The Brahmayāmalatantra and Early Śaiva Cult of Yoginīs

THE BRAHM AYAM ALATANTRA AND EARLY SAIVA CULT OF YOGINlS

Shaman Hatley

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T h e p re s e n t s tu d y w o u ld h a v e b e e n im p o ssib le w ith o u t th e s u p p o r t o f n u m e ro u s in d iv id u a ls a n d in s titu tio n s . S ev eral y e a rs o f m y g r a d u a te s tu d ie s a t th e U n iv e rsity of P e n n s y lv a n ia w e re fu n d e d b y th e u n iv e rs ity itself, w h ile th e M u k ta b o d h a In d o lo g ical R e se a rc h In s titu te a n d th e A m e ric a n In s titu te o f In d ia n S tu d ie s p ro v id e d th e fe llo w s h ip s n e c e s s a ry fo r c o n d u c tin g d is s e rta tio n re se a rc h . T h e d e p a rtm e n ts o f R e­ lig io u s S tu d ie s a n d S o u th A sia S tu d ie s a t P e n n b o th p r o v id e d m e tra v e l g ra n ts a t v a rio u s tim e s, a n d s u s ta in e d m y in te lle c tu a l jo u rn e y in n u m e r o u s o th e r w ays. F o r access to m a n u s c r ip ts a n d o th e r re se a rc h m a te ria ls , I a m g ra te fu l to th e c u ra to rs a n d staff o f th e N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s o f K a th m a n d u , A siatic S o ciety o f B engal, D e p a rtm e n t of S a n s k rit (M a n u sc rip t D iv isio n ) o f V isv a b h a ra tl U n iv ersity , B h a n d a rk a r O rie n ta l R esea rch In s titu te , V an P e lt L ib rary , N e p a l R esea rch C e n te r, a n d A IIS C e n te r fo r A rt a n d A rch eo lo g y . I a m g ra te fu l to th e staff of th e A IIS office in P u n e fo r th e ir lo g isti­ cal s u p p o r t a s w ell, a n d p a rtic u la rly to P rof. S. S. B a h u lk a r o f th e T ilak M a h a ra s h tra V id y a p e e th , w h o a r ra n g e d fo r m y a ffilia tio n w ith th e

t . m .v .

a n d g ra c io u s ly s e rv e d as

m y a c a d e m ic a d v is o r in In d ia . M y s tu d ie s a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia h av e in d e b te d m e to n u m e ro u s te a c h e rs; b e y o n d th e d is s e rta tio n c o m m itte e , I ow e sp e c ia l th a n k s to P ro fe sso rs A d ity a B ehl, G e o rg e C a rd o n a , S te p h e n D u n n in g , th e la te (a n d m u c h m is se d ) W ilh elm H a lb fass, C h ris tia n N o v e tz k e , a n d L u d o R ocher. I a m p a r tic u la rly in d e b te d to th e la t­ ter, w h o first ta u g h t m e S a n sk rit a n d s u p e r v is e d m y

m .a

. stu d ie s. I a m also m u c h

o b lig e d to P rof. A lex is S a n d e rs o n o f th e U n iv e rsity o f O x fo rd , w ith w h o m I h a d th e p riv ile g e o f re a d in g p a r t o f th e Brahmayamala a t a n e a rly sta g e in m y re se a rc h , a n d w h o s e g u id a n c e h a s b e e n in v a lu a b le . P ro fe sso rs M ich ae l M e is te r a n d G u y W elbon, m e m b e rs of th e d is s e rta tio n c o m m itte e , h a v e b e e n c o n tin u a l so u rc e s o f k n o w le d g e a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t o v er n e a rly a d e c a d e , a n d I a m g ra te fu l fo r th e ir fe e d b a c k o n th e d is s e rta tio n a t v a rio u s sta g e s in its fo rm a tio n . M o st o f all, I w is h to th a n k P rof. H a r u n a g a Isa a c so n , fro m w h o m I h a v e le a r n e d m u c h o f w h a t I k n o w ; I a m lo st fo r ii

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iii

w o rd s to e x p re s s m y g ra titu d e fo r h is y e a rs o f p a in s ta k in g m e n to rs h ip . W ith o u t h is d e ta ile d fe e d b a c k o n d ra fts of th is th e sis, it w o u ld h av e b e e n a m u c h in fe rio r w o rk . S ev eral o th e rs h av e r e a d a n d m a d e v a lu a b le re m a rk s o n se c tio n s o f th e d iss e rta tio n , e sp e c ia lly A lb e rta F errario , A y e sh a Ira n i, P rof. K a th le e n K e sso n , P rof. J o h n N e m e c , a n d Dr. J u d it T o rz so k . I h a v e a lso b e n e fite d fro m th e o p p o r tu n ity to p re s e n t a n d d is ­ c u ss w o rk d r a w n fro m o r c o n n e c te d w ith th e d is s e rta tio n a t th e A IIS Ju n io r F ello w s' C o n fe re n c e in G u rg a o n (J a n u a ry 2006), th e U n iv e rsity o f V irg in ia a t C h a rlo tte sv ille (N o v e m b e r 2006), th e W o rk sh o p o n E a rly S a iv ism a t P o n d ic h e rr y (Ja n u a ry 2007), a n d C o n c o rd ia U n iv e rsity (Ja n u a ry 2007). T h e p re s e n t s tu d y w o u ld h av e b e e n m u c h p o o re r b u t fo r th e in c re a sin g av a il­ a b ility o f se a rc h a b le elec tro n ic texts. In p a rtic u la r, I a m in d e b te d to Dr. S o m a d e v a V a su d e v a a n d P rof. H a ru n a g a Isa a c s o n fo r s h a r in g e x te n siv e m a te ria l w ith m e, in ­ c lu d in g tra n s c rip tio n s o f m a n u s c rip ts o f u n p u b lis h e d s o u rc e s; to Dr. J u d it T o rz so k , w h o p ro v id e d m e a n e lec tro n ic c o p y o f h e r e d itio n o f th e Siddhayogesvarlmata; a n d to P ro f. A lex is S a n d e rso n , fo r p ro v id in g m e d r a f t e d itio n s o f p o rtio n s o f th e jayadrathaydmala, in c lu d in g its e n tire th ird b o o k (th e YoginTsancdraprakarana). A s a s tu d e n t of S aiv ism , I a m a lso in d e b te d to Dr. M a rk D y c z k o w sk i, w h o h a s m a d e av ailab le n u m e r o u s tra n s c rip tio n s o f u n p u b lis h e d ta n tric tex ts th r o u g h th e D ig ita l L ib ra ry of th e M u k ta b o d h a In d o lo g ic a l R esea rch In stitu te . H is c o lla tio n o f m a n u s c rip ts o f th e Tantrasadbhdvatantra h a s b e e n o f sig n ific a n t v a lu e in th is stu d y . I also th a n k P rof. V id y a D ehejia, w h o g av e p e r m is s io n to re p ro d u c e o n e o f h e r p h o to g r a p h s ( f i g u r e 2.6). T h e ty p e s e ttin g o f th e critica l e d itio n o f th e Brahmaydmala u s in g DTpX w a s in n o s m a ll m e a s u re e n a b le d b y te c h n ic a l h e lp fro m Dr. S o m a d e v a V a su d e v a, fro m w h o m I h a v e le a r n e d m u c h c o n c e rn in g S a iv ism as w ell. F inally, I o w e a n in c a lc u la b le d e b t to m y fam ily, w h o h a v e to le ra te d a g re a t d e a l so th a t I c o u ld c o m p le te th is th e sis, a n d g iv e n m e m u c h jo y in th e p ro c e ss. T his w o rk is d e d ic a te d to th e m .

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A

bstract

THE BRAH M AYAM ALA TAN TRA A ND EARLY SAIVA CULT OF YOGINlS Shaman Hatley

Dissertation supervisor: Harunaga Isaacson

The present thesis comprises a study of the Brahmayamalatantra, a scripture of early m e­ dieval tantric or "esoteric" Saivism, and its cult of yoginis: flying, shapeshifting female deities w hose occult powers practitioners sought in visionary, transactional encounters. Composed prior to the ninth century, and perhaps considerably earlier, this unpublished work of onehundred and one chapters and more than 12,500 verses constitutes one of the most signifi­ cant sources for the study of early Saiva ritual and goddess cults. After introducing the text, the tradition, and the figure of the yogini, chapters 2 and 3 review the extant literary, arthistorical, and epigraphic sources concerned with yoginis, w ith a focus on the background and early development of their Saiva cult. It is within this context that the Brahmayamala is situated. Particular problems addressed include the relationship between the yogini cult of the Brahmayamala and the Brahmanical Mother goddesses (matr), the post ninth-century temples of yoginis, early tantric Saiva literature, and the Buddhist yoginitantras. Chapter 4 investigates the Brahmayamala's form, textual strata, provenance, and social and geographic horizons, while chapter 5 examines the position the text articulates for itself within the Saiva tradition. Part II of the dissertation consists of critical editions and translations of several chapters of the BraYa, which appear in print for the first time.

iv

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C ontents

L ist o f T ables v ii

L ist o f F ig u re s v iii

I History and Sources 1

2

In tro d u c tio n

2

l.x

T h e Brahmayamalatantra a n d C u lt o f Y o g in is ........................................................

2

1.2

T h e Brahmayamala in S c h o l a r s h i p .............................................................................

23

1.3

A N o te o n C o n v e n tio n s

...................................................................................................29

E a rly E v id en c e fo r th e C u lt o f Y oginis: th e L iterary , S c u lp tu ra l, a n d E pig ra p h ic S o u rce s

3

1

31

2.1

In tro d u c tio n : Y oginis a n d M o th e r G o d d e s s e s ......................................................... 31

2.2

E a rly S o u rce s

2.3

T h e L a te r L ite ra ry E v i d e n c e ............................................................................................73

2.4

T em p les o f th e Y o g i n i s .................................................................................................... 110

2.5

C o n c l u s i o n s .........................................................................................................................128

........................................................................................................................35

T h e C u lt o f Y oginis a n d its B a c k g ro u n d in E a rly T an tric L ite ra tu re 131 3.1

I n t r o d u c t i o n .........................................................................................................................131

3.2

T h e B a c k g ro u n d o f th e Y ogini C u lt in T antric S aiva L i t e r a t u r e .................... 133

3.3

S c rip tu re s o f th e S aiva Y ogini C u lt: th e V id y a p lth a a n d K a u l a .................... 153 v

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3.4

Y oginis in E a rly B u d d h is t T antric L ite ra tu re

3.5

B u d d h is t a n d S aiva " Y o g in lta n tra s": th e C ase o f th e Brahmayamala a n d

..................................................... 162

Lagh 1icakrasam vara tan t r a ................................................................................................175 3.6

4

5

C o n c l u s i o n s ....................................................................................................................... 187

T h e C o n te n t, S tru c tu re , a n d P ro v e n a n c e of th e Brahmayamala 190 4.1

In tro d u c tio n : S elect Topics in th e Brahmayamala

4.2

S tru c tu re a n d T extual S t r a t a ........................................................................................200

4.3

O n th e P ro v e n a n c e o f th e B ra h m a y a m a la ................................................................211

.............................................. 190

To N a m e a T antra: Id e n tity , H isto ry , a n d th e S aiva C a n o n in th e E p ith e ts of th e Brahmayamala 237

6

5.1

B r a h m a y a m a la ................................................................................................................... 238

5.2

P i c u m a t a ..............................................................................................................................243

3.3

Navaksaravidhana: th e " M e th o d o f N in e S y l l a b l e s " ...........................................251

5.4

M iilatantra: th e " R o o t S c r i p t u r e " ............................................................................. 238

3.5

Dvadasasahasraka: th e " T a n tra o f T w e lv e -T h o u sa n d V e r s e s " ......................... 273

3.6

Vimala a n d th e U cchusmatantra

................................................................................. 275

C o n c lu s io n 282

II The Brahmayamala: A Critical Edition and Translation of Chapters i, 11, l v ,

lx x iii,

and xcix

A p p e n d ic e s 424 A C h a p te r C o lo p h o n s o f th e Brahmayamala i n its O ld e s t N e p a le s e C o d e x ( n a k 3-370) 425

W o rk s C ite d 434

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285

L is t o f Ta b l e s

3.1

A p a ra lle l p a s s a g e in Brahmayamala

4.1

F o rm s o f B h airav a in th e B r a h m a y a m a la .........................................................................192

4.2

Siddhantatantras o f th e M id d le S tre a m (madhyamasrotas) a c c o rd in g to BraYa xxxvm

l x x x iv

a n d Laghusamvara 2 6 ........................ 178

......................................................................................................................................... 217

4.3

T an tra s o f th e L eft S tre a m (vamasrotas) a n d L o w er S tre a m (adhahsrotas) .. . 218

4.4

Bhairavatantras o f th e R ig h t S tre a m (daksinasrotas)

4.5

A p a ra lle l p a s s a g e in th e Brahmayamala a n d N isva sa ta ttva sa m h itd ........................219

4.6

T h e N avatm an M a n tra in th e N isvasottara a n d th e Vidyaraja o f th e Svac-

....................................................218

c h a n d a ta n tr a ............................................................................................................................... 220 4.7

T h e N in e Tattvas in th e B r a Y a ............................................................................................. 221

4.8

In d iv id u a ls m e n tio n e d in BraYa 1 ...................................................................................... 230

4.9

T h e E ig h t C re m a tio n G ro u n d s in BraYa i n ................................................................. 233

4.10 T h e E ig h t S acred M o u n d s (pitha) in BraYa

l x x x iv

................................................... 234

5.1

D e ities o f th e Navaksara V i d y a ............................................................................................. 252

5.2

T h e T en S tre a m s of R e v ela tio n a c c o rd in g to BraYa x x x v m

.................................. 267

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L is t o f F ig u r e s

3-370, folios 3 v - 4 r . .............................

4

3-370, d e ta il o f fo lio s 3V a n d 4r, left th ir d ...........................................................

4

1.1

National Archives of Kathmandu

1.2

nak

1.3

Siva e n s h rin e d w ith in a circle o f s ix ty -fo u r y o g in is. Y ogini te m p le , R a n lp u r-

ms

Jh a ria l, O rissa. A IIS Photo A rchive..................................................................................... 2.1

12

M o th e r g o d d e s s b e a rin g lo tu s a n d in fa n t, m a k in g th e abhayamudra. K u sa ­ n a -e ra M a th u ra . A IIS Photo A rchive...................................................................................... 38

2.2

S k a n d a (left) a n d five m atrs. K u sa n a -e ra M a th u ra . S ta te m u s e u m , M a th u ra . A IIS Photo A rchive.........................................................................................................................39

2.3

K u b e ra a n d tw o m atrs. K u s a n a -e ra M a th u ra . A IIS Photo A rchive...........................40

2.4

S ev en m atrs, w ith S k a n d a (left).

K u sa n a -e ra M a th u ra .

S ta te m u s e u m ,

M a th u ra . A IIS Photo A rchive.................................................................................................... 40 2.5

B ird -h e a d e d M o th e r g o d d e s s c a rry in g a n in fa n t in h e r lik en ess. K u sa n a e ra M a th u ra . S tate m u s e u m , M a th u ra . A IIS Photo A rch ive........................................ 43

2.6

H o rs e -h e a d e d y o g in i fro m L o k h ari, U.P., w ith lik e in fa n t. P h o to g r a p h b y V idya D ehejia, p u b lis h e d in D eh ejia, Yogini C ult and Temples, 159..........................43

2.7

C a m u n d a a n d V in a y a k a /G a n e s a , R a m e sv a ra C ave (no. 21) m atr sh rin e , E llora. S ix th c e n t u r y . ................................................................................................................56

2.8

Siva a n d th e S ev en M o th e r g o d d e s s e s (d etail). S a p ta m a tr cliff s h rin e b e ­ tw e e n B a d o h a n d P a th a ri, M a d h y a P ra d e sh . A IIS Photo A rch ive.............................59

2.9

S a p ta m a tr P an el, w ith V lra b h a d ra (left) a n d G a n e sa (rig h t).

S ta te M u ­

s e u m , A s h a p u ri, M a d h y a P ra d e s h . A IIS Photo A rchive................................................59 viii

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2.10 Yaksa a t p illa r b a se , N a g a rju n a k o n d a . N a tio n a l M u s e u m , N e w D elhi. A IIS Photo A rchive................................................................................................................................... 62 2.11 T h e rio m o rp h ic gana o r dvarapala. D e o ra n i te m p le (circa 6 th c e n tu ry ); Tala, n e a r B ilasp u r, M.P. A IIS Photo A rchive................................................................................. 62 2.12 H e a d o f a fa n g e d , la rg e -e a re d yaksa. P aw ay a, G w a lio r, M .P. 5 th -6 th cen ­ tury. A IIS Photo A rchive..............................................................................................................63 2.13 M a h a k a la a n d K ali? E llora, R a m e s v a ra cave te m p le , w e st w a ll o f M o th e rg o d d e s s sh rin e . A IIS Photo A rchive....................................................................................... 71 2.14 Siva " G a ja s a m h a ra m u rti," V aital D e u l te m p le , B h u v an esv a r. A IIS Photo A rchive............................................................................................................................................... 72 2.15 F ro n ta l v ie w o f th e H lr a p u r y o g in i te m p le . A IIS Photo A rchive............................. 112 2.16 H lr a p u r y o g in i w ith damaru d r u m , s ta n d in g u p o n w h e e l a n d r a t (?). A IIS Photo A rchive (d e ta il)................................................................................................................. 114 2.17 H lr a p u r y o g in i o n lo tu s a n d e le p h a n t, d rin k in g fro m a sk u ll-b o w l. P h o to ­ g r a p h b y D o n S ta d tn e r, fro m th e A IIS Photo A rchive.................................................. 114 2.18 O n e o f n in e "katyayanis" (?); H lr a p u r y o g in i te m p le , to th e rig h t o f th e e n tra n c e , e x te rio r fa cad e , s ta n d in g u p o n se v e re d h e a d . A IIS Photo Archive.

115

2.19 L io n -fa ced y o g in i, H lr a p u r te m p le . P h o to g r a p h b y D o n S ta d tn e r; in c lu d e d in th e A IIS Photo A rchive..........................................................................................................115 2.20 E k a p a d a b h a ira v a , H lr a p u r y o g in i te m p le . A IIS Photo A rch ive............................... 116 2.21 C a m u n d a , H lr a p u r y o g in i te m p le . A IIS Photo A rchive (d e ta il)...............................116 2.22 V e n eratio n o f s a n d a ls re p re s e n tin g a y o g in i, d e p ic te d b e lo w a y o g in i im ­ a g e 's p e d e s ta l. B h e ra g h a t y o g in i te m p le . A IIS Photo A rch ive..................................119 5.1

T h e 'O r ig in o f S c rip tu re ' (Sivatantrotpatti) a c c o rd in g N isvasatantra, U ttarasutra 1 . 2 3 - 2 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 260

5.2

T h e 'D e s c e n t o f S c rip tu re ' (sastravatara) a c c o rd in g to Svacchandatantra 8

5.3

T h e 'D e sc e n t o f S c rip tu re ' (sastravatara) a c c o rd in g to Brahmayamala 1 a n d

. . 261

x x x v m ......................................................................................................................................... 263

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A

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b b r e v ia t io n s

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Brahmayamala codex nak 3-370 (in part 1) Brahmayamala codex nak 3-370 (in the edition and translation) BraYa codex nak 5-1929 (in part 1) BraYa codex nak 5-1929 (in the edition and translation) BraYa codex nak 1-143 (in part 1) BraYa codex nak 1-143 (in the edition and translation) BraYa codex nak 1-286 (in part 1) BraYa codex nak 1-286 (in the edition and translation) BraYa codex nak 6-2608 (in part 1) BraYa codex nak 6-2608 (in the edition and translation) K aulajnananirnaya codex nak 3-362 (ngmpp reel A 48/13)

K ] N ed

P. C. Bagchi's edition of the K aulajnananirnaya (see bibliography)

q t k sts

Svacchandatantra, ksts edition

g rj,COd p sk,kh,g

Svacchandatantra, ms nak 1-224 Tantrasabhava mss "ka," "kha," and "ga," as reported by Dyczkowski

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Pa r t I H ist o r y

and

So urces

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C hapter i In t r

1.1

o d u c t io n

THE BRAHM AYAM ALATANTRA A N D CULT OF YOGINIS

O n th e e ig h th d a y o f th e w a x in g m o o n o f th e m o n th o f M a g h a in th e y ea r 172, N ep a l-sa m v a t— S u n d ay , 12 Ja n u a ry , 1052

c .e

.— a

c e rta in Jay a k ara jiv a, w h o re s id e d in

th e v ic in ity o f K a th m a n d u 's P a s u p a tin a th a te m p le , c o m p le te d c o p y in g a S a n s k rit tex t ca lle d , a m o n g o th e r n a m e s , th e Brahmayamala. T his e n d e a v o r h a d u n d o u b te d ly o c­ c u p ie d h im a lo n g w h ile , fo r th e te x t fills th re e h u n d r e d a n d fifty -e ig h t lo n g , d o u b le ­ s id e d p a lm -le a f sh e e ts

(f i g u r e s

3.1-2). F o rtu n a te ly , th e p r o d u c t o f h is la b o rs fo u n d

its w a y in to th e m a n u s c r ip t c o llec tio n s o f N e p a le s e ro y alty , a n d is to d a y h o u s e d in th e N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s in K a th m a n d u .1 B u t fo r th is, p re c io u s little k n o w le d g e o f a v a s t a n d im p o rta n t p r e n in th -c e n tu r y w o rk w o u ld h av e b e e n p o ss ib le ,2 a fa te w h ic h h a s b e fa lle n all to o m a n y w o rk s o f ta n tric lite ra tu re . T h e o th e r e x ta n t co d ice s of th e Brahmayamala (h e re a fte r BraYa), also o f N e p a le s e p ro v e n a n c e , all a p p e a r to d e s c e n d fro m th is e le v e n th -c e n tu ry m a n u s c r ip t.3 A lth o u g h th e s c r ip tu re itse lf w a s n o t c o m ­ p o s e d in N e p a l,4 n o c o m p le te m a n u s c r ip t a p p e a rs to d a y to s u rv iv e o u ts id e o f th is 1

n a k

accession no. 3-370. See the

m s 's

description in the introduction to the critical edition. Luciano

P e te c h r e c o r d s th e c o lo p h o n a n d d a te o f th e m a n u s c r i p t a s fo llo w s: " M s. B r a h m a y a m a la , N a tio n a l

Archives, m.370. Colophon: samvat 100-50-2 Magha-suklastamyam adityadine R.-P.-sn-Baladeva-rajye snPasupativastavya sn-Jayakarajivena Brahmayamalam ndma iastram likhitam. Written at Pasupati Nath. The date is verified for Sunday, January 12th, 1052." Petech, Mediaeval History o f Nepal (circa 750-1482), 2nd ed., 44. (Petech's samvat 100-50-2 is a typographical error for samvat 100-70-2; the m s reads samvat a cii 2.) 2 The dating of the Brahmayamala is addressed in chapter 4, section 3. 3 Manuscripts of the BraYa are described and discussed in the introduction to the critical edition. 4 The question of the provenance of the BraYa is taken up in chapter 4. 2

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3

re g io n . T h e BraYa d e s ig n a te s itse lf a tantra: a tre a tise , o ste n s ib ly o f d iv in e o rig in , c o n ­ s id e re d a u th o rita tiv e s c rip tu re w ith in th e c u lt o f S iva th a t is " b a s e d o n th e tantras" (tantrika)— i.e. "T an tric S aiv ism ." T h e m o s t sig n ific a n t e m ic te r m fo r th is tra d itio n is " th e M a n tra m a rg a " o r "W ay o f M a n tra s ." 5 It s h o u ld n o t b e in fe r re d fro m th e p a u c ity o f e x ta n t m a n u s c rip ts th a t th e BraYa w a s a n u n im p o r ta n t o r little -k n o w n w o rk o f ta n tric lite ra tu re . A g lim p s e o f th e a u th o rity it o n ce c o m m a n d e d m a y b e h a d in th e w ritin g o f th e K a sh m iri p o ly m a th A b h in a v a g u p ta (fl. circa

1000

c

.e .) ,

w ho

c ite d th e s c rip tu re o fte n d e s p ite its d e g re e o f cu ltic a n d d o c trin a l re m o te n e ss .6 S o m e­ w h a t lik e th e Rudrayam ala, th e a c tu a l te x t w o u ld la rg e ly b e fo rg o tte n ;7 y e t its a u ra of a u th o rity w o u ld p e rs is t, o n th e b a s is o f w h ic h th e re w o u ld e m e rg e sev e ral n e w " B r a h m a y a m a la s I a m a w a re o f five: a S o u th In d ia n te x t c o n n e c te d w ith th e c u lt of B h a d ra k a ll, in w h ic h so m e tra c e s o f th e o ld e r BraYa a re d isc e rn a b le ;8 a n o th e r S o u th 5 On the term "Mantramarga" and its scope, see Alexis Sanderson, "Religion and the State: Saiva Of­ ficiants in the Territory of the King's Brahmanical Chaplain," 229 (n. 1). On the term tantra, see Sander­ son, "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions," 661-62. It is noteworthy that in addition to "Mantramarga," the BraYa in one instance uses the term "Tantramarga" in what appears to be a comparable sense. BraYa xcv.29cd-3oab: tantramargaprasiddhena vidhinavarttayan sada || 29 || prapnuyata mahadevi siddhayo manasepsitah \ “psitah ] e m °psita Bya

"Ever repeating [the mantra] w ith the m ethod established in the Way of Tantras, O Great Goddess, one w ould obtain the siddhis the mind desires." (prapnuyata appears to represent the "correct" optative, prapnuyat, metri causa, w hile siddhayah is nom ­ inative in form but accusative in sense—a common phenom enon in the BraYa.) Harunaga Isaacson (personal communication, September 2007) draws m y attention to the fact that the Purascaryarnava refers to Tantric Saivism as the Way of Tantras as well, in i.i49ab: vedamargam parityajya tantramargaikatatparah, "[those who,] abandoning the Way of the Vedas, are devoted exclusively to the Way of Tantras tr

6 For a discussion of som e of Abhinavagupta's references to the BraYa, see chapter 4, section 3 (n. 57)7 On the Rudrayamala, of which no old version survives but which became "the foremost locus of a s c rip tio n i n H i n d u T a n tric lite r a tu r e ," s e e G o u d r ia a n , Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature, 4 7 -4 8 . It is

possible that the old BraYa continued to have a place in N epalese tradition into the early twentieth century; Haraprasad Sastrl, w ho more than a century ago cataloged the oldest codex of the BraYa, reports on view s of the text then current in Nepal: "in the opinion of the Pandits of Nepal the full texts of Brahma Yamala is a lakh and a quarter of slokas, and that it belongs to all the six schools of Tantra. The present work, extending over 1200 [sic; 12,000?] slokas, belongs, however, to the western school." A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscripts Belonging to the Durbar Library Nepal, vol. 11, reprinted in Reinhold Grimendahl, A Concordance o f H. P. Sastri's Catalogue of the Durbar Library and the Microfilms of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project, 61. 8 This text is preserved, incomplete, in a Devanagarl transcription in the collection of the Institut

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4

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5

In d ia n "Brahmayamala" re la te d to th is o f w h ic h o n ly a fe w c h a p te rs su rv iv e ;9 a s h o rt te x t p re s e rv e d in a B en g ali m a n u s c r ip t e x p o u n d in g a se rie s o f ritu a l d ia g ra m s (cakras o r yantras), w ith n o d isc e rn a b le re la tio n to th e o ld e r BraYa;10 a te x t o f th e c u lt o f T a ra b y th is n a m e tra n s m itte d in a n u n tra c e d B en g ali m a n u s c rip t, a se c tio n o f w h ic h h a s b e e n p u b lis h e d ;11 a n d a "Brahmayamala" p re s e rv e d in a sin g le , fr a g m e n ta ry N e p a le s e m s,

w h ic h th o u g h eclectic, d ra w s d ire c tly fro m th e o ld e r BraYa.12 A d d itio n a lly , th e

