. Seafood Processing Standard. s.l. : Global Aquaculture Alliance, SPS Food Safety Management Component, 2009. Issue 2 Revision 1. Gillet, Robert. 2001. Tuna: A key resource in the Pacific islands. Manila, Philippines : Asian Development Bank, 2001. ISBN 971-561-335-7.

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GTC. 2010. General Tuna Corporation. Century Pacific Group. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 2 21, 2011.] http://www.centurypacific.com.ph/our_businesses_general_tuna.html. GTC, Philippines. 2010. HACCP Manual - Canned Tuna. 2010. Health and Safety Executive. 2000. Reducing Bandsaw Accidents in the Food Industry. 2000. ISBN 978 0 7176 1774 6. Health and Seafety Executive. 1997. Priorities for health and safety in the fish processing industry. s.l. : Printed and published by HSE, 1997. Heilig, G.K. 2004. RAPS-China. A Regional Analysis and Planning System. Laxenburg, Austria : s.n., 2004. Hishamunda, Nathanael. 2010. Analysis of aquaculture development in Southeast Asia. Rome : FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 2010. ISSN 2070-7010. Horn, C. 2002. Steam Sterilizer Basics. s.l. : North Carolina State Lab of Public Health, 2002. IAPA. 2008. Safe Lifting and Carrying. s.l. : Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2008. IFC. 2007. Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Fish Processing. s.l. : International Finance Corporation, 2007. Lacson, Gil V. 1979. A domestic resource cost analysis of a fish canning firm. s.l. : School of Economics, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1979. Mijares, Marcelino Jr. January 12, 2011. Transcript of an Interview with Marcelino Mijares Jr. on the canning operations of Century Pacific Group. January 12, 2011. Miyake, Makoto Peter, Guillotreau, Patrice and Sun, Chin-Hwa. 2010. Recent Development is the Tuna Industry. Rome : FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 2010. ISSN 2070-7010. Munlika, U, Prasertsan, P and Kittikun, A. 2005. Water conservation in canned tuna (pet food) plant in Thailand. s.l. : Journal of Cleaner Production, 2005. Vol. 13. Myers, M. 1981. Planning and engineering data 1. Fresh fish handling. Rome : FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS, 1981. Myrseth, A. 1985. Planning and engineering data. 2. Fish canning. Rome : Fish Utilization and Marketing Service, Fishery Industries Division, FAO, 1985. NSO. 2000-09. Import and Export Data. Philippines : National Statistics Office, 2000-09. Nuku’alofa, Tonga. 2010. ANNUAL REPORT TO THE COMMISSION PART 1: INFORMATION ON FISHERIES, RESEARCH, AND STATISTICS. Philippines : WESTERN and CENTRAL PACIFIC FISHERIES COMMISION, 2010. WCPFC-SC6-AR/CCM-19. PAIC. 2010. PACIFICA AGRO-INDUSTRIAL CORPORATION. Century Pacific Group. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 2 21, 2011.] http://www.centurypacific.com.ph/our_businesses_pacific_agro.html.

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Raab, Carolyn A. 2008. Canning Seafood. s.l. : Oregon State University Extension Service, 2008. Reyes, Cecilia G. 1972. Benefit cost analysis of a fish canning project. Quezon City : School of Economics, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1972. Tambuyog. 2000. Tuna Fisheries in the Philippines: A Case Study of Tuna Fishing and Trade in General Santos City, Mindanao. s.l. : Tambuyog Development Center, 2000. Thomas, Frank. 1999. A Centennial Chronicle of the Philippine Commercial Fishing Industry. Los Banos, Laguna : In: Guerrero III, ed. 100 Years of Philippine Fisheries and Marine Science, 1999. Tumangday, Nentia. 1979. The fish canning industry : a survey of its potentials for rural industrialization. s.l. : School of Economics, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1979. Vera, Ceasar Alan. 2005. The Philippines Tuna Industry: A Profile. s.l. : International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, 2005. ISBN 81 902957 2 1. Warne, D. 1988. Manual on fish canning. s.l. : FAO Regional Fisheries Officers Limited H and P Selector, 1988. ISBN 92-5-102726-9.