The Campaign for a Muslim University, 1898-1920

The Campaign for a Muslim University, 1898-1920 Author(s): Gail Minault and David Lelyveld Reviewed work(s): Source: Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 8, No. 2 (1974), pp. 145-189 Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/311636 . Accessed: 18/10/2012 19:09 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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ModernAsianStudies,8,

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89. Printedin GreatBritain.

for a MuslimUniversity, TheCampaign 1898- 1920 GAIL MINAULT ANDDAVID LELYVELD and Universityof Minnesota Universityof 7Cexas

THE campaignto establisha MuslimUniversityat Aligarhis a good exampleof the confluenceof educationand politicsin modernIndia. The politicalmotivesinvolvedweresimilarto thosethat lay behindthe foundingof the MahomedanAnglo-OrientalCollegein I875: a sense By the that Englisheducationwas a prerequisiteto enfranchisement. turnof the century,the stakeswerehigherandtheinterestsinvolvedhad expandedin numberand complexity.The MuslimUniversitymovement representednothing less than an effort to create an all-India Muslimconstituencyand to carveout for it a decisivepiece of political power. It was political both in its attempt to consolidatesupportto influencespeciScgovernmentpolicies,and also as a directchallengeto Britishcontrolof the educationalaccessto power. The Muslim Universitymovementwas not only political; a good dealof thoughtwentinto educationaldesignsforthe university.In fact, the two aspects,politicaland educational,werecloselyboundtogether: plans for the universitystructureand curriculumdemandedcultural deSnitions.The promotersof the universityhad to decidefor whomit would be and what they wantedtheirstudentsto become.In Aligarh, as in India as a whole, emergingleadershad beforethem a varietyof identitiesto choosefrom.And an importantaspectof India'smodern historyis the politicaland culturalcornpetitionbetweenoverlapping categoriesof men. Nor was the universitymovementmonolithic;it harbouredwithinit many conflicts,both conceptualand personal.Its educatorsconcernedwiththe qualityof supportersincludedprofessional the university,as well as professionalpoliticiansanxious to use the university,and the movementto create it, as vehicles for popular mobilization.Becauseof thesevaryingaims, the movementdeveloped The a bitterfactionalismwhich becameone of its chief characteristics. universitycampaignthus raised the issue of power: what were the channelsto it and who wouldhave accessto them. The campaignpassedthroughfour phasesbetweenits initiationin I898 and its binary culminationin I920. The Indian Universities I45

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Commissionreportin I902 and the subsequentact of I904 brokethe early momentumof the movement.The issues had, however, been defined.A new and morevigorousdrivewas madein I9I I, only to be broughtup shortby governmentveto in I 9 I 2. In I 9 I 5 the bill for the BenaresHindu Universitywas passed, giving new incentive to its Muslimcounterpart.Finally,in I920 the AligarhMuslimUniversity and the Jamia Millia Islamia were establishedin the midst of the firstnon-cooperation movement.Duringthesetwo decades,the Muslim League,Turkishaffairs,the WorldWar,the Montfordreforms,and the Khilafatmovementall providedthe publiccontextof eventsduringthe MuslimUniversitycampaign.Somewhatless public were the varying views and alignmentswithin the movementitself, and among the Britishoicials, as to the political and educationalsignificanceof a Muslimuniversity. The first campaign,

I898

- I9I0

Althoughthe earliestschemefor a Muslimuniversitywas set out in I873, the idea was morea metaphorthan a practicalprogrammeuntil f the death of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Aligarh'sfounder,in I898. The campaignwasstartedthenmainlyin orderto shoreup the Mahomedan Anglo-OrientalCollegein an hourof crisis. Colleges everywherewere feeling the pinch of the governments demandsfor higher fees and harder examinations.At Aligarh, the numberof studentsfell from 595 in I895 to 323 at the time of Sir Syed'sdeathon27 MarchI 898, andbythefollowingJulyhadplummeted to I89; and the situationwas madeworseby an embezzlementscandal in I895, and by renewedattacksfromSir Syed'sold collaboratorswho had brokenwith the college in I889. The college accountswere in disorder,and as a resultof embezzlement,the suspensionof grantsfrom a numberof benefactors,and the fallin incomefromfees,the institution was heavilyin debt.l Sir Syed'sdeath unleasheda strugglefor power among the heirs: Syed Mahmud, the founders son and legal successoras honorary secretaryof the college;SamiullahKhan, a retireddistrictjudge, who was a co-founderof the college but had become Sir Syed's bitter enemy;NawabMohsinul-Mulk,formerlya high oicial in Hyderabad 1Theodore Beck, 'The Principal'sAnnual Report for I898-99' ('Principal's Report,I 898-99'), Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College Magazine(Aligarh)(MAOCM), and AligarhInstitate Gazette(Aligarh)(AIG:),New SeriesVII, I I (I5July I899),9-I I, 29-3I. At this time the twojournalswere temporarilymerged.

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and now ambitiousto find a role appropriateto his oratoricalskills; and Snally, TheodoreBeck,the college'sEnglishprincipal.Mahmud, brilliantbut unstable,had beenforcedout of his positionas high court judge five years earlierand became addictedto drink and irrational fits of anger. He clung to Beck, whom he had originallyrecruitedat Cambridgein I882, and had him appointedregistrarofthe collegeand responsiblefor its financialafEairs.2 This extensionof the Englishman's authoritywas a new grievancefor Samiullah'sfaction, who wanted Muslimsaloneto controlthe college.Samiullahcalledon the Nawabof Rampur'sSnancial aid to try to dispossessSyed Mahmud and to ensure Muslim control of the college.3 Mohsin ul-Mulk, a skillful diplomatist, hedged his bets. Beck at first sided with Mahmud, but when the latter proved a weak reed he turned to Mohsin ul-Mulk. This was the setting in which the Muslim universitymovement began. Immediatelyafter Sir Syed's death, Aftab Ahmad Khan, an old studentwho had returnedto Aligarh as a barrister,joined with Beck to preventan alliancebetweenSamiullahand Mohsinul-Mulk. Togetherthey workedout a schemefor a Sir Syed MemorialFund to raise the college to a university,and at the same time to pay off its debts. They hoped to appease Mohsin'sambition by making him presidentof the fund, and by sendinghim touringthe countryto raise money.4On 3 I March I 898, Aftab proposedthis to the college's boardof management,whichagreedto raisefundsto coverthe college's debts, to establisha ten-lakhendowment,and ultimatelyto make the collegea university.Mohsinul-Mulkwas electedpresidentof the fund, and Aftabbecameits secretary.Amongthe old boysof the collegewho became membersof the fund-raisingcommittee was Shaukat Ali, Aligarh'shero on the cricketSelds.5 The drive for fundscould make little progressuntil Aligarhset its housein order.The Britishgovernmentdecidedto intervene,usingits influenceagainstSyed Mahmudand Samiullah.6VisitingAligarhin 2 Syed Aligarh

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January I899, Sir Anthony MacDonnell,lieutenant-governor of the North-WesternProvinces, claimed that Muslims would not help Aligarhuntil they had confidencein its administration.He pledged governmentaid if the collegechangedits rulesto securestablecorporate managementwith sufficientsupervisorypowersfor government,and promisedto secure a donationfrom Rampur, now forced by threat of governmentdispleasureto dissociatehimselffrom Samiullah.7On 3I Januarythe college'strusteesdid what MacDonnellwanted, and elected Mohsin ul-Mulk honorary secretary. Beck's position as principalwasguaranteedfor life.8'A greatmanypersons',wroteBeck, 'have alleged as a reasonfor not subscribingthe unsettledcondition of the managementof the (Collegeaffairs.These questionshave now beensatisfactorily settled.'9 The fund drive made some progress.By May I899, sixty thousand rupees had been promised, the major contributioncoming from Rampur.This was barelyenoughto pay currentdebts;l°but Beckwas able to report that the college was again in a strong position. The numberof studentswas slowly climbingand had reached3I3. This risewas 'due to one causeonly)viz. the effortsto collectmoneyfor the MemorialFund,wherebyknowledgeof the aimsand natureof the . . . Collegehave [sic] been vastlyextended'.Accordingto Beck,everyone now realizedthat 'the futureprospectsof the Indian WIusalmans are bound up in [Aligarh's]success'.llFor all its halting progress,the universitycampaignhad managedto tide the collegeover, but in the process,Beckkilledhimselfwith overwork.He died on 2 September I899, and his place was taken by TheodoreMorison,an Englishman cut frommuchthe sameclothand Beck'ssecond-in-command formany years.12 What kind of universitydid the Muslimshave in mind? In I898 Maulvi RafiuddinAhmadl3wrote an articlein TheSNineteenth CAentury arguingthat a Muslim universitywould becomea centreof learning for all Muslims in the British Empire (now the largest Muslim 7 MAOCM,VII, I (JanuaryI 899),I 5-2 I . 8 'Proceedingsn AnnualMeetingof the Boardof Trustees,Aligarh',MAOCM,VII, SpecialNumber(FebruaryI 899). 9 MAOCM,VII, 3 (MarchI 899),48. MAOCM,VII, I (JanuaryI 899),I5-2I; IXn4 (April I900)n 7-8. 11'Principal'sReport, I8g8-99fn MAOCMand AIG,iNewSeriesVII, I I (I5 July

I899),T,

II.

MAOCM,VII, I2 (I OctoberI899),2I. A BeckMemorialFundwas established to aid the universitycause. 13 Rafiuddin Ahmad came from Poona. He lived in London where he was founder-president of an expatriateanti-Congressorganization,the Muslim Patriotic League. 12

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commonwealthin the world), and that by bringingthem together the Britishwould strengthentheirrule.Aligarh)on whosefoundations the universitywouldbe built,was organizedaccordingto the collegiate modelof Oxfordand Cambridge)and Cloyalty to Britishrule . . . is one of the foremostlessonsimpartedto the students'.But the college was too small to undertakesucha task,and it was inherentlylimitedby its affiliationto a local secularuniversity.The proposeduniversitywould be modern,but it would also be Muslim.It would be universal,not paroChial.

14

The proposalsfor a Muslim universitywere fully discussedat the MuhammadanEducationalConferenceat Lahorein DecemberI898. Aboutgoo peopleattendedand the Conferenceshoweda new spiritof enterprise Morison proposed that a Muslim universityshould be founded,observingthat it would reallybe no more than an expanded version of Aligarh College. Beck reminded the audience that the universitywould be the Indian MuslimsSpassportto office. BadruddinTyabji of Bombay,Sir Syed's old-political antagonist, subscribedRs 2,000 to the university,and, from Calcutta,Syed Amir Ali pledged his support.l5A number of young English-educated Muslimsalso spokeup. Among them was ZiauddinAhmad, assistant professorof mathematicsat Aligarh,who for Efty years was to be a dominantfigureon the staS. ZiauddinwantedAligarhto be a strictly residentialuniversity,with its studentsunderthe moraltutelageof the professors.Only studelltslivingin collegewouldbe eligiblefor degrees, whichwouldnot onlyguaranteeintellectualattainments,butsignifythe qualitiesof a gentleman.The universitywould enableits graduatesto competesuccessfully with otherIndians and to win politicalleadership in the Muslimcommunity.The universityshouldhave the power to afliliate colleges establishedon the Aligarh model, such as the new IslamiaCollegein Lahore.l6 Beckhad his own ideasfor a Muslimuniversity.Forsomeyearspast, he had beendisenchanted withAllahabaduniversity,anexaminingbody whichaffiliatedscatteredcolleges,all of which'arecopiesof each other'. He argued that Aligarh should become a 'specializing'institution 14 RafiuddinAhmad, 'The ProposedMuslimUniversityin India', TheJ>ineteenth Century, XLIV (I898), 9Io-2I. Rafiuddinenvisagedcolleges all over the Muslim world becomingaffiliatedto Aligarh,and he saw the projectas a Britishcounterto Russia's flirtationwith Islam. Ibid. The article was reprintedin MAOCM,and Mohsinul-Mulkread an Urdu translationof it to the EducationalGonferenceat Lahore in DecemberI898. 15 IntikhabReportMuhammadan Educational Conference darbabMujawazaA@uhammadanUniuersity (Agra, I899). 16 Ibid.,ppv 72-89*

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with emphasison English, Arabic, history, and mathematics.He wanted to get away from the London Universitymodel and move towardssomethingmoreon the residentialand teachinglinesof Oxford and Cambridge.Beckcriticizedthe universityexaminationsfor being excessivelyacademic,which tended to encouragecrammingschools ratherthan character-building institutionssuchas Aligarh.l7In March I899, afterthe LahoreConference,Beckpresenteda 'roughsketch'of a Muslimuniversitybasedon an expandedAligarhcollege. His scheme made no mention of afliliation.At this time the college had three Britishprofessorsand six Indians.l8Beck proposedto add five more Britishlecturers,including'a distinguishedWesternOrientalist',and three new posts for Indians in Muslimhistory,Urdu literature,and natural sciencesfor art students.Such a staS, Beck argued, would enableAligarhto give its own B.A. degreeand to turn the collegeinto 'the nucleusof a learnedsociety'.Beck wanted to allow the teachers time for researchand he also proposedthe creationof four research fellowships.His universitywould begin life as an independentarts college: 'Our Universityis intendedto give a liberaleducationto the upperand middleclassesof Mahomedans,as well as to train scholars. And our scholarswould to begin with devote themselvesto history, economics,and philology. . . ratherthan to NaturalScience.'In the distant future a science departmentwould be added, followed by schoolsof medicine,engineeringand agriculture.To raise money for his scheme,Beckproposedan all-Indiancampaignto collectdonations large and small. Meetingswould be held all over the countryon the anniversaryof Sir Syed'sdeath. Targetswould be set for every town and district, startingwith those in Punjab and the North-Western Provinces,and extendinglater to the rest of India. Even if such a campaigndid not bringin large donations,'it will tend to perfectour organization,and will spreadabroad an interestin the College and makeit a truly nationalinstitution'.l9 In the face of more grandioseschemes, Beck injected a note of modestyinto the discussion.His friend, Sir Arthur Strachey, Chief Justice of the AllahabadHigh Court, did likewisewhen he told a fund-raisingmeetingbluntlythat the point was to buildup the college at Aligarh,not to worryabout far-offuniversityschemes.20 But many 17 T. Beck,'The AllahabadUniversity',MAOCM,III, 4 (I April I896), I49; III, 6 ( I June I 896), 236; 'Principal'sReport, I 898-99', MAOCMand AIG,New Series VII, I I (I5 July I899)n 5 18 One post had been vacatedby T. W. Arnoldduringthe financialcrisis. 19Beck, 'The MahomedanUniversity',MAOCM,VII, 3 (March I899), 4I-8. 20 MAOCM,VIII, 4 (AprilI899)n 74