BraYa h a s b e e n th e lo c u s o f a s c rip tio n fo r se v e ra l h y m n s o f p ra is e (stotra),13 a n d Fran^ais de Pondichery (manuscript T. 522), copied from a manuscript from Tirukkalukkunram in Tamil Nadu. Very recently, this text has been discussed by Alexis Sanderson, w ho provides evidence for its South Indian provenance and shows several respects in which it demonstrates continuity with the older Brahmayamala. Sanderson, "Arthavavedins in Tantric Territory: the Angirasakalpa Texts of the Oriya Paippaladins and their Connection w ith the Trika and the Kalikula. With critical editions of the Parajapavidhi, the Paramantravidhi, and the *BhadrakalTmantravidhiprakarana," 277- 78. 9 This text, transmitted in Trivandrum University Library m s no. 982, is mentioned by Sanderson, ibid.; he reports that it breaks off in the fifth chapter. I have been unable to consult the text thus far. That it concerns the cult of Bhadrakali is suggested by passages Sanderson cites in ibid., 2.78 (n. 143). 10 Asiatic Society of Bengal manuscript G 6 3 9 2 . 11 Two chapters of this text were published as an appendix in Girisacandra Vedantatirtha (ed.), Tdrdtantram. Snginscandravedantatirthasahkalitam. With an Introduction by A . K. Maitra. By all appear­ ances from a m uch later period, this "Brahmayamala" seems unrelated to the older text of the same name. The m s on which the edition is based apparently comes from the collection of the Varendra Research M useum Library. Maitra, introduction to ibid., 22. However, this might no longer be available, for the archive's relevant catalog of manuscripts makes no mention of it. Several "Brahmayamala" manuscripts are described, but none appear likely to be the basis for the published text: number 279 transmits the Snradhakavaca "in" the Brahmayamala (the colophon reads iti snbrahmayamale haragaurlsamvade sn radhakavacam sampurnam). Number 250, of sixteen folios, consists of a stotra of the goddess Tara (the colophon reads iti snbrahmayamale taradevyah samrajye samjham [?] takaradisahasranamastotram samdptam). Number 310 (six folios) is the "Caitanya-kalpa" of the BraYa (iti brahmaydmale sivadurgasamvdde caitanyakalpalm. Number 303 (five folios) consists of the "Gttdsdra" attributed to the BraYa (no colophon is provided). Sachindra Nath Siddhanta, A Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Varendra Research M useum Library, vol. I, 228-29. The material published from the Varendra BraYa codex narrates the journey of the Brahmanical sage Vasistha to "Mahacina," where the inebriated Buddha instructs him in "the Chinese method" (cindcdra) for the worship of Tara. As Joel Bordeaux brought to m y attention (personal communication, May, 2007), this has close parallels in chapters 1-2 of the Mahacmdcdratantra, a text published by Marion Meisig. Die "China-Lehre” Des Saktismus: MahacTnacdra-Tantra, kritisch ediert nebst Ubersetzung und Glossar. 12 n a k 1 - 1 5 5 7 ( n g m p p reel A 1 6 5 / 1 6 ) . This undated paper manuscript, in Newari script, consists of twenty-one folios; the scribe appears not to have completed his task, or else to have copied from an incomplete exemplar. The text calls itself by several of the titular epithets of the old BraYa (on which see chapter 5): Picumata, Navaksaravidhana, and, of course, Brahmayamala. The text breaks off in the twelfth chapter, unfortunately. It directly draws upon or echoes the old BraYa pervasively, in effect comprising a digest of the latter. Its seventh chapter, for instance, incorporates material from BraYa i .i v and l v on the subject of Mahakala and the Mothers, and secret signs (chomma). The old BraYa does not appear to be its only source, however, for this chapter contains material related to the Tantrasadbhava as well: a passage from ff. I4r-i4 v has close parallels in Tantrasadbhava 1 8 . 1 8 - 2 5 . 13 Theodor Aufrecht makes reference to at least fifteen distinct works having the BraYa as locus of ascription, m ostly apotropaic hymns (the kavaca genre) and hymns of the "thousand names" genre of panegyric (sahasranamastotra). Aufrecht, Catalogus Catalogorum. A n Alphabetical Register o f Sanskrit Works and Authors, vol. 1, 382; vol. 11, 87; and vol. in, 81. See also n. 11 above. I have had no opportunity to

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6

p o s s ib ly m o re lite ra tu re th a t h a s n o t c o m e to m y a tte n tio n . T h o u g h s u rv iv in g in ju s t a h a n d f u l o f m a n u s c rip ts , th e o ld BraYa h a s in fa ct fa re d b e tte r th a n m o s t e a rly S aiva sc rip tu re s. A s D o m in ic G o o d a ll sh o w s, a re la tiv e ly sm all n u m b e r of th e e a rly tantras o f th e S a iv a s id d h a n ta s u rv iv e s; fu rth e rm o re , m a n y o f th e te x ts lis te d in a n c ie n t d e s c rip tio n s o f th e ta n tric S aiva c a n o n ex ist o n ly in v e rsio n s o f p o s t ele v e n th -c e n tu ry , S o u th In d ia n p ro v e n a n c e .14 A n d little a t a ll s u rv iv e s o f th e s c rip tu re s o f th e p ro to -ta n tric c u lts o f th e S aiva A tim a rg a , " th e P a th B ey o n d ," w h ic h a p p a re n tly fo r m e d th e im m e d ia te b a c k g ro u n d o f th e S aiva M a n tra m a rg a .15 T an tric tra d itio n s h a v e b e e n c h a ra c te riz e d in p o p u la r c u ltu re a n d n o sm a ll a m o u n t o f s c h o la rs h ip a s q u in te s s e n tia lly c o n c e rn e d w ith g o d d e s s e s a n d / o r ritu a liz e d fo rm s of se x u a l ac tiv ity .16 B u t th a t th e re is n o in trin s ic c o n n e c tio n w ith eith er, a n d th a t th e tw o a re n o t c o n c o m ita n t, s h o u ld in fa ct b e o b v io u s; in d e e d , g o d d e s s e s a n d ritu a l c o itu s h av e little o r n o p la c e in se v e ra l o f th e m ajor, e a rly ta n tric tra d itio n s . T antric B u d d h is t p ra c tic e s y s te m s b a s e d o n th e yogatantras a n d e a rlie r lite ra tu re in fre q u e n tly a c c o rd h ig h cu ltic s ta tu s to fe m a le d e itie s , w h ile se x u a l ritu a l a p p e a rs to h av e b e e n a c o m p a ra tiv e ly la te d e v e lo p m e n t.17 E x ta n t so u rc e s o f th e V aisnava tra d itio n o f th e P a n c a ra tra a p p e a r to g iv e n o p la c e to ritu a liz e d sex u a lity , w h ile th e Laksm itantra— a w o rk o f th e e a rly se c o n d m ille n n iu m s h o w n to h a v e b e e n in flu e n c e d b y n o n d u a l­ consult the manuscripts of these works; but w ith titles such as Suryakavaca, Ramakavaca, and Caitanyakalpa, it seems m ost improbable that any of them is connected to the old BraYa. 14 Goodall, introduction to Bhatta Ramakantha's Commentary on the Kiranatantra. Vol. 1: Chapters 1-6, xxxvi-li. 15 On the division of Saivism into Atimarga and Mantramarga traditions, see Sanderson, "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions," 664-69; and Sanderson, "The Lakulas: N ew Evidence of a System Interme­ diate Between Pancarthika Pasupatism and Agamic Saivism," passim. Sanderson discusses what can be gleaned concerning lost scriptures of the Atimarga in ibid., and "History through Textual Criticism in the Study of Saivism, the Pancaratra and the Buddhist Yoginltantras," 29-31. 16 To catalog the varied guises in which such visions of the tantric traditions have and continue to surface is no small task; Hugh Urban's recent monograph tracing the genealogy of modern understand­ ings of "Tantra" provides a useful starting point: Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion. 17 Coitus and the ritual engagement w ith other varieties of 'impurity' appear to have their earliest attestation in the Sarvatatluigatatattvasamgraha. See Steven Weinberger, "The Significance of Yoga Tantra and the Compendium of Principles (Tattvasamgraha Tantra) within Tantric Buddhism in India and Tibet," 197-200. These elements take on added importance in the Guhyasamajatantra and related works, litera­ ture in som e respects transitional between the yogatantras and yoginltantras, and classified accordingly as mahayogatantras. See Anthony Tribe, "Mantranaya/Vajrayana: tantric Buddhism in India," 212-13. Jn the present thesis, chapter 3, section 4, discusses the emergence of goddess cults in Tantric Buddhism.

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is t S a iv ism — se e m s e x c e p tio n a l in a c c o rd in g th e o lo g ic a l p re e m in e n c e to th e d iv in e fe m in in e .18 A n d in th e e a rly p a n - In d ia n a n d liv in g S o u th In d ia n tra d itio n s o f th e S a iv a s id d h a n ta , fe m a le d e itie s h av e s u b s id ia ry ro les, w h ile s e x u a l ritu a l is little a t­ te s te d .19 A rg u a b ly , th e s e re p re s e n t th e p re d o m in a n t ta n tric tra d itio n s flo u ris h in g in S o u th A sia a n d th e la n d s of its c u ltu ra l in flu e n c e th ro u g h m u c h o f th e e a rly m e d ie v a l p e r io d .20 Yet ta n tric tra d itio n s d id d e v e lo p th a t c e n te re d u p o n g o d d e s s e s, in c lu d in g o n e s w h ic h h a r n e s s e d se x u a lity as a n im p o rta n t e le m e n t in a w id e ra n g e o f p ra c ­ tices fo c u s e d u p o n a c h ie v in g o c c u lt p o w e rs (siddhi) a n d lib e ra tio n (m u kti, moksa). T h e BraYa re p re s e n ts s u c h a tra d itio n . It in fa ct c o m p ris e s o n e o f th e m o s t c o n s e q u e n ­ tial so u rc e s o f e v id e n c e fo r e a rly ta n tric S aiva g o d d e s s c u lts, w h ile se x u a lity h a s a s ig n ific a n t p re s e n c e in its sy ste m s o f ritu a l. In a m o d e l o f th e c a n o n o f S aiva s c rip tu re a d v a n c e d in c h a p te r th irty -e ig h t of 18 Alexis Sanderson argues for the influence of the Pratyabhijnahrdaya of the Kashmiri author Ksemaraja, as well as other Saiva works, on the Laksmltantra, in "History through Textual Criticism," 35- 36. On the Laksmltantra and the role of goddesses therein, see Sanjukta Gupta's introduction to her translation, Laksml Tantra: A Pancaratra Text. Translated with an Introduction and Notes. 19 On the comparative insignificance of goddesses in the Nisvdsatattvasamhitd, an early siddhantatantra, see chapter 3, section 2. Interestingly, sexual ritual does have limited attestation in som e of the earliest siddhdntatantras, though even in these it appears marginal. See Sanderson, review of N. R. Bhatt, ed., MatahgapdrameSvaragama (Kriydpada, Yogapada et Caryapada), avec le commentaire de Bhatta Ramakantha, and of Bhatt, ed., Rauravdgama. Edition Critique, introduction et notes, 565; and also chapter 3, section 2, in the present thesis. 20 Nonetheless, m uch of the scholarly literature has assumed an artificial distinction that, at times, goes so far as to exclude the Vaisnava Pancaratra a n d /or Saivasiddhanta from the category of "Tantra." N ote for instance David White's recent remarks: "a number of works that closely resemble the Tantras in their ritual focus call themselves Agamas or Samhitas. These are works belonging to the ... Saivasiddhanta and (Vaisnava) Pancaratra schools, respectively." Kiss o f the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts, 17. This view, which suggests that the Saivasiddhanta and Pancaratra are marginal to the study of tantric traditions proper, is based in part on w hat Dominic Goodall points out is an artificial distinction between tantras and agamas: in fact, early Saiva scriptural sources, whether siddhdntatantras or e.g. bhairavatantras, designate themselves by both these terms, and samhita is attested as well. Goodall, introduction to Bhatta Ramakantha’s Commentary on the Kiranatantra. Vol. I: Chapters 1-6, xxxvi-xxxix. That the Pancaratra scriptures— which often do refer to themselves as samhitas— are also, by their ow n designation, "tantras," requires little investigation; note, for instance, the text title "Laksmltantra" (see above), and e.g. Ahirbudhnyasamhita n.62ab: pancardtrahvayam tantram moksaikaphalalaksanam ("[Visnu created] the Tantra called 'Pancaratra,' characterized by having liberation as its sole aim"). Cf. Yamunacarya's Agamapramanya, which refers to "the status of the Pancaratra tantras as authoritative scripture" Cpancaratratantraprdmdnya) in the prose im mediately following the introduc­ tory verses. Marginalization of the Pancaratra and Saivasiddhanta from the study of tantric traditions in effect reinforces the characterization, alluded to above, of "Tantra" as being intrinsically concerned with goddesses an d /or sexuality, for the other m ost influential tantric traditions—Tantric Buddhism (in its latter phases), and non-Saiddhantika tantric Saivism—provide much greater attestation of goddess cults and trangsressive ritual. See also n. 32 below.

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th e BraYa, tantras a re o rg a n iz e d in to th re e p r im a r y s c rip tu ra l " stre a m s " (srotas): th e siddhdntatantras o f th e " m id d le s t r e a m / ' d is tin g u is h e d b y th e ir fo c u s u p o n th e d e ity S ad asiv a; th e vam atantras o f th e " le ftw a rd s tr e a m /' re g a rd e d a s s c rip tu ra l a u th o ritie s fo r th e c u lt o f th e S iste rs o f T u m b u ru ; a n d th e " rig h tw a rd s tre a m " o f th e bhairavatantras. T h e BraYa id e n tifie s itse lf w ith th e la tte r— s c rip tu re s o f th e c u lt o f B hairav a, S iv a 's m a n ife s ta tio n as th e a rc h e ty p a l s k u ll-b e a rin g ascetic o r kapalin. F u rth e rm o re , a n im p o r ta n t e a rly classific atio n o f th e bhairavatantras a tte s te d in th e BraYa. s u b d i­ v id e s th e s e s c rip tu re s in to f o u r " se a ts " o r " m o u n d s " (pttha): th o s e o f ritu a l g e s tu re s o r m ndras; o f m a n d a la s , d ia g ra m m a tic re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e d eitie s; o f [m ale] m a n tra s; a n d o f vidyas, th e " lo re s" o r "[fem ale] w is d o m m a n tra s ." 21 M a n tra s a re g e n d e re d , fo r th e y a re d iv in itie s — n o t in fre q u e n tly re fe rre d to as " m a n tra -d e itie s " (mantradevata).22 T h is o n to lo g ic a l id e n tific a tio n o f efficacio u s sonic fo rm u la e w ith d iv in itie s is d is tin c ­ tiv e to th e ta n tric tra d itio n s . T h e d iv is io n b e tw e e n th e M a n tra p lth a a n d V id y a p lth a is in fa c t o n e b e tw e e n m a le m a n tra -d e itie s a n d th e fe m a le vidya-g o d d e s se s. It is w ith in th e V id y a p lth a o f th e bhairava-stxe&m o f re v e la tio n th a t th e BraYa s itu a te s itself, a n a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f th e p re p o n d e ra n c e o f fe m in in e d iv in itie s in th e ritu a l sy ste m s it a d v a n c e s . W h ile a v a rie ty o f te rm s d e s ig n a te th e se g o d d e s s e s, fo re m o s t a re th e s y n o n y m s yo g in i—th e fe m in in e e q u iv a le n t o f yogin, i.e. " y o g i" — a n d yogesi/ yogesvan: " fe m a le m a s te r o f y o g a ." 23 T h e c u lt of y o g in is is c e n tra l to th e BraYa. T h is s c r ip tu re e x p o u n d s a p a n th e o n o f m a n tra -d e itie s h e a d e d b y th e bhairava k n o w n a s " K a p a lls a " (" L o rd of th e S ku llb e a re rs" ) a n d th e s u p re m e G o d d e ss , h is c o n so rt, k n o w n p rim a rily a s C a n d a K a p alin I 21 On the BraYa's m odel of the Saiva canon, see chapter 5, sections 4 and 5; see also chapter 4, section 4 (especially t a b l e s 4.2-4). On the subdivision of the bhairavatantras into plthas, see Sanderson, "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions," 668-71; and in the present thesis, chapter 3, sections 2 (in the discussion of the Svacchandatantra) and 3. 22 Note, e.g., BraYa xi.43ab, referring to the smarana-mantra (on w hich see chapter 5, section 3): nanena rahitd[h] devi sidhyante mantradevatah, "without this [mantra], the mantra-deities do not bestow siddhi." Cf. Ksemaraja's comments ad Svacchandatantra i-76cd-77ab. The latter provides the mantra of Kapalesa[bhairava], ending w ith the statement, kapalesah praklrtitah in 77b ("[this] is proclaimed to be Kapalesa"); Ksemaraja remarks, ayam kapalesa [praklrtitah] uktah mantranam mantradevataikatmatvat ("this is said to be Kapalesa, because of the fact that mantras and the mantra-deities are identical"). 23 Although not attested in the BraYa, yoglsi also occurs in the literature in the same sense, e.g. Tantraloka 1.322a.

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(" G rim B earer o f th e S k u ll"), " A g h o rl" (" N o t T errib le"), a n d "B h a irav l."

S everal

se ts o f g o d d e s s e s c o m p le te th e p r im a r y d e ity m a n d a la : th e F o u r G o d d e ss e s (devi) o r G u h y a k a s; th e F o u r A tte n d a n ts (kinkarl), also ca lle d th e C o n s o rts (d u ti); th e Six Y oginis; a n d th e E ig h t M o th e rs (m atr), in d e s c e n d in g o rd e r o f s ta tu s . T h e ir n a m e s a n d m a n tric fo rm s a re d e lin e a te d in c h a p te r 5, se c tio n 3 ( t a b l e 5.1). W h ile p o s ­ s e s s in g d is tin c t id e n titie s a n d d e g re e s o f cu ltic im p o rta n c e , th e s e g o d d e s s e s b e lo n g to a c o m m o n ty p o lo g y , d is c u s s e d b e lo w — th a t o f th e y o g in i o r yogesvan. T h e la tte r te rm s a re m u ltiv a le n t in th e BraYa, re fe rrin g , a c c o rd in g to co n te x t, to fe m a le in iti­ a te s, i.e. h u m a n " y o g in is" ;24 to specific se ts o f d e itie s— th e Six Y oginis o f th e p rim a ry m a n d a la , m o s t fre q u e n tly ;25 a n d to th e n a m e le s s h o rd e s o f fly in g g o d d e s s e s s a id to m a n ife s t b e fo re th e p ra c titio n e r a n d g r a n t b o o n s, in th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e m o s t a r d u o u s rite s .26 A n d a lth o u g h in th e BraYa th e te rm s devi (" g o d d e s s " ), devata (" d e ­ ity " ), a n d sakti (" p o w e r" ) a re p re fe rre d , re la te d S aiva so u rc e s fre q u e n tly u s e yo g in i a n d yogesvan as g e n e ric te rm s fo r th e m y ria d g o d d e s s e s w h o p e r v a d e th e co sm o s as e x p re s sio n s o f S iv a 's p o w e r (sakti).27 In a d d itio n , "Y ogesi" o c c u rs as a n e p ith e t o f th e 24 A striking case is that of BraYa 1 .1 2 C C I - 1 3 , for which see the critical edition and translation in part this appears to refer to female practitioners as "yoginis." The passage is echoed in the opening verses of BraYa xiv, quoted in chapter 2 (n. 2 0 0 ) . 25 See, for instance, BraYa n .n -iq a b (edited and translated in part 11). 26 References to the yoginis granting their darsan to the successful practitioner are profuse; cf., e.g., BraYa x v i i (f. 92r, line 1 ): 11;

vidyacakram tu yo vetti yathavat sadhakottamah | acirenaiva kdlena yogesyo darSanam vrajet \ “cakram ] erne, °cakran By“

yogesyo ] corr.; yogesyo By11

"The best of sddhakas w ho truly understands the Circle of Vidyas—after a brief w hile the yogesis become visible [to him]." Here the optative singular vrajet apparently has the sense of the plural; cf. BraYa iv.358c, devylo] pratyaksatam vrajet. 27 Note, for instance, Tantrasadbhava i6.47cd-48: tattvarupas tu yoginyo jnatavyas ca varanane || 47 || sivecchanuvidhayinyo manovega mahabalah | vicaranti samastas ca brahmavisnvindrabhumisu || 48 || "The Yoginis should be known in the form of the reality levels (tattva), O fair woman. Carrying out the volition of Siva, as sw ift as thought and mighty, they all traverse the worlds of Brahma, Visnu, and Indra." Text as quoted by Ksemaraja commenting on Netratantra 19.71 (here numbered as per Mark Dyczkowski's collation of the m s s ). In contrast, the BraYa refers to goddesses of the tattvas by the term devi, in particular; in BraYa xxxi, note for instance 93cd: tattve tattve sthita devyo adhikarapadanugah, "The goddesses are present in each of the tattvas, adhering to their [respective] positions of authority." Cf.

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s u p re m e G o d d e s s , esp e c ia lly in h e r ro le as e ig h th of th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s (m atr).28 "Y ogini" h e n c e d e s ig n a te s a s p e c tr u m o f fe m a le s a c re d fig u re s, m a n y o f w h ic h in d iffe re n t co n te x ts b e a r d is tin c t n a m e s. In th e BraYa, " y o g in i" m o s t fre q u e n tly re fe rs to a s u b s e t o f a b ro a d e r class o f g o d d e s s e s, w h ile ta n tric B u d d h is t tra d itio n s o fte n g ive p re fe re n c e to th e te rm "d a kim " a s th e g e n e ric n a m e fo r s u c h d e itie s.29 It d o e s a p p e a r, h o w ev er, th a t " y o g in i" h a d th e w id e s t c u rre n c y a s th e class n a m e fo r th e g o d d e s s e s in q u e s tio n , a n d th e te rm is a d o p te d a c c o rd in g ly in th e p re s e n t stu d y . T h is is a n a m o rp h o u s class o f d e ities, all th e m o re so o w in g to th e u s e o f th e te rm " y o g in i" in d e s ig n a tin g ta n tric a d e p ts — fe m a le " y o g is" — o r e v e n th e G re a t G o d d e ss (mahadevt) h erself. It is n o n e th e le ss p o s sib le to id e n tify c h a ra c te ristic a ttrib u te s th a t a re w id ely , b u t n o t u n ifo rm ly , s h a r e d b y th is class of d e ities. T h e p o s sib ility o f a " p o ly th e tic " a p p r o a c h to c la ssify in g re lig io u s p h e n o m e n a re ­ c e iv e d s e rio u s tre a tm e n t first, I b eliev e , in a n essa y o f J o n a th a n Z . S m ith .

In th e

p o ly th e tic m o d e , m e m b e rsh ip in a class is d e te r m in e d b y p o s s e s s io n o f sig n ific a n t s h a r e d p ro p e rtie s , n o sin g le o n e o f w h ic h is n e c e ssa rily h e ld b y all m e m b e rs o f th e c lass— in re je c tio n o f th e e ss e n tia list " id e a o f p e rfe c t, u n iq u e , sin g le d iffe re n tia ." 30 S u c h a p o ly th e tic a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n a p p lie d in re la tio n to th e n e b u lo u s c a te g o ry of " T a n tra ," m o s t n o ta b ly b y D o u g la s B rooks, w h o a d v a n c e s a p o ly th e tic d e fin itio n " H in d u T a n tric ism ." 31 W h ile o n e m ig h t d is a g re e w ith s o m e o f th e p ro p e rtie s id e n ­ tifie d a n d th e ir re la tiv e p rio rity ,32 th is a p p r o a c h a p p e a rs p ro d u c tiv e — a n d , fu r th e r­ 87cd: tattvariipalh] sthita devyo yogaisvarya hy aninditajh], "the goddesses take the form of the tattvas, possessing yogic mastery, and irreproachable." 28 In the BraYa, "Yogesi" describes the supreme Goddess as eighth of the Mothers in XLV.32b and Lxvn.56a. Cf., e.g., yogisT in Malinmijayottaratantra 3.13d. 29 See chapter 2, section 2 (n. 46); and chapter 3, section 4. 30 Smith, "Fences and Neighbors: Some Contours of Early Judaism," chapter 2 in Imagining Religion: from Babylon to Jonestown, 4-5 (quote on p. 4). 31 Brooks, The Secret o f Three Cities: A n Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism, 53-72. Similar in principle are the lists of defining criteria proposed by Sanjukta Gupta, et al, Hindu Tantrism, 7-9; and, in reference to Tantric Buddhism, Stephen Hodge, introduction to The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary, 4-5. 32 It m ust be objected that the ten defining criteria Brooks adduces for "Hindu Tantrism" privi­ lege goddess-oriented or Sakta traditions, particularly in their late m edieval varieties—one of which is the subject of his monograph, Secret of Three Cities. N ote in particular that the third criterion— which begins, "Tantrics are at once theists and philosophical nondualists" (p. 58)—excludes from the category "Tantra" the Saivasiddhanta and Vaisnava Pancaratra, which typically possess dualist the­

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m o re , offers a u s e fu l a p p ro a c h to th e c a te g o ry " y o g in i." B elow , I a tte m p t a p o ly th e tic d e fin itio n o f th e y o g in i, id e n tify in g w h a t a p p e a r to b e k e y s h a r e d p ro p e rtie s c h a r­ a c te riz in g th is class o f s a c re d fig u re . U n d o u b te d ly , th e re is m u c h sco p e fo r fu r th e r re fin e m e n t. T h is is n o t, m o reo v e r, th e firs t s u c h a tte m p t: D a v id W h ite h a s o ffered a n e ig h t-p a rt d e s c rip tiv e d e fin itio n o f th e y o g in i, w h ic h I b o th d ra w u p o n a n d d e p a rt fro m .33 M u ltiplicity. C h a ra c te ristic o f y o g in is is th e ir o c c u rre n c e in g ro u p s . F ro m p e r h a p s th e te n th c e n tu ry , th e y b e c a m e clo sely a sso c ia te d w ith c o n fig u ra tio n s o f six ty fo u r— a n a ss o c ia tio n th a t re m a in s s tro n g today. T h e m u ltip lic ity o f th e y o g in is is m o n u m e n ta liz e d in th e s to n e te m p le s d e d ic a te d to th e m c o n s tru c te d fro m ologies. Part of Brooks' seventh criterion seem s in fact to have little application outside of late m e­ dieval, Smarta tantric traditions. Asserting that "tantrism does not differ significantly from Puranic Hinduism in the ways it conceives the world and God," Brooks makes the equally surprising claim that "Sakta- and Saiva-oriented Tantrics assume the pantheon of classical Hindu deities;" he also utilizes Advaitavedantic terminology for explicating tantric theology. Ibid., 67-68. N one of this appears ap­ plicable to early m edieval Tantric Saivism of any variety. Criterion nine associates Hindu Tantra w ith ritual use of "conventionally prohibited substances" and "antinomian practices." Based upon such criteria, Brooks comes to the problematic conclusion that "Sakta forms of Tantrism are deem ed to be Hindu Tantrism par excellence." Ibid., 72; see also 230 (n. 51). Furthermore, m issing from Brooks' list is at least one important criterion: the ontological identity of mantras and deities, w hich is surely a defining characteristic of the Saiva "Way of Mantras" (mantramarga). 33 The definition White offers is as follows: The Yoginis w hose cults were centred to Kaula practice had the follow ing features: (1) they were a group of powerful, sometimes martied, female divinities w ith w hom human female "witches" were identified in ritual practice; (2) their power w as intimately connected to the flow of blood, both their ow n sexual and menstrual emissions, and the blood of their animal (and human?) victims; (3) they were essential to Tantric initiation in which they initiated m ale practitioners through fluid transactions via their "mouths"; (4) they were possessed of the power of flight; (5) they took the form of humans, animals, or birds, and often inhabited trees; (6) they were often arrayed in circles; (7) their temples were generally located in isolated areas, on hilltops or prominences and were usually round and often hypaethral; and (8) they were never portrayed as practicing yoga for the simple reason that yoga as w e know it had not yet been invented. Kiss o f the Yogini, 27. In point eight, White presumably has in mind hathayogic bodily disciplines, with which yoginis were little connected. Many of the themes White identifies are indeed significant to conceptions of yoginis, w hile points (2) and (3) seem problematic. There is undoubtedly a sanguinary dimension to the cult of yoginis, and to the powers attributed to their m ost dangerous varieties. But as for yoginis' "sexual and menstrual emissions," the supposed significance of these remains mysterious to me; w hile the fluids of female practitioners are certainly significant in som e rituals, the women con­ cerned are seldom referred to as "yoginis," w hile references in primary sources to the fluids of yoginis, as goddesses, appear rare and ambiguous. Similarly, I am presently unaware of a Saiva tradition in which yoginis—presumably White has in mind female ritual consorts—were "essential to Tantric ini­ tiation," and certainly not one in which they transacted w ith initiands in the manner suggested. On these points, I expect to write in greater detail in the future, examining the evidence on which White bases such claims.

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th e te n th c e n tu ry , e n s h rin in g c o n fig u ra tio n s o f fo rty -tw o a n d p e r h a p s e ig h ty o n e , b u t e sp e c ia lly six ty -fo u r g o d d e s s e s .34 In V id y a p lth a a n d ta n tric B u d d h is t so u rc es, h o w ev er, sm a lle r p a n th e o n s a re ty p ical. Y oginis a re in fa c t c h a ra c te r­ iz e d m o re b y th e ir m u ltip lic ity th a n th e ir in d iv id u a l id e n titie s , fo r th e re ex ists re m a rk a b le flu id ity in th e c o m p o s itio n o f y o g in i sets. N o p a r tic u la r n a m e o r s e t o f n a m e s — w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e S even o r E ig h t M o th e r g o d d e ss e s, as d is c u s s e d b e lo w — b e c o m e s clo sely a s so c ia te d w ith th e s e g o d d e ss e s, a n d th e y a re in fa ct fre q u e n tly s p o k e n o f a s a n a m o rp h o u s b a n d o r h o rd e (vrnda, gana) th a t p e r v a d e s th e c o sm o s in in n u m e ra b le fo rm s a n d v arie tie s. E v en so u rc e s th a t p la c e p a r tic u la r im p o rta n c e u p o n a g ro u p o f s ix ty -fo u r m ig h t m e n tio n n u ­ m e ro u s o th e r y oginis.

F i g u r e 1.3: Siva enshrined within a circle of sixty-four yoginis. Yogini temple, Rampur-Jharial, Orissa. AIIS Photo Archive.

34 On the temples of yoginis, see Vidya Dehejia, Yogini Cult and Temples. A Tantric Tradition. In the present thesis, see chapter 2, section 4; concerning textual references to sixty-four yoginis (primarily in Kaula sources), see there, as well as chapter 3, section 3. Ronald Davidson points out the existence of contemporary temples of sixty-four yoginis in Banaras and Ujjain. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History o f the Tantric Movement, 181-83.

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M anifestation in/as mortal women. Y oginis b lu r th e b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n g o d d e s s e s a n d w o m e n , fo r th ro u g h ritu a l p e rfe c tio n , a fe m a le ta n tric a d e p t m ig h t b e c o m e a yogini. M en , h o w ever, m a y o n ly see k to jo in th e y o g in is a n d p a r ta k e o f th e ir p o w e rs. T ax o n o m ies re flect th is p h e n o m e n o n b y p o s itin g y o g in is a s a scale of b e in g s, e x te n d in g fro m p o w e rfu l c u lt g o d d e s s e s to th e m o rta l y o g in is w h o e m ­ u la te a n d e v e n e m b o d y th e d e ities. T h u s a c c o rd in g to th e Siddhayogesvanm ata, a V id y a p lth a s c rip tu re , y o g in is a re fu n d a m e n ta lly o f tw o ty p e s: kulaja o r " b o rn in c la n s," c a lle d also m dnusya, " h u m a n " ; a n d devatah, " d e itie s /g o d d e s s e s ." 35 M o re c o m p le x y o g in i ta x o n o m ie s a d d fu r th e r lay ers o f a m b ig u ity .36 F e m a le div in iz a tio n h e n c e lies a t th e h e a r t o f th e im a g e o f th e y o g in i, a n d c o m p ris e s o n e of th e m o s t h isto ric a lly sig n ific a n t fa cets o f th e ir cult. Organization into clans. Y oginis, a s b o th d e itie s a n d fe m a le a d e p ts , b e lo n g to clan s (kula, gotra) w h ic h s h a p e th e ir n a tu re s a n d id e n titie s . T ax o n o m ies o f y o g in is e x h ib it c o n s id e ra b le v a rie ty ; h o w ever, in S aiva so u rc e s, th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n in to clan s o f th e B ra h m a n ic a l g o d d e s s e s c a lle d th e S ev en o r E ig h t M o th e rs (matr) a p p e a rs fu n d a m e n ta l.37 A c c o rd in g to th is sch e m a , y o g in is p a r ta k e in th e n a ­ tu re s a n d a p p e a ra n c e s o f th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, o f w h o m th e y a re c o n s id e re d p a r tia l in c a rn a tio n s o r m a n ife sta tio n s (amsa, lit. " p o rtio n " ). P ra c titio n e rs to o e sta b lis h 'k in s h ip ' w ith th e g o d d e s s e s, b e c o m in g th u s th e ir amsas, fo r in itia tio n 35 Siddhayogesvanmata 22.5: dvividha yogimh proktah kulaja devatas tatha j manusyah kulajah proktas tesam srnu kulodgatim \ dvijaksatriyavitsudrakulotpannas tu nayikah || "Yoginis are taught to be divided into two groups: those born in a lineage),] and deities. Those bom in a lineage are taught to be human; listen to their family line. [These] Heroines are born in Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, or Sudra families." Translation by Judit Torzsok, editor of the Siddhayogesvanmata: " 'The Doctrine of Magic Female Spirits': A Critical Edition of Selected Chapters of the SiddhayogesvarTmata(tantra) w ith Annotated Translation and Analysis," 171 (Sanskrit text on p. 50). The passage following upon this one is lacunose. This passage has a parallel in Tantrasadbhava 16, beginning w ith verse 129. 36 Illustrative of this is a taxonomy of yoginis elaborated in Kaulajnananirnaya 8; relevant passages are quoted and discussed in chapter 3, section 3. 37 Buddhist taxonomies of yoginis, as might be expected, seldom associate the deities w ith the Brah­ manical Mothers. The Laghucakrasamvaratantra, for instance, advances several classification schemas based upon clans headed by identifiably Buddhist deities, in chapters 16-19 and 23.

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effects e n try in to th e cla n s o f th e d e itie s .38 S ets o f y o g in is, s u c h a s th o se e n ­ s h rin e d in te m p le s a n d lis te d in th e puranas, fre q u e n tly in c lu d e th e M o th e rs a m o n g th e m ,39 w h ile th e te rm m atr (" M o th e r g o d d e s s " ) is o cc asio n ally a p p lie d to y o g in is.40 C lassificatio n o f th e cla n s o f y o g in is fo r m s a n im p o rta n t th e m e in th e lite ra tu re o f th e Y oginI cu lt, a n e x a m p le o f w h ic h is BraYa

l x x iii,

e d ite d

a n d tra n s la te d in p a r t n o f th e p r e s e n t th esis. T h e BraYa, m o reo v e r, p la c e s th e M o th e rs w ith in a b ro a d e r h ie ra rc h y o f g o d d e s s c la n s, e x te n d in g fro m d e itie s of the m o st p ern iciou s sort— su ch as the d an gerou s d a m a n —to the text's h igh est m a n d a la d e itie s.41 Theriomorphism, A h a llm a rk o f y o g in is is p o ly m o rp h is m , w ith th e rio m o rp h ic fo rm s b e in g e sp e c ia lly c o m m o n . F ro m h o rs e s a n d lio n s to b ir d s a n d sn a k e s, s c u lp tu ra l a n d te x tu a l re p re s e n ta tio n s o f y o g in is a tte s t a w id e v a rie ty o f a n im a l e lem e n ts. A s a d e ity ty p o lo g y , a close p a ra lle l lies in S iv a 's ganas (" tro o p s, h o rd e " ), a n a m o rp h o u s a n d d iv e rse class o f m a le d eity, o fte n th e rio m o rp h ic , w h o se im ­ a g e ry ra n g e s fro m th e h o rrific , g ro te sq u e , a n d m a rtia l, to com ic, e x u b e ra n t, a n d m u sic a l. A n o th e r p a ra lle l lies in th e m u ltitu d in o u s M o th e r g o d d e s s e s d e ­ sc rib e d in th e Mahabharata, d e itie s w ith w h o m th e g e n e a lo g y y o g in is is closely lin k e d .42 In c o n tra s t to th e ganas a n d M o th e rs, a c tu a l s h a p e s h iftin g is clo sely a sso c ia te d w ith y o g in is, w h o a re th o u g h t to ta k e o n th e fo rm s o f fe m a le a n im a ls in p a rtic u la r. T ales of y o g in is a lso a sso c ia te th e m w ith th e p o w e r to tra n s fo rm o th e rs .43 Kapalika cult and iconography. T h e y o g in is' c o n n e c tio n w ith th e c u lt of B h airav a, th e 38 See chapter 2, section 1. 39 Dehejia, Yogini Cult and Temples, appendix I (pp. 187-200). 40 U se of the term matr in the sense of "yogini" is attested in the Siyan inscription of Nayapala, in Bengal; see chapter 2, section 4 (n. 299). Dehejia points out several other examples; Yogini Cult and Temples, 31. 41 BraYa L V .3 - 5 4 . 42 See chapter 2, section 2 (on the Mahabharata). 43 On the shapeshifting of the yogini, note Kaulajmnanirmya 23, quoted and discussed in chapter 2, section 4 (the text of 2 3.i-i2ab is given in n. 309). Stories of yoginis from the Kathdsaritsdgara are discussed in chapter 2, section 3 (subsection on the Brhatkatha retellings).

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15 a rc h e ty p a l m o r tu a r y ascetic (kapdlin), fin d s re p re s e n ta tio n in th e ir kapalika o r m o r tu a r y ic o n o g ra p h y , fo r th e y fre q u e n tly b e a r sk u lls, b o n e o rn a m e n ts , a n d sk u ll-sta v e s (khatvanga), a s w e ll a s in c o rp o ra te o th e r e le m e n ts o f ra d ic a l ta n tric ic o n o g ra p h y . F u rth e rm o re , y o g in is h av e a s tro n g a s so c ia tio n w ith c re m a tio n g ro u n d s : w h ile a v a rie ty o f lim in a l p la c e s a re s p o k e n o f as th e ir h a u n ts , th e ir p r im a r y lo c u s is th e c h a rn a l g r o u n d (§masana), th e p re fe rr e d site fo r th e ra d ic a l p ra c tic e s a d v a n c e d in V id y a p lth a tantras. Danger, im purity, and power. F u n d a m e n ta l to c o n c e p tio n s o f y o g in is is th e ir p o te n c y a s so u rc e s o f b o th d a n g e r a n d im m e n s e po w er.

In th is re s p e c t th e y in h e rit

th e a m b iv a le n c e o f e a rly In d ia n M o th e r g o d d e ss e s. W h ile d a n g e ro u s to n o n ­ in itia te s a n d fa ta l to a p o s ta te s, th e w ild h o rd e o f y o g in is b e c o m e s all-lbeneficient to th e g re a te s t o f ta n tric " h e ro e s " (vira) w h o su c c e e d in th e ir a r d u o u s ritu a ls of p ro p itia tio n . It is to s u c h ritu a ls th a t m u c h o f th e BraYa a n d s im ila r so u rc e s is d e v o te d , a n d th e Y ogini c u lt is d is tin g u is h e d b y th e a im o f a c h ie v in g b le s s ­ in g s o f th e s e b e in g s in d ire c t, tra n s a c tio n a l e n c o u n te rs — ca lle d m o s t fre q u e n tly melapa o r melaka (" m e e tin g , e n c o u n te r, u n io n " ). E ffectin g a n d n a v ig a tin g e n ­ c o u n te rs w ith y o g in is th u s b e c o m e su b jects to w h ic h th e lite ra tu re o f th e c u lt d e v o te s m u c h a tte n tio n .44 44 A p a s sa g e fr o m BraYa x iv p r o v id e s a v iv id a c co u n t o f th e d a n g er p o s e d b y y o g in is in ritual:

japet mantro mahasattvo digvaso daksinamukhah \ saptaratrena yoginyo dgacchanti mahdbhayah || 214 || raudrarupas tathasuddhah sakrodha maranatmikah \ tad drstva tu na bhetavyam vfrasattvena mantrina || 215 || argham tasdm pradataxryam pranipdte krte sati \ tusyante natra sandehah sadhake sattvasamyukte j| 216 |j kathayanti ca tam sprstvd yatharthan ca subhasubham \ pramadad yadi ksubhyeta sattvahTnas tu sadhakah || 217 || tatksanad devi khadanti yoginyo yogadarpitah \ na tam raksayitum sakto rudro 'pi svayam dgatah || 218 || 214b “mukhah ] em.; °mukham BYa 215a °rupas ] em.; °rupa By “ °Suddhah ] corr.; °Suddha BYa 215b °tmikah ] em.; °tmika Byq 216a pradatavyam ] em.; pradatavyah Byq 217a tam ] conj.; tam By 11 217c pramadad ] em.; pramada B y“ 2x8a °ksanad ] em.; °ksana By 11 218c tam ] em.; ta By ° "The [sadhaka] o f grea t sp ir it s h o u ld recite th e m an tra, n a k e d , fa c in g so u th . A fte r se v e n n ig h ts , th e y o g in is c o m e — h ig h ly d a n g e r o u s, w ith te rr ify in g fo r m s, im p u r e , angry, an d leth al. B u t se e in g th is, th e mantrin o f h e r o ic sp ir it s h o u ld n o t fear; after p ro stra tin g , h e s h o u ld g iv e th e m th e g u e st-o ffe rin g . [T hey b e c o m e] p le a s e d to w a r d s th e sadhaka e n d o w e d w ith [heroic] sp irit, w ith o u t a d o u b t. A n d to u c h in g h im , th e y te ll tr u ly th e [p r o g n o stic a tio n

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T h e d a n g e r a n d p o w e r o f th e y o g in i a p p e a r clo sely lin k e d to e n g a g e m e n t w ith im p u rity , a n im p o rta n t d im e n s io n o f w h ic h is h e r a ss o c ia tio n w ith th e c re m a ­ tio n g ro u n d . T h ey e p ito m iz e a c u ltu re o f ritu a l 'n o n d u a lis m ' (advaita), in w h ic h th e p u r ity c o n v e n tio n s o f B ra h m a n ic a l o rth o p ra x is g iv e w a y to " a v is io n a ry m y stic is m o f fe a rle ss o m n ip o te n c e , o f u n fe tte re d su p e r-a g e n c y ," in w h ic h th e sadhaka se e k s to a s sim ila te th e p o w e rs o f th e h o rd e s o f y o g in is, p rim a rily , " in o cc u lt m a n ip u la tio n s o f im p u rity ." 45 T ra n sa c tio n a l e n c o u n te rs w ith y o g in is o f­ te n re v o lv e a r o u n d c o n v e n tio n a lly im p u re su b sta n c e s: p ra c titio n e rs offer w in e o r th e ir o w n b lo o d in lie u o f th e g u e s t-w a te r o ffe rin g (argha), b u r n in c e n se o f n e e m o il a n d g arlic, m a k e o ffe rin g s of fle sh in fire sacrifice, o r e v e n o ffer m ix e d m a le -fe m a le se x u a l flu id s. C o n v ersely , a y o g in i m ig h t o ffer im p u re rit­ u a l " g ru e l" {caru) to th e d isc ip le , th e u n h e s ita n t a c c e p ta n c e a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f w h ic h b e c o m e s a m e d iu m fo r h e r b e sto w a l o f p o w e r.46 Protection and transm ission o f esoteric teachings. Y oginis a re a sc rib e d th e d u a l ro le s of p ro te c tin g a n d in so m e cases d is s e m in a tin g eso te ric ta n tric teac h in g s. O fte n , th e ir b e s to w a l o f p o w e r m a n ife sts in th e tra n s m is s io n o f se c re t lin e a g e te a c h ­ in g s (sampradaya),47 ra th e r th a n d ire c t tra n s fe re n c e o f p o w e r (siddhi). In so m e cases, w o rk s o f ta n tric lite ra tu re lin k th e ir p e d ig re e to tra n s m is s io n b y y o g in is.48 of] good and bad. If by mistake a sadhaka of weak spirit should tremble, the yoginis, arrogant w ith their yoga, devour him that very moment. If he came, not even Rudra himself w ould be able to save him." 45 Sanderson, "Purity and Power among the Brahmans of Kashmir," 201. 46 On the offering of caru, note BraYa Lxxxv.i3cd-i4ab, quoted in chapter 3, section 5; and Kaulajm nanirnaya li.y c d -io , in the same section (n. 165). 47 On the notion of sampradaya as esoteric knowledge transmitted by yoginis, see the annotation to BraYa Lxxm.74. In som e cases the teachings imparted by yoginis are referred to as jhana— "wisdom," which, though vague, can have textual connotations. N ote BraYa xcvn.25-26ab: matryoginikayani sakininam kulani tu \ sidhyanti sadhakendrasya yogenanena suvrate j| 25 |j kathayanti ca sadbhavam kulajam jnanam uttamam \ "Through this yoga, O pious woman, the clans of the groups of Mothers and yoginis, [and] of sakinis, bestow siddhi on the sadhaka; and they speak the true essence—the highest scriptural w isdom (jnana) arising from the Clans." 48 A noteworthy case is that of the MaharthamanjarT of Mahesvarananda, a South Indian author writ­ ing around the beginning of the thirteenth century w ho attributes his composition to the inspiration

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A c c o rd in g to th e BraYa's re v e la tio n n a rra tiv e , y o g in is a re s a id to h id e aw ay th e sc rip tu re a t th e e n d o f th e K a liy u g a , re fle c tin g a n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e ir ro le s as g u a r d ia n s o f th e te a c h in g s. F u rth e rm o re , y o g in is w re a k d e s tru c tio n u p o n v io la ­ to rs o f th e tantras, in c lu d in g th o s e w h o b re a k th e in itia to r y P le d g e s (samaya)— h a p le s s in d iv id u a ls w h o ris k b e c o m in g y o g in i fo o d .49 Flight. Y oginis a re c o n s iste n tly a ss o c ia te d w ith th e p o w e r o f flig h t, fo re m o s t a m o n g th e p o w e rs (siddhi) s o u g h t b y th e ir v o tarie s. In th is th e y in h e rit th e m a n tle of th e vidyadhara a n d vidyadhari, th e se m i-d iv in e so rc e ro rs o f e a rly In d ie m y th .50 T ax o n o m ies o f y o g in is s u g g e s t th a t a e ria l d e itie s re p r e s e n t o n ly o n e o f th e ir n u m e ro u s v a rie tie s, a lo n g s id e e.g. " te rre s tria l" (bhucari) g o d d e ss e s. H ow ever, th e a rc h e ty p a l y o g in i is th e a u to n o m o u s S k y -trav e lle r (khecan), jo in in g w h o s e ra n k s re p re s e n ts th e u ltim a te a tta in m e n t fo r th e sid d h i-seek in g p ra c titio n e r— th e sadhaka.

D is c u ssio n is w a rra n te d c o n c e rn in g th e e x p re s sio n "Y ogini c u lt," 51 fo r th is re n ­ d e r s n o em ic c a te g o ry u s e d in th e classific atio n o f th e ta n tric tra d itio n s , a n d , fu r­ th e rm o re , ris k s th e exotic c o n n o ta tio n s o f " c u lt" in its p o p u la r u s a g e — c o n n o ta tio n s t h a t d e e p e r a c q u a in ta n c e w ith so m e a s p e c ts of th e tr a d itio n m ig h t n o t im m e d ia te ly of a visionary encounter w ith a yogini. See Whitney Cox, "Making a Tantra in Medieval South India: the Maharthamanjan and the Textual Culture of Cola Cidambaram," 1-6. Cox draws attention to several similar traditions of inspiration by a yogini; ibid., 2-3. 49 Cf. Vmasikha 329cd-2iab: svayamgrhltamantras ca nastika vedanindakah || 329 || samayebhyah paribhrastas tatha tantravidusakah j guriinam vihethanaparas tantrasaravilopakah || 320 || yogintbhih sada bhrastah kathyante dharmalopakah \ "Those w ho take up mantras on their own, atheists, critics of the vedas, breakers of the Pledges, desecrators of the tantras, those intent on harming the gurus, and those who violate the essence of the tantras—those w ho violate Dharma are said ever to be ruined by the yoginis." On the threat of being eaten by yoginis, see above (n. 44). 50 See chapter 2, section 3 (subsection on the Brhatkatha and its retellings). 51 The expression "Yogini cult" surfaces in the works of early twentieth-century authors, such as P. C. Bagchi. I have not yet identified nineteenth-century precedents, although these might exist in archeological reports on yogini temples. Contemporary scholars, such as Vidya Dehejia and Alexis Sanderson, have continued to use this terminology, although David White eschews the expression in Kiss o f the Yogint: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts.

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d is c o u ra g e . " C u lt" is n o n e th e le s s a p ro d u c tiv e , if n o t in d is p e n s a b le c a te g o ry fo r re ­ fe rrin g to ta n tric sy ste m s o f w o rsh ip . T h o u g h c e n te re d o n specific d e itie s a n d o fte n p o s s e s s in g d is tin c t a u th o riz in g sc rip tu re s , ta n tric w o rs h ip sy s te m s o r " c u lts " a re n o t m u tu a lly ex c lu siv e— c e rta in ly n o t to th e p o in t o f b e in g d is tin c t "se cts." Y oginis, h o w ev er, d o n o t fig u re a s cu ltic focii in th e m a n n e r o f m o s t ta n tric d i­ v in ities: th e ir c u lt is in te g ra te d w ith in th o s e of th e 'h ig h ' d e ity o r d e itie s w h o fo rm th e p r im a r y fo c u s of a g iv e n ritu a l sy stem . W h ile th e BraYa e x p o u n d s th e c u lt of K a p a llsa b h a ira v a a n d A g h o re sI o r C a n d a K a p alin I, r itu a l p ra c tic e s c o n n e c te d w ith y o g in is re g is te r a c o n s ta n t p re se n c e . T h is is tru e o f th e o th e r m a jo r e x ta n t V id y a p lth a tantras as w e ll.52 It w o u ld n o n e th e le s s b e p ro b le m a tic to id e n tify th e c u lt o f y o g in is w ith th e V id y a p lth a , fo r th e Y ogini c u lt e x te n d s b e y o n d its co n fin es. M o st o f th e s u r­ v iv in g S aiva lite ra tu re clo sely c o n n e c te d w ith y o g in is in fa c t b e lo n g s to th e c o rp u s of K a u la sc rip tu re , w h ic h a p p e a rs to h a v e ro o ts in V id y a p lth a tra d itio n s .53 M oreover, th e c u lt o f y o g in is is b y n o m e a n s re s tric te d to S aiv ism , fo r it c h a ra c te riz e s In d ia n T antric B u d d h is m in its la tte r p h a s e s , w h ic h s a w th e p r o d u c tio n o f a c o r p u s o f s c rip ­ tu ra l lite ra tu re fre q u e n tly re fe rre d to a s th e yogim tantras, " T a n tra s o f th e Y oginis." T h e re is e v e n e v id e n c e s u g g e s tin g Ja in a e n g a g e m e n t in th e c u lt o f y o g in is.54 T h e "Y ogini c u lt" h e n c e e x te n d s ac ro ss b o th cu ltic a n d se c ta ria n b o u n d a r ie s , id e n tify in g a c o m p le x o f c o g n a te ta n tric c u lts s p a n n in g se v e ra l c e n tu rie s w h ic h p la c e d c o n s id e r­ ab le e m p h a s is u p o n a m u ltip lic ity of fe m a le d iv in itie s d e s ig n a te d , m o s t freq u en tly , b y th e te rm yogini a n d its v a ria n ts. 52 In the words of Alexis Sanderson, “Accessible from the main cults of the Vidyapltha, and under­ lying them in a more or less constant form, is the more ancient cult of Rudra/Bhairava in association w ith female spirits (Yoginis)." "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions," 671. 53 On the Kaula and Vidyapltha distinction, see chapter 3, section 3. 54 Significantly, a class of Jaina goddesses appears to be m odelled upon yoginis: that of the vidyadevTs or "Wisdom goddesses." Occuring in groups usually sixteen in number, these goddesses find depiction in numerous temples, perhaps m ost notably in circular ceiling panels in the temples of Mt. Abu. On the Jaina vidyadevTs, see U. P. Shah, "Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas;" Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, "A Note on the Figures of Sixteen Jaina Goddesses on the Adinatha Temple at Khcijuraho;" and John Cort, "Medieval Jaina Goddess Traditions." A Jaina commentator upon the Yasastildka (on which see chapter 2, section 3) in fact explicitly identifies yoginis as vidyadevTs; elsewhere he describes them, drawing on a Jaina taxonomy of divinities, as mahavyantarTdevyah: "great goddesses of the intermediate class."

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19 S ev eral s c h o la rs h av e, to v a rio u s d e g re e s , c o n n e c te d th e w o rs h ip o f y o g in is w ith a se c t s u p p o s e d ly c a lle d th e "Y ogini K a u la ." T h is d e s ig n a tio n is d u b io u s , how ever, b e in g in fa ct b a s e d o n th e e r ro n e o u s in te rp re ta tio n o f th e e x p re s s io n yoginikaula as it o c c u rs in th e Kaulajnananirnaya. A K a u la s c rip tu re , th is tantra h a s b e e n c ite d c o m p a r­ a tiv e ly w id e ly b y v irtu e o f h a v in g b e e n p u b lis h e d sev e n ty -fiv e y e a rs ago. T h e p h ra s e yoginikaula o c c u rs a s a titu la r e p ith e t in a lm o s t all c o lo p h o n s o f th e Kaulajnananirnaya, a n d tw ic e e ls e w h e re in th e text;55 th is a p p e a rs to m e a n " K a u la te a c h in g o f [= tra n sm itte d by?] th e y o g in is." T h a t "yoginikaula" re fe rs to e so te ric k n o w le d g e a sso c ia te d w ith o r p o s s e s s e d b y y o g in is is s u g g e s te d b y th e M rgendragam a, w h e re th is te rm d e ­ scrib e s o n e o f e ig h t su b -s tre a m s (anusrotas) o f s c rip tu ra l re v e la tio n — a tra d itio n of se c re t w is d o m m a in ta in e d b y th e y o g in is.56 H o w ev er, P ra b o d h C a n d ra B agchi, th e K aulajnananirnaya's ed ito r, in te rp re te d th e te rm a s a s e c ta ria n d e s ig n a tio n ; h e c o n ­ c lu d e d th a t " M a ts y e n d ra w a s th e fo u n d e r o f a n e w sec t o f th e Kaula sch o o l, c a lle d th e Yoginl-kaula."57 In a rriv in g a t th is h e a p p a re n tly m is in te r p re te d a lis t o f tex ts a s a list o f sects: th e p a s s a g e in q u e s tio n se e m s to list fo u r tex ts, o n e o f w h ic h — th e Kaula­ jnananirnaya— is d e s c rib e d a s "y o g i n i k a u l a T h is a p p e a rs e n tire ly c o n s is te n t w ith th e c o lo p h o n s .5® T h e o n e o th e r n o n -c o lo p h o n a l o c c u rre n c e o f th e te rm yoginikaula is 55 N ote for instance the colophon of chapter seven, w hich is typical: iti jnananirnnitiyoginlkaulam mahacchnmacchaghnapaddvatdrite candradvlpavinirgate saptamah patalah, as reads K j n ™1. The syntax is puzzling: presumably read °yogimkaule. 56 Mrgendragama, Caryapada 40cd-4iab:

yoginyo lebhire jnanam sadyoyogavabhasakam || 40 |j yena tad yogimkaulam nottTrnam tabhya eva tat \ "The yoginis obtained scriptural w isdom that immediately makes [the power of] yoga manifest. For this reason, it is [called] yoginikaula ('Kaula w isdom of the yoginis'). It has not [subsequently] emerged forth from them." Bhatta Narayanakantha remarks on this verse that the yoginis obtained scriptural wisdom (jhdna) from Siva, which remains am ong them alone as a secret tradition (sadyah tatksanam eva yogam avabhdsayati y a t tathavidham jn a n a m sivabhattarakad y o g in y a h prapuh \ ta c ca ta b h y a e v a sakasad nottTrnam ndnyatra

prasrtam asv eva sampradayataya sthitam ity arthah || ). 57 Bagchi, introduction to Kaulajnananirnaya and Some M inor Texts o f the School o f Matsyendranatha, 35. 58 The passage in question is Kaulajnananirnaya 16.47-49:

mahakaulat siddhakaulam siddhakaulat matsodaram \ caturyugavibhagena avatdram coditam mayd || 47 || jnanadau nirnitih kaulam dvitTye mahat samjhitam \ trtlye siddhamrtam ndma kalau matsodaram priye || 48 || ye casmdn nirgatd devi varnayisyami te 'khilam \ etasmad yogimkaulan namna jhdnasya nirnitau || 49 ||

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m o re p ro b le m a tic , p e r h a p s re fe rrin g to a specific te c h n iq u e .59 A b h in a v a g u p ta , in ci­ d e n ta lly , cites a te x t b y th e n a m e Yoginikaula-, y e t th is d o e s n o t a p p e a r to b e th e Kaula­ jnananirnaya.60 B ag c h i's p ro b le m a tic p o s tu la tio n o f a sect ca lle d th e "Y ogini K a u la " h a s b e e n re p e a te d b y V. W. K a ra m b e lk a r, in a n a rtic le e n title d " M a ts y e n d ra n a th a a n d h is Y ogini C u lt;" 61 D e v a n g a n a D esai, in a d is c u s sio n o f th e Y ogini te m p le o f K h aju 47b matsodaram ] KjNcorf; masadaram KjN,,rf 48a nirnitih ] KjN“'rf; nirrutih Kjn ^ matsodaram ] Kjn ^ ; matsyodaram Kjn"* 49d nirnitau ] KjNcorfnknnItau Kjn ^ (unmetrical)