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Muslimsupportersof the movementhad somethingmoreambitiousin mind. Different motives in the movement had inspired different designs for the university.As long as the dominant theme was to bolsterthe collegeat Aligarhby castingthe net widerfor moremoney and more students,it seemedenough to talk about Aligarh'sspecial role in higher education for Muslims. Whereas the Educational Conferencestressed the importance of religious education) Beck emphasizedthe developmentof a communityof scholars,capableboth of transmittingEuropeanlearning and of preservingCthepeculiar culture of Islam'.2l But already a different theme was emerging: the idea of a Muslimuniversitywith a networkof ailiated collegesin India)and perhapsevenoutsideit. Thisimpliedthe developmentof an autonomoussystemof educationcutting acrossthe systemestablished by the British.In time this would raise the all-importantissue of the university'srelationshipto the raj. While thesediscussionswere going on, the Sir Syed MemorialFund made slow progress.By the end of its second year it had received pledgesfor only about Rs I25,000. Delegations,with Mohsinul-Mulk usually acting as orator, toured major cities, and Aligarh old boys canvassedsubscriptions.Effortswere mXade to establishlocal agencies, but mostwere ephemeral.In the United Provinces,twenty-sixdistricts were representedon the pledge list, but twenty-fiveof them together did not equal Aligarh'smodest contributionof Rs 2s,000. Among individual benefactors,the Nawab of Rampur remained the most generouspatronwith a pledgeof Rs 50,000.Punjabpromisedlessthan Rs 2s,000 with nearly half coming from Lahore. A trickle of subscriptionscamefromthe NorthWestFrontier,Bengal,and the Central Provinces.Moreover,only a small fractionof the money promised had actuallybeen collected.The goal of ten lakhs was far off.22But with the fund the college debts could be paid oS, and Sir Syed's original building programmecould be completed. Meanwhile, the enrolmentof the college and school made good progress:in I9OI it reached the I 895 level of 560 students, and by I 9QS there were over 700 students,four-fifthsof them from Punjab and the United Provinces.23

Under the leadershipof Mohsin ul-Mulk the EducationalC:on'Principal'sReport, I898-99', MAOCMand AIG,iNewSeriesVII, I I (I5 July 5 22 Sir Syed MemorialFund Gollections(I899-I900) File, AA; MAOCM,IX, 4 (April I 90 I ) n 7-8 23 Mohsin ul-Mulk, SNote on theProgressof the M A-O CollegeAligarh duringthe yearsI 899-I903. . . (Aligarh, I 903). 21

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ferenceand the universitymovementbeganto enlistwidersupport.In DecemberI899, the conferencemovedout of upperIndia and met in Calcuttaunder the presidencyof Amir Ali. The Sir Syed memorial The I9OI sessionof the conferencetook fundstarteda Bengalbranch.24 place in Madras.The followingyear, the Aga Khan presidedover the was held in Bombay meeting in Delhi, and in I903 the C:onference under BadruddinTyabji. Wider participation,however,also meant a greatervarietyof ideas about the university;if Aligarhwas to ask for moneyfromsuchfar-offplaces,it had to offersomethingin return. To scoresof meetingsMohsinul-Mulkand othersheld out the image of Aligarhas the best hope of the Indian Muslims, the restorerof past greatness.The universitywas becominga symbolof a reviving Islam. In Aligarh itself a new conflict was brewing. Mohsin ul-Mulk, honorarysecretaryof the college, had been regardedas the political spokesmanfor Muslims.But he found his influence much reduced afterthe UP governmentpressuredhim to disengagefrom a campaign against the recognitionof Hindi as a judicial language along with Urdu.25Moreover,a new group of Englishmenwho had not known Sir Syed were now teaching at Aligarh. When complaintsabout Britishmeddlingin the college managementwere raised again, the conduct of these newcomers, who repudiated the Beck-ArnoldMorisonpolicyof 'sympathy'in the relationsbetweenEnglishmenand Indiansat Aligarh,made mattersworse.The students,in turn, were reportedto be more aggressiveand less well-mannered;it was even In confrontations said that some were sympatheticto C:ongress.26 sometimescall on could former the staS and the students betweenthe allies among the trusteesand old boys. The spokesmanfor thosewho opposed any increase in British authority at Aligarh was Nawab Viqar ul-Mulk, a former Hyderabadofficial, less wordy but more tough-mindedthan his colleague Mohsin. Viqar, however, refused to lead an opposition'party' because in principle he was opposed to factions.27In practice there was as yet no faction for him to lead. Anotherelementat Aligarhwasthe old boys,who sinceOctoberI 899 had an associationof their own. The chief organizersof the Old Boys VIII, 2 ( I 5 January I 900), 3I-7. 24 MAOCM, 25S.

K. Bhatnagar,Historyof theMA-O CollegeAligarh(Aligarh, I 969), pp.

I4I,

I 77-8

at AligarhM A-OCollege,MarchI907 of Enquiry of theCommittee Report 26 Confidential ReportI907) (Allahabad,I907), pp. 4-I4. (Enquiry (Aligarh, I925), pp. 432-42. 27 MahomedAmin Zuberi, Viqar-i-Hayat

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Associationbelongedto Aftab Ahmad Khans group. Startingas an annualdinner,the associationaimedat recruitingAligarhgraduatesas activeworkersforthe college,eachdonatingI per cent of his incometo its support.At Srstfewpeoplewerewillingto pay thisamount.In I904, when Aftab himselfbecamesecretary,there were only fifty-sixactive membersout of some 3,ooo survivingold- boys of the school and college.28In I903, the associationgained the right to elect three representativesto Aligarh'sboard of trustees,still dominatedby the older generation,giving it for the firsttime a say in the management of the college.29 AftabAhmadKhan was one of the principalfiguresin the Aligarh universitymovement.Educatedat the M A-O Schoolandat Cambridge and the Inns of C:ourt,he had, as a studentat Aligarh,organizedthe 'Duty Society', to raise funds for the college by sendingout student delegationsto 'beg' duringtheir vacations.At Cambridgehe decided that Aligarhshouldbe the centreof his lifes work.As a trusteeand a member of the board of management,he was closely involved in collegeadministration.Throughthe MemorialFund, the Educational Conference,and the Old Boys Association,he worked to spread Aligarh'sinfluence --andhis own. But Aftab'sgroupwas still too young and too smallto assertits leadership.30 The universityproposal,despiteits potentiaiityfor dispute,had not yet affectedAligarh'sinternalpolitics.This was becauseits realization was still distant. Everyoneat Aligarh was agreed that the college should be strengthened.It was over the issuesof autonomyand the powerto affiliateothercollegesthat, later,groupscontendingforpower were to divide. The government brought these issues in-to the open. Curzon,shortlyafterhe arrivedin India as viceroy,announcedhis approvalof a Muslim universityon conditionthat it was merely a continuationof the Aligarh college.3lBut his governmentwas also reconsideringits general policies toward university education in India whichwas regardedas intellectuallyunsuccessfuland politically dangerous.In January I902, Curzonformedan Indian Universities 28AligarhMonthly (AM) (Aligarh,English),III, 2 (FebruaryI905), 74. The lSgure 3,ooo is an estimatebasedon TufailAhmad,Muhammadan CollegeDirectory (Badaun, I 9 I 4), PartsI and II. 29 Rules andRegulationsfor theAppointment of theErustees of theMA-OCollege, Aligarh.. . [as] amended . . . u, to . . . I907 (Aligarh,n.d.), pp. 6-7. 30 Habibullah Khan, Hayat-e-Aftab, pp. 7-53; Aftab Ahmad Khan Ahmadi, Diary I892-93 (MS), AA. 31 MAOCM,VII, 4 (April I899), 80.

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Commission.32 Its reportcalled on the governmentto maintainhigh standardsby centralizingand not dissipatingits educationaleffiorts. More universitiesmeant lower standardsand less governmentsupervision.Thereshouldbe no new Indianuniversitiesbeyondthe existing five, which shouldcontinueas large affiliatinginstitutions33 but with teaching functions.All this would give governmentmore power to intervenein universityaSairs,to enforcestudentdiscipline,to deSne the territoriallimits of a university,and to ensurethe uniformityof fees and curriculum.34 Referringto the proposedMuslim university, the reporturgedthat 'the undenominational characterof the Universities'be maintained.Communalcompetitionshouldbe keptout of the universities.Furthermore,a Muslim university,with the power to affiliatecolleges,would challengethe territorialjurisdictionof the five universities,upon which the governmentwas stakingits policy. The commission'sreportwas thuscompletelyunsympatheticto the Muslim universityproposal,which in any case, the commissionfelt, did not have enough popular support or financial backing to make it viable.35 The commission'sverdictput the universitycampaignon the rocks. Aligarhwas not yet ready to oppose the government;it had always couchedits claimsto specialconsiderationin extravagantexpressions of loyaltyto the raj. The institutionandits beneficiaries weredependent on governmentpatronage.Aligarhhad managedto achievea special relationshipwith governmentas the spokesmanof Muslim needs in general,and it did not want to compromisethis relationsllip.But after this setbackto the universityidea which had been a valuableprop to the college, enrolmentsbegan to slip again.36Thereforean attempt was madeto keepthe universityschemealive,despitethe government's 32 The ehairmanof the eommission,Thomas Raleigh, besides being vice-ehancellor of Caleutta universityand the legal member of the vieeroy'seouneil, was a cousin of Beek'swidow. Another memberof the commissionwas Syed Efusain Bilgrami (lElawabImad ul-Mulk), who had been closely associatedwith Aligarh from the start. The commissionheard evideneeat Aligarh,ineludinga long testimonyfromMohsinul-Mulk.Mohsin'spaper,publishedas an Urdu pamphletTehrfri Shahadat Na7wab MoAsinul-Mulk. . . ki ru b'ruUniversity Commission ke (Agra I902) virtuallyignoredthe Muslimuniversitysehemes. 33 This was in spite of the faet that in Englandthe affiliatingsystemof London universitywas abolishedin I903. 34 Report of theIndianUniversities Commissionn I902 (Simla, I902); Syed iI!;urullah and J. P. Naik Historyof Education in India(Bombay,I943), pp. 239-54; and Eric Ashby, Universities: British,Indian,andAfrican(London,I966), pp. 73-83. 35 Universities Commission Report,p. 8; see also H. W. Orange,Progress of Education in India,I902-07 (Caleutta,I 909), pp. 5-7. 36 For enrolmentstatisticssee Bhatnagar,History of theMA-O College,p. I86.

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verdict.TheodoreMorison,who hadbeenassociatedwith the university movementfromthe beginning,tookup the task.In an astutearticlefor fAeJVational Reviewof I898 he had commentedon the politicalimplications of the scheme, and argued that Muslimswere separatefrom Hindus,but were not a 'nation'.Like the Jews, they were a qaum,a peopleidentifiedby religionratherthan homeland,and, like theJews, Muslimswere beginningto realize the value of united action. The Britishwould do well to encouragethis unity, and a universitywould be a usefulfocusfor Muslimpoliticaldevelopment.37 Despitethe commission'srecommendations, Morisoncontinuedto pressfor a Muslim university.38But his strategy was to call on Muslims to build up Aligarh to the level of a university.Even if governmentopposition persisted,Muslimswould in practice have the thing itself, 'Charter or no Charter'.39 So there was no reason for people to stop giving money to Aligarh. Early in I9Q4, Morisonproposeda scheme calculated to elicit supportfrom more orthodoxMuslimsand to be the corner-stoneof his 'Charteror no C:harter'university.He proposed the establishmentof a schoolof advancedArabicstudiesat Aligarh.40 Morisonarguedthat Aligarhwas the properplace for such an effort, not Deoband or the Nadwat ul-Ulama of Lucknowwhich he dismissedas 'the dwindlingadherentsof a lost cause'.Aligarhwas 'progressive',andwas a movementfromwhich'all enlightenedand modern Musalmansdraw their inspiration'.The initial cost was estimatedat one lakh for books and buildings,and for this he expectedsupport 37 TheodoreMorison,'A MahomedanUniversity', fhe J%atiorlal Review,XXXII 898-99), 243-8. 38 He arguedthat thereshouldbe Hindu, Muslimand Parsiuniversities in India, since such institutionswould combat the irreligionprevalent amongst westerneducated Indians, and would be likely to attract private Indian philanthropy.T. Morison,Historyof theM A-OCollege, Aligarh(Allahabad,I903), pp. 30-3. However, as a memberof the legislativecouncil,Morisonofferedno oppositionto the Universities Act of I904, which embodiedthe recommendationsof Curzon'sUniversities Commission.AM, II, 4 (AprilI904), 27-3I. 39 AM, III, I (JanuaryI905), 7. 40 In I903, the distinguishedPersianscholar,E. Denison Ross, principalof the Calcuttamadrasa,visitedAligarhand helpedMorisonto workout the scheme.Ross took the line that the Britishshouldpatronizean 'intellectualrevival'of Muslimsby encouragingthe studyof Arabic.The schemecalledfor a staS consistingof Ross,two Egyptiansfrom al-Azhar,two Persians,three Indian maulvis, and six fellowships tenable for five to seven years. Only graduateswould be taught, and they would ultimatelyfind posts in variousIndian universitiesand the Britishconsulatesand embassiesin the Arabic-speakingworld. English officialscould use the school to learn Arabic, and the institutionwould maintain an Arabic library and publish scholarlyeditionsof Arabictexts.Rossto Miller,and Morisonto Miller,JanuaryI 904, Educ SeptemberI904, 275/5, Uttar PradeshSecretariatRecords,Lucknow(UPS). (I

I56

GAIL MINAULT AND DAVID LELYVELD

from the Governmentof India.41Morison'sschememet with a sharp rejectionon the part of some of Aligarh'sown graduates.A hue and cry was raisedthat Morisonand his Britishassociateswere trying to turn Aligarhinto an Arabic madrasa.InvokingSir Syed's memory, Syed Riza Ali, a recentgraduate,wrotea strongletterto TheStatesman totally rejecting the scheme. What Muslims needed was practical educationand materialprosperity,not archaic scholarship.Culture had a place when 'power, riches and prosperity'were assured,but Muslimsweretoo poorforsuchluxuries.If theywanteda 'renaissance', they shouldfind it in Europeanculture,in Shakespeare,Bacon, and Locke.42Riza Ali's opinion was echoed by Aftab Ahmad Khan.43 In the Union Club,studentsvoted theirdisapprovalof the proposal.44 The governmentdid not like Morison'sscheme either. Sir James La Touche, lieutenant-governor of the United Provinces,thought it smackedof revivalism:'If thereis a revivalit mustbe reactionary,and in hostilityto the west.' So he was preparedto appoint a European professorof Arabic,but that was all.45Simla agreedwith La Touche and feared that Morison'sproposed university 'might become a focus of political intrigue'.46The Arabic scheme was reduced to hiring one European professorand one Indian assistantprofessor subsidizedin part by the governmentand in part by some wealthy benefactors,notablythe Aga Khan and the Raja of Jehangirabad.A specialselectioncommitteein Europerecruiteda distinguishedGerman scholar.47To balance the Arabic programme,a Bachelorof Science coursewas startedin I906 with endowmentfromthe Old BoysAssociation and the Raja of Mahmudabad. But this broughtthe Muslim universityno closer, and its former supportersgrew sceptical. Sajjad Hyder, a distinguishedAligarh graduate,arguedthat Muslimshad got theirprioritieswrongin making so much of the universityproposal; he claimed there were more importanttasksof educationaland socialreformat hand.48Badruddin Tyabji,speakingas presidentof the I903 MuhammadanEducational 41 Ibid. 42 TheStatesman, 26 JanuaryI904, in SyedRiza Ali, Essays onMoslemQuestions (Allahabad, I9I2), pp. 25-32. 43 Habibullah Khan,Hayat-e-Aftab, pp. 54-8. 44 SyedRizaAli, A'mal J\fama (Delhi,I943), pp. I74-5. 45 Memorandum by La Touche,6 FebruaryI904, EducSeptemberI904, 275/5, UPS. 46 H. H. Risleyto La Touche,I4 MayI904, (demi-official), ibid. 47 Noteby Harcourt Butler,I2 MarchI906, EducAprilI906, 275/5, UPS. 4g SajjadHyder,'ShouldAll Reform Waitfor a MuslimUniversity?', AM, I, g (September I 903), I-6.