48d

"From the Mahakaula comes the Siddhakaula; from the Siddhakaula the Matsyodara; I ac­ complish the 'descent' [of scriptural revelation] in accordance to the division of the four yugas. [47] In the beginning (adau) there is the scripture (jhana) [called] Nirnitikaula [i.e. jhananirnitikaula = Kaulajnananirnaya]. In the second [yuga], the one called Mahat [=Mahakaula], In the third, the one named Siddhamrta [=Siddhakaula]. In the Kaliyuga, the Matsodara, m y dear. [48] And I shall describe entirely those [scriptures?] which emerged from this, this yoginikaula—the Jnananirniti [i.e. Kaulajnananirnaya] by name." The syntax and interpretation of 49 are especially problematic. It appears to me that the locative nir­ nitau m ust agree w ith the ablative etasmad (49c)— a grammatical barbarism not beyond the language of this text, in which there is often little distinction between the oblique cases. Bagchi arrived at a rather different interpretation of this passage, identifying matsodara (i.e. matsyo­ dara) as a reference to the figure Matsyendranatha, and "Yoginikaula" as a sect. He remarks, "it appears from these slokas that Matsyodara belonged to the Siddha or Siddhamrta sect and was particularly con­ nected w ith the Yogini-kaula, the doctrines of w hich are explained in the Jnananirniti." Introduction to Kaulajnana-nirnaya, 35. White too refers to "a group called the Yogini Kaula," presumably having the same passage in mind. Kiss of the Yogini, 22. He interprets the passage above as listing "the sectarian groups" through w hich the Kaula gnosis "was transmitted, dow n to the 'Fish-Belly' in the present age" (Kiss of the Yogini, 103). He offers the following translation of verses 47-48: From the Mahakaula [arose] the Siddha Kaula; from the Siddha Kaula the Fish-Belly. It was uttered by me upon each of the divisions of the four ages (yugas). In the first [age] the bringing forth (nirniti) [was made] to the Kaula; in the second to the [Kaula] known as Mahat; in the third, to the [Kaula] named Siddhamrta [and] in the Kali [age] to the Fish-Belly. (Kaulajnananirnaya 16.47-48)

Kiss of the Yogini, 23. His translation of verse 49 is given elsewhere (p. 103): "I w ill now discuss to thee, in their entirety, those [teachings] that were lost [in transmission], O Goddess! [The teaching known] by the name of [the Bringing Forth of the Kaula] Gnosis came through this Clan of the Yoginis"—i.e. the Yoginikaula. However, this and the others are m ost certainly texts, not sects. N ote for instance that Kaulajnananirnaya 16.54a refers to "what was spoken in the Siddhamrta" (siddhamrte tu yat proktam); the Siddhamrta is moreover mentioned in a list of scriptures in Kaulajnananirnaya 21. According to Sanderson, the Siddhamrta is quoted by early Kashmiri exegetes, as w as a text by the name Matsyodari (cf. Matsyodara in Kaulajnananirnaya 16.48). "History through Textual Criticism," 4. In the same passage in Kaulajnananirnaya 21 are also listed the Mahakaula (21.5a) and the Siddhesvaralkaula] (21.7a), the latter probably identical to the Siddhakaula mentioned in 16.473b. White in fact appears to contradict himself concerning the interpretation of Kaulajnananirnaya 21: he once refers to this as containing a list of "no less than nine 'clan scriptures' " (p. 105), but elsewhere 2m "expanded list of the various subclans of the Kaula" (p. 25). 59 Kaulajnananirnaya 1 4 . 5 9 b . 60 Tantraloka 7.40-41. Jayaratha too quotes from the Yoginikaula, commenting after Tantrdloka 7.193b. 61 Karambelkar, "Matsyendranatha and his Yogini Cult," 365. This article has in turn been drawn upon, for instance, by R. K. Sharma, w ho on its authority associates the cult of yoginis and yogini temple tradition w ith the "Yogini Kaula" founded by Macchendranatha, adding that "the principal tenets of the Yogini Kaula marga is [sic] revealed in the Kaulajnananirnaya ..." . The Temple of Chaunsatha-yogini at Bheraghat. Cf. H. C. Das, Tantricism: A Study of the Yogini Cult, vii, 23.

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21

ra h o ;62 N ilim a C h itg o p e k a r, in a n a rtic le e x a m in in g y o g in is fro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e of g e n d e r;63 a n d D a v id W h ite , in h is re c e n t m o n o g ra p h o n y o g in is a n d K a u la sex u a l r itu a l.64 It w o u ld a p p e a r th a t a S aiva c u lt o f y o g in is flo u ris h e d to th e g re a te s t e x te n t in th e p e r io d circa 700-1200

c .e

.,

a lth o u g h its p re s e n c e e x te n d s b o th b e fo re a n d b e y o n d

th is p e rio d . F ro m th e te n th to p e r h a p s th irte e n th ce n tu ry , m o n u m e n ta l s to n e te m p le s e n s h r in in g y o g in is w e re c o n s tru c te d s p a n n in g fro m o n e e n d o f th e s u b c o n tin e n t to a n o th e r.

Yet b e y o n d th is p e r io d , it b e c o m e s in c re a s in g ly p ro b le m a tic to s p e a k of

a S aiv a Y ogini c u lt, a lth o u g h ta n tric p ra c tic e s c o n n e c te d to y o g in is, a n d c e rta in ly b e lie f in th e m , fin d c o n tin u e d a tte s ta tio n . L a tte r m e d ie v a l K a u la so u rc e s, su c h as th e K ularnavatantra, c o n tin u e to a tta c h sig n ifican c e to y o g in is; y e t th e ir ro le s p a le in c o m p a ris o n to th o s e in e a rlie r K a u la so u rces. T h e d e c lin e o f th e S aiva c u lt o f y o g in is a p p e a r s to h av e b e e n g ra d u a l, a n d so m e in d ic a tio n o f th is tra je c to ry m a y b e g a th e re d fro m its ec lip se w ith in th e N a th c u lt o f th e se c o n d m ille n n iu m . W h ile w e ll-k n o w n m e d ie v a l S a n s k rit w o rk s of N a th y o g a p la c e re la tiv e ly little im p o rta n c e u p o n y o g in is, th e re is re a s o n to b e liev e th a t th e case w a s d iffe re n t in th e th irte e n th c e n tu ry ; th is is e v id e n t fro m th e p ro m in e n c e of y o g in is, a lo n g s id e e.g. hathayoga, in th e lo s t A m rta kunda o r KamrubTjaksa, a te x t tra n s la te d in to P e rs ia n (a n d s u b s e q u e n tly A ra b ic) m o s t p ro b a b ly in th e th irte e n th c e n tu ry .65 62 Desai, The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, 92. 63 Citing the Kaulajnananirnaya, Chitgopekar claims that "the name Yoginl-Kaula refers to a religious system which is orally transmitted by a line of female ascetics, the Yoginis." "The Unfettered Yoginis," 9364 See above (n. 58). 65 Referring to the Persian redaction, which he believes to represent the earliest Islamic version, Carl Ernst remarks, "This eclectic Persian text contained breath control practices relating to magic and div­ ination, rites of the yogini temple cult associated w ith Kaula tantrism, and the teaching of hatha yoga according to the tradition of the Nath y o g is... All of this was placed in a context of the supremacy of the goddess Kam akhya " "The Islamization of Yoga in the Amrtakunda Translations," 204. Incidentally, Ernst sees the association this text makes between a series of yoginis and the planets as "a deliberate attempt by the translator to familiarise the subject, in this case by likening the sum m oning of Indian goddesses to well-known Middle Eastern occult practices involving planetary spirits." Ibid., 219. H ow ­ ever, this interpretation probably overlooks medieval Indian astrological conceptions of yoginis; the predictive technique known as yogimdasa is based upon conceiving of eight planetary bodies as yoginis. Manuscripts on the subject of yogimdasa are listed in the catalogs of several collections; I have for in­ stance examined one by this title, attributed to the Rudrayamala, in the Van Pelt Library, Philadelphia; Collection of Indie Manuscripts no. 390, item 714. That the system of yogimdasa remains in practice

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22

T h e p re s e n t s tu d y is c o n c e rn e d w ith y o g in i tra d itio n s o f th e first m ille n n iu m . Its p rin c ip a l objective is to a d v a n c e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c o n te n t a n d c o n tex ts o f a n u n p u b lis h e d a n d little -stu d ie d ta n tric S aiva s c rip tu re — th e BraYa. T h e th e sis h a s tw o p a rts : th e first c o n sists o f s tu d ie s — tw o c h a p te rs o f w h ic h c o n c e rn th e c u lt o f y o g in is b ro a d ly , a n d tw o o f w h ic h fo c u s u p o n th e BraYa— w h ile p a r t n p re s e n ts a critical e d itio n a n d a n n o ta te d tra n s la tio n o f s e le c te d c h a p te rs o f th e BraYa.

F o llo w in g a

re v ie w o f sc h o la rs h ip o n th e su b je c t o f th e BraYa, b elow , c h a p te r tw o e m b a rk s u p o n a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e e a rly lite rary , e p ig ra p h ic , a n d s c u lp tu ra l e v id e n c e fo r th e c u lt o f y o g in is. T h is is in te n d e d to b e c o m p re h e n siv e w ith re s p e c t to p r e te n th -c e n tu ry m a te ria l, w h ile la te r so u rc e s a re d is c u s s e d selectively. E x c lu d e d fro m c o n s id e ra tio n is ta n tric lite ra tu re p ro p e r; th is in s te a d fo rm s th e su b ject o f c h a p te r th re e , w h ic h trac es th e b a c k g ro u n d a n d fo rm a tio n o f th e y o g in i c u lt in e a rly S aiv a a n d B u d d h is t te x tu a l so u rc es. A lth o u g h th e sc o p e o f c h a p te rs tw o a n d th re e is b ro a d , th e BraYa re m a in s a c o n s ta n t p o in t o f referen ce. In c h a p te r fo u r, fo c u s sh ifts to e x a m in a tio n o f th e fo rm , c o n te n t, a n d s tru c tu re o f th e BraYa; th is c h a p te r also a d d r e s s e s th e q u e s tio n o f th e te x t's d a tin g a n d p ro v e n a n c e . T h e fifth c h a p te r fo c u se s o n in te rp re tin g th e id e n tity th e BraYa a rtic u la te s fo r itse lf w ith in its m o d e l o f s c rip tu ra l re v e la tio n a n d th e S aiva ca n o n , b a s e d u p o n in v e s tig a tio n o f its v a rio u s title s a n d e p ith e ts . T h e s o u rc e m a te ria ls fo r th is th e s is a re to a la rg e d e g re e u n e d ite d a n d u n p u b ­ lis h e d tex ts, a n d th e d ifficu lties in h e re n t in w o rk in g w ith th e s e h av e d ic ta te d a n a p p r o a c h th a t is tex t-c ritica l in e m p h a s is . C h a p te r tw o in v o lv e s e x a m in a tio n o f e p i­ g ra p h ic a n d m a te ria l e v id e n c e as w ell, p a rtic u la rly re lig io u s im a g e s. A s w ill b e c o m e a p p a r e n t fro m th e critical e d itio n o f p a r t n , c o n sid e ra b le p h ilo lo g ic a l s c ru tin y is re ­ q u ir e d to y ie ld s e n se fro m th e BraYa in a g re a t n u m b e r o f cases, a n d e v e n th e n , th e in te rp re ta tio n o fte n re m a in s p ro v isio n a l. T h is s itu a tio n is n o t e x c e p tio n a l in th e co r­ p u s o f ta n tric S aiv a tex ts, th e s tu d y o f w h ic h re m a in s a t a n e a rly stag e. In th e ab se n ce o f u n a m b ig u o u s d a ta c o n c e rn in g th e BraYa's p ro v e n a n c e , d a tin g , a n d a u th o rs h ip , th e is suggested by modern astrological manuals such as Rajeev Jhanji and N. K. Sharma, Applications of Yogini Dasha for Brilliant Predictions.

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23

a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n to situ a te th e BraYa in re la tio n to th e a v a ila b le m a te ria ls — texts, in s c rip tio n s , a n d s c u lp tu re — a n d to p ro b e th e te x t's se lf-p re s e n ta tio n fo r clu es c o n ­ c e rn in g th e a g e n ts a n d c irc u m sta n c e s in v o lv e d in its p ro d u c tio n . C h a p te rs o f th e BraYa in c lu d e d in th e critica l e d itio n a n d tra n sla tio n -—p a r t n — w e re se le c te d o n th e b a sis o f th e ir re le v a n c e to th e s tu d ie s in p a r t i. BraYa

i

a n d n a re

im p o r ta n t so u rc e s fo r c h a p te r five, a lo n g w ith BraYa x x x v m , th e in c lu s io n o f w h ic h w a s p re v e n te d b y tim e c o n s tra in ts . T h e o th e r c h a p te rs e d ite d c o n c e rn su b je c t m a tte rs c e n tra l to th e c u lt o f y o g in is: yoginllaksana o r " th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f y o g in is;" chomma, th e " se c re t sig n s " u s e d fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e d e itie s a n d o th e r in itia te s; a n d yoginimelapa, " e n c o u n te rs w ith y o g in is." F u rth e r re le v a n t m a te ria l fro m th e BraYa o n th e su b je c t o f th e c la n s o f y o g in is c o u ld n o t b e in c lu d e d , u n fo rtu n a te ly .

1.2

THE BRAHM AYAM ALA IN SCH OLARSHIP

A lth o u g h a c k n o w le d g e d as im p o rta n t, th e BraYa h a s re c e iv e d re la tiv e ly little sc h o l­ a rly a tte n tio n .

Its o ld e s t m a n u s c r ip t w a s d e sc rib e d m o re th a n a c e n tu r y a g o b y

H a r a p r a s a d S astrl, in h is p a r tia l c a ta lo g o f th e c o lle c tio n o f th e fo rm e r D u rb a r Li­ b ra ry , N e p a l.66 S a strl say s little c o n c e rn in g th e BraYa's c o n te n t, b u t p ro v id e s a n in c o m p le te list o f c h a p te r co lo p h o n s. D e c a d e s later, P ra b o d h C a n d r a B agchi p e n n e d s e v e ra l p a g e s c o n c e rn in g th e BraYa in a n a p p e n d ix to h is 1939 b o o k , Studies in the Tantras. In th is, h e s u m m a riz e s c h a p te rs o n e a n d th irty -e ig h t,67 p ro v id in g also th e te x t o f sev e ral p a s s a g e s .68 I a m n o t a w a re o f fu r th e r s c h o la rs h ip s u b s ta n tiv e ly a d ­ d re s s in g th e BraYa in th e d e c a d e s w h ic h fo llo w ed . A fte r a g a p o f h a lf a ce n tu ry , T eu n G o u d ria a n w ro te o n th e BraYa in h is h is to ry o f th e lite ra tu re o f H in d u T a n tra — a n

66A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscripts Belonging to the Durbar Library Nepal, vol. ii, 60-62. Reprinted in Reinhold Griinendahl, A Concordance of H. P. Sastri’s Catalogue of the Durbar Library and the Microfilms of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project. 67 Following the colophonal numbering in the m s , Bagchi labels the latter chapter "thirty-nine." 68 Studies in the Tantras, Part 1, 102-5 (appendix: "Detailed Notices on Manuscripts"). This book is a compilation of articles Bagchi published in the early 1930s, and I do not believe a second part ever appeared. His accounts of the BraYa are frequently inaccurate. Note, for example, that Bagchi refers to BraYa 1, the ‘sambandhapatala’, as having the title Aksaravidhana; this he presumably culls from the text's epithet Navaksaravidhana. He w ould also have Isvara rather than Bhairava teaching the tantra to

the Goddess.

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24

a m b itio u s u n d e r ta k in g c o n s id e rin g h o w little of th e e a rly m a te ria l h a d b e e n s tu d ie d carefully. A fte r m a k in g so m e p re lim in a ry o b se rv a tio n s o n th e BraYa a n d th e yamalatantras a s a g e n re , G o u d ria a n p ro v id e s a p re c is o f th e te x t's su b je c t m a tte rs , as w ell as a n e x c e rp t fro m c h a p te r x x iv in tra n s la tio n .69 A lth o u g h o ffe rin g little in s ig h t in to th e h isto ric a l p o s itio n a n d sig n ifican c e o f th e te x t,70 h e n o te d th a t " a c lo se r s tu d y of th e Picumata, a lth o u g h c e rta in ly n o t a n e a sy ta s k o n a c c o u n t o f its c ry p tic w a y s of ex p re s sio n , ra m b lin g sty le a n d b a d g ra m m a r, is n e c e s s a ry fo r b e tte r in s ig h t in to e a rly H in d u T a n tris m ." 71 T h e firs t a tte m p t a t m o re d e ta ile d s tu d y o f th e BraYa w a s m a d e b y th e la te S. N . G h o s h a l S a stri o f V isv a b h a ra ti U n iv ersity . S a stri d r e w h e a v ily u p o n th e BraYa in h is a m b itio u s m u lti-v o lu m e series, Elem ents o f Indian Aesthetics. h e h a d a t h is d is p o s a l o n ly a sin g le in c o m p le te

ms

U n fo rtu n a te ly ,

o f th e w o rk c o n ta in in g c h a p te rs

fo u r th ro u g h sev en , w h ic h I re fe r to a s th e " V isv a b h a ra ti

m s ,"

a n d a tra n s c rip tio n

o f c h a p te r x l i i fro m a n u n k n o w n m s . B ased u p o n th e lim ite d e v id e n c e a v a ila b le to

h im , S astri b e lie v e d th e Picumata— a n e p ith e t o f th e BraYa— to b e a se c tio n o f th e BraYa, m u c h a s h e c o n s id e re d th e Pihgalamata to b e a s e c tio n o f th e Jayadrathayamala; in c o m p le te

m ss

o f b o th th e la tte r te x ts w e re a lso a v a ila b le to h im in th e V isv a b h a ra ti

c o llec tio n .72 S a s tri's p r im a r y in te re s t in th e BraYa w a s its m a te ria l c u ltu re a n d " a rts ," fo r h e s a w in its m a n d a la s , ico n o m etry , ic o n o g ra p h y , ritu a l, a n d ritu a l p a r a p h e r n a lia e v id e n c e fo r " p rim itiv e " In d ia n a rts a n d crafts. H e c o n s id e re d th e T an tric tra d itio n o n e o f th e p rin c ip a l s tre a m s o f a n c ie n t In d ia n a e sth e tic s, a lo n g s id e th e Vedic, a n d s a w th e BraYa, p e r h a p s correctly, a s a u n iq u e ly im p o r ta n t so u rc e fo r s tu d y o f e a rly Tantra.73 B ased u p o n con n ection s o f a m o st ten u o u s nature, Sastri claim ed that the 69 Hindu Tantric and Sdkta Literature, 40-44. 70 Cf. for instance Goudriaan's rather bland remark that "the Picumata is a typical representative of the Bhairava current in Saiva Tantrism." Ibid., 43. 71 Ibid., 44. 72 See the discussion of m s s in the introduction to the critical edition in part 11. These manuscripts were all apparently of N epalese provenance, gifted by the monarch of Nepal to Rabindranath Tagore. 73 Sastri, Elements of Indian Aesthetics, vol. n, part x, chapter xi.

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25

BraYa re p re s e n ts th e c u ltu ra l le g a c y o f In d o -T ib e ta n trib a l p e o p le s o f th e n o rth e a s te rn re g io n s o f th e s u b c o n tin e n t— specifically, th e G a ro trib e o f M e g h a la y a , a re g io n in w h ic h a d is tric t h e a d q u a rte r s b e a rs th e n a m e " T u ra ." T h is h e c o n n e c te d w ith th e w o rd tura fo r sk u ll, u s e d o fte n in th e BraYa, w h ic h a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n h is o n ly e v id e n c e lin k in g th e BraYa to th e G a ro trib e .74 In a d d itio n , h e c o n s id e re d th e BraYa im p ro b a b ly a n c ie n t.75 T h e d is tin c tio n o f firs t p u b lis h in g a c o m p le te c h a p te r o f th e BraYa is S a stri's, th e o n ly c h a p te r to h a v e a p p e a re d in p r in t p r io r to th e p re s e n t d is s e rta tio n .76 S astri c o n s id e re d th is fo rty -s e c o n d c h a p te r o f th e BraYa,77 th e mudrapatala o r " C h a p te r o n M u d ra ," to b e o n e o f th e m o s t a n c ie n t tre a tise s o f " I n d ia n G e stu ro lo g y ." 78 H e p u b ­ lis h e d h is e d itio n o n th e b a sis o f H a ra d a s M itra 's tra n s c rip tio n o f a m a n u s c r ip t b e ­ lie v e d to h av e o n ce b e e n in th e V is v a b h a ra ti collection. I s u s p e c t th a t th e m a n u s c r ip t in q u e s tio n tra n s m itte d BraYa

x l ii

in d e p e n d e n tly , w h e th e r a lo n e o r in a c o m p o site

m a n u s c rip t. It is p o ss ib le b u t b y n o m e a n s c e rta in th a t its re a d in g s re flect a tra n s ­ m is sio n d is tin c t fro m th a t o f th e o ld e s t N e p a le s e

m s, n a k

3-370.79 S a s tri's e d itio n

re p ro d u c e s th is tra n s c rip tio n w ith se v e ra l p ro p o s e d e m e n d a tio n s , p ro v id in g also a n E n g lish re n d e rin g w h ic h , a t tim e s im p la u s ib le a n d a t tim e s in c o m p re h e n s ib le , c o n ­ 74 Elements of Indian Aesthetics, vol. 11, part 4, 41. 75 In ibid., vol. n, part 1 (p. 98), Sastri opines for a date of the third century or earlier on the basis of a dubious relative chronology of the Ndtyasastra, Kalidasa's Meghaduta, the BraYa and Pihgalamata, and Matsyapurana. Yet in vol. n , part 4 (p. 3), he claims the BraYa was com posed between the third and fifth centuries, for w hich he refers the reader back to the above discussion in vol. n, part 1! 76 Elements of Indian Aesthetics, vol. 11, part 3, 297-305. N ote that the edition's title page misleadingly refers to this as the first chapter in the BraYa I Picumata’s "Caturtha-satka (4th Part of the 6th unit)." The BraYa might possess two "satkas—see chapter 4, section 2—but this chapter is the first of neither. The expression caturthasatka means in fact "the fourth division of six-thousand verses." Appparently Sastri confuses the BraYa with the Jayadrathayamala, the latter of w hich is divided into four satkas. 77 Following the colophon, Sastri refers to this as chapter forty-three; but it is forty-second in order of occurrence. The numbering in the m s goes awry from chapter x x ix until l x x x . 78 Sastri remarks, We find no other earliest extant evidence of Aesthetic Gesturology than the Natyasastra. On the other hand, no earliest Tantra and Purana than the Brahma-yamala-tantra is yet known to us. On the above postulation, the Mudradhikarana of the Picumata and the Pihgalamata, may be considered the prime documentary source of Indian Gesturology and to that end in the original texts of two Mudradhikaranas are annexed to the Part 111 of the present volume, [sic]

Elements of Indian Aesthetics, vol. n, part 3, xiv. 79 See the introduction to part 11.

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26

trib u te s re la tiv e ly little to th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e tex t.80 M a rk D y c z k o w sk i m a k e s m o re m e a n in g fu l u s e o f th e BraYa in h is 1988 m o n o ­ g r a p h o n th e S aiva s c rip tu ra l c a n o n .81 R e a d in g fro m its o ld e s t N e p a le s e

m s,

h e cites

p a s s a g e s fro m th e BraYa. a s s u p p o r tin g e v id e n c e o n a v a rie ty o f su b jects. In p a r tic ­ u lar, D y c z k o w sk i d ra w s u p o n BraYa x x x v m 's a c c o u n t o f S aiva re v e la tio n — th e v e ry c h a p te r w h ic h h a d in te re s te d B agchi. M a k in g se v e ra l u s e fu l o b se rv a tio n s,82 h e d o e s n o t h o w e v e r a tte m p t a d e ta ile d a n a ly sis o f th e BraYa o r a d v a n c e a h y p o th e s is o n its h is to ric a l p o s itio n .83 A s w ith so m u c h o f ta n tric S aiva lite ra tu re , s ig n ific a n t s trid e s in th e s tu d y o f th e BraYa c o m m e n c e d w ith th e w o rk s o f A lex is S a n d e rso n . In "S a iv ism a n d th e T antric T ra d itio n s," h is m o n u m e n ta l 1988 essa y m a p p in g th e c u lts a n d c a n o n o f T antric S aiv ism , S a n d e rs o n a d v a n c e d a c o m p e llin g h y p o th e s is c o n c e rn in g th e p o s itio n of th e BraYa w ith in S aiva tra d itio n s . H e n o te s sev e ral s ig n ific a n t w a y s in w h ic h th e tex t a p p e a rs arch aic. S e e in g w ith in th e B h a ira v a -stre a m o f e so te ric S aiv ism a n h isto ric a l 80 N ote for example his text and translation of the opening verse, BraYa x v i i .i

:

atahparam pravaksdmi karasamskdra-sodhanam | mudranam laksanam caiva sarvakamarthasadhanam || 1 || "Let me now tell how w e could sanctify and purify our hands. What is the definition of the mudra (Gesture) and which are their common characteristics. These mudras may lead to the way of success all noble works and fulfill all desires of a man."

Elements of Indian Aesthetics, vol. 11, part 3, 297. 81 The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaida Tradition, especially 36-53. 82 N ote for example the following remark: The BY makes use of this [iour-pltha] system of [scriptural] classification, integrating it som ewhat awkwardly w ith a division of the scriptures into Left, Right and Middle cur­ rents. The BY's account of the pithas is sketchy and unsystematic— a sign that this system of classification is still at an early stage of development.

Canon of the Saivagama, 51. While the BraYa's pitha system does seem undeveloped, its juxtaposition w ith a system of streams is not however awkward: the four pithas are divisions of a single stream, the daksinasrotas of bhairavatantras. I provide an edition of the relevant passages from BraYa xxxvm in chapter five. 83 On one important historical matter Dyczkowski's remarks warrant reconsideration: he suggests that the BraYa m ust be younger than the Nityasodasikarnava, on account of the BraYa listing the Yoginthrdaya in its description of the canon; Yoginihrdaya is a name of the Nityasodasikarnava. Canon of the Saivagama, 47-48. While it is true that the BraYa lists a text called Yoginihrdaya, it is improbable that it refers to the same Kaula scripture of the cult of Tripurasundari which survives by this name—a text which, as Dyczkowski points out, mentions several other Kaula scriptures, including the rather late Kubjikdmata. (On the date of the Kubjikamata, see Sanderson, "Remarks on the Text of the Kubjikamata," 1-3.) Abhinavagupta makes no reference to a scripture called Yoginihrdaya, and according to Sanderson, the extant Yoginihrdaya displays substantial influence from the nondualist Kashmiri exegetical tradition. See "The Visualization of the Deities of the Trika," 37.

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27

tra je c to ry to w a rd s in c re a sin g e m p h a s is o n g o d d e s s e s, h e fin d s in th e BraYa a n e a rly w in d o w in to th is p ro c e ss. O s te n sib ly a te x t te a c h in g th e c u lt o f a b ip o la r G o d h e a d , a yamala o r g o d -g o d d e s s p air, in th e BraYa, th e g o d d e s s A g h o re s v a rl in fa ct tra n s c e n d s B h airav a, fo r h e r vidya-m a n tra c o n ta in s w ith in its n in e sy lla b le s th e e n tire m a n d a la of m a n tra -d e itie s . A n d in th e ritu a l p ra c tic e s o f th e BraYa, S a n d e rs o n id e n tifie d th e r a d ­ ical m o r tu a r y (kdpdlika) a n d ex o rcistic rite s fo rm in g th e e a rlie s t s tr a tu m o f th e Y ogini c u lt, w h ic h w o u ld u n d e r g o tra n s fo rm a tio n as th e K a u la m o v e m e n t ca m e to p e rm e a te m o s t c u lts o f th e bhairavatantras .§4 S a n d e rs o n m a k e s a n u m b e r o f o th e r c o n trib u tio n s to th e s tu d y of th e BraYa as w ell. P e rh a p s m o s t n o te w o rth y a re h is re c o n s tru c tio n o f its n in e -sy lla b le vid ya-m antra, a n d d e m o n s tra tio n th a t th e BraYa is o n e o f sev e ral S aiv a s o u rc e s re d a c te d in to th e B u d d h is t Laghucakrasamvaratantra.85 In a d d itio n , h e first id e n tifie d th e re fe re n c e to th e BraYa in th e o ld Skandapurana, d is c u s s e d in c h a p te r tw o , c o n firm in g th e lik e lih o o d of th e te x t's e a rly p e r io d o f co m p o sitio n . S ev eral o th e r c o n te m p o ra ry s c h o la rs h av e b e g u n to d ra w o n th e BraYa. In in tro ­ d u c in g h e r fin e critical e d itio n o f c h a p te rs fro m th e Siddhayoge§vanmata, o n e o f th e fe w o th e r s u rv iv in g s c rip tu re s o f th e e a rly V id y a p lth a , J u d it T o rz s o k m a k e s re fe re n c e to th e BraYa a n d p ro v id e s a tra n s c rip tio n o f a p o rtio n o f c h a p te r x x x v m (xxxix ac­ c o rd in g to its c o lo p h o n ) fro m its o ld e s t

m s

.86

S o m a d e v a V a su d e v a a lso m a k e s lim ite d

u s e o f th e BraYa in h is sig n ific a n t m o n o g ra p h o n S aiva y o g a a n d th e M alinivijayottaratantra. H e m o re o v e r h a s m a d e a v a ila b le e lec tro n ic tra n s c rip tio n s fro m th e o ld e s t

m s

o f tw o c h a p te rs o f th e text: c h a p te r n in e , c a lle d 'laksyabheda'87 a n d fo rty -tw o , th e s a m e c h a p te r p u b lis h e d b y S. N . G h o s h a l S astri.88 A s o m e w h a t d iffe re n t case is th a t o f D a v id G o rd o n W h ite 's Kiss o f the Yogini: 84 S a n d e r s o n , " S a iv is m a n d th e T a n tric T r a d itio n s ," 6 7 0 -7 2 , 679 -8 0 .

85 Ibid., 672; and Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 41-46. On the relationship between the BraYa and Laghusamvara, see also chapter 3, section 5 in the present thesis. 86 Torzsok, "Doctrine of Magic Female Spirits," viix-x, 237 (appendix 9). Her remarks on the relative chronology of the Siddhayogesvarlmata and BraYa are mentioned in chapter 4, section 3. ) 87 On this complex and interesting subject see Vasudeva, Yoga of the Mdlinmijayottaratantra, 253-92. Vasudeva's references to the BraYa occur in this context. 88 A long w ith much other interesting Indological material, these transcriptions are presently available on his website, http://hom epage.m ac.com /som adevah/index.htm l (accessed August, 2006).

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28

"Tantric Sex" in its South A sian C ontexts, o n e o f th e m o s t re c e n t w o rk s d ra w in g u p o n th e BraYa.

W h ite s u m m a riz e s a n d p a rtia lly tra n s la te s tw o p a s s a g e s fro m BraYa

l x iv ,89 m a te ria l o u tlin in g ra d ic a l ritu a l p ra c tic e s th a t in v o lv e se x u a l in te rc o u rse . H is a c c o u n ts of th e s e tw o se c tio n s a re h o w e v e r h ig h ly p ro b le m a tic .90 W h ile th e BraYa is n o t o f c e n tra l im p o rta n c e in th e w o rk o f th e se a u th o rs , th e ir re fe re n c e s a tte s t th e w id e ra n g e o f su b je c ts it c o u ld p o te n tia lly illu m in a te . It is h o p e d 89 Kiss of the Yogini, 248-50. White also makes reference to the BraYa on pp. 17, 23, 101, 163, and 322. 90 White states that he reads from the oldest Nepalese codex, n a k 3 - 3 7 0 (see Kiss of the Yogini, 3 3 2 , n. 171), yet his bibliography confusingly lists instead a late, corrupt, Devanagari-script m s : "Brahmayamala. N epal National Archives, m s s no. 1 - 7 4 3 . Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project reel A 1 6 6 / 1 . 4 3 9 folios." Ibid., 3 3 7 . The folio numbers provided (26ob-65b— “b" apparently meaning "verso") do not match the text he cites from chapter forty-four in n a k 3 - 3 7 0 (which I report as "Bva"), but rather the Devanagari-script m s (reported as "Byc" in m y critical edition). The shorter of the two passages White cites is from BraYa xliv (numbered xlv in its colophon). After arguing, quite implausibly, that mudra can have the meaning "vulva," White remarks, . .. The term mudra can, however, denote a substance to be eaten, rather than the vulva as "seal." So, for example, a verse in chapter x lv of the Brahmayamala reads:

"tvasaktyasadhako nityam yathavibhavasa[mbh]av[at] mudram caiva yathanydyam madhyahcaiva pradapayet" ("But the practitioner w ho is without a consort [should] constantly [offer] ac­ cording to w hat is possible for him. One should also offer mudra, according to the rule, as well as liquor.")

Kiss of the Yogini, 82, 295 (n. 87). It is virtually impossible that an odd-numbered verse-quarter w ould begin with the enclitic particle tu; White moreover prints madhya ("middle") w hile apparently reading madya ("wine"), and prints and translates asaktyasadhako as though it could be a com pound (an aluksamdsal). He has in fact been misled by his choice of (the least reliable) manuscript—Byc—which reads tvasaktyd sadhako nityam yathavibhavasamtavam || mudram caiva yathanyayammaghan caiva pradapayet. The text of B y 9, which appears original, is as follows:

istvd ydgam yathanydyam naivedyani pradapayet || 64.8 || svasaktyd sadhako nityam yathavibhavasambhavam \ mudrah caiva yathanydyam arghah caiva pradapayet || 6 4 9 || "Having worshipped the pantheon (yaga) as is befitting, the sadhaka, together w ith his consort (svasakti), should always make the food offerings to the extent of his capacity; and he should offer both mudra, as is befitting, and the guest water." BraYa XLiv.648cd-49- Substantial internal evidence in the BraYa clarifies that the expression mudram pradapayet ("one should offer the mudra") means "one should bind /d isp lay the mudra,'’ mudra here having its, normal sense of "gesture," rather than som ething consumed. The ritual sequence of first binding a mudra and then offering argha occurs repeatedly, and the phrasing usually leaves no am­ biguity. Cf., e.g., xxxn.i68cd (mudram badhva tato devi argham tasyah pradapayet), xxxm .i32ab (mudram badhva yathanydyam arghah caiva pradapayet), and xvii (mudrabandham tatah krtvd arghah casya pradapayet, exposure 95I). The more ambiguous expression mudram [. . . ] pradapayet occurs thrice in BraYa xii, and twice elsewhere in chapter forty-four. D ue to its length, I w ill not here reproduce and discuss in full the passage from BraYa x liv that White summarizes and partially translates (Kiss of the Yogini, 2 4 9 - 5 0 ) . Suffice it to say that his account of this ritual of "viewing one's [past] births" (svayonidarsana) has numerous problems. N ote for example White's rendering of X L i v . 6 9 i a b : "He becomes a Virile Hero, surrounded by yonis." Kiss of the Yogini, 250. This implies the Sanskrit viro bhavati so devi yoniparivdritah, presumably White's emendation of Byc' s reading (f. 265V): viro bhavati sd devi yoniparivdritah. This is of course unmetrical, and B y q is surely correct in transmitting viro bhavati so devi yoginiparivdritah: "He becomes a hero, O goddess, surrounded by yoginis."

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29 th a t th e critica l e d itio n s p ro v id e d in th e p re s e n t d is s e rta tio n a n d p la n n e d fo r fu tu re p u b lic a tio n w ill fa cilitate m o re e x te n siv e u s e o f th e text.

1 .3

A NOTE O N CONV EN TIO N S

In m o s t in sta n c e s, I p ro v id e th e te x t a n d a tra n s la tio n o f p r im a r y so u rc e s cited ; so m e e x c e p tio n s a re m a d e fo r re a d ily accessib le tex ts, e sp e c ia lly if th e p a s s a g e is lo n g , n o t esp e c ia lly p ro b le m a tic , a n d o f n o sp e c ia l c o n se q u e n c e . W h e n th e le n g th o f a p a s s a g e a p p e a rs d is p ro p o rtio n a te to its re le v an ce , I s o m e tim e s p ro v id e th e te x t b u t fo rg o tra n s la tio n , esp e c ia lly if th e so u rc e is w e ll-k n o w n ; a lso o m itte d a re tra n s la tio n s of s o m e s h o rt p a s s a g e s th a t I p a r a p h r a s e in th e c o u rse o f d isc u ssio n . T h is a p p ro a c h , w h ic h I h o p e h a s h e lp e d c u rb th e v o lu m e o f a n n o ta tio n , h a s u n d o u b te d ly le d to a n u m b e r o f in co n sisten cies. S o u rce s e d ite d fro m m a n u s c r ip t a p p e a r w ith a critical a p p a ra tu s ; a lis t o f th e a b ­ b re v ia tio n s u s e d h a s b e e n p ro v id e d a fte r th e ta b le o f c o n te n ts. P a rt 1 o f th is th e sis q u o te s s u b s ta n tia lly fro m th e BraYa. In m o s t cases, th e q u o te d te x t is c o n s titu te d b a s e d o n ly o n th e re a d in g s o f th e o ld e s t co d ex , N a tio n a l A rc h iv es o f K a th m a n d u n o . 3-370 (re p o rte d a s "BYa "; see th e in tro d u c tio n to p a r t n fo r a d is c u s s io n o f th e m a n u s c rip ts ). I u s u a lly re s is t th e te m p ta tio n to c o m m e n t u p o n th e (so m e tim e c o n s id ­ e ra b le ) lin g u is tic p e c u lia ritie s o f th e p a s s a g e s cite d , a n d u p o n so m e o f th e p ro b le m s o f in te rp re ta tio n . S u c h m a tte rs are , h o w ev er, a d d r e s s e d in d e ta il in th e critica l e d i­ tio n (p a rt n ). P a ss a g e s q u o te d fro m th e BraYa a re c ite d b y v e rse n u m b e r r a th e r th a n fo lio , w h ile a p p e n d ix A p ro v id e s a c o n c o rd a n c e o f th e te x t's c h a p te rs a n d th e fo lio n u m b e r s in th e o ld e s t co d e x (B y 0 ). V erse n u m b e rs fro m c h a p te rs n o t in c lu d e d in th e critica l e d itio n a re g e n e ra lly d e te r m in e d b y m e c h a n ic a l d iv is io n o f th e te x t in to v e rse s of fo u r q u a r te rs (pada), a n d it is lik e ly th a t th e n u m b e rin g w ill c h a n g e slig h tly in f u tu r e e d itio n s. In v e ry s h o rt q u o ta tio n s fro m th e BraYa, a n o rth o g ra p h ic n o rm a l­ iz a tio n (e sp ecially th e c o rre c tio n o f s to s a n d v ice v ersa), a m in o r e m e n d a tio n (e.g. a fo r 0 o r v ice v ersa), o r th e a d d itio n o f a n anusvara (m) o r visarga {It), is in d ic a te d b y e n ­

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30

c lo sin g th e c h a ra c te r in q u e s tio n in s q u a re b ra c k e ts. A c ritic a l a p p a r a tu s is p ro v id e d fo r lo n g e r p a ss a g e s , a n d in cases w h e re m o re sig n ific a n t e m e n d a tio n s o r c o n je c tu re s are p ro p o s e d . T ra n sla tio n s a re th e p re s e n t a u t h o r 's u n le s s in d ic a te d o th e rw is e . O n e u n d o u b t­ e d ly q u irk y c o n v e n tio n a d o p te d is th e u s e o f a p a ir of q u e s tio n m a rk s , in p a re n th e s e s , to m a r k th e b e g in n in g a n d e n d o f a tra n s la te d p a s s a g e in w h ic h I c o n s id e r th e d e g re e of u n c e rta in ty c o n c e rn in g th e te x t o r its in te rp re ta tio n p a r tic u la rly h ig h . T h e firs t of th e p a ir is in v e rte d — i.e. " (i)-" In q u o ta tio n s fro m c o m m e n ta rie s , w o rd s fro m th e te x t c o m m e n te d u p o n a re s e t in b o ld ty p efa ce. Text c ita tio n s a re a lw a y s fro m th e e d itio n o r m a n u s c r ip t lis te d in th e b ib lio g ra p h y . In ca ses in w h ic h m o re th a n o n e e d itio n o r m a n u s c r ip t is liste d , th e so u rc e is sp ecified . T h e Tantrasadbhava, re fe rre d to fre q u e n tly , is c ite d o n th e b a s is o f th e m a n u s c r ip t c o lla tio n a n d d ra ft e d itio n g e n e r­ o u s ly m a d e a v a ila b le in elec tro n ic fo rm b y M a rk D y z c k o w sk i;91 in th e fe w cases th a t I h a v e c o n s u lte d th e m a n u s c rip ts m y s e lf a n d d iffe re d in th e ir in te rp re ta tio n , th is is in d ic a te d .

91 Available from the Digital Library of the Muktabodha Indological Research Institute, http://www.m uktabodhalib.org/digital_librciry.htm .

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C hapter 2 E A R L Y E V ID E N C E F O R T H E C U L T O F Y O G IN IS : T H E L IT E R A R Y , S C U L P T U R A L , A N D E P IG R A P H IC S O U R C E S

2 .1

in t r o d u c t io n

:

y o g in is a n d m o t h e r g o d d e s s e s

A v a rie ty o f e v id e n c e d o c u m e n ts w h a t I h av e d e s c rib e d as th e S aiva Y ogini c u lt in th e e a rly e ig h th c e n tu r y

c .e

.

It h a d m o re o v e r a lm o s t c e rta in ly d e v e lo p e d e a r­

lier; b u t th e re a re d ifficu lties in d e te r m in in g ex a ctly w h e n , fo r m u c h o f e a rly ta n tric S aiv a lite ra tu re h a s b e e n lo st, a n d little h a s b e e n d a te d w ith p re c isio n . F o r e s ta b ­ lis h in g a p la u s ib le c h ro n o lo g ic a l fra m e w o rk , o th e r ty p e s o f d a ta a re th u s crucial. In th e p re s e n t c h a p te r, I re v ie w th e e a rly e v id e n c e a v a ila b le in n o n -ta n tric lite ra ry so u rc e s, a n d th e e p ig ra p h ic a n d a r t h is to ric a l re co rd s. T h e e m p h a s is is u p o n p re te n th -c e n tu ry so u rc e s, b u t im p o rta n t e v id e n c e fro m th e te n th c e n tu r y a n d b e y o n d is a lso re v ie w e d — p a rtic u la rly th e te m p le s o f y o g in is, w ith w h ic h th is c h a p te r e n d s. In th e s u b s e q u e n t c h a p te r, th e d isc u ss io n w ill t u r n to ta n tric te x ts p ro p e r, b o th S aiva a n d B u d d h ist, re v ie w in g th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e Y ogini c u lt in e a rly ta n tric lite ra tu re as w e ll a s a c tu a l tantras c o n n e c te d w ith y o g in is. It w ill b e s e e n th a t th e b a la n c e o f e v ­ id e n c e p o in ts to w a rd th e ex isten c e o f S aiva y o g in i tra d itio n s in th e se v e n th c e n tu ry — c e rta in ly in th e e ig h th — a n d s u g g e s ts th a t so m e o f th e e x ta n t T antric lite ra tu re w a s in c irc u la tio n th e n a s w ell, in c lu d in g th e Brahmayamala (h e re a fte r BraYa), a lth o u g h n o t n e c e ss a rily in th e fo rm w e h av e it today. R e a c h in g b a c k in to th e s ix th a n d th e n fifth c e n tu rie s, th e e v id e n c e b e c o m e s in c re a s in g ly te n u o u s , b u t n o n e th e le s s re m a in s s u b s ta n tiv e .

31

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S ig n ific an t e le m e n ts o f th e Y ogini c u lt c o n s id e ra b ly p r e d a te its d e v e lo p m e n t. It h a s b e e n w id e ly a c k n o w le d g e d th a t y o g in is h a v e ro o ts in e a rly tra d itio n s o f M o th e r g o d d e s se s, m atrs o r m atrkas,1 w h o s e q u a litie s th e y in h e rit in n o sm a ll m e a su re . In s e e k in g a g e n e a lo g y o f th e c u lt o f y o g in is, th e p re s e n t c h a p te r h e n c e d e lv e s in so m e d e ta il in to th e h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f cu lts o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s .2 A n u m b e r o f a r t h is to ria n s a n d h is to ria n s of re lig io n h a v e a n a ly z e d th e te x tu a l, arch eo lo g ica l, a n d e p ig ra p h ic e v id e n c e fo r In d ia n M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, in c lu d in g J. N . T iw ari,3 N . P. Jo sh i,4 M ic h a e l M e iste r,5 K a th e rin e H a rp e r,6 S hivaji P a n ik k a r,7 a n d o th e rs .8 T h e p r e s e n t c h a p te r re v ie w s m u c h o f th e s a m e m a te ria l, b u t a lso b rin g s to b e a r u p o n th e su b je c t so m e o f th e ric h e v id e n c e av a ila b le in e a rly ta n tric lite ra tu re a n d th e o ld Skandapurana, m u c h o f w h ic h h a s o n ly re c e n tly b e c o m e av a ila b le o r re m a in s u n p u b lis h e d . T h e specific a im is to id e n tify w ith g re a te r p re c is io n th e re la tio n s h ip of 1 Authors of studies on the Mother goddesses have generally preferred the term matrka, for reasons unclear to me, possibly following contemporary usage or the usage of later Puranic literature. Although both terms occur, 'matr' is far more common in the early sources and in tantric Saiva literature, and preferred accordingly in this study. I frequently use the English translation "Mother" or "Mother goddess" in precisely the same sense. 2 Other feminine deities feed into the image of the yogini as well; noteworthy are the yaksi or yaksini, vidyadhan, and to som e extent the apsaras. Perhaps even more significant are Siva's ganas: a horde or male deities w hose theriomorphic or otherwise bizarre forms, multiplicity, variety, and engagem ent in activities such as warfare are highly suggestive of yoginis. The m ost detailed attempt to trace the early roots of conceptions of yoginis is that of David G. White, Kiss of the Yogini: "Tantric Sex" in its South Asian Contexts, 27-66. I discuss the role of the vidyadhari and to som e extent yaksi later in this chapter, in the section on the Brhatkatha tradition, but do not otherwise delve in detail into this question; m y concern is with the actual emergence of a tantric Yogini cult, rather than a genealogy of all concepts that went into forming the image of the yogini. 3 Tiwari assembles much textual and other material concerning Mother goddesses in his commend­ able monograph, Goddess Cults in Ancient India: With Special Reference to the First Seven Centuries A.D. 4 Matrkas: Mothers in Kusdna Art. Joshi's monograph offers a comprehensive evaluation of the Kusana-period Mother-goddess statuary. 5 "Regional Variation in Matrka Conventions." This important article analyses regional patterns in the development of Mother-goddess iconography in central and northwestern India, tracing the depiction of the Mothers from their early shrines to the static temple door panels of the ninth century and beyond. 6 Iconography o f the Saptam atrikas: Seven H in d u Goddesses o f Sp iritu a l Transform ation. An art historian, Harper provides a comprehensive study of temples of the Brahmanical Seven Mothers through the seventh century, primarily. 7 Saptamdtrka Worship and Sculptures: An Iconological Interpretation of Conflicts and Resolutions in the Storied Brahmanical Icons. Panikkar's work, published in 1997, carries forward scholarship such as Harper's on the Brahmanical cult of Mothers. 8 Two works not specifically focused on Mother goddesses but nonetheless highly relevant, partic­ ularly concerning the early period, are the dissertations of Yuko Yokochi ("The Rise of the Warrior Goddess in Ancient India. A Study of the Myth Cycle of Kausikl-VindhyavasinI in the Skandapurana") and Richard Mann ("The Early Cult of Skanda in North India: From D em on to Divine Son").

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th e c u lt o f M o th e rs to T antric S a iv ism a n d e m e rg e n t tra d itio n s o f y o g in is. W h ile M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a re o f c o n sid e ra b le a n tiq u ity in In d ia a n d u n d o u b t­ e d ly h a d n o n -e lite , p ro b a b ly n o n -A ry a n ro o ts, th e Y ogini c u lt a p p e a rs to p re s u p p o s e th e c ry s ta lliz a tio n o f th e ir " c la ssic a l" G u p ta -e ra fo rm : a s e t o f g o d d e s s e s c a lle d th e "S e v e n M o th e rs " (saptamatr), six o f w h o m a re n a m e d a fte r a n d ic o n o g ra p h ic a lly m ir­ ro r im p o r ta n t B ra h m a n ic a l g o d s, jo in e d b y a se v e n th , C a m u n d a — th e in d e p e n d e n t g o d d e s s w h o is " le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs " (m atrnayika). T h e six n o rm a lly c o n s ist of B ra h m a n i, M a h e sv a rl, K a u m a ri, V aisnavl, V a ra h i o r Y am I,9 a n d In d ra n I, fe m a le c o u n ­ te r p a r ts o f B ra h m a , Siva, S k a n d a , V isn u , V a rah a o r Y am a, a n d In d ra . T h e ir n u m b e rs are h o w e v e r so m e tim e s a u g m e n te d b y a n e ig h th g o d d e s s , p a rtic u la rly M a h a la k sm I, w h ile in ta n tric S aiva so u rc es, th e y o fte n a re jo in e d in s te a d b y th e s u p re m e g o d d e s s h e rse lf, B h airav l, w h o th u s u s u r p s C a m u n d a 's p o s itio n .10 E a rly S aiva tre a tise s o n " th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f y o g in is " (yoginilaksana)11 classify th e s e g o d d e s s e s a c c o rd in g to clan s (kula, gotra) th a t h av e th e S ev en o r E ig h t M o th e rs as m a tria rc h s , c la n m o th e rs in w h o s e n a tu re s th e y o g in is p a r ta k e a s amsas, " p o r­ tio n s " o r " p a rtia l m a n ife sta tio n s ." T antric p ra c titio n e rs to o e s ta b lis h k in s h ip w ith th e M o th e rs, le a v in g b e h in d th e ir c o n v e n tio n a l c la n a n d c a ste id e n titie s a n d e n te rin g d u r in g in itia tio n in to w h a t I re fe r to a s 'in itia to ry k in s h ip ' w ith th e d e itie s .12 It is p o s sib le th a t th e m o s t fu n d a m e n ta l in itia tio n m a n d a la o f th e Y ogini c u lt c o m p ris e d 9 Probably the m ost common variation in sets of the Seven Mothers, as described in texts, is the alternation between Yaml/Yamya and Varahi, the former a counterpart of the death-god Yama, and the latter of Varaha, avatara of Visnu. Varahi dominates, however, in sculpted sets of the Mothers. Further research is needed to determine the significance of these variations. In the BraYa, Yamya (also called Vaivasvati) features in all cases of ritual or doctrinal importance, Varahi being mentioned only in sections of the text which might represent a later stratum. See the discussion on the BraYa's structure in chapter 4, and the annotation on BraYa 11.16. In contrast, sets of eight matrs show more variation, both in text and image; see the section in this chapter on post-Gupta era matr shrines. 10 S e e th e d is c u s s io n o f p o s t - G u p t a e r a M o t h e r - g o d d e s s s h r in e s l a t e r i n th is c h a p te r. O n th e M o th e rs

in tantric literature, see also chapter 3. 11 These include SiddhayogesvarTmata 29, BraYa l x x i i i (edited and translated in the present disserta­ tion), and Tantrasadbhavatantra 16. 12 A yogini of the clan of Brahmi/Brahmani is said to be brahmanyamsa, "an amsa of Brahmani." Cf., e.g., Tantrasadbhava i6.253cd. An initiate too is said to be "connected to" or "possess" (yukta) an am§a of a Mother goddess; cf., e.g., BraYa Lxxiii.47cd, brahmamkulaja devi svam£asiddhipradayika ("[She is] a yogini of the clan of Brahmani, O Goddess, w ho bestows siddhi upon those [sadhakas] of her own [Mother-goddess] amsa").

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B h airav a in a circle o f th e E ig h t M o th e rs. N o te fo r in s ta n c e th a t in th e BraYa, w h ile th e F o u r D e v is a n d F o u r D u tls fo rm th e p r im a r y m a n d a la 's in n e r circ u it (avarana) of g o d d e s s e s / 3 s u r r o u n d in g B h airav a a n d B h a ira v l/A g h o re s I, th e in itia to ry clan s re ­ m a in n o n e th e le s s th o s e o f B h airav a a n d th e E ig h t M o th e rs. A c o n c o rd a n c e in BraYa iv p ro v id e s th e M o th e r-c la n n a m e s a ss o c ia te d w ith e a c h o f th e e ig h t D e v is a n d D u tls, a s th o u g h m a p p in g th e m a n d a la p o s itio n s o f th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s th e y s u p p l a n t / 4 In itia to ry k in s h ip w ith th e M o th e rs lin k s m a le p ra c titio n e rs to th e y o g in is, th e ir in i­ tia to ry siste rs, se e k in g v isio n ary , tra n s a c tio n a l e n c o u n te rs (melapa) w ith w h o m th e y u n d e r ta k e p o w e rfu l a n d ra d ic a l ritu a ls . G u id e d b y k n o w le d g e o f " th e c h a ra c te ris ­ tics o f y o g in is" (yoginilaksana), as d e s c rib e d in S aiva s c r ip tu ra l so u rc e s, th e y m ig h t a lso se e k o u t c la n s iste rs liv in g a m o n g o r d in a r y folk, lo o k in g o u t fo r b e h a v io rs a n d a p p e a ra n c e s a ss o c ia te d w ith th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s y o g in is em b o d y : A w o m a n d a r k a n d m a lo d o ro u s , w h o h a s a lo n g n e c k a n d fin g ers, [w hose] te e th h av e a v e ry b e a u tifu l s h in e a n d w h o s e eyes a re v e ry ro u n d , alw a y s fo n d o f r e d clo th in g , d r a p in g a g a r m e n t fro m h e r s h o u ld e rs , a lw a y s fo n d o f sc e n ts a n d flo w ers . . . T h ese a re th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f [yoginis] b o r n in th e c la n o f [th e M o th e r g o d d e ss] In d ra n l. A fte r six m o n th s o f w o rs h ip , 13 On the basic pantheon of the BraYa, see the section discussing the epithet navaksaravidhana in chapter 4. 14 See BraYa iv.888-98, especially 8gocd-894ab:

raktdyds tu yada pdto gotram mdhesvaram hitam || 890 || karalayd yada pdto brahmagotrah sa ucyate \ kardlyaya yada pdto vaisnavigotrako hi sah || 891 j| danturaya yada pdtah kaumdrigotrasambhava \ candaksyaya yada pdto vaivasvatikulodbhava || 892 || bhTmavaktrdprapatena mahendram gotram ucyate \ mahocchusmdprapate tu carcikagotrako hi sah || 893 || mahdbald yada patah purarugotra ucyate \ 891b “gotrah ] corr.; 0gotras By° 892c candaksyaya ] em.; candaksaya Byq gotram ] c o n j mahendragottra (unmetrical) By“

893b mahendram

"When the [flower cast into the mandala during initiation] lands on Rakta, the clan of Siva [i.e. Mahesvari] is enjoined. When it lands upon Karala, he is said to be of the brahma-clan [i.e. the clan of Brahmani], When it lands on Karali, he is of the clan of Vaisnavl. When it lands on Dantura, she is born of the clan of Kaumari. When it lands on CandaksI, she is born of the clan of Vaivasvatl [i.e. YamI]. By landing on Bhlmavaktra, the clan of the great Indra [i.e. the clan of Indranl] is enjoined. If it lands on Mahocchusma, he has the clan of Carcika [i.e. Camunda]. If its fall [indicates] Mahabala, the clan of The One Who Completes [the Mothers] is enjoined [i.e. the clan of Bhairavl]." The gender shift w ith the feminine °sambhava in 892b and 892b is suspect; m ost probably read °sambhavah. Subsequent verses give a concordance of the Mother-clans and the Six Yoginis of the mandala as well.

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su c c e ssfu lly p ro p itia te d , th e y b e s to w a n e n c o u n te r (melaka). [T he p ra c ti­ tio n er] tra v e rse s th e e n tire w o rld , w o rk in g a ll [k in d s of] w o n d e rs .15 C h a p te rs fro m th e BraYa c o n c e rn in g th e classific atio n o f a n d e n c o u n te rs w ith y o g in is a re in c lu d e d in th e critical e d itio n , p a r t n o f th e p re s e n t d is s e rta tio n . T h a t M o th e r g o d d e s s e s lie in th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e Y ogini c u lt is e v id e n c e d in a v a rie ty o f o th e r w a y s a s w ell. H is to ric a l c o n tin u ity is re a d ily a p p a r e n t th ro u g h c o m ­ p a r in g te x tu a l a n d s c u lp tu ra l re p re s e n ta tio n s , b e g in n in g , in th e case o f th e M o th e rs, w ith th e Mahabharata a n d s c u lp tu re fro m th e e a rly c e n tu rie s

c .e .