CAMPAIGN

FOR

A MUSLIM

UNIVERSITY,

I

898-I

92°

I57

Conference,describedthe plansfor a universityas premature.Muslims should first lay a strong foundationof local Muslim schools and colleges which, initially at least, could be affiliatedto the existing government universities.49Akbar Hydari, Tyabji's nephew, spoke out againstthe wholeidea of a Muslimuniversity.50 Hydariarguedthat for secularadvancementMuslimswould be better off at the existing universities.Serious theological training was adequately provided in existing madrasas.Moreover,it would be foolhardyto bring the doctrinesof diffierentMuslimsectsinto open rivalryat one centre.51 At a regionalmeetingof the EducationalConferencein Ahmadabad in October I904, Mahomed Ali, younger brother of Shaukat Ali, replied to Hydari in an eloquent restatementof the Beck-Morison concept of a Muslim university.52 He called upon his experienceat Aligarhand Oxfordto arguefor 'the expansionof Aligarh'.Mahomed Ali projecteda bold view of India as a 'federationof religions';only if l\Iuslims and Hindus were allowed to cultivate their distinctive culturaltraditionscould they live togetheramicably.Thereforeboth the Muslimuniversityat Aligarhand the Hindu universityat Benares, proposedearlierin the yearby PanditMadanMohanMalaviya,should be encouraged.Professing'no concern with politics, and certainly no desireto confoundit with education',MahomedAli none the less warned that governmenteducationalpolicy must respond to the wishes of the people. The idea of a Muslim universityhad been generatedby a popularmovement:'Aligarhis the people'sveryown.'53 Mahomed Ali's maiden speech, modelled on the style of Burke and with quotationsfrom Latin, Arabic,Persian,Urdu, and English literature,proved the swan song of the first phase of the Muslim universitymovement.A few monthslater,in FebruaryI905, Theodore Morisonleft Aligarhfor a new careerin England.For five yearsafter his departurelittle was heard of the Muslimuniversityexcept for an occasionalresolutionof the MuhammadanEducationalConference. The I904 UniversitiesAct closedthe questionfor the time being, and the universityproposalwas becomingless necessaryas a publicity device for the college. After a reversalin I905, the enrolmentmade 7Che Daze)n Magazzne, AugustI 9 I I, pp. 8g-go. soMohsinul-Mulkdid not allowhim to deliverhis speechat the I903 Educational Conference)but he was able to publishit in a Britishperiodical.MahomedAli 7Che Proposed Mohamedan Um7verszty (Bombay,I904), p. 2. 51 AkbarHydari, SAMahomedanUniversityfor India', EastandWest,30 August I 904, pp. 765-73 52 ;. ., a MohamedanUniversityonly means a larger Aligarh', MahomedAli told the Conference. 53 MahomedAli, TheProposed Mohamedan Universzty. 49

I58

GAIL MINAULT AND DAVID LELYVELD

impressiveadvances.54 Collectionsfor the Sir Syed MemorialFund, on the otherhand,camealmostto a halt.55 While Muslimswere organizinga delegationto the viceroy,setting up the League and establishingits head-quartersat Aligarh,56the college itself was rent with factions.The old frictionbetweentlle less sympatheticEnglish professorsand the more self-assertivestudents culminatedin a widely publicizedstudentstrikein FebruaryIg07.57 Later that year, after the death of Mohsin ul-Mulk,Viqar ul-Mulk became honorarysecretaryand began to reassertthe powersof that position in the managementof the college. Interveningin matters of administration,schedules,and discipline,Viqar came into open conflict with the staS, and especially with Archbold, Morison's successoras principal.The stafffoughtbackin I909 by petitioningthe lieutenant-governor, SirJohnHewett,forthe redressof theirgriesrances. Hewett openly intervened)bringingon himselfa loud chorusof condemnationfrom public meetings and Muslim newspapers.He was forcedto retreat,Archboldresigned,and powerin the collegebecame open to competition.58 The new generationof Aligarhold boyswas now readyto compete. In the past the powerof the Britishstaff backedby government,and the weaknessor apathy of the older generationwho dominatedthe seventy-oneman boardof trusteeshad blockedtheir aspirations.Now only the board stood in the way.59The boardaestablishedin I889) was an all-Muslim3self-electingbody, and each member enjoyed lifetime tenure. The only exceptionswere the three representatives of the Old BoysAssociation.60 Studentenrolmentin the college and schoolwas 66I in I905, 8I6 in I906, and in I9I0. Bhatnagar5 Historyof theMA-O College, pp. 244, 325. 55 By the end of I9I0, only aboutRs 270,ooohad been collected,of whichaboutRs I45,000 were in hand, the rest having been spent in paying the college debts and completingthe collegebuildings.Governmenthad made large grantsfor the Arabic and sciencedepartments,but even so, the total fund was less than half the ten lakhs set as a goal in I8g8.J. H. Towle (Principal),'AnnualReport, I9I0-I9IIS, MA-O College,Aligarh,Calendar, I9II-I2, p. 3. 56 The Simla delegationof I906 was led by the Aga Khan and Mohsinul-Mulk; its addresswas draftedby SyedHusainBilgrami;AftabAhmadKhan and Archbold, Aligarh'sprincipal,acted as intermediaries.See 'SimlaDelegation,I906 file', AA. 57 Enquzry ReportI907, pp. 4-I4. 58 AIS, New SeriesIX, 34 (23 August I909), I-I9. 59 DuringMohsinul-Mulk'stenuretherewas a continuouscriticismof the trustees for not assertingthemselves. 60 When the boardof trusteeswas increasedto I 20 in I909, the Old BoysAssociation requestedthe right to send fifteenrepresentatives;they got five. AM, VII, 5 (May I909), 9. 54

955

CAMPAIGN

FOR

A MUSLIM

UNIVERSITY,

I 898-I

920

I59

The main critic of the Board was MahomedAli, whose brother, Shaukat,was a leadinglight amongAligarhold boys.A trusteeand an active participantin all Aligarh activities,Shaukatdevoted most of his freetime to the college,despitethe fact that his governmentservice forcedhimto live at somedistancefromAligarh.Restlessandambitious, Mahomedwas a moreformidablecritic. Afterstudyingat Oxford,he returnedto Aligarhin searchof a job.61In the eventhe joined government servicein Baroda.In I904, the year of his Ahmadabadspeech, he wrote his firstcritiqueof the college administrationfor the Lahore Observer, and soon becamethe bFte noireof the EnglishstaS as a result of his criticalarticlesand his popularityamongthe students.62 In I905 a factionaldisputedevelopedwithin the Old BoysAssociation between the Ali brothersand the group associatedwith Aftab Ahmad Khan. Under Aftab the associationhad made rapidprogress. Overtwo hundredold boysweresendingin their I per cent assessment, enabling the associationto pay the salaryof Aligarh'snew science professor.63 In I905 Aftab had to vacate his post as secretaryof the Old Boysbecauseof somelegal workin Hyderabad,and he delegated it to his closefriend,Mir WilayatHusain,secondmasterof the Aligarh School.At the time, ShaukatAli wasjoint-secretaryof the association and felt entitledto the post; but sincetherewere no clearrules,Aftab decreedthat Shaukatwas disqualified,becausehe was not a residentat Aligarh.64At the EducationalConferencelater that year, Shaukat allegedly assaultedone of Aftab'sclose friends,ShaikhAbdullah,the distinguishedpioneerin Muslimfemaleeducation.In the scandalthat followed,Shaukatwasforcedto resignhis positionas a trustee.65 The Old BoysAssociationrapidlydividedinto two clearlydefined parties, 'Aftab & Co' and the Ali brothers.In I 907 Shaukat and MahomedAli organizedan Old Boys Reform League to press the claims of non-residentsof Aligarh to become secretary,to exclude membersof the collegestaFfromall officialpositionsin the association and to driveout Aftab'sruling'clique'.In the followingSve yearsall thesegoalswere achieved.Duringthe sameperiodmembershipof the associationrosefrom265to I o87.Aftab'sgroupwithdrew,and ensconced themselvesin the MuhammadanEducationalConference.Shaukat 61 S. M. Ikram, Modern Muslim India and the Birth of Pakistan (Lahore, I966), p. I so. 62 Enquiry

Aligarh

Ruidad University.

Committee

p. Old

I7; Boys

cf.

63 AM

Tahqiqat

I9I7),

(Aligarh,

6s Ibid.,

I907.

Report

64 Report

Abdul

Association

pp.

(Urdu

muta'aliq

Section),

b'Old

Boys

IV,

I (January

Association

I906),

Madrasat

34-4I. ul-'Ulum

I6-I7. Majid (OBA),

Khwaja,

I9I8,

'Salana

p.

52.

Repott Old

. . . Old Boys

Lodge,

Boys

Association',

Aligarh

Muslim

GAIL MINAULT AND DAVID LELYVELD

I60

Ali finally became secretary of the Old Boys Association in I9I2.66

The two partiesseemed distinct. Aftab had once flirted with the Congress.67 The Ali brothers,on the other hand, tended to speak disparaginglyof such politicalactivity. In style, Aftab made a point of adoptingdistinctivemodernMuslimdress Turkishcoat and fezwhilethe Ali brotherswerenotedfortheirfashionableEnglishclothes.6s But in the courseof their rivalrythey virtuallyexchangedpositions. Ideologicallythere was little real diffierencebetweenthe two groups. In the matter of control of the Aligarh college, both Aftab and the Ali brotherswere staunchdefendersof the authorityof the board of trusteesas representatives of the Muslimcommunity;both groups were viewed with suspicion by British authorities.69In the I 907 strike and the I909 trustee-staffdispute, Aftab vied with the Ali brothersas spokesmanfor the Muslimposition,and it was Aftabwho carriedthe day againstArchboldand Hewett.70In fact, the only real differencebetweenthe two groupswas that Aftabwas on the spot and the Ali brotherswere not. But issues of principlewere not long in bolsteringthe factionaldisputeamongthe old boys.In I907 Mahomed Ali put forwarda schemeto abolishlife membershipon the boardof trusteesand insteadto elect representatives for five-yearterms.7lThis effiortto establisha voting constituencyfor the board was similarin aim to the Old Boys ReformLeague.The Ali brotherswere playing politicsin earnest.To begin with, their effiortswere directedtowards capturingpower at Aligarh, but in time the momentumof their ambitionswas to carrythem muchfurther. The campaign revived, Early in

I9 I

O

I9I0-I2

there were rerlewedefforts to establishthe Muslim

66 RuidadOBA, I908-I

2, ibid. 67 Aftab Ahmad Khan Ahmadi, Diary, 27 68 Shaukat Ali, 'The late Mr Beck and his

November I893, AA. Pupils', AM, III, I0 (December

I905),

cf. Habibullah Khan, Hayat-e-Aftab, p. 52. 69Hewett to Butler, 3 June I9II, Home Educ A August I9II, I-2, National Archives of India, New Delhi (NAI). 70 AIG,New Series IX, 34 (23 August I909), I8-I9. 71 The Old Boys Association would elect thirty-lSveout of the seventy-lSvemembers. Another thirty would be elected by the old trustees and the rest would be sent by the Educational Conference, the Muslim League, and regional Muslim organizations of Punjab,Bengal, Bombay, and Madras. 'A New Scheme for the Selection of Trustees for the M A-O College, Aligarh', 22 October I907, Mahomed Ali Papers, Jamia Milla Islamia, lNew Delhi (MAP). I0;

CAMPAIGN FOR A MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

I898-I

920

I6I

university.The Aga Khan spokeabout it when he visitedAligarhin January. Viqar ul-Mulk, Mahomed Ali, and Shaikh Abdullah all tried to give the schemenew life.72At the same time, Annie Besant was publicizingher projectfor 'A Universityfor India' to include all religionsand regions,free from governmentpatronage.In January I9IO she wrote to Viqar ul-Mulk, calling for Aligarh support and claimingthat Morisonand AkbarHydari were sympathetic.Despite her insistencethatherproposalwouldnot standin the way of a Muslim university,Aligarhwould have nothingto do with it.73 MrsBesant'splan foran autonomousnationaluniversitywas given a less revolutionaryappearanceby being linkedwith the appeal to the coming CoronationDurbar. The King-Emperorhimself would be askedto lay the corner-stoneof the new university.l:5hisstruckthe Aga Khan as a splendididea, and he decided to appropriateit for the Muslim university movement. At the MuhammadanEducational Conferenceat Nagpurin December,the Aga Khan issueda 'now or never) appeal, and threw himself into a whirlwind campaign far surpassingthe effiortsof the previoustwelveyears.The Syed Memorial Fund Committeewas replacedby a Muslim UniversityFoundation Committeeunder the presidencyof the Aga Khan. Viqar ul-Mulk was the secretaryat head-quartersin Aligarh; there was a wide networkof provincialand local committees.ChoosingShaukatAli to accompanyhim, the Aga Khan touredIndia collectingfunds for the university.74 Travellingin a specialrailwaycarriage,the Aga Khan and Shaukat Ali were reportedenthusiasticallyin the Urdu press whereverthey went. Their speechesrepeatedlystressedthat the Muslim university 72 AIG,New SeriesX, 4 (26January I9IO), 3, IO-I I; X, 23 (IsJune I9IO)) 6; X, 22 (8 May I9IO)n 3-4* 73 Besant to Viqar ul-Mulk, 4 January I9IO; Viqar to Besant, I March I9IO, Educ May I 9 I I, I 4. UPS. Viqar ul-Mulksent copiesof this correspondenceto the UP government. 74Towle, 'Annual Report, I9IO-II', pp. 3-5. The fanfareof this campaign in turn inspiredPandit Madan Mohan Malviya to join hands with Mrs Besant and revivehis old schemefor a Hindu university,promisingto doubleor triplewhatever the Muslimscollected.Note by H. V. Lovett, I 5 April I 9 I I, Educ May I 9 I I, I 4, UPS. Relationsbetween the Hindu and Muslimuniversitymovementswere quite cordial, though they had a friendlyrivalry over the successof their fund-raising drives.The Aga Khan gave a handsomedonationto the Hindu university,which was reciprocatedby the Maharajaof Darbhanga,presidentof the Hindu University SOGiety.See List of Donors in: sMuslimUniversityRegulationsCommitteeFile' (MURC), AA; and Collegian, III (I9I3), p. 292. For the Hindu UniversityMovement, see V. A. Sundaram(ed.), BenaresHinduUniversity, I905 to I9,35 (Benares, I 936)

,

GAIL MINAULT AND DAVID LELYVELD

I62

would affiliatecolleges on the Aligarh model all over India.75This promise helped to raise money, since felt that their moneywould be used Muslims from other regions for their own direct benefit,not merelysiphonedoS to one collegein the UP. Their successwas extraordinary.In five monthsthey received pledgesfor Rs 2,250,000 and actually collectednearly two and a half lakhs. By August I9II the amount pledged was twenty-fivelakhs; the amount collected was nearlyfour lakhs.76 The revived campaign came at an collegewhichwassufferingyet againfromopportune moment for the the clashbetweenthe trustees and staffin I909 and furtherinternal controversiesof I9I0. The latest disputewas betweenAftab Ahmad Khan and Viqar ul-Mulk,which resultedin their temporaryresignation from the governing bodies ofthe college.77But the mainspring of the universitymovementwas nolongerhousedin Aligarh;it had takenon a life of its own. At the helm of the movementwas the Aga Khan, whoseconnexion withAligarhhadup tillthenbeen intermittentandpurelyfinancial.78 To theAga Khan, supportof Muslim education and political causes was a matter of noblesseoblige.As spiritual sectthe Aga Khan was fabulously leader of the Ismaili Khoja wealthy, and he looked upon political leadershipas his due. His campaignfor the Muslimuniversity wasa two-yearwonder.He droppedit as soon as the going got rough. Significantly, his autobiography datesthe inaugurationof the university inI 9 I 2 insteadof I 920.79 Much of the attractionof the renewed campaignwas the lavishness 75 The

Aga

network

of

College

Khan

told

. . . Sind

76 Towle,

p.