T h e p re s e n t c h a p ­

te r b e g in s w ith th is e a rly lev el o f e v id e n c e , a n d th e n sh ifts to G u p ta -e ra a n d e a rly p o s t-G u p ta e ra so u rc es. T h e re w e fin d o u r first g lim p s e s o f a ta n tric c u lt o f M o th e rs a n d th e e m e rg e n c e o f y o g in is as s a c re d fig u re s. T h e ir m u tu a l a sso c ia tio n is close: fo r in sta n c e , th e o ld Skandapurana, a te x t p ro b a b ly of th e s ix th o r e a rly se v e n th c e n tu ry (see b e lo w ), s p e a k s o f " T a n tra s o f th e M o th e r G o d d e ss e s " (m atrtantras) a n d id en tifie s th e s e w ith a list o f S aiva yam alatantras th a t in c lu d e s th e e x ta n t BraYa, a fu n d a m e n ta l te x t o f th e y o g in i cu lt. E x a m in a tio n o f p e r io d so u rc e s h e lp s e sta b lish a n h isto ric a l fra m e w o rk fo r d is c u s s io n o f th e Y ogini c u lt in e a rly ta n tric lite ra tu re , th e su b ject of c h a p te r th ree .

2.2

EARLY SOURCES

T H E M A H A B H A R A T A , K U S A N A -P E R IO D STATUARY, A N D T H E EARLY CULT O F M O T H E R GODDESSES

S o u rce s fo r s tu d y o f th e p re -G u p ta p e r io d M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a re m u ltip le a n d rich . A m o n g tex ts, th e m o s t im p o rta n t is u n d o u b te d ly th e Mahabharata, w h ic h is s u p p le ­ m e n te d b y a s u b s ta n tia l b o d y o f s ta tu a r y p re s e rv e d fro m th e K u s a n a -p e rio d M a th u ra re g io n (circa l - j r d c e n tu rie s

c .e .) .

T y p o lo g ies of M o th e r g o d d e s s e s in th e Mahabharata

m a tc h w e ll to th e s c u lp tu ra l e v id e n c e s u rv iv in g fro m M a th u ra . In b o th in sta n c e s, as w e ll as in e a rly m e d ic a l lite ra tu re , th e re a re s tro n g a s so c ia tio n s b e tw e e n th e M o th e r 15 Brahmayamala L x x m . 6 7 - 7 1 . For the text, and problems concerning its constitution and interpreta­ tion, see the critical edition and translation in Part in.

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g o d d e s s e s a n d th e d e ity S k a n d a , in th e c o n te x t o f w h o s e m y th s th e M o th e rs a p p e a r in th e Mahabharata. Mahabharata a c c o u n ts of th e m y th o lo g y o f S k a n d a a n d h is re tin u e o f grahas ("seize r s " )16 a n d M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a re m a n y a n d h ig h ly la y e re d , n o d o u b t th e p ro d u c ts o f a lo n g d e v e lo p m e n t.17 T h is is illu s tra te d b y th e c o m p le x c la im s m a d e c o n c e rn in g S k a n d a 's p a re n ta g e , as re la te d in th e Aranyakaparvan, c h a p te rs 215-21. M o st directly, h e is th e c h ild o f A g n i a n d S vaha. A g n i, w h o lu s te d a fte r th e w iv e s o f th e S ev en S ages, w a s s e d u c e d b y S v ah a, w h o a p p ro a c h e d h im ta k in g o n in t u r n th e g u is e s of six o f th e rsis' w iv es, s p a r in g fro m s c a n d a l o n ly th e d e v o te d a n d p o w e rfu l A ru n d h a tl. Yet S k a n d a is a lso th e c h ild o f Siva a n d P a rv a tl, w h o e n te r e d in to A g n i a n d S v ah a, re ­ sp ectiv ely , a n d u s e d th e m a s p ro x ie s fo r p r o d u c in g a so n . S k a n d a is, in a d d itio n , th e c h ild o f th e K rttik a s, th e six sta rs o f th e P le ia d e s, w h ic h a re in th is v e rsio n o f th e s to ry id e n tifie d w ith th e six w iv e s o f th e sag es. S k a n d a 's b ir th a s n a r r a te d in Salyaparvan 4 3 -4 5 a d d s th e riv e r-g o d d e s s G a n g a to th e m ix: in to A g n i fell S iv a 's se e d , a n d fin d ­ in g it d ifficu lt to b ear, h e s o u g h t su c c o u r b y e n te rin g th e h o ly river. S he to o fo u n d th e lu m in o u s e m b ry o d ifficu lt to suffer, a n d p la c e d it o n a m o u n ta in p e a k . T h e re it w a s s p o tte d a n d n u r tu r e d b y th e K rttik as. In th e s e b a sic d e ta ils , th e la tte r a c c o u n t a g re e s w ith th a t o f AnuSanaparvan 84 a n d 86. A lo n g sid e m u c h th a t is u n d o u b te d ly a n c ie n t, s u c h as S k a n d a 's a sso c ia tio n w ith th e K rttik a s, th e s e la y e re d m y th s a p p e a r to p re s e rv e c o n flic tin g se c ta ria n claim s: a le g e n d a s s e rtin g S k a n d a 's o rig in s fro m A g n i 16 A variety of terms are used in fact to speak of the entourage of Skanda, w ith gana ("member of the group") and graha ("seizer") the m ost encompassing. Aranyakaparvan 219.42 categorizes both the Mothers and male retinue of Skanda under the category skandagraha, "Skanda's seizers":

ye ca matrganah proktah purusds caiva ye grahah | sarve skandagraha nama jneya nityam sanribhih || 42 || T h e s e a r e a d iv e r s e lo t, in c lu d in g m a le a n d fe m a le d e itie s a n d s p i r i ts o f e v e r y c o n c e iv a b le s h a p e and

hue. Theriomorphism is common, much as the six-headed Skanda him self is said to sport the head of a goat. 17 The m ost comprehensive discussion of Mahabharata passages describing Skanda and the Mother goddesses is that of Mann, "Early Cult of Skanda." Mann devotes a chapter each to the three Mahdbharata sections on the m ythology of Skanda. See also his article, "Parthian and Hellenistic Influences on the Developm ent of Skanda's Cult in North India: Evidence from Kusana-Era Art and Coins," Bulletin of the Asia Institute 15 (2001): 111-28. Mann argues that Skanda has origins as the leader of inauspicious grahas, including the Mothers, only later becoming transformed into the son of Siva and warrior god of H indu mythology, for which both Brahmanical and royal Greco-Persian influences are responsible.

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a n d th e w iv es o f th e sag es, w h ic h b rin g s h im w ith in th e o rb it o f V aid ik a o rth o d o x y ; a n d a S aiva la y e r a s s e rtin g S k a n d a 's p a r e n ta g e fro m S iva a n d U m a.

By th e tim e

of K a lid a s a 's Kumdrasambhava, a n ep ic p o e m o n S k a n d a 's b ir th p ro b a b ly o f th e fifth ce n tu ry , th e S aiva id e n tity o f S k a n d a a s so n o f S iva a n d P a rv a tl w o u ld d o m in a te ; a n d in th e s o m e w h a t la te r Skandapurana, th e c u lt o f th e w a rrio r-c h ild a n d th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s is fu lly a s s im ila te d in to S aivism . In th e Mahabharata, th e re is n o e v id e n c e of a M o th e r g o d d e s s c u lt ta n tric in c h a r­ acter, a n d th e re is in d e e d n o re a s o n to b eliev e th a t S a iv ism o f th e ty p e a tte s te d in th e e a rlie s t s u rv iv in g T a n tra s h a d d e v e lo p e d . In o n e d e s c rip tio n , w o rs h ip o f S k a n d a , th e M o th e rs, a n d o th e r d e itie s o f h is r e tin u e h a s a tta in m e n t o f lo n g e v ity a n d v ita lity fo r its im p e tu s , a n d in v o lv e s b a th in g [the d e ity im a g e s], o ffe rin g in cen se , o in tm e n ts , fo o d (bali, p e r h a p s n o n -v e g e ta ria n ), a n d o th e r o ffe rin g s (upahara— p o ss ib ly in th e se n se of "sacrifice"), a n d p e r fo rm in g S k a n d a 's " w o rs h ip " (ijya). T ak e n to g e th e r, th e s e s u g g e s t a s h rin e o r te m p le im a g e -w o rs h ip c o n te x t.18 T h e 'h ig h ' d e itie s m e n tio n e d in asso c i­ a tio n w ith th e c u lt— R u d ra , A g n i, U m a , a n d S v a h a — a re s a id to b e w o rs h ip p e d b y th o s e d e s irin g p ro g e n y , a n im p o rta n t th e m e in la te r a c c o u n ts o f th e M o th e r c u lt.19 T h e re is in g e n e ra l a s tro n g a p o tro p a ic d im e n s io n , w h ic h c o m e s th ro u g h m o s t clea rly in th e e a rly m e d ic a l lite ra tu re ,20 a s w e ll as Aranyakaparvan 218. S k a n d a a n d h is s u b ­ s id ia ry d e itie s afflict c h ild re n w ith d ise a s e if n o t p ro p itia te d , a n d th e M o th e rs a re 18Aranyakaparvan 2 1 9 . 4 3 - 4 4 : tesam prasamanam karyam snanam dhupam athahjanam \ balikarmopahdras ca skandasyejya visesatah || 43 |j evam ete 'rcitah sarve prayacchanti subham nrnam \ dyur viryam ca rajendra samyakpujdnamaskrtah || 44 || "For them [the Mothers and Skanda's other grahas] m ust be performed ritual pacification: bathing, incense, ointment, the rite of offering bali and gifts [or sacrifice], and particularly the worship (ijya) of Skanda. All of them [the grahas], thus worshipped, bestow good luck, longevity, and vitality to people, w hen paid respects w ith due reverence, O lord of kings." This description of the constituents of worship bears comparison w ith the temple cult of Mothers described in the Bagh copper plate inscriptions of the late fourth century c .e ., discussed in the next section. Although little is known of the eras of composition of individual sections of the epic, it is possible that relatively little time separates this portion of the text from the Bagh copper plates. 19 Note, for example, in BraYa 1 the brief narrative of Deika (verses 8 1 - 8 4 ) , w h ° worships the Mothers desiring to have a child. 20 On the "graha cult" in medical literature, see Mann, "Parthian and Hellenistic Influences," 5-7.

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h e n c e in tim a te ly a sso c ia te d w ith fe rtility a n d d ise a se , w ith life a n d d e a th . S c u lp tu ra l e v id e n c e fro m th e e n v iro n s of K u s a n a -e ra M a th u ra la rg e ly s u p p o rts th e p ic tu re o f th e M o th e r-g o d d e s s c u lt th a t e m e rg e s fro m th e Mahabharata. A sig n ifi­ c a n t b o d y o f s ta tu a r y s u rv iv e s fro m a v a ri­ ety o f a rc h ite c tu ra l co n tex ts, n o t a ll B rah ­ m a n ic a l.21 T h e M a th u ra M o th e r g o d d e s s e s are d iv e rse , c o m p ris in g sm all-sca le im a g e s b o th a n th ro p o m o rp h ic a n d th e rio m o rp h ic w h o s e c o m m o n ic o n o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s in ­ c lu d e c a rry in g in fa n ts, d is p la y in g th e g es­ tu re o f d e liv e ra n c e fro m d a n g e r (abhayam udra), a n d o c c u rre n c e in g ro u p s o f v a ri­ a b le siz e a lo n g s id e a m a le g u a r d ia n fig­ u re , s u c h a s th e s p e a r-b e a rin g S k a n d a (see figs. 2.1-2.5).22 T h e re is h o w e v e r a d is c re p u r e 2 . x : Mother goddess bearing lotus and infant, making the abhayamudra. Kusana-era Mathura. AIIS Photo Archive.

F ig

a n c y in o n e s ig n ific a n t re sp ect: w h ile th e Mahabharata lin k s th e M o th e rs a lm o s t ex­

c lu siv e ly w ith S k a n d a , th e e x ta n t s ta tu a ry p re s e rv e s a n a s so c ia tio n w ith K u b e ra as w ell, g o d o f w e a lth a n d lo rd o f th e yaksas (cf.

f ig u r e

2 . 3 ) . 23

T h is p a ra lle l a n d p o s ­

sib ly m o re a rch aic c o n v e n tio n illu s tra te s th e M o th e rs ' clo se lin k s to th e yaksa a n d 21 N. P. Joshi notes evidence for Mother sculptures recovered from both Buddhist and Jaina sites in t h M a t h u r a a re a . M atrkas: M o th ers in K usana A r t, 110-15.

22 Joshi surveys the iconography of the extant statuary, classifying the im ages into thirteen categories. The m ost common type depicts a row of seated Mother goddesses holding infants. Ibid., 103-28. 23 According to Joshi's iconographic survey, images of the Mothers w ith Kubera are in fact more them twice as common as those w ith Skanda. See ibid. Interestingly, Meister describes a saptamatrka panel at Kekind (Nllakanthesvara temple, mid-tenth century) in which Kubera's association with the Mothers surprisingly resurfaces: flanking the Seven Mothers are Ganesa and Kubera. Meister however interprets this as the overlapping of two conventions: "Ganesa as head of a Matrka set and Ganesa paired with Kubera as good-luck charms. One set of im ages containing Ganesa has suggested the other; there is no other reason for Kubera, lord of wealth, to join the Matrkas." "Regional Variations," 245, and fig. 5.

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yaksi, p o p u la r n o n -B ra h m a n ic a l d e itie s c o n n e c te d to th e n a tu r a l w o rld , w h o , lik e th e M o th e rs, a re w e ll re p re s e n te d in p re -G u p ta e ra m y th a n d s c u lp tu re .

F ig

2.2: Skanda (left) and five matrs. Kusana-era Mathura. State m useum , Mathura. AIIS Photo

u re

Archive.

Tw o sig n ific a n t c o n tin u itie s h a v e b e e n in su ffic ie n tly e m p h a s iz e d b e tw e e n e a rly M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a n d th e B ra h m a n ic a l S ev en M o th e rs o f th e G u p ta -p e rio d . T h ese b e a r d ire c tly u p o n th e q u e s tio n o f th e e m e rg e n c e of th e Y oginI cu lt. F irst, a s se v ­ e ra l s c h o la rs h a v e n o te d , th e n u m b e r sev e n h a s s tro n g p re c e d e n t:24 Mahabharata, Aranyakaparvan 217, lists b y n a m e a h e p ta d o f g o d d e s s e s k n o w n as th e sisum atrs, " M o th e rs o f th e In fa n t[s]." T h e se c o m p ris e K akI, H a lim a , R u d ra , B rhali, A ry a , P alala, a n d M itra .25 It se e m s p o s sib le th a t th e B ra h m a n ic a l M o th e rs d ire c tly s u p p la n t th e sisum atrs, w h o m ig h t w ell h a v e b e e n p o p u la r d e itie s o f th e p re -G u p ta p e rio d . N o te a lso th e Salyaparvan's re fe re n c e to saptamatrganah, a n a m b ig u o u s c o m p o u n d p e r h a p s 24 Cf., e.g., Mann, "Early Cult of Skanda," 37-38; Harper, Iconography o f the Saptamatrkas, 56; and Meister, "Regional Variations," 240. 25 Aranyakaparvan 217.9: kakT ca halima caiva rudratha brhali tatha j dryd palala vai mitra saptaitdh sisumatarah || 9 ||

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40

1 F ig

F ig

u re

2 .4 :

ure

2.3: Kubera and two matrs. Kusana-era Mathura. ALLS Photo Archive.

Seven matrs, w ith Skanda (left). Kusana-era Mathura. State m useum , Mathura. AIIS Photo

Archive.

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41

m e a n in g " th e g ro u p s o f S ev en M o th e rs," th e p lu r a l s u g g e s tin g m u ltip le g ro u p s of se v e n .26 F u rth e rm o re , fro m th e K u sa n a -e ra (circa i - 3 r d c e n tu rie s

c .e

ro n s s u rv iv e s w h a t a p p e a rs to b e a s e t o f sev e n M o th e rs w ith S k a n d a

.)

M a th u ra e n v i­

(f ig u r e

2.4); b u t

th is u n iq u e p a n e l is b ro k e n o n th e r ig h t a n d m ig h t h e n c e h a v e c o n ta in e d a d d itio n a l im a g e s .27 S eco n d , a lth o u g h th e re is n o clea r e v id e n c e in th e Mahabharata fo r th e G u p ta -e ra , "c la ssic a l" s e t o f S ev en M o th e rs, th e classific atio n o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s in to g ro u p s c o r re s p o n d in g to B ra h m a n ic a l d e itie s is a tte s te d in th e Salyaparvan. T h is is o f c o n ­ s id e ra b le c o n se q u e n c e , illu m in a tin g th e ro o ts o f th e B ra h m a n ic a l S ev en M o th e rs a n d s u g g e s tin g a n a n c ie n t p re c e d e n t fo r th e Y ogini c u lt's o rg a n iz a tio n o f fe m a le d e itie s in to cla n s h a v in g e a c h o f th e S ev en o r E ig h t M o th e rs as m a tria rc h . Salyaparvan 45 p re s e n ts a ric h a c c o u n t o f th e d iv e rs e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, i n th e c o u rse o f w h ic h it d e ­ sc rib e s th e m v a rio u s ly as yam yah, raudryah, saum yah, kauberyah, varunyah, mahendryah, agneyyah, vayavyah, kaumaryah, a n d brahmyah.28 T h ese a re a b s tra c t n o u n s fo rm e d fro m th e n a m e s o f th e m a le d e itie s Y am a, R u d ra , S o m a , K u b e ra , V a ru n a, M a h e n d r a / I n d r a , A g n i, V a y u , K u m a r a / S k a n d a , a n d B ra h m a , th e p a s s a g e h e n c e p ro v id in g s tro n g e v id e n c e fo r o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e M o th e rs a c c o rd in g to d e itie s o f th e B ra h m a n ­ ical p a n th e o n . It m u s t b e e m p h a s iz e d ju s t h o w m u c h y o g in ls as a d e ity ty p o lo g y in h e rit fro m th e M o th e rs, as d e s c rib e d in th is Salyaparvan p a ss a g e . A m o n g th e M o th e rs , so m e h a v e lo n g claw s, fa n g s, o r b ea k s; so m e a re y o u th fu l m a id e n s , w h ile o th e rs a re flesh le ss o r p o t-b e llie d . F la v in g v a rio u s h u e s , c h a n g in g s h a p e a t w ill, a n d s p e a k in g m a n y la n g u a g e s , th e M o th e rs riv a l th e apsaras in b e a u ty , In d r a in p o w er, A g n i in r a d i­ 26 Salyaparvan 43.293!): saptamatrganas caiva samajagmur visam pate. Matrganah might however be a karmadharaya com pound, meaning "the ganas w ho are the [Seven] Mothers," or even a dvanda, "the [Seven] Mothers and the ganas." The context is a list of divinities w ho come to see Skanda. 27 J. Bautze claims in fact that all Kusana-era seated matr-goddess panels so far published are frag­ ments, broken at one end or both. "A N ote on Two Matrka Panels," 25. 28 N ot accepted in the critical edition are, in addition, the epithets vaisnavyah, sauryah, and varahyah, in a verse that would follow 45.363b. This might have been interpolated to harmonize the passage w ith later conceptions of the Mothers; the absence of Vaisnavi and Varahl, in particular, m ight have been inexplicable to a Gupta-era or later audience. Yokochi quotes and discusses this Mahabharata passage in "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 101.

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an c e, a n d so fo rth .29 T h ey d w e ll in lim in a l p la c e s s u c h a s c ro s sro a d s a n d c re m a tio n g r o u n d s — th e s a m e e n v iro n s e n jo in e d fo r p e rfo rm in g th e ra d ic a l ritu a ls o f th e YoginI c u lt, o n e o f th e p r im a r y a im s o f w h ic h w a s to effect d ire c t e n c o u n te rs w ith g o d d e sse s. T h e y o g in is' th e rio m o rp h is m , s h a p e sh iftin g , m u ltip lic ity , e x tra o rd in a rily v a rie g a te d a p p e a ra n c e s , bellicosity, in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d s im u lta n e o u s b e a u ty a n d d a n g e r all fin d p re c e d e n t in th e s e e a rly M o th e r g o d d e s se s. T h is c o n tin u ity is re a d ily v isib le in s c u lp ­ tu re . W h ile ta k in g o n th e p o w e rfu l ic o n o g ra p h y o f ta n tric d e itie s , th e y o g in is reflect in v is u a l te rm s c le a r c o n tin u ity w ith th e K u s a n a -e ra M o th e r g o d d e s s ty p o lo g y (cf. f ig u r e s

2.5 a n d 2.6).30

M u c h a s th e re is c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n y o g in is a n d th e e a rly m atrs, d a n g e ro u s a n d p o w e rfu l fe m a le d e itie s w h o m , as M ic h a e l M e iste r su g g e sts, th e B ra h m a n ic a l c u lt of 29 Salyaparvan 45.29-40:

etas canyas ca bahavo mataro bharatarsabha \ kdrttikeyanuyayinyo nanarUpah sahasrasah || 29 |j dXrghanakhyo dTrghadantyo dXrghatundyas ca bhdrata \ sarala madhuras caiva yauvanasthdh svalamkrtah |j 30 || mdhdtmyena ca samyuktdh kamarupadharas tatha \ nirmdmsagdtryah svetaS ca tatha kdncanasamnibhdh || 31 || krsnameghanibhds canya dhumrdi ca bharatarsabha \ arunabha mahabhdga dirghakesyah sitambardh || 32 || UrdhvavenXdharas caiva pihgaksyo lambamekhalah | lambodaryo lambakarnds tatha lambapayodharah || 33 || tamraksyas tdmravarnds ca haryaksyas ca tathapardh \ varadah kamacdrinyo nityapramuditas tatha || 34 || yamyo raudryas tatha saumydh kauberyo 'tha mahabaldh \ vdrunyo 'tha ca mahendryas tathagneyyah paramtapa || 35 || vdyavyas catha kaumaryo brahmyas ca bharatarsabha \ rupenapsarasam tulyd jave vayusamas tatha |j 36 || parapustopama vakye tatharddhya dhanadopamah \ sakravXryopamd§ caiva dXptya vahnisamds tatha || 37 || vrksacatvaravdsinyas catuspathaniketanah \ guhasmasanavdsinyah sailaprasravanalaydh || 38 || nanabharanadharinyo ndnamalydmbaras tatha j nanavicitravesds ca nanabhasds tathaiva ca || 39 || ete canye ca bahavo gandh iatrubhayamkardh | anujagmur mahatmanam tridasendrasya sammate || 40 || 30 Yoginis shed the Mothers' maternal associations to a large degree. However, there cire numerous examples of their representation w ith infants; note for instance two of the yoginis from Lokhari, U.P., published in Dehejia, YoginX Cult and Temples, 159 (which I reproduce as f i g u r e 2.6), 161. Dehejia publishes another image of a theriomorphic yoginl from Naresar that carries an infant, labelled "Uma Devi." Ibid., 146-47. An image (10th century?) from Bundelkhand, M.P., of a four-armed goddess holding a child also appears to be a yoginl, presently in the Bharat Kala Bhavan of Varanasi ( a i i s Photo Archive, accession no. 7175, negative no. 4).

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Fig u r e 2.5: Bird-headed Mother goddess car­ rying an infant in her likeness. Kusana-era Mathura. State m useum , Mathura. AIIS Photo Archive.

2.6: Horse-headed yoginl from Lokhari, U.P., w ith like infant. Photograph by Vidya Dehejia, published in Dehejia, YoginT Cult and Temples, 159. F ig u re

S ev en M o th e rs s o u g h t to c o n ta in ,31 th e e a rly S k a n d a , th o u g h su c c e sfu lly tra n s fo rm e d in to a b e n e v o le n t w a rrio r g o d , re su rfa c e s in th e fig u re o f B h airav a, lo rd o f y o g in is, w h o ta k e s o n m u c h o f th e a n c ie n t im a g e ry o f R u d ra a s w ell. F o r a lth o u g h a p la y fu l, h a n d s o m e y o u n g w a rrio r d o m in a te s th e la te r im a g e o f S k a n d a , in th e Mahabharata m y th o lo g y lie c le a r tra c e s o f a n a m b ig u o u s a n d p o te n tia lly d a n g e ro u s d eity , in th is re s p e c t re s e m b lin g th e m atrs h e h e a d s. R ic h a rd M a n n a rg u e s th a t th is S k a n d a h a s in fa c t h isto ric a l p rim a c y .32

35 Meister, "Regional Variations," 244-45. 32 Mann, "Early Cult of Skanda," passim. It is possible however that Mann goes too f ar in reading historical layers into the Skanda myth. Specifically, I see little reason w h y the Mothers and Skanda could not have been, even in their earliest conceptions, sim ultaneously auspicious and inauspicious, connected w ith both fertility and disease, life and death. In other respects, his argument for historical transformation seem s entirely plausible.

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G U P T A -E R A S C U L PTU R E A N D IN S C R IP T IO N S

S ev eral fo u rth - a n d fifth -c en tu ry , G u p ta -e ra in s c rip tio n s m a k e re fe re n c e to M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, w h ile th e e a rlie st re m a in s o f M o th e r s h rin e s a p p e a r to d a te to th e b e g in ­ n in g o f th e fifth ce n tu ry . In th is p e r io d , w e fin d e v id e n c e fo r th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e B ra h m a n ic a l saptam atrs, "S e v en M o th e rs ," fe m a le c o u n te r p a rts to a se rie s o f m a jo r B ra h m a n ic a l d e itie s h e a d e d b y a n in d e p e n d e n t g o d d e s s , C a m u n d a . T h e re is a p p a r ­ e n t, m o reo v e r, a tra n s fo rm a tio n b y w h ic h S iva u s u r p s S k a n d a 's p o s itio n as le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs, to th e e x te n t th a t S k a n d a ra re ly fin d s p la c e in th e ic o n o g ra p h ic p r o ­ g ra m s o f p o s t fifth -c e n tu ry M o th e r sh rin e s. T h e g o d d e s s C a m u n d a is n o rm a tiv e ly d e p ic te d as a n e m a c ia te d a n d p o w e rfu l h a g w h o s e ic o n o g ra p h y in c lu d e s m o rtu a ry (,kapalika) c u lt ob jects s u c h as th e s k u ll a n d sk u ll-sta ff (khatvanga). T h is v a rie ty of ic o n o g ra p h y is c h a ra c te ristic o f ta n tric d e itie s o f th e bhairavatantras a n d e a rly Y oginl cu lt, a n d it is p o s sib le th a t C a m u n d a w a s, fro m h e r o b sc u re b e g in n in g , a ta n tric deity. T h a t is to say, th e e m e rg e n c e o f C a m u n d a c o u ld in itse lf b e a n in d ic a to r o f th e ex is­ te n c e o f a ta n tric g o d d e s s cu lt, p e r h a p s e v e n so m e fo rm o f th e Y oginl c u lt, a lth o u g h th is is n o t a t all c e rta in .33 In th e e lite tra d itio n s re p re s e n te d in s c u lp tu re a n d in s c rip tio n s o f th e G u p ta a n d e a rly p o s t-G u p ta p e rio d , th e S ev en M o th e rs a p p e a r to e c lip se th e m o re d iv e rs e M o th ­ e rs p o p u la r in th e K u sa n a era . In s c rip tio n s a sso c ia te th e U d a y a g iri S aiva cave c o m ­ p le x o f th e e a rly fifth c e n tu ry w ith th e e m p e ro r C a n d r a g u p ta n , a site h a v in g m u l­ tip le sets o f th e S even M o th e rs.34 A n o th e r ro y a l G u p ta in s c rip tio n , th a t o f th e m id fifth -c e n tu ry B ih ar S to n e P illa r e re c te d b y S k a n d a g u p ta , also a p p e a rs to in c lu d e a 33 It is conceivable that the matrtantras ("Tantras of the Mother Goddesses") mentioned in some Saiva sources were connected w ith a tantric cult of Camunda and the Mothers. However, perhaps the earliest source to mention these—the old Skandapurana—identifies them w ith the yamalatantras of the Saiva Yoginl cult. On the Skandapurana, see the subsequent section. One possible preservation from an early tantric cult of Camunda is the love magic of Indian erotic literature (kamasastra); see Gyula Wojtilla, "Vaslkarana Texts in Sanskrit Kamasastra Literature," in Term Goudriaan, ed., The Sanskrit Tradition and Tantrism, 109-16. 34 The two inscriptions associated w ith the Udayagiri cave temples are published as nos. 7 and 11 in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. in , as well as in D. C. Sircar's Select Inscriptions. The dated inscription ends w ith a profession of devotion to Siva (bhaktya bhagavatas sambhor gguham etam akarayat, "He had this cave [temple] made out of devotion to Lord Siva").