Boys

Aftab

arrogant

AftabAhmad Bhatnagar,

was

of

of

the

M

A-O

the

Aga

race

grant.

In at

the

next

the

in

college')

Khan:

Khat

will

the

be

to

present 27

have

a

Aligarh

I9I 2>

January

Europe.

in

with

now in

the in

Ali

turn

Kitabat

'Asr-iaccused

withdrew Old

disputes,

brothers

and

other

Aftab

Honorable

(Aligarh,

from

Boy

rebuked

ma-bin

Bahadur

journal, Meerut,

for

his

Sahibzada

I9I0);

see

also

255-6.

visited

had

Urdu

neutral

who

o

an career Aftab

remain

ul-Mulk

pp.

had

edited

battles

Aligarh

spoken

Muhammadan of

of

Comrade

political

Viqar,

College,

he

who a

to

his

Eiqar

the

step

lines

programme.

tried

criticizing

I902

donation Aga

college

Khan

courses

a handsome of

a

Boy on

power. Nawab

he returned

797Che Memoirs

get

Old

who

by

o

man,

the

to

. . the

on

I ', p. 5.

support

Sahib

address

to

the

Viqar,

annual in his presidential

gave

'.

India

embarking

monopolize

History

Ahmad an

when he

then

publicly

Shan

first

an

unstinting

to

a young

the

us-Saqlain,

reacted

effiorts

Karachi:

over

I 9 I 0-I

Association.

give

of

Report,

and

rivals. Aftab

78As

one

maladministration

the Old

in all

329.

Ghulam

jtadid (Meerut),

did not

be

Annual

77 Khwaja

audience

Colleges

will

Comrade Selections,

Aftab of

an

Mohamedan

in

in

I896,

favour

of

Educational His

to

Morison's

World

Enough

second

Time

promised

Muslim

to

studies (London,

Aligarh

Syed

university

Conference,

visit

Arabic and

and a

but

then

in

I904,

was

scheme.

I954),

p.

IR0.

CAMPAIGN

FOR

A MUSLIM

UNIVERSITY,

I

898-I 920

I63

with which it was conducted.At Lucknow,the Aga Khan was the guest of the Raja of Mahmudabad,anotheroccasionalbenefactorof AligarhCollege.The highlightof the visit was a sumptuousbanquet given by the Raja at the QaisarBagh Baradari,a weddingcake of a buildingsituatedin the greatcourtyardof the old Nawabipalace.The Raja outdid his legendaryhospitalityby invitingnot only dignitaries, but people fromall walksof life, and servingbirianis,pulaos,kababs, curries,sweetsand pan fit for a Mughal Emperor.For the occasion, the Aga Khanhad discardedhis SavileRow suit andput on traditional Irani dress. The followingday, a meeting was held to collect subscriptionsfor the UniversityFund. Mahmudabadpledged a lakh of rupees,Jehangirabadanotherlakh,and Pirpurhalfa lakh.Betweenthe three of them they matchedthe entiresum collectedfor the Sir Syed MemorialFundduringthe past twelveyears.80 Followingthe Aga Khan'sexample,A/Iahmudabad hireda trainand proceededto tour the Punjab and Sind with Viqar ul-Mulk, Aftab Ahmad Khan and Maulana Shibli Nomani. They joined the Aga Khanat LahorewhereNawabFatehAli Khan and Mian Muhammad Shafi were given the opportunityto display their wealth. Then the Raja's party moved on to Karachi for another series of fabulous feastsand substantialdonationsfromSeth GhulamHasanChaglaand others.Finallythey returnedto the UP and once morecombedit for money.The Muslimuniversityhad at last becomea fashionablecause and potentiallya successfulone.8l It was afterthis invigoratingtour that the promotersbeganto think what formthe Muslimuniversitywouldtake.A constitutioncommittee was set up with Mahmudabadas chairman;a draft constitutionwas preparedby Syed Ali Bilgrami82 and presentedto the committeein mid-AprilI 9 I I . A monthlatera deputationconsistingof Mahmudabad, Viqar,Aftab,and Ziauddin83 met HarcourtButler,EducationMember of the viceroy'scouncil, in Simla.84Aftab was spokesman;the Ali brotherswere excluded. The draft constitutiondealt with the form of governmentrather thanwith the contentof educationat the futureuniversity.It vestedthe officeof chancellorin the viceroy,who could appointvisitors,inquire 80 Shaikh Ali Hasan, Tarikh-i-Mahmudabad, III, Part I. MahmudabadHouse, Lucknow. 81 Ibid. 82 Half brotherof Syed Husain who for some years had acted as spokesmanfor Aligarhin London. 83 Dr ZiauddinreplacedBilgrami,who had suddenlydied. 84 Butlerto Hewett, Simla, 26 May I9I I, Home Educ A August I9I I, I-2, NAI.

It4

GAIL MINAULT AND DAVID LELYVELD

into universityaffairs,and advise the governingbody. All academic regulations,coursesof study,andthe appointmentof thevice-chancellor would be subjectto his approval,and he could veto administrative statutesand teachingappointments.The main governingbody would be the court of trustees,composedentirelyof Muslims,which would elect the twenty-fivemembersof the executivecouncil for three-year terms. For the universityto be truly Muslim and to commandthe confidenceand the purses of the community,the deputation told Butler,the courtof trusteeswouldhave to be large,and representative of Muslimsfrom all over India. A senate composedof forty people, eachelectedforfiveyearswouldhave the powerto co-optthe principals and professorsof colleges that, with the consent of the chancellor, would be affiliatedto the university.(This provisionwas the sole referenceto the delicatematterof affiliation.)Finallytherewas to be a syndicate, consistingof the vice-chancellor,the deans of the five faculties,the provostand three memberselected by the senate. The senate and syndicate would concern themselveswith educational matterssuchas curriculum,examinations,and discipline;the executive council of the court would handle the administrativebusinessof the university.85

While the draft constitutionwas being prepared,the Ali brothers attempted to interferefrom the sidelines. The proceedingsof the constitutioncommitteeand their dealingswith the governmentwere kept strictlysecret, and the draft constitutionwas not made public until August I9I I. The Ali brothers'information,therefore,was basedon rumour.In MarchShaukatwroteto Mahomedthat a move was afoot to give the governmenttoo much power in the university. He felt that the viceroycould be chancelloras a guaranteeof educational standards,but 'we want no outsiderson our Senate except the Viceroyand the EducationMember'.Shaukatwas afraidthat 'Aftab and Co'wouldpreparean alternativeconstitutionand use the situation to claim credit for defendingAligarhXs autonomy,'comingout again as a hero and saviourof the community'.Shaukatdirectedhis brother to beat Aftab at his own game by proposingan even more attractive scheme: You must get ready to prepare a really liberal one. All fellows elected throughindependentelectoratebodies. All Musulmangraduatesof India must elect some, Old Boys,membersof the Conference,benefactors,etc. . r . Mohamedyou mustsave the situation.... [L]ife trusteesor life fellowswill 85Butler to Hewett, 26 May -I 9 I I, ibid.

920 I65 not be tolerated.Everyclassof Musulmans will havethe rightto electhis CAMPAIGN FOR A MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

I 898-I

representatives.86

Mahomedrespondedto these directionsin the columnsof Comrade. On the eve of the deputationto Butlerhe wrotean articleingenuously stating that the governmentwould accept Muslim control of the universitybecausethe Britishbelievedin self-help.Later, Mahomed waspreparedto allowthat,sincethe Muslimsneededofficialrecognition of their degrees, some governmentsupervisionwas necessary.To maintainstandards,the governmentshould be allowed to nominate IO per cent of the academicsenate and have some powersof veto. The real problemfor him, however,was not the relationshipbetween governmentand the universitybut between the universityand the Muslimcommunity.The universitymustbe seen to be the creationof the entire Indian Muslimcommunityand must be controlleddemocratically by electorates representingoutlying provinces, wealthy donors, Muslim graduates,and the Muslim masses.It must not be controlledby a small local group,as had been the case at Aligarh. In Comrade, MahomedAli complainedbitterly about the secrecy surroundingthe constitutioncommitteeand its failureto publishthe draft.87The reasonfor this secrecywas that negotiationswere at a delicatestage, largelyowing to disagreementwithin the government. HarcourtButler, as EducationMember,wanted to use the Muslim and Hindu universitydemandsto launch a new policy for Indian education:the creationof new teaching and residentialuniversities that would break through the system of affiliationand centralized controlof curricula.88 Butler,an old friendof Mahmudabad,claimed a deep sympathyfor Muslimculture.After meeting the deputation, Butlerwroteto Hewettthat Muslimsshouldbe giventheiruniversity'to carrythementhusiastically with us'. The constitutioncouldbe tinkered with to increasegovernmentpower, but on the whole it would be best to show friendlyneutrality.'Governmenthas never irlterferedin the administrationof Aligarh,I think, and I doubt whetherit could usefullydo so.'89Despitehis dislikefor denominationaluniversitiesand his distrustof men such as AftabAhmad Khan, Hewett agreedthat, since Muslimswere so unitedin theirdemand,it would be unwisenot to acquiesce.But governmentpowerover the universitywouldhave to be much greaterthan that providedin the draftconstitution.90 86 Shaukat Ali to Mahomed Ali, 30 MarchI9I I, MAP. 87 C.omrade (Calcutta), I5 AprilandI7June I9I I. 88 Ashby,Universities, p. 84. 89 Butlerto Hewett,26 May I 9 I I, HomeEducA August-I9 I I, I-2, NAI. soHewettto Butler,3 June I 9 I I,

ibid.

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But if Butlerwas a good ally, therewere othersin governmentwho were not.9l The Collectorof Aligarh,William Marris,who wrote a scathingindictmentof the M A-O ColIegeand the universityscheme, was a typicalcritic.Aligarhhad becomea centrefor cheap,hasty,easyeducation;and aboveall . . . a franklypoliticalinstrument.... [T]heyarenot thinkingof educationin itselfat all, but of more boys, moresubscriptions, more candidatesfor governmentemployment, morelawyersto fill seatsin Council,and morepoliticalpowergenerally. For this one cannotblamethem:but it is perfectlyobviousthat if such people controlunguidedthe whole destiniesof the college, collegiate educationis goingto be sacrificed. He pointedto the politicalactivitiesof Aftab and the Ali brothersat Aligarhand 'the enlistingof nationalleaderslike the Aga Khan: the attempt to give the movementan all-India complexion'.As for the universityschemeitself,its promotershad no clear idea of what they wanted; their statementswere riddledwith contradictions,with talk of a teaching and residentialinstitutionat one moment and of an amllatlngone tne next. lnelr lnterestln nlgner eclucatlonwas tactltious; all they wantedwas the power to give their own degreesto as many studentsas they could. The draft constitutioncontainedsuch a 'cloud' of overlappingauthoritiesthat, if put into effect, it would naturallylead to increasedfactionalism.AlreadyAligarhwas seething with faction; all factionswanted to get free from governmentand diSered only on the tactical question of what concessionswere necessaryin orderto get theiruniversity.True well-wishersof Aligarh and Muslimeducationwould want to see the universityunder strong governmentcontrol.g2 For the time being, Butler carried the day; the Governmentof India advisedLondonto accepta teachinguniversityat Aligarhopen to non-Muslims,adequatelyfunded and under eSective government control.g3The secretaryof state agreed to negotiationsalong these lines.s4Giving the good news to Mahmudabadat the end of July, Butlerwrote-thatit was now up to the Muslimsto raisethe moneyand put togetheran acceptableconstitution.95 Buthe addedthat the govern1

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91Indianofficialswereforbiddento participatein fund-raising or eorenattend meetings fortheMuslimandHinduuniorersities. NotebyP. Harrison, ChiefSecretary ofUP, to Headsof all Departments, DistrictOfficers,etc.,26 May I9I I, General Administration Department (GAD)I 9 I I, 2 7I, UPS. 92 Noteby Marris, I 7 MayI 9 I I, EducI 9 I 8, 40, UPS. 93 Viceroyto Secretary of State,IO June I9I I, HomeEducA AugustI9I I, I-2, NAI. 94 Secretary of Stateto Viceroy,I 8 July I 9 I I, ibid. 95Butlerto Mahmudabad (demi-official), 3I July I 9 I I, ibid.

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ment would not acceptan unwieldysenate and that the viceroymust have the power to approve universityappointments,not merely a subsequentveto. Lord Crewe, the secretaryof state, made no other stipulationsbut reservedthe rightto scrutinizeeveryclauseof whatever schemethe Aligarhpeoplemightpresent. The governmenthad clearlyhedgedits approval.96 Mahmudabadnow called a meetingof the constitutioncommittee for I 8-20 August I 9 I I in Lucknow.The committeewas in a fighting mood. It reaffirmedthe supremacyof the all-Muslimcourt of trustees (asat Aligarhcollege),and its authorityoverthe senate,whichincluded Britishprofessors.Moreover,the committee-wanteda representative courtof two hurldredmembers,and it was not preparedto acceptthat all appointmentsbe approvedby the viceroy.97 A second draft constitution,preparedby Aziz Mirza98made clear provisionfor the affiliationof schoolsand colleges to the university. It gave the court ultimatecontrolover the senate,subjectto the veto of the viceroyas chancellor.The universitywould be open to women and non-Muslims.Therewouldbe compulsorytheologyfor all Muslim students.99 On 23 September,Butlermet the constitutioncommitteeandwarned them that governmentwould never approve an expanded court of trusteeswith powerto overrulethe senate.As to the viceroy'spowers, Butlerinsistedthat the governmentdemandswere moderateand that the committee was being unreasonable.As for affiliation, Butler remindedthe committeeaboutgovernment'smisgivingsoverdenominationaluniversities.In its view the casefora Muslimuniversitydepended on its being a teaching, not merely an examining,body, with the unique residentialtraditionsof M A-O College.l°°Finally, Butler 96 Butler to Mahmudabad (confidential),3 I July I 9 I I, ibid. Butler privately warned that London's scrutiny 'may mean quite a good deal', since the India Council with Raleigh and Morisonas members,would examine the scheme very carefully;their assentwas 'entirelygeneral and reserved'.Butlerto Mahmudabad (private),3 I July I9I I, ibid. 97 Mahmudabad to Butler,g SeptemberI9I I, HomeEducA FebruaryI9I2,I2-I5j LINAI. 98 Aziz, an Aligarhold boy had been Viqar ul-Mulk'sprotdgdin Hyderabad,and was now Secretaryof the Muslim League. The League had recentlymoved from Aligarhto Lucknowand was thusno longeran arenafor Aligarh'sfactionaldisputes. 99'The Moslem UniversityConstitution',Supplementto Comrade (Calcutta), 24 August I 9 I 2. 100SyedRossMasud,Syed Mahmud'sson, had expressedviewssimilarto Butler's, Comrade) 22 July I9II. He opposed affiliation,emphasizingthe special spirit of Aligarhwhich was so closely associatedwith 'the union, the cricketfield, and the courtswhich Sir Syed Ahmadplanned'.

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warnedthat the thirtylakhstargetset for the universityfundwouldnot be erlough.lol The governmentand the Muslim universitypromotersdisagreed fundamentallyon the issueof affiliation.A secondmeetingbetweenthe education departmentand the constitutioncommittee was hastily calledfor 25 September.MahomedShafija Lahorebarristerassociated with the universitymovementfrom the beginning, though not an Aligarh graduate, acted as spokesman.If the Muslim university affiliatedcollegesto it throughoutIndia, then the Britishrajcouldlook forwardto an institutionas loyal as Aligarh. But any move to veto affiliationwould meet grave opposition from the Muslim public. Muslimshad supportedthe universityon the understandingthat local collegeswouldbe affiliatedto it; if theircollegescouldnot be affiliated, Muslimsoutsidethe UP would not pay up. The governmentremained unconvinced,but was preparedto accept affiliationon conditionthat it was limited to one college in each provincewith a large Muslim population.lo2

In NovemberI9II, the Governmentof India submittedthe draft constitutionto London,recommendingthat the powerof affiliationbe granted on the groundsthat it would be little used and could be properlycontrolled.Morisonnow on the India Councilopposedthis as a threatto academicstandards,butfelt thatit shouldnot be an obstacle to establishingthe university.l03 The othermembersof the IndiaCouncil werelesswillingto compromise.Crewe'sdespatchon 23 FebruaryI9I 2 forbadeaffiliationoutsideAligarhdistrict,pointingout that the main intentionof the movementhad beento raiseAligarhcollegeto a university, not to establishfar-flungbranches.Calcuttarepliedthat, if affiliationwasnot granted,therewouldbe politicaltrouble,andaskedthatthe decisionbe reconsidered.But then Morisontook the lead in opposing 101Report of a meetingbetween Sir HarcourtButlerand the MuslimUniversity ConstitutionCommittee,Simla, 23 SeptemberI9I I, Home Educ A FebruaryI9I 2, I 2-I 5, LINAI. 102 H. Sharp,Report on the proposedAligarhMuslimUniversity,26 September I 9 I I , ibid. 103 FifteenyearsearlierMorisonhad affiliateda numberof secondaryschoolsin the

Aligarhvicinityto M A-O College.AIG,;lSewSeriesII (23January I897), 8. 104 'One of the hopes entertainedabout a teachingUniversitywas that it would become a genuineseat of learningat which examinationswould be subordinateto teachingand in which the teachers,freedfrom the tyrannyof the text book, would carry their pupils with them in their own branchesof study. If affiliationof other institutionsis allowed,this hope mustgo by the board.';I!Wote by Morison,I January I 9 I 2, Judicial and Public, I 9 I 2, I I 46, India OfficeLibrary,London (IOL), quoted in Ashby, Universities, pp. 393-4.

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affiliation,l04and India was told that nothing more than a 'federal' universityof closelyneighbouringcollegeswouldbe permitted.London also decided that the universityshould be called 'The Universityof Aligarh',not 'The MuslimUniversity,Aligarh'.l05 Crewe'sdespatchalso tackled the problem of how the university would be governed. Sir Thonzas Raleigh advised Crewe that an academicsenatedominatedbyprofessional educatorswasall a university needed in the way of governingbodies. While not going this far, Morisonand his other colleaguesfelt that the draft constitutiongave too much authorityto the court of trusteeson which teachershad no say.l06So the secretaryof state informedIndia that the senate must not be subordinateto the court. It would not do to vest the chancellorshipin the viceroy, giving 'AligarhUniversityan honour which cannot be shared by other existing and future universitiesof India.'Instead,the governor-general in council,wouldhave to approve changesin the universitystatutes,and the educationdepartmentwould makeperiodicinspectionsand receiveannualfinancialreportsbefore making the governmentgrant.l07 While the Britishwere engagedin these lengthy deIiberations,the Muslimpublic grew impatientand Muslimnewspapersrenewedthe demandfor a Muslimuniversityon their own terms. MahomedAli reiteratedthe demand for an all-India affiliatinginstitutionrun by Muslimswith a minimum of governmentinterference.l08 The Aga Khan, on the otherhand, arguedthat the degreeof controldesiredby the governmentwas reasonable,and was attackedby an Urdu newspaper of Lucknowfor failing to representthe Muslim community; Muslimswould ratherdevote the fundsto other educationalpurposes than accepta universityundersuchconditions.l09 Viqar ul-Mulk,compelledby ill health to retirefromthe secretaryship of Aligarh Collegeand from the constitutioncommittee,took a partingshot at the committeeand at the government'sattitude.The constitutioncommitteehad made too many decisionsin private and had shown more concernfor the interestsof the staff than the comSecretaryof State to Viceroy, 23 FebruaryI9I2, Home Educ A March I9I2, ;NAI;see also note of I I January I9I2) J & P, I9I2) I I46, IOL, in Ashby, Universities p. 395. 106 Ashby,Untuersitiesa p. 87. 107 Secretaryof State to Viceroy, 23 FebruaryI 9 I 2, Home Educ-A March I 9 I 2, 60-2, iINAI. 108 Comraden I2 FebruaryI9I2, Comrade Selectzons, pp. 262-3. lo9 Muslzm Gazette(Lucknow),I 8 MarchI 9 I 2> United ProvincesNativeNewspaper Reports(UP;NNR)I 9 I 2, p. 306. 105

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munityat large.1l0Viqarwas particularlyconcernedaboutthe relative power of the staff and the trustees,and even suggestedthat Muslinrs shouldrejecta universityover which they had even less controlthan they had over AligarhCollege.But he hoped that governmentwould see sense and accept affiliationof colleges establishedon Aligarh's residentialmodel.1ll The Raja of Mahmudabadhurried to Aligarh to reassureViqar ul-Mulk.In the AligarhInstit?lte Gazette he promisedto publishany draft constitutionand expose it to public criticismbeforesubmittingit to the government.1l2 The Rajawas a man of few commitmentsexceptto his own image as a patronand leaderwho dispensedpatronage.His interestin Aligarhwas an effortto widen his prestigeoutsideOudh. He was flexible and anxiousto please. Viqar, in turn, realized that harshcriticismwas likely to damagefund-raising,and so he accepted MahmudabadSs reassurances.113 After the constitutioncommitteemet at Lucknowin June I9I2n Mahmudabadtried to arrangean official meeting with Butler. But Butlerrefusedbecausehe wasstilltryingto get Londonto reconsiderthe February despatch. When London finally replied the university promotersand the Governmentof India were equally disappointed. The secretaryof statereaffirmedhis earlierdecisionaboutaffiliation1l4 and aboutvestingcontrolin the governor-general in council.1l5 Hardingewrote: The decisionof the Secretaryof State is a great disappointmentto me . . . [T]he Governmentof India and thoseinterestedin the two universitiessee eye to eye, and as it is not a matter of vital political importancethat is involvednit is absurdthat a few ex-oEcialsfrom India and a few outsiders shoulddecidea questionin oppositionto the expressedviewsof the Government of India and the Indian public. I fear therewill be agitationover this decision.ll6

lloHe was referringto the RegulationsSubcommitteeappointedin September I9II, with Ziauddin as secretary,two Europeanmembers of the Aligarh staff, Habib ur-RahmanKhan Sherwani,a wealthyAligarhlandholderwho was a wellknown Islamicscholar,and MahomedAli. 'The MoslemUniversityConstitution', Supplementto Comrade, 24 AugustI 9 I 2. AIG,22 May I9I2, UPlXlfR I9I2, pp. 520-I. 1j2AIG,sJune I9I2, UPNNR I9I2, p. 568. 113 AIG, I 2 June and 26 June I9I2, UPNNR I9I2, pp. 599, 648-9. 114 If anyone had subscribedfunds on the assumptionthat affiliationwould be granted,Creweadvisedthat they shouldbe entitledto a refund lls Secretaryof State to Viceroy, I2 July I9I2, Home Educ A July I9I3, 4-I2, NAI. But it would not be necessaryfor the central governmentto approve the appointmentof professors. 116 Memorandumby Hardinge, I5 July I 9 I 2, ibid.

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But if the Governmentof India wanted concessionson affiliation, it was London that took the more liberal positionover government controlof the university.Morisonin Londonarguedthat the universities should be free to make mistakesnbut Calcuttabelieved that a strongofficialhand would preventthe Muslimand Hindu universities becomingcentresof politicalagitation.In the end, the Governmentof India carriedthe day on the questionof officialcontroland London prevailedon affiliation.ll7The officialmind had divided on the two mostcrucialissues,but in bothcasesthe decisionhad comedownon the side opposedto the Muslimdemand. Butler had the thanklesstask of conveying the bad news to the Aligarhcommittee.On g August,he informedMahmudabadthat the decisionwas 'final'.ll8The Raja had recentlywarnedhim: The fact that the Hinduswill submitto the decisionof the Home Government will not in the least affect our decision.... You will shortlyfind out what the rejectionof the aHiliationquestionmeansto the Muslimpublic.1l9

The constitutioncommittee met hurriedly in Lucknow on I I-I 2 August and passed three resolutionsnrefusing to accept London's decisionon affiliation,the viceroy'srole as chancellor,and the nameof the university.l20 The constitutioncommitteehad a good claim to be representative of Musliminterests.l2t Otherexpressions of the Muslims'consternationwerequickto follow. Aftab and ShaikhAbdullahwere willing to give way over affiliation, but they insistedon havingfull Muslimcontrolof the university.They werenot preparedto sacrificetheiractualpowerin Aligarhin the hope of a wider influenceover Indian Islam; they thereforeproposedto abandonthe universityidea for the present.l22Hakim Ajmal Khan, a M A-O trustee,thoughtthe governmenthad beenunwisein callingits decision'final',becausewhen agitationforcedthe governmentto give 117 Ashby, universitieS

pp. 90-2. Mahmudabad,g August I9I2, Home Educ A July I9I3, 4-I 2, NAI. 119Mahmudabadto Butler,20July I9I2, ButlerPapers,MSS.Eur. I I6/53/I, IOL. The authorsare indebtedto WilliamCrawleyfor this reference. 120 Mahmudabadto Butler, I2 August I9I2, and I3 August I9I2, Home Educ A July I9I3, 4-I2, NAI. 121 The Committeeincluded fifty-fourmembersin addition to all the M A-O. trusteesex AmongthemwereAftab,the Ali brothers,ShibliNomani,Rafiuddin Ahmad (now a Muslim League man in Poona), moderatessuch as Mahomed Shafiand ZiauddinAhmad,journalistssuch as Bashiruddinof Etawah,lawyersand politicianssuch as WazirHasan of Lucknow,wealthymerchantsfromBombayand landlordsfromthe UP. Listof Membersof the ConstitutionCommittee,MURC, AA. 122 AIG,4 Septemberand 25 SeptemberI9I2, UPJ;1fR, I9I2, pp. 85I, 899. 118Butlerto

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way it would be humiliated.l23 The Muslimpublic did not knowthat Calcuttahad beentellingLondonjust thisformonths. The common reaction was that Muslimswould never accept a universityon government'stermsand so the fundscollectedshouldbe spent in some other way.l24Aftab suggestedthat the money should simplybe given to M A-O College.l25MaulanaAbdul Bariof Firangi Mahal, Lucknow, a leading alim, wanted the money for Muslim primaryeducationand for the propagationof Islam.l26And Viqar ul-Mulk proposedan independentUrdu-mediumuniversitywithout benefitof governmentaid or recognition.l27 This proposalcut against the grainof the Aligarhmovement,and for the time beingwas ignored. Whateverthe meritsof such an institutionfrom the point of view of traditionalIslamiceducation,it did not meet one of the basicdemands of the universitymovement,which was to find places for the Muslim elite under the raj. Viqar ul-Mulk'sproposalhinted that this breadand-buttermotivation might soon have to compete with a more intangibledrivefor self-assertion. Some of the moreperceptiveofficialsin India had warnedLondon of the consequencesof blocking the universitydemand. And some Muslimmoderateswere also aware of them. Mahomed-Shafisaw in affiliationa meansof reinforcingthe 'loyalMuhammadan' constituency, a legacyof Sir Syed.He fearedthat the refusalto allowthe universityto affiliate colleges would alienate that constituency,not only from government,but fromits moderateleaders,and wouldgive an opportunity to irreconcilableelementsamongthe Muslims. However,the demandfor an affiliatingMuslimuniversitywas by no meansuniversalamongIndian Muslims.For twelveyearsit had been largelyignored;and if it now had a large and enthusiasticfollowing, there were still important and articulate centres of opposition or indiSerence.BengaliMuslims,for example,had campaignedall along for a universityat Dacca.l28In I9I I, MahomedAli, writingin Comrade 123 Letter about proposedestablishmentof Aligarh University,from one H.M. Ajmal Khan, Haziq-ul-Mulk,to the Private Secretaryof the Viceroy, 8 October I 9 I 2, Home Educ A NovemberI 9 I 2, 7-8, NAI. 124 Muslim Gazette,I 8 SeptemberI 9 I 2, UPNNR, I 9 I 2, p. 884. 125 AIG,4 SeptemberI9IX, UPSSR, I9I2a p. 85I. 126 Al-Bashir (Etawak),24 SeptemberI 9 I 2, UPNNR, I 9 I 2, p. 899. 127 All-IndiaMuslimUniversity ke Muta'aliqJawab MushtaqHusainViqarul-Mulk Bahadur ki Rai (Aligarh,NovemberI 9 I 5). 128 H. E. Stapleton,'A Universityin the Making',offprintof Eastern BengalNotes andQueries, SecondSeries,I (I920), i-iX; Educ I9I9, 384, UPS. Ironically,one of the architectsof Dacca universitywas W. A. J. Archbold,the principalwho had been forcedout of Aligarhin I909.