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p ro fe s s io n o f d e v o tio n to th e M o th e rs a n d S k a n d a .35 L ater, th e C a lu k y a m o n a rc h s w o u ld c la im d e s c e n t fro m th e a n c ie n t M o th e r g o d d e s s H a ritI, c la im in g a lso to h av e b e e n " m a d e p ro s p e ro u s b y th e S ev en M o th e rs, w h o a re th e m o th e rs o f th e sev e n w o rld s ," a n d to h av e en jo y ed th e p ro te c tio n o f S k a n d a .36 S u c h ro y a l p a tro n a g e of th e c u lt o f th e M o th e rs fin d s a tte s ta tio n in th e n u m e r o u s cave s h rin e s a n d sto n e te m p le s w h ic h s u rv iv e fro m th e fifth c e n tu r y a n d b e y o n d . A lo n g s id e th e se , h o w ­ ever, m u s t h av e p e r s is te d m o re h u m b le fo rm s o f M o th e r-g o d d e s s w o rs h ip ; ta n tric lite ra tu re s p e a k s o f M o th e r s h rin e s in is o la te d p la c e s a s th o u g h , lik e th e c ro ssro a d s, ju n g le s , a n d c re m a tio n g ro u n d s th e y a re m e n tio n e d a lo n g s id e , th e y w e re a n in te g ra l p a r t o f th e la n d s c a p e .37 P e rh a p s th e e a rlie st u n a m b ig u o u s e v id e n c e fo r a te m p le c u lt o f th e M o th e rs, as w e ll a s th e ir a s so c ia tio n w ith S aiv ism , c o m e s fro m G u p ta - p e rio d in s c rib e d c o p p e r p la te s re c o v e re d fro m B agh, M.P. Tw o p la te s fro m th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e f o u r th c e n ­ tu r y m e n tio n e n d o w m e n ts m a d e in fa v o r o f M o th e r g o d d e s s te m p le s .38 O n e re c o rd s th e g ift o f re v e n u e fro m tw o v illa g e s a n d a p lo t o f la n d fo r m a in ta in in g th e w o rs h ip o f th e M o th e rs a t N a v a ta ta k a , in s ta lle d b y th e s a m e ro y a l p a tro n . R e c o rd in g a la n d g r a n t m a d e " fo r th e s u p p o r t o f a s h rin e o f th e M o th e rs e s ta b lis h e d b y a P a s u p a ta A c a ry a L o k o d a d h i," 39 th e se c o n d is d a te d a fe w y ea rs la te r to th e y e a r 3 7 5 /7 6 o r 3 7 6 /7 7

c .e

.

T h e e n d o w m e n t m a k e s p ro v isio n s fo r fu n d in g o n g o in g w o rs h ip o f th e

M o th e rs , d e s c rib e d as in v o lv in g bali a n d cam (b o th n o rm a lly c o n s is tin g of fo o d offer­ in g s), th e a m b ig u o u s sa[t]tra, "sacrifice," a n d o ffe rin g s o f in c e n se , sce n ts, a n d flo w ­ 35 Published as inscription 49 in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. in, 72-78. 36 From the Navsari plates of Yuvaraja Sryasrayaslladitya, found in the Surat district of m odem Gujrat: hdrltTputrdndm saptalokamatrbhis saptamdtrbhilr abhi]varddhitasa [=varddhitanam, ed.] karttikeyapariraksanapraptakalyanaparamparanam . .. calikyanam Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. iv . A n u m b e r o f o t h e r C a lu k y a in s c r ip tio n s in v o k in g th e M o th e r s w e r e p u b l is h e d b y J o h n F. F le e t i n

Indian Antiquary, vols. v i-v ii. 37 See the discussion of matrs in the Nisvasatattvasamhita in chapter 3. 38 The relevant plates are numbers n and x in the collection published by K. V. Ramesh and S. P. Tewari, A Copper-plate Hoard of the Gupta Period from Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, 4-6, 21-23. Scholars w ho have discussed these include Sanderson, "Religion and the State: Initiating the Monarch in Saivism and the Buddhist Way of Mantras" (forthcoming); Yokochi, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 110 (n. 83); and B. D. Chattopadhyay, " 'Reappearance' of the Goddess or the Brahmanical Mode of Appropriation: Some Early Epigraphic Evidence Bearing Upon Goddess Cults," 257-58. 39 Sanderson, "Religion and the State: Initiating the Monarch," 15-16.

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e rs.4° N e ith e r in s c rip tio n in d ic a te s w h e th e r th e te m p le s h o u s e d th e S ev en M o th e rs o r a m o re a rch aic c o n fig u ra tio n . H o w ev er, th e la tte r te m p le 's P a s u p a ta affilia tio n s u g g e s ts th e p o ssib ility o f a S aiva ico n ic p ro g ra m , s u c h a s c o m e s in to s c u lp tu ra l ev i­ d e n c e in th e fifth ce n tu ry . A t U d a y a g iri, in th e V id isa d is tric t o f M a d h y a P ra d e s h , tw o S aiva cave te m p le s d a tin g to th e t u r n o f th e fifth c e n tu r y in c o rp o ra te n ic h e -s h rin e s of th e S ev en M o th e rs, a n d o n e o f th e se ts m ig h t h a v e b e e n h e a d e d b y a n im a g e of S k a n d a ;41 a n o th e r te m p le (cave no . 3) d o e s h o u s e S k a n d a a s its c u lt im a g e . T h is s ite a p p e a rs tra n s itio n a l, m a in ta in in g th e M o th e rs ' o ld a sso c ia tio n s w ith S k a n d a , b u t w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e w o rs h ip o f Siva. L a te r in th e s a m e c e n tu ry , a cliff-cut s h rin e b e tw e e n B a d o h a n d P a th a ri, a lso in m o d e rn - d a y M a d h y a P ra d e s h , w o u ld e sc h e w all a s so c ia tio n s w ith S k a n d a a n d K u s a n a -e ra g u a r d ia n fig u re s, c o n ta in in g im a g e s of th e S ev en M o th e rs in th e c o m p a n y o f a s e a te d , urdhvaretas S iva alo n e. In K a lid a s a 's Kumarasambhava, p ro b a b ly a lso o f th e fifth ce n tu ry , th e M o th e rs fe a tu re in th e re tin u e of S iv a w ith n o s p e c ia l c o n n e c tio n to S k a n d a .42 A m o n g th e e a rly in s c rip tio n s, th e m o s t sig n ific a n t fo r th e h is to ry o f th e Y oginl c u lt is th e w e ll-k n o w n G a n g d h a r in s c rip tio n o f th e vikram a-y e a r 480, th a t is, 4 2 3 /2 4 o r 4 2 4 /2 5

c .e

.43

T h is re c o rd s th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a V isn u te m p le , a te m p le o f th e

M o th e rs (m atfnam vesman), a n d a d r in k in g w e ll b y M a y u ra k s a k a , a m in is te r o f th e m o n a rc h V isv av a rm an , a t th e c e n tra l In d ia n cite o f G a n g d h a r in w e s te rn M a lw a d is ­ trict. T h e in s c rip tio n d e sc rib e s th e te m p le a s " e x tre m e ly te rrib le " a n d "fille d w ith 40 According to lines 3-6 of plate x, the land grant in question is to provide "for revenue (°bhogaya) to be used (upayojya) for bah, caru, satra, incense, scented pastes, flowers, and garlands" for the Mothers of the temple of Pincchikanaka village, "established by the revered Pasupata teacher Lokodadhi" (bhagavallokodadhipasupatacaryapratisthapitapincchikanakagramamatrsthanadevakulasya . .. devdgrdharamdtfndm balicarusatradhupagandhapuspamalyopayojyabhogaya; °puspa° is the editors' emendation of °pujya°). Ramesh and Tewari, A Copper-plate Hoard, 22. 41 K a th e rin e H a r p e r , Iconography of the Saptamatrikas, 75-79- A l t h o u g h I a m u n a b le to c o n firm h e r reading of the iconography, Harper sees characteristic features of Skanda in the figure on the left wall abutting the row of Mother goddesses, in the shrine outside of cave no. 3. Ibid., 76. 42 It is noteworthy that the matrs, mentioned in canto v ii (30-31, 38) as part of the w edding entourage of Siva, are a group of unspecified number. They are followed in the entourage by Kali, "whose ornaments are skulls" (kapalabharana, 39b). 43 This inscription w as first published by John F. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. in, in­ scription 17 (pp. 72-78). D. C. Sircar published a subsequent edition in Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, vol. 1, 399-405.

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ddkinls," w h ile d e p ic tin g th e M o th e rs as " th e y w h o m a k e th e o c e a n s tu m u ltu o u s th r o u g h p o w e rfu l w in d s a ris in g fro m tantras" (tantrodbhuta°).44 T h is in s c rip tio n th u s asso c ia te s th e M o th e rs s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith h o rd e s o f fe m a le sp irits (dakints), m a g i­ cal p o w e rs, a n d a te m p le cu lt, a lso p ro v id in g e a rly a n d s ig n ific a n t o c c u rre n c e s o f th e te rm s dakini a n d tantra in th e c o n te x t o f M o th e r-g o d d e s s w o rsh ip . D akini, p ro b a b ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e S a n s k rit v e rb a l ro o t yjdl, " to fly,"45 a n d th e b a s is o f th e m o d e r n N o rth In d ia n te rm dain, " w itc h ," d e n o te s a class o f fe m a le s p irits p ro m in e n t in ta x o n o m ie s of y o g in is. W h ile ta n tric S aiva so u rc e s g e n e ra lly sp e a k of th e dakini as a p e rn ic io u s b e in g , th e te r m is o fte n p e rfe c tly s y n o n y m o u s w ith yoginl, esp e c ia lly in th e yoginltantras o f la te r T an tric B u d d h ism .46 A s fo r th e in s c rip tio n 's u s e of th e w o rd tantra, th is is p ro b a b ly , as D. C. S ircar re c o g n iz e d ,47 in th e w e ll-a tte s te d se n se o f " sp e ll," s u c h as in th e e x p re ss io n tantram antraA8 I t se e m s im p ro b a b le th a t th e w o rd c o u ld re fe r h e re to T antric s c rip tu re — p o te n tia lly m atrtantras o r dakinltantras49— fo r " p o w e rfu l w in d s " (prabalapavana) w o u ld n o t in n o rm a l u s a g e b e d e s c rib e d as h a v in g a ris e n (udbhilta) fro m te x ts.50 44 Verse 23 (on lines 35-37): matrnan ca [pramu]ditaghanatyartthanihradinmam tantrodbhutaprabalapavanodvarttitambhonidhinam |) ~ gntam idam dakinisampraklrnnam vesmatyugram nrpatisacivo ['lkdrayat punyahetoh || 23 || 45 Adelheid Herrmann-Pfandt discusses the derivation of the word in Dakints: zur Stellung und Symbolik des Weiblichen im tantrischen Buddhismus, 115-16. The etymological link to the root \/d i or y/dai is tra­ ditional; for example, Bhavabhatta and Jayabhadra, commentators on the Buddhist Laghusamvaratantra, both connect the word dakini to \Jdai. See Bhavabhatta ad Laghusamvara 1.2, Sarnath edition, p. 6; and also Jayabhadra commenting on the same verse, p. 107 in Sugiki's edition of the Cakrasamvarapanjika. 46 For descriptions of the dakini as a dangerous variety of female spirit, cf., e.g., BraYa lv (12, 4344), x c v i i i (38-39), and xcix (10-12), and the definition Ksemaraja quotes of the rudradakint from the Saruavlratantra, ad Netratantra 2.16. See also chapter 3 of this thesis, n. 29. On the general synonymity of yoginl and dakini in Tantric Buddhism, note for example that the scriptural class often referred to as yoginltantras has as one of its earliest and m ost authoritative texts the Sarvabuddhasamayogadakinljalasamvara, dakinljala referring to the matrix of female deities. Cf. Prapancayoginljala and Yogimjdla, titles of lost Saivas texts mentioned in BraYa xxxvm.39cd. The expression yoginijalasamvara, incidentally, occurs several times in BraYa lv iii, w hile BraYa lv i teaches an observance (vrata) by the same name. 47 Sircar, Select Inscriptions, vol. 1, 405. 48 Cf., e.g., MalatTmadhava ix.52, quoted later in this chapter in the discussion of this work. 49 On matrtantras, see the subsequent section on the Skandapurana, and chapter 5, in the section discussing the title "Brahmayamala”. Dharmaklrti makes reference to dakinltantras, on w hich subject see Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 11-12; and chapter 3 of this thesis. 50 M y interpretation of this passage undoubtedly has been influenced by Isaacson's remarks on the subject, in a lecture given at the University of Pennsylvania in January 2003.

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T h e G a n g d h a r in s c rip tio n d o e s n o t p ro v id e u n a m b ig u o u s e v id e n c e fo r a ta n tric c u lt o f g o d d e ss e s; fo r th is, w e w o u ld n e e d in d ic a tio n o f th e ritu a l p ra c tic e s asso c i­ a te d w ith th e M o th e r-g o d d e s s te m p le , o r p e r io d te x tu a l e v id e n c e in tim a tin g ta n tric c o n n e c tio n s. N o n e th e le ss , th e in s c rip tio n re m a in s h ig h ly su g g e stiv e . D dkinls, a s a v a rie ty o f g o d d e s s o r s p irit, a re in la te r lite ra tu re clo sely a s so c ia te d w ith T an tra , a n d th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e M o th e rs th e m s e lv e s u se s im a g e ry s u g g e s tiv e o f p o w e rfu l, " u n ­ fe tte re d " ta n tric g o d d e s s e s,51 n o t a t all in th e im a g e of th e p ro te c tiv e W o rld M o th e rs (lokamatr) m e n tio n e d in o th e r G u p ta -e ra in sc rip tio n s. It is a c c o rd in g ly p o ss ib le th a t th e G a n g d h a r in s c rip tio n re c o rd s th e e x isten c e o f a ta n tric g o d d e s s c u lt in th e fifth ce n tu ry , p e r h a p s e v e n a Y oginl c u lt sim ila r to th a t a tte s te d in T a n tra s s u c h as th e BraYa. A t th e le a st, it s h o w s th a t c h a ra c te ristic e le m e n ts o f th e c o n c e p tio n s o f fe­ m a le d iv in itie s p r o m in e n t in th e Y oginl c u lt h a d co m e to g e th e r b y th e e a rly fifth ce n tu ry . U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e G a n g d h a r in s c rip tio n is e x c e p tio n a l: w e h a v e n o o th e r firm ly d a te d e v id e n c e fo r a c u lt o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s in th e c o m p a n y o f fe m a le s p irits in th e fifth ce n tu ry , w h ic h m a k e s th e in s c rip tio n d iffic u lt to c o n te x tu a liz e . T h e icon ic p r o g r a m s u g g e s te d , fe a tu rin g M o th e rs a n d a h o s t o f m in o r g o d d e s s e s , d o e s n o t co m e in to e v id e n c e a g a in in te m p le c o n te x ts fo r m a n y c e n tu rie s . It is u n c le a r w h e th e r th e te m p le h o u s e d th e B ra h m a n ic a l S ev en M o th e rs , w h ile its p o s sib le a ss o c ia tio n w ith a V isn u te m p le c o u ld s u g g e s t a n o n -S aiv a cu ltic co n tex t.

THE

sk a n d a pu ra n a

:

y a m a l a t a n t r a s , y o g e s v a r is , a n d t h e m o t h e r g o d d e s s e s o f

KOTIVARSA

T h e sig n ifican c e o f th e e a rly Skandapurana52 fo r th e h is to ry of S a iv ism a n d e a rly m e ­ d ie v a l In d ia n re lig io n c a n h a r d ly b e o v e rs ta te d , a s th e re c e n t s tu d ie s o f H a n s B ak k er 51 Borrowing an expression from the title of an article of Nilim a Chitgopekar, "The Unfettered Yo­ ginis," in Chitgopekar, ed., Invoking Goddesses: Gender Politics in Indian Religion, 82-111. 52 The "early" or "old" Skandapurana should not be confused w ith the better-known published text by this name; the latter was in fact som ewhat artifically assembled by pandits in the colonial period from various medieval tracts having the Skandapurana as locus of ascription. See Rob Adriaensen, et al, in introducing vol. 1 of the critical edition of the early Skandapurana.

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49

a n d H a ru n a g a Isa a c so n ,53 Y uko Y okochi,54 a n d P e te r B issch o p illu s tra te .55 P re s e rv e d in m a n u s c r ip ts th a t in c lu d e a N e p a le s e c o d e x o f 810

c .e

.,

sc h o la rs w o rk in g o n th is

te x t a p p e a r a t p re s e n t to c o n c u r o n th e p ro b a b ility o f a six th - o r e a rly se v e n th -c e n tu ry c .e

.

d a te .56 Its m a te ria l is o rie n te d to w a rd a n a u d ie n c e o f S aiva laity, th e mahesvaras,

p e r h a p s c o m m u n itie s c o n n e c te d w ith P a s u p a ta ascetics.57 W h ile n o t h e n c e sp ecifi­ ca lly c o n c e rn e d w ith ta n tric fo rm s o f S aiv ism , th e Skandapurana n o n e th e le s s p ro v id e s im p o r ta n t e a rly e v id e n c e fo r th e M a n tra m a rg a , in c lu d in g th e c u lt o f y o g in is. S ign if­ icantly, it a tte s ts th e ex isten c e o f yam alatantras, d e s c rib e d a s " T a n tra s o f th e M o th e r G o d d e ss e s " (m atrtantras), a n d lists th e BraYa a m o n g th e m . T h is c o n s titu te s h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t e v id e n c e c o n c e rn in g th e d a tin g o f th e BraYa, d is c u s s e d in c h a p te r fo u r, as w e ll a s sig n ific a n t e a rly e v id e n c e fo r th e Y oginl cult. T h e h is to ric a l im p o rta n c e o f th e Skandapurana's re fe re n c e to yam alatantras w a s d is c u s s e d firs t b y S a n d e rso n , in c o rre s p o n d e n c e q u o te d b y R. A d ria e n s e n e t al. in in tro d u c in g th e Skandapurana critical e d itio n .58 In a s u b s e q u e n t article, S a n d e rs o n a d d e d fu r th e r re fle c tio n s o n th e p a s s a g e in th e c o u rs e o f re v ie w in g e a rly e v id e n c e fo r th e S aiva M a n tra m a rg a , i.e. T an tric S aiv ism .59 A fu lle r d is c u s s io n n o n e th e le s s se e m s w o rth w h ile , sp ecifically e x a m in in g its re le v a n c e to th e c u lts o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a n d y o g in is. It is in th e se c o n d h a lf o f C h a p te r 171 th a t th e re le v a n t m a te ria l o ccu rs, 53 See especially the study of the Skandapurana's Varanaslmahatyma, in vol. 2 of the Skandapurana critical edition, Bakker and Isaacson, eds. For Bakker's several other contributions, see the bibliography. 54 Yokochi's doctoral thesis, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," focuses upon the formation of the Hindu "Warrior Goddess" on the basis of material from the Skandapurana, of w hich she also edits several chapters. See also Yokochi, "Mahisasuramardinl Myth and Icon. Studies in the Skandapurana 11." 55 Early Saivism and the Skandapurana: Sects and Centers. 56 Announcing the Skandapurana editorial project, Adriaenson, Bakker, and Isaacson had proposed a tentative date of the 7th-8th centuries. "Towards a Critical Edition of the Skandapurana," 328. In the first volume of the critical edition, however, the editorial team suggested the 6th-8th centuries as the m ost plausible range of dates. Skandapurana, vol. 1, 4. Yokochi, as w ill be discussed, ori the basis of the iconographic type of the Warrior Goddess in the Skandapurana, subsequently argued for the 6 th—7th centuries as the m ost plausible period of composition. "Mahisasuramardinl Myth and Icon," 68-75. Taking into account Yokochi's assessment, and on the basis of their ow n studies on the Skandapurana’s Varanaslmahatmya material, Bakker and Isaacson have more recently suggested the probability of the sixth or early seventh centuries. Skandapurana, vol. n, 48. 57 R. Adriaensen et al, Skandapurana, vol. 1, 4. Concerning provenance, Bakker and Isaacson remark that "it has a certain probability per se that the Skandapurana was com posed either in Varanasi, or in a (Pasupata) centre that had close contacts w ith this city." Skandapurana, vol. 11, 48. 58 Skandapurana, vol. 1, 7. 59 "History through Textual Criticism," n .

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50 w ith in a m ahatym a-n a rra tiv e o n th e s a c re d site K o tiv a rsa , id e n tifie d b y S a n d e rs o n as b e in g in th e W est D in a jp u r D istric t o f B en g al a n d id e n tic a l to D e v lk o ta .60 T h is c h a p te r p ic k s u p o n sev e ral th e m e s fro m th e Mahabharata, b e g in n in g w ith S k a n d a 's e n m ity w ith In d r a , w h o s e p la c e a s fo re m o s t o f w a rrio r g o d s th e d iv in e y o u th u s u rp s . P re s e n t a lso is th e ta le o f S k a n d a 's v io le n t a s s a u lt u p o n th e m o u n ta in K ra u n c a , th is b e in g p e r h a p s a n ac c re tio n fro m th e m y th o lo g y o f th e fa m o u s m o u n ta in -s p litte r In ­ d ra . A n o th e r c o n tin u ity is th e m o tif o f e n e m ie s o f th e g o d s b e c o m in g p o w e rfu l b y th e b o o n of B ra h m a , n e c e s sita tin g u n u s u a l m e a n s fo r th e ir d e fe a t. B u t p e r h a p s m o s t n o ta b le in th e Skandapurana's n a rra tiv e is th e fa ct th a t S k a n d a h im s e lf d is a p p e a rs h alfw ay, a s th e n a rra tiv e o f K o tiv arsa c o m m e n c e s, m u c h a s h e d is a p p e a rs fro m th e ico n ic p ro g r a m o f M o th e r g o d d e s s s h rin e s b y th e six th ce n tu ry . T h e c h a p te r b e g in s w ith th e s to ry o f S k a n d a 's riv a lry w ith In d r a a n d h is d e c a p ­ ita tio n o f th e m o u n ta in K ra u n c a , w h ic h tu r n s o u t to b e a n a c t o f fra tric id e . T h e first of its tw o se c tio n s e n d s w ith S iva a n d P a rv a ti r e tu r n in g h o m e to M t. M e ru ac c o m ­ p a n ie d b y S k a n d a , w h o is d e s c rib e d a s " le a d e r o f th e h o rd e o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s " (m atfnam gananayakah, 73d). Yet th e n e x t se c tio n o p e n s w ith th e sa g e V yasa a s k in g h o w Siva, n o t S k a n d a , b e c a m e " le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs " (m a tfn a m nayakah, 78b); in th e s u b s e q u e n t n a rra tiv e , S k a n d a m a k e s n o a p p e a ra n c e . B elow I s u m m a riz e th e e p iso d e , Skandapurana 171.78-137, tra n s la tin g in fu ll th e m o s t re le v a n t sec tio n :61 V yasa a sk s th e sa g e S a n a tk u m a ra to n a r ra te h o w S iva c a m e to b e le a d e r of th e M o th e r g o d d e ss e s; how , w h y , a n d b y w h o m th e M o th e rs w e re c re a te d ; w h a t p o w e rs th e y p o sse ss; a n d w h a t th e ir lo c u s is. [78-79] S a n a tk u m a ra n a r ra te s h o w B ra h m a o n ce c a m e u p o n a p le a s a n t lo c a le o n th e b a n k s of th e E a s te rn O c e a n (purvamahodadhi) a n d p e r fo rm e d h is sandhya-p ra y e rs th e re fo r te n -m illio n y ears. [80-83] A d m irin g th e s u rro u n d in g s , h e d e ­ c id e d to c re a te a b e a u tifu l, g ild e d city th e re , to w h o s e fo r tu n a te re s id e n ts h e g u a r a n te e d im m o rta lity a n d p o w er. [84-91] T h e c ity is n a m e d K oti­ v a rsa sin ce B ra h m a , b e s t o f th e g o d s , sh o w e rs (v a r s a ti) a c ro re (k o t i ) of d e s ire d w is h e s (istandm kam anam ) u p o n its h a p p y p o p u la tio n . [92-93ab] 60 According to Sanderson, other names for this site include Devlkotta, Srlpitha, Srlkota, and Sonitapura, this being located "on the bank of the Punarbhava river." Its association w ith Siva as Hetuka or Hetukesvara is attested in several sources, including BraYa 111. "History through Textual Criticism," 7. Cf. Yokochi's discussion of the location of the site in "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 106-7 (n - 79)61 Compare with Yokochi's summary of verses ioocd-i6ab , in "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 107.