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in Calcutta,foundit 'staggering'that Muslimsin Bengalshouldremain indifferentto the proposalfor an all-India university:preferringa provincialuniversityof theirown to a collegethat would be affiliated to Aligarh. He assuredthem that the establishmentof a centre at Aligarhwouldraisethe educationalconditionof aIl Muslims: The tidal wave of the University,even if it could be felt in its greatest force at Aligarhitself, will not leave the most distant creek stagnant.l29

For MahomedAli the whole point of a Muslim universitywas the unificationof IndianMuslims.His emphasison controlof the university by the Muslim communitywas basednparadoxicallyn on a desire to createa community.MahomedAli, frustratedin his desireto capture Aligarhsoughtan all-Indiaconstituency.For him the idea of a centralized and autonomoussystem of Muslim education was crucial. Withoutit, 'the main object of the Universitymovementfalls to the ground.l30

Whenthe MuslimUniversityFoundationCommitteemetin Lucknow on 26 DecemberI9I2 the campaignfor a universitymovedinto a new phase.This phasehad two main characteristics. The firstwas that the various factions anxious to capture command at Aligarh failed to resolvetheir differencesand none of them managedto exert its will overall. The secondfeaturewas that the Ali brothersbeganto diversify their activities, and changed political circumstancesprovided them with new opportunitiesfor assertingtheir leadershipover the Muslim communities.As Muslim enthusiasmfor the university lproposal decreased,the factionsat Aligarhitselfbeganto movetowardsaccepting the government'stermsfor a universityat Aligarh.MahomedAli was unable to preventthis drift. This set the stage for the final phase in which a Muslimuniversitywas foundedat Aligarh,modestin scope, local, and under governmentcontrol,while the Ali brothers,after a last ditch attempt to prevent a rapprochementbetween the old Aligarhleadersand the government,set up a separate,independent institution:theJamia MilliaIslamia. Partisan splits in the movement,

I9I3-I6

At the MuslimUniversityFoundationCommittee'smeetingin Lucknow on 26 DecemberI9I2, the air wasfull of acrimony.The leadership 129 Comrade, 7 October I 9 I I and I O February I 9 I 2, Cgomrade Selections, pp.245-8, 262-3. 130

Comrade, 2 August I9I3, CXomrade Selections, pp.

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was denouncedfor bunglingthe universitymovement.l3lIn the van were Viqar ul-Mulk, MahomedAli, and Abul-KalamAzad. A proposal to send a deputationto the viceroywas passedonly after being roundlycriticizedas pusillanimous;and when ZiauddinAhmad was nominatedfor membership,he was beratedas a governmentstooge.l32 The meetingwas followedby an orgyof back-bitingin the Urdu press. Even MahomedAli was attackedby Azad and Hasrat Mohani for moderatinghis attack and associatinghimselfwith the deputation. Mazharul-Haq,a Biharbarristerwho had beenchosenas a memberof the deputation,resigned,calling the whole businessunderhandedand unpopular.l33 Aligarh'sbitterfactionalismnow pervadedthe university movement and helped to plunge it to new depths of public controversy. WhenTheodoreMorisoncame to Aligarhin I9I3, he was boycotted by the Ali brothersas the man who had blockedthe university.The Ali brothersalso attackedNawab MahomedIshaq Khan, a retired districtjudge who had succeededViqarul-Mulkas honorarysecretary. Ishaq was favouredby the government,becausehe avoided politics and did not interferewith the teachingstaff. But he was unpopular with the studentsand the Muslimpublic, an unpopularitywhich the Ali brothersdid theirbest to increase.They denouncedhim as a front man for Aftab and ShaikhAbdullahand tried to replacehim, late in I 9 I 3, with Syed Hasan Bilgrami, another Bilgrami brother, who returned to Aligarh from London.l34Meanwhile, Mahomed Ali renewedhis effortsto abolishlife tenure on the board of trustees,l35 which was showing signs of moving towards his way of thinking. Ishaq Khan was findingit increasinglydifficultto get a majority,and as the older men died they were replacedon the board by men like WazirHasan,Riza Ali, Ghulamus-Saqlain,Dr Ansari,andJinnah.l36 131 MahomedAmin Zuberi, Fiqar-i-Hayat, p. 593. 132 SyedRiza Ali, A'malJ\Zama, p. 307. 133 Urdu-e-Mt4'alla (Aligarh),I I JanuaryI9I3; Leader(Allahabad),I4 MarchI9I3, UP;NNR,I9I3, pp. I I I, 239. 134 Reporton Conditionsat Aligarh,by S. P. O'Donnell,EducationSecretary,UP, I3 September I9I3. Home Educ A October I9I3, 58-60, NAI; Report on the Attitudeof Muslimsto Government,by R. Burn,ChiefSecretary,UP, I 7 September I 9 I 3, Home Poll A October I 9 I 3, I 00-I 8, NAI. Bilgramihad been electedEducation Memberof the boardof trusteesearlierin the year aftera campaignto get Ali the job was foiled by a threat of the EuropeanstaS to resign in a body. Muslim Gazette,I 2 March, I 9 I 3, UPSSR, I 9 I 3, p. 238. 135 MahomedAli to SirJamesMeston,2 May I9I3, MAP. 136 Report by O'Donnell, I3 September I9I3, Home Educ A October I9I3, 58-60, NAI; Bhatnagar,History oftheMA-O College, p. 268.

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The different factions jockeyed for position when the Muslim UniversityFoundationCommitteemet in Aligarhon 26 and 27 July I 9 I 3 to frame instructionsfor the deputation elected the previous December.A fewof the memberswerereadyto acceptthe government's conditions-at leastas a temporaryexpedient.l37 The mainrivalrywas still between Aftab's faction and sympathizersof the Ali brothers. Aftab was willing to sacrificeaffiliationin return for full Muslim controlof Aligarhitself.If they couldnot get this, he proposedthat the universitybe abandonedfor the time being and the fundsbe used for the benefitof the college.The Ali brothersinsistedon both affiliation and Muslimcontrol;otherwisethe fundsshouldbe spent on sending youngMuslimsabroador on othereducationalandpoliticalpurposes.l38 Since they did not controlthe college,the Ali brothershad no interest in turningoverthe universityfundsto it. At the meetingtheAli groupresortedto disruptivetactics.Everytime one of the 'loyalists' as theiropponentsderisivelycalledthem roseto speak,he was shouteddown.The Ali groupproposedthe resolutionsof instructionsfor the deputation.But, interestinglyenough,they seemto have won approvalfromAftab'sgroupand fromMuzamilullahKhan Sherwani,one of the oldestof the old guard.l39The differencesbetween the factions,therefore,were still more a questionof personalitiesthan principles.The meetingresolvedto cut down the chancellor'spowers, and reaffirmedthat the senate should be clearly under the court of trustees.l40 Aftab'sparty scoreda point when the meetingdecidedto reservethe MuslimUniversityFund'scapitalfor the universityalone, but to use the interestfor improvingAligarhCollege.l4l In I 9 I O the Muslim League had moved its head-quartersfrom Aligarh to Lucknow. Although it was still dominated by Aligarh graduates,l42it was less concernedwith college matters.Its leaders tendedto sympathizewith the Ali brothers'line on AligarhaSairs,but they were anxious not to compromisetheir politics by getting too involvedin the college'sdomesticissues.Meanwhilethe Ali brothers 137 AgraAkAbar, 2 I July I 9 I 3; Mashriq(Gorakhpur),I 2 August I 9 I 3, UP;N;NR, I9I3, pp. 772 863 38 MuslimGazette,I6 July I9I3, UP;NNR,I9I3, pp. 74I-2. 139 AIG,20 August I 9 I 3, UPNNR, I 9 I 3, p. 900. 140Agendaof Meeting of the MuslimUniversityFoundationCommittee,26 July I9I3, MAP. 141 Masawat(Allahabad,Urdu), 7 August I9I3, UPINNR,I9I3, p. 253. 142 WazirHasanbecamesecretaryof the Leagueand Riza Ali, Ghulamus-Saqlain

and NaziruddinHasan were other Aligarh graduatesprominentin the League. However,the Leaguewas not an Aligarhpreserve,and at this time was most concernedabout the Morley-Mintoreforms.

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saw an opportunityfor fulfillingtheir wishes for recognitionas the leadersof Indian Islam in the events both inside and outside India that were stirringMuslimopinion.In I9I I the partitionof Bengalwas revoked and Mahomed Ali expressedMuslim indignation at this rebuSto his community's'loyalty'.l43 The Tripolitanand Balkanwars, threateningthe integrity of the Ottoman empire, added religious grievancesto his campaign.l44In I9I3 the Ali brotherstoured India raisingmoneyfor the Turkishrelieffund,l45and their paper,Comrade, was bound over for publishingTurkishpropaganda.l46 Their fundraising talents were placed behind Ansari'sRed CrescentMedic-al Mission.147 At Aligarh, studentsrespondedenthusiasticallyto their lead,givingup meatandrichfoodsin orderto contributeto the Turkish relief fund,l48and some of them went to Turkey with the medical mission.l49By I9I3 Aligarh aSairs were intimatelytangled with the tumultuouspoliticaleventsoutside.Some Aligarhstudentsboycotted merchantsselling Europeangoods, otherswere expelledfor agitating about Turkey, and everyonegave the medical missiona triumphal receptionon its returninJuly.l50 As the Muslimpressgrew morevocal, and the Ali brothersbecame more radical,they found new allies. Among them were Abul Kalam Azad, a formerassociateof Shibliand an articulateadvocateof Islamic self-assertion, who publishedAl-Hilalfrom Calcuttaand soon established himselfas a leading critic of both the Britishand the loyalist Muslims,l5land Zafar Ali Khan, a class-fellowof Shaukat Ali at Aligarh,who had transformed hisfather'spaper,Zamindar, publishedin Lahore,froma mouthpieceof 'loyal'farmersinto a passionateorgan of Muslimassertiveness.l52 Muslimdisappointmentover the university movementand their increasingdisaffectionwith the governmenton other groundsgave the young politiciansa chance to challengethe establishedleadershipon both educationaland politicalfronts.Their opportunitycame with the desecrationof the CawnporeMosque in the summer of I9I3. Comrade, Al-Hilal and other Muslimjournals 143Comrade 3 FebruaryIg I2 Comrade Selections, p. 404. 144 Muslim Gazette, I5January I9I3,UPNNRI9I3,p. 42. 145 History sheetof Mahomed Ali, I9I3,HomePollB NovemberI9I3, I49,;NAI. 146 Order by H. C. Beadon,DistrictMagistrate, Delhi,8June I9I3,MAP. 147 RaisAhmad Jafri,Sirat-i-Muhammad Ali (Delhi,Ig32),p. 227. 148AIG,26Juneand IoJuly I9I2,UPNNR,I9I2,637,679. 149 Bhatnagar, History of theM A-OCollege, p. 3I 3.

1soAM,XI, 5 MarchI9I3 I2I-6. Dr Ziauddinlecturedthe studentsagainst listeningtojournalists andfallingpreyto 'meanandungentlemanly' behaviour. Ibid. 151 History sheetof Azad,I 92I, HomePollI 92I, 45, ;NAI. 152 Comrade, 23 MarchI9I2,Comrade selectionsn pp. 443-5.

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attacked the government,and the widespreadagitation ultimately carriedthe day.l53MahomedAli and WazirHasanwent to Englandto agitateaboutthe university,the CawnporeMosqueand freedomof the Muslimpressfromgovernmentinterference.l54 Theirvisitwassupported afterthe fact by the MuslimLeague,but the League'stwo mostrespectable leaders,both residentin Europe,now resigned:AmirAli because he felt he had been challengedas the League'sspokesmanin Britain, and the Aga Khan becausethe Leaguewas becomingtoo radical.lss The approachof the war presentedfurtheropportunitiesfor the Ali brothers.ShaukatAli helpedto organizethe Anjuman-e-Khuddam-eKa'aba'to defendthe holyplacesof Islamfromnon-Muslimaggression'. Sensingthe possibilitiesof appearingas the defendersof Islam,the two young dandiesgrew beardsand arrayedthemselvesin flowingrobes. They began to be addressed'maulana'.l56 The college trusteesand a group of Aligarh old boys in governmentservice demanded that Shaukatchoose betweenthe Anjuman,with its pro-Turkishimplications, and his positionas honorarysecretaryof the Old BoysAssociation.l57Shaukatchose both, claimingthat the Anjumanwas 'purely religious'.ls8But the Comrade's sympathy for the Turks cost it its securitydepositwhen war was declaredbetweenthe OttomanEmpire and GreatBritainin NovemberI9I4. In I9I4, after much delay, a Muslim UniversityAssociationwas electedalongthe representative linesproposedforthecourtoftrustees.l59 It met for the first time in May I9I5 under pressurefrom the Aga Khan, who threatenedto withdrawhis donationif the government's termsforthe universitywerenot accepted.The promotersof the Hindu lS3 A lavatoryattachedto the mosquewas demolishedto makeway for a road.The viceroyfinallyorderedit to be restored.Minuteon the CawnporeMosqueIncident by SirJames Meston, 2I August I9I3, Home Poll A October I9I3, IOO-I8, NAI; Ehe Tsmes,I 6 October I 9 I 3. 154 MahomedAli and Wazir Hasan to Sir James La Touche, 4 November I9I3, MAP. 155AmirAli to Wazir Hasan, 22 October I9I3; Aga Khan to Wazir Hasan, 3 NovemberI9I3, MAP.The Aga Khan gave as his excusethat he wasnot gettingto India much thesedays and that he did not want to standin the way of the League's development. 156 Note by S. D. Fremantle,Collectorof Allahabad,2I November I9I5, Home Poll D DecemberI 9 I 5, 6, NAI. l57Comrade, I8 April I9I4, Comrade Selectsons, pp. 429-37; Letter to ShaukatAli signedby IOO Old Boy GovernmentServants,in Report7Cehqzqat OldBoysAssoczation, AppendixII, pp. I35-8. 158 AIG,3 FebruaryI 9 I 5, UPNNR I 9 I 5, p. I 55. l59Comrade, 6 June I9I4. The associationremainedsubordinateto the Muslim UniversityFoundationCommittee,whichstill had title to the money.

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universityhad alreadydecidedto acceptthe government'sconditions. Nevertheless,the MuslimUniversityAssociationresolvedto rejectthem outright,and MahomedAli'sproposalto sendtwentyAligarhstudents abroad was accepted despite Ziauddin'sopposition.l60Shortly after this meeting,the Ali brotherswere internedat Chhindwara.l6lThey continuedto take a keeninterestin AligarhaSairs,but theirinfluence was less eSective, being further removed. Consequentlythey grew more uncompromising.MahomedAli, reportingin IgI6 to the Old Boys Associationas their representativeon the board of trustees, threatened'boycott'of the college and even 'revolution'.l62 On I OctoberI9I5, the BenaresHindu UniversityBill was passed. It couldnow be arguedthatit wasfutileforthe Muslimsto holdout for better conditions.On I5 Octoberthe MuslimUniversityAssociation met to considerwhetherthey should accept a universityalong such lines. Its leaders felt they must move or risk losing the University Fund: the foreignscholarshipschemehad been attackedin the press as a misappropriationof funds, and a patron from Bombay had institutedlegal actionto recoverhis Rs I25,000.163 At the October meeting the factions organized in earnest. The motionto accepta universityon the government'stermswas proposed by Dr NaziruddinHasan,an Aligarhold boy and a Lucknowbarrister who hithertohad associatedhimselfwith the moreradicalfaction.He was supportedby Riza Ali, AftabAhmadKhan, MahomedShafiand Habibur-RahmanKhan Sherwani.The supportersof the Ali brothers made a strongeffortto block acceptance;they tried to postponethe discussionuntil the releaseof their leaders,and broughtmen into the meeting who were not membersof the association.Khwaja Abdul Majid,Shaukat'ssuccessoras old boy secretary,pressedfor postponement, and his motionwas passedby thirty-onevotes to thirty.He was supportedby Azad, Hasrat Mohani, and Dr Ansari.The leadersof the other party objectedthat some votes had not been counted, so Mahmudabadas presidentcalledfor a secondvote. At this point, the 160 Collegzan, was

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Boys

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Ali brothers'followingwalkedout in protest,and the originalmotion to acceptthe universitypassedby thirty-sixvotesto one.l64Defeatedin the meeting-room,the Ali groupcounter-attacked in the market-place. The Raja of Mahmudabad,who had alwaystried to stay orl the right side of the Ali brothers,was now condemnedas a traitor.l65The supportersof acceptance,however,were slow to presstheir victory.It was not until IO April I9I6 that the MuslimUniversityFoundation Committeefinally met to ratify acceptance.Mazharul-Haq put the case for having the university.Once again, Khwaja Abdul Majid pressedfor postponement.Aftera five-hourdebate,Khwajaagreedto give way on conditionthat the regulationsframedfor the universitybe passed by a two-thirdsmajority of both the constitutionand the foundationcommittees.A MuslimUniversityRegulationsCommittee was elected which included Mazhar ul-Haq,Jinnah, Aftab, Ansari, JusticeAbdurRahimandAbdurRahmanBijnori.The threelatterhad originallysupportedpostponement.l66 The proposalto includeZiauddin on the committeewas hooted down, and a motion thankingthe Ali brothersfor their valuableservicesand regrettingtheir enforced absencewaspassedenthusiastically.l67 The Ali brotherswerestill in the fight. The decisionin I9I6 to accept a universityon government'sterms endedthe planfora grandiose,independent,centralMusliminstitution. Weakenedby faction, the Aligarh leaderswere happy to take what they could get. Old loyalistswere now joined by the Aftab group as well as by Mahmudabad,Mazhar ul-Haq, and Riza Ali who had previouslyheld out for the largerplan. With the Ali brothersinterned, theirsupportershad eitherto give way or to withdrawcompletelyfrom AligarhaSairs. The Raja of Mahmudabad,a key figurein Muslimpoliticsduring I9I6 and I9I7, tookthe opportunity duringthe Lucknowsessionofthe League to persuadesuch men as Jinnah, Mazhar ul-Haq and Dr Ansarito acceptthe universityon the government'stermS.l6x Whatever reservationsthey may have had in private,the Ali brothersremained adamantagainstacceptancein public. They were comingto see that 64 RuidadIjlas MuslimUniversity Association, I 5 October I 9 I 5 (Aligarh, I 9 I 5) . 165 Letter to editor, Leader(Allahabad), I I November I9I5, UP;INNR,I9I5, p. I I 68. 166 Ruidad IjlasM7lslimUniversity Association, I5 OctoberI9I5. 167 Copy of resolutionspassed at Muslim University Foundation Committee (MUFC) meeting, Lucknow, IO April I9I6; Report of the meeting by R. Burn, ChiefSecretary,UP, I 4 April I 9 I 6. Home EducD May I 9 I 6, I, NAI. 168H. M. fIayat to MahomedAli, 28 March I9I7, MAP.

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to found a popular universityindependentof governmentcontrol, they mighthave to breakwith Aligarhonce and for all.l69 Establishment of two Mllslim universities,

I9I7-20

The final phase of the Muslim universitymovementwas an anticlimax.The universityproposalhad been pushedoff the centreof the stage by more explicitlypoliticalconcerns.Planningfor the university was left in the hands of a few educators,notably Abdur Rahman Bijnori and Wali Mahomed,Aligarh'sprofessorof physics.l70They prepareda seriesof detaileduniversityconstitutionsafter protracted negotiationswith government.For a long period nothing happened; publicinterestin Aligarhwas low, and the enrolment,afterreachinga peak in I 9 I 4, declinedsteadily.171 In I9I6 Bijnoriprepareda draft constitutionin which all sections regardinggovernmentpowerswere taken verbatimfrom the Benares HinduUniversityAct.l72A seconddraftby Bijnoriand Wali Mahomed in I9I7 gave the universitythe rightto establishand recognizeschools outside Aligarh.l73The regulationsprovided for faculties of arts, science,law, orientalstudies,and theology.l74The relativepower of 169The leaderof the other old faction,AftabAhmadKhan, was also leaving the stage. In I9I6 he refusedto attend the League, brokewith it, formedthe Muslim DefenceAssociation,and in I9I7 accepteda place on the India Councilin London. The two main rivals for power at Aligarh were both frustrated.Yet, with their similarbackgrounds,they ended by movingin oppositedirections:the Ali brothers into non-cooperation and Aftabinto high officeunderthe raj. 170Both were GermanPh.D.s like ZiauddinAhmad. Dr Bijnorihad been one of the studentsthreatenedwith expulsionafter the I907 strike,had taken part in the TurkishMedical Mission,and had opposedacceptanceof the universityat the I5 October I9I5 meeting.Enquiry Report I907. 171 Bhatnagar,History of theMA-OCollege, p. 325. 172 The Governor-General in Councilhad the powerto removeany memberof the teachingstaS, to appointspecialexaminerswith regardto any aspectof the university, and to issue binding instructions.The all-Muslimcourt would be subject to the Governor-Generalin Council; it would representthe Old Boys Association,the MuhammadanEducationalConferencen ulama, Islamiacolleges,a guild of Muslinz graduates,donorsand benefactors,and representatives of the senate.The courthad the rightto maintainothercollegesand schoolsonly withinAligarhitself.Coursesof study, examinationsand discipline would be under the senate. For details see RevisedDraftof Act and Statutesby Bijnori,amendedby Wali Mahomed,I 9 I 6, and Wali Mahomed,draft bye-laws,I9I7, MURC, AA. Cf. BenaresHindu University Act (XVI of I9I5). 173 Suggestionsby Dr ZiauddinAhmad,MURC, AA. 174 The orientalfacultywas in line with Morison'sI904 scheme,but with undergraduateas well as graduatecourses.Bijnoriput considerableemphasison providing for a law faculty which would include advancedstudy of Islamicjurisprudence. Theology would be compulsoryfor all Muslims. Original Draft of Act, Statutes and Regulations,Typescript,MURC, AA.

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government,teachers,and trusteeswas still an importantquestion.All Aligarhleadersagreed that they would not accept a universitythat assignedless powerto the trusteesthan was the case with the M A-O College. ShaikhAbdullahcomplainedthat the draft constitutiondid not give the courtsufficientpowerover appointments)promotions,and dismissalsof staff.175 But ZiauddinAhmadand ShaikhAbdullahwere anxiousthat the Old BoysAssociation,still an Ali stronghold,should not be representedon the court. Accordingto ShaikhAbdullah,the associationrepresentedonly I2 per cent of the graduates.176 In April I 9 I 7, the Muslim University Foundation Committee reaffirmedits decision to accept the university,this time without conditions,but simply'the best university'they could get within the limits of the Benaresmodel.177Mahmudabadurged MahomedAli, who was still interned,to supportthe acceptanceand not to throwhis weight behind Bijnori'sschemefor an independentcollege at Dehra Dun,178but MahomedAli expressedsurpriseat the Raja's'variegated developmentof views',claimingthat he alone had kept faith.Granted the presentstate of Aligarh,he wrote: 'For the presentat least, we are incapableof controllingeven a college, let alone the university we once dreamedof controlling'.So he remainedagainstacceptance. As for the DehraDun college: I see the need of anotherinstitutionwhere we could work out in practice the theoriesand ideals which we who are the first-bornof Sir Syed axld Aligarh so to speak,have long cherished.... [M]any of us are incliIledto give up Aligarhratherthan the dreamsthey had dreamtthere.179

In late August I9I7, the regulationscommittee180 met Sir Sankaran Nair, Butler'ssuccessoras EducationMember. The delegation explained that the Aligarhtrusteeswere unwillingto lose controlover the institutionas the pricefor a university.Previously,the government 75 Suggestionsby ShaikhAbdullah,I7 August I9I7, ibid. 176 Suggestionsby ZiauddinAhmadand ShaikhAbdullah,ibid. 177 Resolutionspassedat MUFC meeting,Aligarhn8 April I9I7 Home Educ D June I 9 I 7, 5, NAI. 178Bijnori,though the drafterof the Muslim UniversityConstitution,had also

proposedfounding a Muslim college at Dehra Dun, independentof government control and patronage.For this scheme he had the financial backing of Prince Hamidullahof Bhopal,anotherAligarhold boy, and Dr Ansari.Mahmudabadto MahomedAli, 3I March I 9 I 7; Abdul Rahman to MahomedAli, 24 March I 9 I 9, MAP. 179MahomedAli to Mahmudabad,6 April I 9 I 7, MAP. 180The committeeincludedamong its membersMahmudabad,Mazharul-Haq, Ansari,NawabIshaqKhan, PrinceHamidullahof Bophal,Jinnah, Bijnoriand Wali Mahomed.

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had never had the right to dismissprofessorsat the college. Nair was unsympathetic:the recognitionof schoolswas no moreacceptable than the affiliationof colleges,and he tookexceptionto compulsorytheology. If the governmentwas to recognizethe degree,it must have some say in setting the standardsof examinations. 181 The government also objectedto representationof the Old BoysAssociationon the court182 and the proposalto give the courtpowerover the senate.183 While the regulationswere being drafteddomestic its headyet againin Aligarh.NawabIshaqKhan, a dissensionraised belatedconvertto radicalism,184 began to asserthis rightsas honorarysecretaryto interferein the internaladministrationof the college.185 However,he died in October IgI8,186during a new crisis between the staS and the trusteeswhen two British teachers were denied the usual annual incrementin their salaries.Despite governmenteffortsto themfrompressingthe matter,all eight of the BritishstaS discourage Aligarh'steacherswere now all Indians, and a Serce resigned.187 competition ensued for the principalship,with Ziauddin outmanocuvringWali Mahomedand Syed Ross Masud.188 Then on 25 January I9I9 the trusteesmet to consideramendmentsto the collegerules which would 181 Meeting of Regulations Committeeof Aligarh Muslim University,25, 27-28 Augustand I SeptemberI 9 I 7, MURC, AA. 182 The Old BoysAssociation in its I9I8 meetingobjectedto the proposalto have a graduate electoratein additionto an Old Boys Associationelectorate for the court, anddemandedforty representativeson the court. The same meeting supported Bijnori's Dehra Dun schemeand ignoredMahomedAli's proposal to establishit in Aligarh. RuidadOBA,I9I8. 183 Note by H. Sharp, IO October I9I7, Home Educ A February I9I8, I7, iNAI. 184 Along with the Muslim League the Nawab boycotted Montagu's visit to India. 185 'The young party . . . badgeredIshaq Khan till he Oakden to Butler,I O FebruaryI 9 I 9, Educ I 9 I 9, I 40, UPS. finally went over to it. 186 Syed Mahomed Ali succeeded him, in preference to Hamidullah Khan, lfawabSarbulandJang, Bhatnagar,Hijtoryof the M A-O pp. 267-8. The old familyrivalryat Aligarhwasthuscarriedinto the next C.ollege, Aliwas of Sir Syed'sfamily,while SarbulandJang was generation:SyedMahomed (andfather-in-lawof KhwajaAbdul Majid). But now the son of SamiullahKhan the content as well, since SarbulandJang and KhwajaAbdul feud had an ideological Majid supportedthe Ali brothers and, ultimately, non-cooperation,while Syed Mahomed Ali remained staunchly loyal to the raj. 187 'Troublein the AligarhCollege and the Resignationof Mr Towle, the Principal and otherEuropeanProfessors',Educ I9I 8, 22I, UPS. 188 Ross Masud, a member of the Indian EducationalService, grandsonof Sir Syed, and son-in-lawof Aftab, was defeatedon the grounds high a salaryand would work too closelywith his cousin, that he demandedtoo the honorarysecretary. Oakden to Butler, I O FebruaryI g I 9, Educ I g I9, I 40, UPS.

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givethe principalgreaterpower,andwouldadoptcivilservicestandards with regard to pay, terlure, and working conditions of the staff. Hakim Ajmal Khan objected to a proceduralinterpretationwhich would allow the rules to be amendedby two-thirdsof the members present,ratherthantwo-thirdsof the entirebodyof trusteesas had been customary.After a bitter debate, the Hakim, Dr Ansari, Khwaja and four othersstormedout of the meeting, threateningto take the issueto court.l89 Studentenrolment,which had been fallingover the past fouryears, now fell to below the level of I91I. C:ountingthe school,Aligarhnow had fewer studentsthan in I908. In the college proper there were now only 59I students,overtwo hundredlessthan the previousyear.t90 WhereasAligarhused to refusehundredsof applicationsbecauseof its overcrowdedboardinghouses,now no applicantswererefused,and the boardinghouseshad over threehundredvacancies.l9tThe reactionof severalgovernmentofficialswas to washtheirhandsof Aligarh,leaving it to saveitselfor be damned.l92 Others-disagreed:'It wouldhave been quiteeasyto have a breachin the College,to withdrawthe Government grant,to get Rampurto withdrawhis, and to precipitatea smash',but it wouldbe wiserto backup the 'goodMuhammadans'. WhileAligarh remained a college, the trustees,no doubt, had scope for making trouble; but there would be more control of the situationwhen it becamea university.l93 While affairsin the college were thus embroiled,no progressat all had beenmadetowardsthe universityuntil 23 SeptemberI9I9 when a groupfromthe MuslimUniversityAssociationmet again in Lucknow with Mahmudabadpresiding.They discussedinconclusivelythe collectionof unpaidsubscriptionsand the possibilityof sendinga deputation to the viceroy.l94Then in November,Butlervisited Aligarh, as lieutenant-governor of the United Provinces.This was taken as a sign of encouragementfrom the government,and the followingmonth a deputationof Syed MahomedAli, Ziauddin,Wali Mahomedt95and 189Oakdento Butler,I 9

FebruaryI 9 I 9, ibid. Bhatnagar,Historyof theM A-OCollege,p. 325. 191Wali Mahomed,'A briefnote on the decreasein the numberof studentsat the M A-O College Aligarh', I I January I9I9, Educ I9I9, 22 I, UPS. 192 De la Fosse,the Directorof PublicInstruction,UP, commented:'Nothingbut a periodof adversitycan bring the Trusteesto their senses.'De la Fosseto Keane, 4 October I 9 I 8, Educ I 9 I 9, I 40, UPS. 193 Mestonto Chief Secretary,UP, 28 January I 9 I 8, Educ I 9 I 8, 22 I . UPS. 194 UP SecretAbstracts,+ October I 9 I 9, Educ I 9 I 8, Xo, UPS. l95By then he was in Delhi as AssistantSecretaryin the Education Department.

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Mahmudabadmet Butleras a preludeto approachingthe Government of India directlyaboutframinga MuslimUniversityBill.l96 The situationin Indian higher educationhad now changed considerably,sincegovernmentdecidedto encouragethe creationof new non-affiliatinguniversities.In I9I8, HyderabadState had inaugurated the Urdu-medium-OsmaniaUniversity.l97The Calcutta University CommissionReport of I9I8 had set down detailed policies for the teachingand residentialuniversityof Dacca,which^rasto be openedin I920. In addition,Butler was vigorouslyinitiating efFortsto create similaruniversities at LucknowandAgra.l98The Rajaof Mahmudabad, who could hardlyneglecta universityfor Lucknow,his own city, was activein raisingfundsfor it.l99The Universityof Lucknowincludeda new Shia C:ollege,founded by a group of Shias dissatisfiedwith Aligarh.200 Thus all the ambitionsfor Aligarhas a centralinstitution in an independent,Muslim, all-India educationalsystem had gone by the board. Whereas the Hindu universityhad representedno threatto Aligarh'spretensionsall theseotheruniversitiescompetedfor Muslimpatronageand recruitment. Moreover, the Motltagu-C:helmsford reforms placed university education under the control of the provincialgovernments.Butler favouredrecastingthe proposeduniversityconstitutionso that the chief regulatingauthoritywould be the governmentof UP, not the central governmentnbut of course this would completely destroy Aligarh'sclaimsto all-Indiastatus.By now, the EducationMemberin the Governmentof India was MahomedShafi, Aligarh'sold loyalist wheel-horse.At first Shafi accepted Butler's suggestion,but after meetingwith a deputationfromAligarhin MarchI92O, he agreedwith his Aligarh friendsthat the Muslim UniversityBill should not be delayed lest it fall prey to 'mischiefmakers'in the new reformed legislativecouncil.The Aligarhpeople thereforedecided to pressfor K. MaharajSinghto H. Sharp, I2 DecemberI9I9, Educ I9I8, 4o,uPs. AkbarE{ydarihad been the chiefmoverin this, but the detailedworkhad been carriedon by a numberof people closely associatedwith Aligarh includingRoss Masud and XIabibur-Rahmanlihan Sherwani. 198 Included on the Lucknow University Committee were Ziauddin Wali Mahomed,WazirHasan,and Archbold,now Principalof Muir College Allahabad. De la Fosseto Butler,g SeptemberI 9 I 9, Educ I 9 I 9 384, UPS. 199Keane to EE.R. L. EIailey,22June I920, ibid. 200 The Shia Collegewas opposedby Aligarhleaderts, includingMahmudabada Shia-on the groundsthat it would accentuateShia-Sunni differences.Despite effortsto compromiseby locating it in Aligarh, it was ultimately establishedin Lucknowwith governmentblessing. De la Fosse to Butler, g SeptemberIgIg, 196 197

ibid.

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the Muslim UniversityBill as it stood. Since from the government point of view it was 'no longera controversialmeasure',Shafifeit that it would be expedient to pass the bill 'shortly before the Turkish peace termsare published'.20l Shafi'shasteto-passthe bill was understandable. The RowlattActs, the 'Punjabwrong',andthe Khilafatissuehadweakenedthe moderates in both C:ongressand League. At the League's I9I8 Delhi session, Dr Ansari condemnedBritain'sTurkish policy, and the Raja of Mahmudabad and his protege, Wazir Hasan, resigned from the Muslim League in FebruaryIgIg.202Meanwhile, the Ali brothers becameveryinvolvedwith the Khilafatissue, allyingwith the ulama, and finally joining with Gandhi in advocating a policy of noncooperation .203 In May I920, when the Turkisil peace terms were published, ShaukatAli called on all Muslimsto dissociatethemselvesfrom their ungodlygovernmentshouldMuslimdemandsconcerningthe Khilafat not be met; and Gandhi urged all Indiatls to support the Muslim demands,and added the 'Punjabwrong',as an issue to interestIlonMuslimsin non-cooperation.204 In SeptemberI920, the Congress,the League, and the Khilafat Committeemet in specialsessionin Calcuttaand voted in favourof non-cooperation, whichincludedthe boycottby studentsandteachersof all government or government-supportededucational institutions. Shafiand the Aligarhauthoritiesthus had good reasonfor puttingthe Aligarh Muslim UniversityBill onto the statute book as quickly as possible.205 It was passedin SeptemberIg20.206 Mahomed Ali launched into non-cooperationwork with all his usual gusto. His first target, not surprisingly,was Aligarh,where he made his final bid to commandits destiny.On I2 October I920, the Ali brothers and Mahatma Gandhi descended upon the college and addresseda meetingof trustees,staff, and studentsin the College Union on non-cooperation. The sameday they and theirsympathizers 201 Note by Shafi, 22 January I920; Shafi to Sir GeorgeLowndes,25 April I920, HomeEducA AugustI 920> I-7, NAI. 202 In I920 Mahmudabadacceded to the wishes of his old friend Butler by becomingHome Memberin the UP government. 203 For some detailsof this pilgrim'sprogresssee ShaukatAli to Khaliquzzaman, I 0 May I 9 I 9, Home Poll A July I 9 I 9, 2-32; MahomedAli to Ansari,I 2 May I 9 I 9, Home Poll BJune I9I9, 494-97, NAI; Eribune (Lahore),6 JanuaryI920. 204 IndianAnnual Register,I92I (Calcutta,I922), pp. 43, I I4-I5, I94-5. 205 Ziauddinto Butler,I SeptemberI920) Educ I9I8, 40, UPS. 206 For the provisionsof this Act, see Aligarh Muslim UniversityAct, XL of I 920.

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on the boardof trusteessent an ultimatumto the boardto give up any furthergrants-in-aidfromthe government,to refuseanykindof government interferencein the afEairsof the college, and to dis-affiliatethe college from Allahabad University. If the trusteesdid not comply by 29 Octoberthey intendedto call upon the teachersand studentsto withdrawfromthe college.207 The college authoritieshurried to organize their defences. The principal,Ziauddin,wroteto all parentsof Aligarhstudents,requesting them to come and take chargeof their boys beforethe fatefulday and thus prevent'the effortsof the late Sir Syed,of his successors,and the combineddevotionand energyof the communityfor the last forty-five years. . . [frombeing]wasted'.208 By this move,Ziauddinhoped to get most of the studentsout of the way, and to keep the non-cooperators from staging a mass walk-out.The honorarysecretarythen called a meeting of the board of trusteesfor 27 October,to vote on the ultimatum.This meeting,held in the home of MuzamilullahKhan, was attendedmostly by the trusteeswho lived near by. They resolvedto rejectthe ultimatum,disapprovedof the action of the Ali brothersin stirringup agitationamongthe students,and agreedto closethe college and schoolfor a month.209 Meanwhile,MahomedAli had ensconcedhimselfin the Old Boys' Lodge,whichhad the advantageof belongingto the Old BoysAssociation ratherthan to the collegenshouldthe collegeclose,he couldnot be evicted. He and MaulanaAbul Kalam Azad addresseda meetingof studentson 24 October,urgingthem not to cooperatewith a governmentthat so disregardedtheirreligiousdutiesand sentiments.About a hundredand fiftystudentssigneda pledgeto leave the college,should the trusteesveto non-cooperation.210 On 29 October MahomedAli announcedthe opening of a new independentCMuslim NationalUniversity',the Jamia Millia Islamia. It was inauguratedin the AligarhCollegemosque,with an addressby MaulanaMahmudul-Hasan,the reveredreligiousleaderof Deoband who had recentlyreturnedto India afterinternmenton Malta during the war. He spoke on the religiousreasonsfor non-cooperationand expressedthe hope that the Jamia Millia would reconcilethe English 207 Letter to Syed Mahomed Ali, I2 October I920, signed by the Ali brothers, Dr Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Mu'azzam Ali, Amir Mustafa Khan (Secretary of the Old Boys Association), H. M. Musa Khan, Mahomed Ismail Khan, and Zahur Ahmad; reprinted in the IndXendent, I 5 October I 920. 208 Letter from Dr Ziauddin to the parents of Aligarh students, published in Tribtene, 2I October I920. 2°sBombay Chronicle, 28 October I920. 210 Independent, 27 October I920.

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education of Aligarh and the religious education of Deoband.2ll Present at the ceremony were Mahomed Ali, appointed principal of the new institution,KhwajaAbdul Majid,HakimAjmalKhan, Dr Ansari,the other non-cooperatingtrusteesand the studentswho had agreed to follow them, as well as a large numberof Aligarh townspeoplewho turnedout to see the leaders.2l2 In his addresson this occasion, MahomedAli declared that his intentionwasnot to starta newinstitution,but ratherto purifyAligarh Collegeitself. He and his studentfollowersremainedin possessionof some boarding-houserooms and the Old Boys' Lodge for two days, refusingto leave. Finally,on 3I Octoberthe college authoritiescalled on the collectorof Aligarhforhelp.The policesurroundedthe occupied buildingsand serveda noticeon MahomedAli intimatingthat he and his followerscould eitherwithdrawpeacefully,or be forcefullyevicted as criminal trespassers.They withdrew to a make-shiftcollection of bungalowsand tents nearby.2l3MahomedAli was thus forced to abandonhis dreamof reforminghis alma mater and to found a new institution. On 22 Novembera MuslimNationalUniversityFoundationCommitteewasorganized,and electedHakimAjmalKhan as presidentand Haji Musa Khan of Aligarh as secretary.Present at the meeting, among others, were the Ali brothers,Gandhi, Azad, Ansari, and HasratMohani.Ironically,the meetingresolvedto begininstructionat the new institutionwith the standarduniversitycurriculum,with the additionof theology.A new curriculum,embodyingthe bestin English and Islamic educationwould, 'it is expected',be evolved. The committee also voted to arrange for examinations,without saying by whom they would be recognized, and to affiliate other national institutionsoutsideAligarh.2l4 The majorpurposeof theJamiaMilliaIslamiawasto actasa counterweightto the government-sponsored universityat Aligarh.It wouldbe free of governmentinfluenceand wholeheartedlycommittedto the Indian nationalistmovement.The contentof educationat the Jamia was intended to put far greater emphasison Islamic religion than had been the case with Aligarh.Accordingto a schemedrawnup by MahomedAli, the Jamia, from the primarystage onward, would 211

Hazrat Shaikh ul-Hind, Maulana Mahmud ul-Hasan, Khutbah-e-Sadarat aor

Fatwa-eEark-e-Mawalat (Deoband, I 920) . 212AIG, 30 October I920; Independent, 7 November

I920;

Tribune,9 November

I 920 213 214

AIG,I and 4 November I920; Bombay Chronicle, 5 November Bombay Chronicle, 29 ;lfovember I920.

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requirean 'intimateknowledge'of the Quran and Arabic. Primary school studentswould be given lessonsin ritual and basic religious principles.At the secondaryand universitylevel, Muslimjurisprudence and similarsubjectswould be a major part of the curriculum.The mediumof instructionthroughoutwouldbe Urdu; Europeanlanguages wereoptional.MahomedAli's schememade scantyprovisionfor some history, geography, politics, economics, psychology, mathematics, logic, naturalsciences,and drawing.An importantpart of the curriculum was the provisionfor manual and vocational training. The Jamia became a symbolfor Congressleaders,but they devotedlittle attentionto it. Forfiveyearsthe Jamia campedat Aligarh,but many of its students and teachers returned to the Muslim university, and its enrolmentfell almost to nothing with the collapse of noncooperation.Not manypeoplewere willingto sacrificethe advantages of a recognizeddegree.Reluctantly,the Jamia leadersgave up their effortto use the institutionas a tool for taking over AligarhUniversity.-Under Dr Zakir Husain, the school moved to the outskirts of New Delhi and becamedevoted entirelyto Gandhianeducational work.2ls

With the Jamia at their doorsthe Aligarhauthoritieswere anxious to get their universityestablishedand the UniversityFund safelyinto theirhands2l6 The gc)vernmentwas sympathetic,and c)n I December I920, the Muslim UniversityAct was brought into force, with the Raja of Mahmudabadas the firstvice-chancellor.2l7 Of those who had played leading roles in the realizationof the Aligarh Muslim University,Mahomec}Ali was conspicuousby his 215 MahomedAli, A Scheme of Studies for J%ational MuslimInstitutions in Indiv(Delhi, I92I). The standardgeneral history of the Jamia is Abd ul-Ghaffar

Madholi, ]vm'iahki Wahani(;NewDelhi, I965). 216 The fate of the UniversityFund concernedthem more than the desertionof theirpupils.Of the 326 studentswho left Aligarhduringnon-cooperation,only I25 joinedtheJamia; the rest stayedat home. (AligarhMuslimUniversityVice-Chance or's AnnualReport, I92I-22, AA.) But the MuslimUniversityAssociationand theFoundationCommitteestill controlledthe funds. Once the MuslimUniversity Actwas passedathe fundswould:by law be transferredto the university unlessthe Association met beforethis happenedand frozethe funds.Syed MahomedAli to H. Sharp,6 lfovember I920; Office-bearers of M A-O Collegeto Butler,I I November I920, Home Educ B April I92I, 3-20, NAI. 217TheBegum of Bhopal was chancellor,the Aga Khan pro-chancellorand Ziauddinpro-vice-chancellor. The governmentmade an annualgrantof Rs I00,000 -which was Rs 88,ooo more than M A-O Collegehad been getting. See Maharaj Singh,officiatingEducationSecretary,Governmentof India,to EducationSecretary, Government of UP, 7 JanuaryI 92 I, ibid. .

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absencefromits inaugurationon I7 DecemberI920. Replyingto the Raja'sinvitationto the ceremony,he wrote: I am painfullyawarethat it is not, as you state)'The long-cherisheddream of the Muslims',that 'has at last been realized'.... Surely, Raja Saheb, this was not the universityof your dreamsany more than mine nor can we call this the 'achievementof a grand and gloriousundertaking,to which you and I had both set our hearts.For had that been so, could we not have had our hearts'desirein I9I2 insteadof I920 ?218

This articlehas concentratedon certainaspectsof Muslimpolitical developmentto the unavoidableexclusionof otherswhichthe authors recogniseas equallyimportant.See also G. Minault'sPh.D. thesison the Khilafat Movement (Universityof Pennsylvania,I972), idem., 'Islamand Mass Politics:the Indian Ulama and the KhilafatMovement', in D. E. Smith (ed.)>Religaon andPoliticalModernization (New Haven, I974), idem.,'Urdu politicalpoetryduringthe KhilafatMovement', ModernAsianStudies)forthcoming;and D. Lelyveld's Ph.D. thesison the M A-O College,Aligarh(Universityof Chicago,I974), and idem.,'Three Aligarh students:Aftab Ahmad Khan, Ziauddin Ahmadand MuhammadAli', ModernAsianStudies(forthcoming). 218 MahomedAli to Mahmudabad,I9

DecemberI920, 7Eribune, 23 DecemberI920.