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H e th e n re tu r n s to h is h e a v e n ly c o u rt, a fte r w h ic h th e city is o v e rru n b y A su ra s, le d b y A s u k ro d h a , w h o th u s b e c a m e u n in te n d e d b en e fic ia rie s of B ra h m a 's b le ssin g . [93cd~97] L e a rn in g of w h a t th e A s u ra s w e re d o in g , all th e g o d s c o n v e n e d to in fo rm B rah m a. B ra h m a p le a d e d in ab ility , a n d th e y p ro c e e d e d th e n c e to a p p r o a c h S iva a t th e H im a la y a n fo re s t w h e re P a rv a tl h a d p e r fo rm e d p e n a n c e . [98-100] W h e n th e g o d s e n te r e d th e re , le d b y B ra h m a , they suddenly became women "by the power o f PdrvatT's penance. "62 S iva a sk s w h y th e y h a v e co m e, in re s p o n se to w h ic h th e y tell o f th e to rm e n t in flic te d b y th e A su ra s. T h ey also p le a d to b e rid o f th e " m ise ra b le c o n d itio n o f b e in g w o m e n " (krcchram stnbhavam ). [ io i- 4 a b ] S iva h o w e v e r tells th e m to a p p r o a c h th e A s u ra s as th e y are , fo r th e p r o u d d e m o n s m a y b e s la in o n ly b y w o m e n . A fte rw a rd s, th e a u s p ic io u s M o th e rs w ill r e tu r n to th e ir p r io r fo rm s. [i0 4 c d -6 ] T he g o d s th e n b o w to S iva a n d r e q u e s t th a t h e to o jo in th e m a s a w o m a n , w ith w h o m th e y w o u ld slay th e d e m o n s. Siva th e n c re a te d th e a u s p ic io u s g o d d e s s R u d ra n I, as w e ll as a n u g ly M o th e r c a lle d B a h u m a m sa ("V ery F le sh y "), th e e m b o d im e n t o f u n iv e rs a l d e s tru c tio n (jagatsamhararupini). [107-9] B ra h m a , Siva, S k a n d a , V isn u , a n d I n d r a c re a te th e M o th e r g o d ­ d e s se s B rah m l, R u d ra n I, K a u m a rl, V aisnavl a n d V a ra h l, a n d In d ra n I, re ­ spectively, w ith d iv a 's B a h u m a m s a th e ir le a d e r, " th e G re a t V id y a -m a n tra ." 63 A n d fro m all th e o th e r g o d s to o e m e rg e d M o th e rs, p o s s e s s in g th e ir n a ­ tu re s a n d p o w e r, slay ers o f d e m o n s: V ayavi, V a ru n I, Y a m y a , K a u b erl, M a h a k a ll, A g n e y l,64 a n d o th e rs b y th e th o u s a n d s . [110-14] T h e M o th e rs p ro c e e d to th e b e a u tifu l city a n d re n d e r it free o f d e m o n s. W h e n th e d e m o n s h a d b e e n slain , S iva ca m e to th e c ity to g ra n t b o o n s to th e M o th e rs. P le a se d , h e to ld th e m ,65 'H a v in g b e c o m e M o th e r g o d d e s se s, 62 Emphasis added. Skandapurana 171.101: pravistas tatra te deva brahmadyah sarva eva hi \ striya evabhavan turnam parvatyas tapaso balat || 101 || 63 Skandapurana 171.112: sarvatejomayT devt matfnam pravara subha \ bahumamsa mahavidya babhuva vrsabhadhvajat |j 112 || 64 I.e. Mothers corresponding to Vayu, Varuna, Yama, Kubera, Mahakala, and Agni, respectively. This passage and its list bears comparison w ith the classification of Mothers according to Brahmanical deities in Mahabharata, Salyaparvan 45, quoted and discussed earlier. 65 From verse n 8 c d forward, the remaining text is a direct translation. Skandapurana i7 i.n 6 c d -3 6 , Bhattaral edition: atha daityair hatais sarvair devadeva umapatih || 116 || djagama pradesam tarn matfnam varaditsaya \ tan drstva nihatan sarvdn daityan amaravidvisah || 117 J| paritustas tada tasam varan pradad vrsadhvajah j jagato mataro yuyam matrbhuta bhavisyathah || 118 || yusmakam ye bhavisyanti bhaktah purusapumgavdh \ striyo vapi mahabhaga na tan himsanti himsakah || 119 || mrta mama gana§ capi bhavisyanty ajaramarah |

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y o u s h a ll b e th e M o th e rs o f th e w o rld . T h o se w h o w ill b e d e v o te d to y o u , w h e th e r th e b e s t o f m e n o r fo r tu n a te w o m e n , p e r n ic io u s s p irits w ill n o t h a rm ; a n d a fte r d e a th , th e y sh a ll b e c o m e m y a g e le ss, im m o rta l ga­ nas. [ i i 5 - i 9 a b ] T h is p la c e o f y o u rs s h a ll b e c o m e w o rld -fa m o u s , k n o w n a s 'K o tiv a rs a ', w h ic h fre e s o n e o f all sin. A n d sin ce I a m y o u r ca u se (,hetu), b e c a u s e y o u w e re c re a te d b y m e , I w ill re m a in h e re b y th e n a m e 'H e tu k e s v a ra ', g ra n tin g b o o n s. I s h a ll d w e ll w ith y o u a s y o u r leader. [ ii9 c d - 2 2 ] O n e w h o w ill w o rs h ip y o u p ro p e rly , to g e th e r w ith m e , shall, free o f all sin , a tta in to th e h ig h e s t h e a v e n ly d e s tin a tio n . S ince th e danavas w e re s la in w ith a s p e a r (sula) b y B a h u m a m s a , th is s a c re d fo rd (tlrtha) sh a ll b e k n o w n b y th e n a m e sulakunda ("P o o l o f th e S p e a r" ). A n d th a t b e s t of m e n w h o d rin k s h e re fro m th e P o o l o f th e S p e a r a n d p ro s tra te s b e fo re B a h u m a m s a sh a ll b e u n a s s a ila b le b y all h a r m f u l s p irits. T h e b e a u tifu l riv e r M a n d a k in i sh a ll b e k n o w n h e re as P ra tik u la ("R iv e r C o n tra ry " ); sh e w ill a lw a y s b e b rim m in g w ith b lo o d fo r y o u .66 [123-26] bhavatmam idam sthanam kotivarsam iti srutam j| 120 || bhavisyati jagatkhydtam sarvapdpapramocanam | aham hetur hi yusmakam yasmat srstd mayaiva ca |J 121 || hetukeSvaranamndham sthasydmy atra varapradah j yusmdbhih saha vatsydmi nayakatve vyavasthitah j| 122 || yas tu yusman mayd sardham vidhivat pujayisyati j sarvapapavimuktdtmd sa param gatim dpsyati || 123 jj danava nihatd yasmac chulena bahumamsaya j sulakundam idam namna khyatam tlrtham bhavisyati || 124 || iha siilodakam pitvd bahumdmsdm pranamya ca \ adhrsyah sarvahimsrdnam bhavisyati narottamah j| 125 j| pratikuleti vikhydtd ramya mandakini nadt | rudhiraughavatlseha bhavatmam bhavisyati || 126 || aham brahma ca visnus ca rsayaS ca tapodhanah \ mdtrtantrani divydni matryajhavidhim param || 127 || punydni prakarisydmo yajanam yair avapsyatha \ brdhmam svayambhuvam caiva kaumdram ydmalam tatha || 128 || sarasvatam sagandharam aisanam nandiyamalam \ tantrany etdni yusmakam tathdnydni sahasrasah || 129 |j bhavisyanti nara yais tu yusman yaksyanti bhaktitah \ narandm yajamdndndm varan yuyam pradasyatha || 130 || divyasiddhiprada devyo divyayoga bhavisyatha \ yds ca naryah sada yusman yaksyante sarahasyatah || 131 || yogesvaryo bhavisyanti rdmd dixryaparakramdh j chagalah kumbhakarnas ca madTyau gananayakau || 132 || yusmakam dvarapdlatve sthasyatas tau mamdjhayd \ kotivarsam idam sthanam matfnam priyam uttamam || 233 |j smasdnam pravaram divyam bhavisyati sukhapradam \ varan evam hi taml labdhva mdtaro lokamdtarah || 134 || bhaktyd pranamya devesam mumudur bhrsam arditah | tatahprabhrti tdh sarvdh sahitah sasimauiind || 135 || kotivarse vasanti sma sarvalokabhayapradah \ evam sa bhagavan devo matfnam ganandyakah \ abhavac chahkaro vyasa yan mam tvam prstavdn asi || 136 |j 66 The interpretation of bhavatmam ("yours") in I26d is not certain. i26cd might alternatively be understood to mean "brimming w ith blood, she [the river] will always here belong to you." Isaacson,

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'M y self, B rah m a, V isn u , a n d sa g e s ric h in p e n a n c e s h a ll c re a te h o ly M o th e r T a n tra s th r o u g h w h ic h y o u s h a ll re ceiv e th e h ig h e s t w o rs h ip , th e rite s of sacrifice to th e M o th e rs (m atryajnavidhi): th e Brahmayamala, Svayam bhuvaydmala, Kumarayamala, Sarasvatayamala, Gandharayamala, Isanayamala, a n d N andiyam ala— th e s e T a n tra s o f y o u rs , a n d o th e rs to o b y th e th o u s a n d s , th ro u g h w h ic h m e n s h a ll w o rs h ip y o u w ith d e v o tio n .67 [i2 7 -2 9 a b | You sh a ll g r a n t b o o n s to th e m e n w o rs h ip p in g . Y ou sh a ll b e c o m e g o d d e s s e s w h o b e s to w d iv in e siddhi, p o s s e s s in g d iv in e yo g a. T h o se w o m e n w h o alw a y s w o rs h ip y o u , secretly, s h a ll b e c o m e yogesvans, lo v ely w o m e n of d iv in e v alo u r. [129CCI-31] A n d m y gana-lo rd s, C h a g a la (" th e G o a t" ) a n d K u m b h a k a rn a (" P itc h e r-e a rs" ), s h a ll b y m y c o m m a n d re m a in w ith y o u as d o o r g u a rd ia n s . T h is ex c ellen t p lace , K o tiv a rsa , d e a r to th e M o th e rs, sh a ll b e c o m e th e ch ief (pravara), d iv in e c re m a tio n g ro u n d , w h ic h gives h a p p in e s s . [i3 2 -3 4 a b ] 'H a v in g o b ta in e d th e se b o o n s, th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, M o th e rs o f th e w o rld s, p r o s tr a te d b e fo re th e L o rd o f th e G o d s a n d re jo ic ed , e x tre m e ly ex cited . F ro m th a t p o in t o n , all o f th e m d w e lt in K o tiv a rs a to g e th e r w ith Siva, g ra n tin g fre e d o m fro m d a n g e r to th e e n tire w o rld . T h u s d id th e d iv in e lo rd S a n k a ra b e c o m e le a d e r o f th e h o rd e s o f M o th e rs, O V yasa, w h ic h is w h a t y o u h a d a s k e d m e '. [134CCI-36] Skandapurana 171 a p p e a rs to p re s e n t a tra n s itio n a l p ic tu re in se v e ra l re sp ects. In c u ltic te rm s , it ju x ta p o s e s a ta n tric M o th e r c u lt w ith a n o ld e r, n o n -M a n tra m a rg a cu lt, illu s tra tin g also h o w th e y c o e x iste d w ith s h a re d cu ltic c e n te rs s u c h a s K o tiv arsa. F ro m th e e ig h th ce n tu ry , th e n o n -ta n tric M o th e r c u lt w o u ld w a n e , w h ile ta n tric g o d ­ d e s s c u lts flo u ris h e d .68 O n th e lev el o f m y th , th e Skandapurana p ro v id e s a tra n s itio n a l lin k b e tw e e n th e cycles o f S k a n d a a n d th e M o th e rs in th e Mahabharata, a n d m y th s of th e M o th e rs in s c rib e d in la te r te x ts s u c h a s th e D evlm ahatym a o f th e M arkandeyapurae-mail communication, Oct. 2006. In either case, the implication appears to be that the river runs red w ith the blood of sacrificial offerings to the Mother goddesses. 67 On the interpretation of this passage, Sanderson remarks, "I propose that ydmalam in i28d is to be understood w ith all (sarvasesataya), so that the titles indicated are Brahmayamala, Svayambhuvayamala, Kumarayamala (=Skandayamala), Gandharayamala, Isanayamala and Nandiyamala. For of these seven all but the Svayambhuvayamala and the Gandharayamala are found in the scriptural lists of yamalatantras known to m e ... "History through Textual Criticism," 7 (n. 4). I consider this proposal all but certain. In ibid., 7, Sanderson presents the seven lists of yamalatantras which had come to his attention in Saiva literature. 68 A s Meister discusses, shrines of the Mothers become increasingly rare, while on the other hand static doorway panels of the Seven Mothers become integral to tem ple iconography in central India, appearing first in the eighth century. "Regional Variations in Matrka Conventions," 241-43. However, quite different is the case of Orissa; according to Thomas Donaldson, tem ples of the Mothers are attested from the seventh century, become common in the tenth century, and continue to be constructed even in the thirteenth. "Orissan Images of Varahl, Oddiyana MarlcI, and Related Sow-Faced Goddesses," 170.

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na.69 A s Y okochi p o in ts o u t, th e Skandapurana p re s e rv e s th e o ld er, K u sa n a -e ra a n d Mahabharata c o n c e p tio n o f c o u n tle s s d iv e rse M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a lo n g s id e th e " H in d u iz e d " G u p ta -e ra S even M o th e rs. In th e Skandapurana, th e la tte r in fa ct a p p e a r o n ly in th is a c c o u n t o f K o tiv a rsa .70 T h is Skandapurana c h a p te r a lso p ro v id e s cle a r lin k s b e tw e e n th e c u lt o f M o th e rs a n d c u lt o f Y oginis, w h ic h o th e rw is e a p p e a r la c k in g in e a rly n o n -ta n tric lite ra tu re . T h ere is m o re o v e r so m e e v id e n c e s u g g e stiv e o f a tra n s i­ tio n a l iconic p ro g r a m fo r th e M o th e r g o d d e s s s h rin e o f K o tiv arsa . D e sc rib e d in v e rse s 118-26 is th e laukika, i.e. n o n -ta n tric c u lt o f th e M o th e rs, th e ritu a ls a s so c ia te d w ith w h ic h in v o lv e p ilg rim a g e , w o rs h ip o f th e im a g e s o f th e M o th e rs a n d S iv a -H e tu k e sv a ra , p a r ta k in g o f th e sa c re d w a te rs , a n d p e r h a p s a n im a l sacrifice (s u g g e ste d b y th e re fe re n c e to th e riv e r b rim m in g w ith b lo o d ). T h e a im s a re c o rre s p o n d in g ly o f th e v a rie ty a d v a n c e d in S aiva puranas: d e liv e ra n c e fro m h a rm fu l sp irits , g o in g to h ea v en , a n d jo in in g S iv a 's e n to u ra g e o f ganas a fte r d e a th . V erses i2 7 -3 4 a b d e sc rib e , how ever, a M a n tra m a rg a c u lt o f th e M o th e rs . Its ritu a ls a re th o s e ta u g h t in th e m atr- o r yam alatantras, a n d its a im , fo r m e n , m a g ic a l p o w e rs o r siddhi. F o r w o m e n , th e se c re t rite s p ro m is e m o re: th e p o ss ib ility o f b e c o m in g y o g in is, p o w ­ e rfu l a n d b e a u tifu l M istre sse s o f Y oga (yogesvans). In th e ta n tric cu lt, th e g o d d e s s B a h u m a m sa is th e " G re a t V id y a -m a n tra " (mahavidya). A n d fo r a d e p ts o f th e M o th e r T an tra s, K o tiv a rsa is n o t m e re ly a n h o ly fo rd a n d p la c e o f p ilg rim a g e , b u t th e b e s t of c re m a tio n g ro u n d s , s u g g e s tin g a p o s sib le kapdlika o rie n ta tio n to th e ta n tric M o th e r cult. K o tiv a rsa 's M o th e rs a p p e a r in th e s ta n d a r d g ro u p o f se v e n a tte s te d fro m th e fifth c e n tu r y o r a little ea rlier,71 w ith B a h u m a m s a , a p p a re n tly th e cu ltic fo c u s, re p re s e n t­ 69 On the dating and significance of the D evlm ahatm ya, s e e the section on post Gupta-era Mother shrines below. 70 Yokochi, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 99-113, especially 110-11. Although not strong evidence in isolation, this fact might suggest that the seventh century w ould be too late a date for the Skanda­ purana. Even in the sixth century, the paucity of references to the Seven Mothers is surprising in a Saiva purana. 71 Viz., BrahmanI, RudranI, Kaumarl, Vaisnavl, Varahl, Indram, and Bahumamsa. Skandapurana i7 i.n o c d -i2 : abhut pitamahad brahml saroanl sankarad api || 110 || kaumarl sadmukhac capi visnor api ca vaisnavl \

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55

in g C a m u n d a , le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs (m atrnayika). W h ile C a m u n d a is m o s t c o m m o n ly d e p ic te d as a g a u n t, fe ro c io u s h a g , in th is case th e n a m e B a h u m a m s a su g g e s ts c o r p u ­ le n c e .72 T h e re a re in fa ct e a rly re p re s e n ta tio n s o f C a m u n d a a s a fu ll-b o d ie d w o m a n (cf.

f ig u r e

2.7), a lth o u g h I a m n o t p re s e n tly a w a re o f a c o r p u le n t e x a m p le .73 In

th e p re s e n t case, B a h u m a m s a m ig h t h a v e b e e n a g o d d e s s o f lo cal im p o rta n c e s u b ­ s e q u e n tly in c o rp o r a te d in to th e M o th e r c u lt a n d id e n tifie d w ith C a m u n d a .74 T h e Skandapurana d o e s in fa c t a tte s t a p ro c e ss b y w h ic h im p o r ta n t lo cal g o d d e s s e s w e re g iv e n S aiva id e n titie s th ro u g h in c o rp o ra tio n a s M o th e rs.

C h a p te rs s ix ty -fo u r a n d

six ty -e ig h t e n u m e ra te th e n a m e s a n d lo cale s a s s ig n e d to th e n u m e ro u s M o th e r g o d ­ d e s se s w h o e m a n a te fro m th e g o d d e s s K a u sik l, lin k in g th e M o th e rs w ith a n e m e rg e n t varahi madhavad devT mahendn ca purandarat || 111 |J sarvatejomayT devl matfnam pravard subha \ bahumamsa mahavidya babhuva vrsabhadhvajat |j 112 j| As Yokochi points out, this sequence shows clearly that the "standard" set of Seven matrs is intended, for the matrs had already been enumerated out of sequence in io 8 c d -n o a b . "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 107-8. 72 Cf. the goddess Brhodarl (i.e. brhadudari, "She of the Big Belly") m entioned in BraYa 1.60-62. Not specifically identified w ith Camunda, she appears to fulfill the dual functions of tutelary goddess of her namesake village, and tantric deity, bestowing the vidya-mantra upon Yajnasoma's son. Yokochi suggests that bahumamsa is a euphemism and reinforces the goddess's identity as the emaciated Camu­ nda. Although speculative, this too might be possible. "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 108-9. 73 Clear cases of early (pre eighth-century) im ages of Camunda as a full-bodied w om an include those of the matr shines of the Siva cave temple at Aihole, that of the Aurangabad Buddhist caves, and the two early Ellora cave shrines (Ramesvara and Ravan-ka Kal). In Ellora's Ravan-ka Kai cave matr shrine, the full-bodied Camunda at the right end of the row of seven matrs is clearly distinguished by her ow l-vahana. In this shrine, a skeletal divine couple of problematic identity (discussed subsequently) occur to the right of Canesa along the main wall. On the left wall is installed a four-armed Vrnadhara w ith a bull vahana. In the Ramesvara cave at Ellora (cave 21), an elaborate dancing Siva is instead enshrined on the left wall, w hile the Vlnadhara begins the set of matrs on the left of the main wall. On the right wall are a skeletal pair of male and female divinities. The female figure is unlikely to be Camunda, for Camunda appears to be among the full-bodied matrs along the main wall. In the Aihole Mother shrine of the Siva cave temple, on both the left and right walls stand three matrs, w ith two more flanking a central, ten-armed dancing Siva along the main wall. A diminutive Canesa stands on the viewer's left between Siva and the Mother goddess, w ith a damaged figure of a diminutive two-armed male in the corresponding position on the right—perhaps the gana Virabhadr a, w hom one m ight expect to complement Ganesa, although Meister suggests Skanda. "Regional Conventions," 240. Closing the set at the end of the right wall is a full-bodied Camunda. Although the BraYa and many other early sources describe Camunda as emaciated, there is at least one textual description of a full-bodied Camunda: that of the Kashmiri Brhatkalottara, in w hich YogesI, eighth of the Mothers, is visualized as emaciated and Camunda as full-figured. Alexis Sanderson, "Religion and the State: Saiva Officiants in the Territory of the King's Brahmanical chaplain," 267 (n. 92). 74 Cf. Yokochi's discussion of Bahumamsa in "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 109.

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56 th e o lo g y o f th e G re a t G o d d e ss a s so u rc e o f all g o d d e s s e s .75 T h is rh e to ric o f e m a n a ­ tio n a n d lo c a liz a tio n a p p e a rs a lm o s t as a p re c u rs o r to th e th e o lo g y o f sakti, a s a d a p te d w ith g re a t su cc ess fro m T antric S aiv ism , th ro u g h w h ic h a n y a n d all g o d d e s s e s a n d th e ir s a c re d sites, d e c la re d saktipithas (" se a ts o f s a k ti/p o w e r " ) , w o u ld b e s u b s u m e d w ith in th e id e n tity o f th e o n e G o d d e s s .76 T h e ico n ic ty p e d e s c rib e d fo r th e

M o th e rs

o f K o tiv a rsa m ig h t

s u g g e s t a p r e s ix th -c e n tu ry d a te . Siva a s H e tu k e s v a ra jo in s B ah u ­ m a m s a in h e a d in g

th e M o th e rs,

w h ile h e a p p o in ts h is ganas C h a g a la (" th e

G o a t" )

and

K u m b h a k a rn a

(" P itc h e r-e a rs" ) a s d o o r-g u a rd ia n s (idvarapala). T h is su g g e s ts th a t c u lt im a g e s o f S iva a n d th e S ev en M o th ­ e rs a lo n e a p p e a re d in th e c e n tra l sh rin e {garbhagrha),77 w ith th e ga­ nas C h a g a la a n d K u m b h a k a rn a in ­ sta lle d a s g u a r d ia n s a t th e b a se of th e v e rtic a l p a n e ls o n e ith e r s id e of th e e n tr y d o o r. S aiva T a n tra s re fe r 2.7: Camunda and Vinayaka/Ganesa, Ramesvara Cave (no. 21) matr shrine, Ellora. Sixth century. F ig u r e

to th e in s ta lla tio n o f s u c h gana-lords as d o o r g u a rd ia n s . F o r in sta n c e , in

th e Svacchandatantra's d e s c rip tio n o f r itu a l e n try in to th e yagagrha (" w o rs h ip sh rin e " ), o n e first offers h o m a g e to th e d ire c tio n a l M o th e rs (dinm atrs) o u ts id e th e sh rin e , th e n 73 Skandapurana 64 narrates the emergence of manifold goddesses from Kausikl's limbs. In Skanda­ purana 68, KausikI assigns the various Mother goddesses which emerged from her to locales, including Bahumamsa to Kotivarsa. See Yokochi's discussion in ibid., 99-100,111-12. 76 See below in the brief discussion of the Devlmahatmya. 77 Although not impossible, it seem s highly unlikely that the text w ould mention dvarapalas yet omit reference to other cult im ages in the garbhagrha.

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57

to G a n e s a a n d S ri[laksm l] o n th e o v e rh e a d d o o r lin te l; o n e th e n w o rs h ip s S iv a 's gan a -lo rd N a n d in o n th e left o f th e o u te r d o o r fra m e , to g e th e r w ith th e riv e r g o d d e s s G a n g a , a n d o n th e rig h t, M a h a k a la w ith Y a m u n a .78 N etratantra 3 c o rro b o ra te s th is p ro c e d u re , its c o m m e n ta ry m e n tio n in g a lso th e ganas M e s a n a n a (" R a m F ace") a n d C h a g a n a n a (" G o a t F ace") a s d o o r g u a r d ia n s .79 W h a t a p p e a rs a rch aic a b o u t th is iconic p r o g r a m is th e p la c e m e n t a n d id e n tity of th e m a le d e itie s. In K u s a n a -e ra m atr s c u lp tu re , th e M o th e rs w e re o fte n d e p ic te d w ith im a g e s o f th e y o u n g , s p e a r-b e a rin g S k a n d a K u b e ra

(f ig u r e

(f ig u r e

2.2, 2.4) o r th e r o b u s t yaksa-lo rd

2.3), u s u a lly p o s itio n e d to th e ir s id e .80 H o w e v er, fro m th e G u p ta e ra

S iva h im s e lf o fte n fe a tu re s as le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs, p a r tic u la rly in th e fo rm o f N a te sa , " L o rd o f D a n c e rs ." 81 A s h e a d o f th e B ra h m a n ic a l h e p ta d o f M o th e rs, S iva th u s 78 Svacchandatantra 2.22-25: sakallkrtadehas tu puspam adaya suvrate \ dihmatrbhyo namaskrtya dvdram samproksya yatnatah || 22 || sivdmbhasastramantrena vighnaproccdtanam bhavet | dvarasakhordhvato devam ganesam ca sriyatn tatha || 23 j| sampujya gandhapuspadyair dhupadibhir anukramad \ arghyapadyopaharais ca tato dvarasya cottare || 24 || nandigahge samabhyarcya mahdkalam ca daksine \ kalindtm caiva sampujya yathanukramayogatah || 22 || "O pious woman, w ith one's body transformed into [the mantra-body of] manifest (sakala) Siva, one should take up the flower, bow to the directional Mother goddesses, and sprinkle the door, carefully. Through the skw-vvater empowered by the weapon-mantra, obstruct­ ing forces w ould be driven away. After worshipping Lord Ganesa and Sri[laksnu] [on the lintel] above the double-doors w ith scents, flowers, incense, etc., in sequence, to the left of the door one should worship Nandin and Ganga w ith the guest-water, water for washing the feet, and the offerings, and also Mahakala and Yamuna on the right, in the correct sequence. 79 Netratantra 3.9: asamatrr ganam laksmTm nandigahge ca pujayet | mahdkalam tu yamunam dehalvm pujayet tatah j| 9 || According to Ksemaraja's comments on this verse, in the system of the vama-stream of revelation, i.e. the cult of the Four Sisters of Tumburu expounded in the archaic vamatantras, Mesanana ("Ram Face") and Chaganana ("Goat Face") serve as additional (adhika) dvarapalas in shrine contexts, a fact perhaps relevant given the Skandapurana's reference to "The Goat" as a door guardian at Kotivarsa. He remarks, bahir dihmatfh, dvarordhve ganapatilaksmyau, parsvadvaye nandigahge mahakalayamune, vame dehalm pranavacaturthmamahsabdayogena pujayet \ asya nayasya sarvasahatvdt siddhantadrsa nandigahge daksine pujye, mahakalayamune vame \ vdmasrotasy evam mesdsyacchagdsyau tu adhikau daksinavamayoh \ bhairavasrotasi samharapradhdnatvad daksine mahakalayamune vame nandigahge \ sadardhe tu dindimahodarau adhikau || 9 || Cf. Ksemaraja's remarks on i8.56cd. 80 Joshi, Matrkds: Mothers in Kusdna Art, 103-28. 81 See the tables Meister provides for the iconic programs of Gupta and early post-Gupta matr sets, as w ell as later sets from central and western India. "Regional Variations," charts a and b .

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5»

re p la c e s S k a n d a a n d K u b e ra . Yet in o n ly o n e e x ta n t M o th e r s h rin e d o e s Siva a lo n e a p p e a r in th e M o th e rs ' c o m p a n y : th a t o f th e fifth -c e n tu ry cliff s h rin e b e tw e e n B a d o h a n d P a th a ri, in p re s e n t-d a y M a d h y a P ra d e sh . In th is case, a n im a g e w h ic h a p p e a rs to b e S iva fla n k s th e M o th e rs — a tw o -a rm e d , urdhvaretas y o g in c o m p le m e n te d b y C a m u n d a a t th e o th e r e n d

(f ig u r e

2.8).

K o tiv a rsa 's ico n ic p ro g r a m m ig h t h e n c e

h a v e re s e m b le d th a t o f B a d o h -P a th a ri, th e c u lt im a g e s b e in g th o s e o f Siva, B a h u ­ m a m s a , a n d six o th e r m atrs, w ith C h a g a la a n d K u m b h a k a rn a p la c e d o u ts id e th e c e n tra l s h rin e a s d o o r-g u a rd ia n s . W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e e a rly B a d o h -P a th a ri sh rin e , th e S ev en M o th e rs a re n o r­ m a lly d e p ic te d in th e c o m p a n y o f m u ltip le gana-lo rd s , o r w ith S iva a n d a gana-lo rd . M o st c o m m o n a s fla n k in g fig u re s a re th e e le p h a n t-h e a d e d V in ay a k a o r G a n e sa , a n d o n e o f tw o a n th ro p o m o rp h ic m a le fig u re s u s u a lly id e n tifie d a s V lra b h a d ra (" A u s­ p ic io u s H e ro " ) a n d V ln a d h a ra ("B eare r o f th e V in a"). P ro b lem atically , b o th of th e la tte r a re o fte n d e s c rib e d a s fo rm s of S iva.82 V lra b h a d ra , h o w ev er, is in S aiva tex ­ tu a l so u rc e s o f th e p e r io d c o n s id e re d a gana o r gana-lo rd (ganesa, ganesvara, etc.) of S iva, o r else a p ro m in e n t rudra .83 H e n c e , o n e c o m m o n saptam atr ico n ic p ro g r a m p a irs th e gana-lo rd V lra b h a d ra w ith a n o th e r gana-lo rd , V in ay a k a, fre q u e n tly fla n k in g th e M o th e rs o n e ith e r s id e

(f ig u r e

2.9). W h ile V lra b h a d ra w a s u n d o u b te d ly in c lu d e d

82 For example, Meister remarks, "Siva sits as Vlrabhadra or Vlnadhara at the head of the Matrka set . . . , or dances as Natesa in their midst." "Regional Variations," 241. 83 In some early sources, Vlrabhadra is a prominent rudra; note e.g. Sadyojyotis, in the Moksakarika, referring to the hundred rudras as "headed by Vlrabhadra" ([mahesano 'nugrhnati] icchaya satarudrams ca virabhadrapurahsaran, 79b). In cosmology, Vlrabhadra presides as a bhuvanesvara over the high­ est of the ascending series of bhuvanas (planes or worlds). Cf., e.g., Abhinavagupta's Tantrasara, 8.2: yat tu katipayakatipayabhedanugatam riipam tat tattvam yatha prthivT nama dyutikathinyasthaulyadirupa kalagniprabhrtivTrabhadrantabhuvanesadhisthitasamastabrahmandanugata. The Matahgaparamesvara, which refers to Vlrabhadra as one of the lokamyakas, "world lords" (virabhadradayas caiva brahmanta lokanayakah, 23-26cd), also describes the ganas as "led by Vlrabhadra" (virabhadrapurahsara, 23.47b). His role as a gaMfl-lord is prominent in the early Skandapurana. And in the BraYa and other sources, Vlrabhadra is credited w ith revealing the Vlrabhadratantra. BraYa xxxvm .6icd-62: Tsvaro vijayovaca devi nisvasam eva ca || 61 || brahma svayambhuvas caiva vlrabhadras tathaiva ca \ vtrabhadram mahadevi provaca vidhivistaram || 62 j| nisvasam ] em.; visvasam BYa The association between Vlrabhadra and the Seven Mothers is attested in a number of tantric Saiva sources, such as the Vlratantra, the seventy-third chapter of which describes the installation (sthapana) of the Seven Mothers, Vlrabhadra, and Ganesa.

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59

2.8: Siva and the Seven Mother goddesses (detail). Saptamatr cliff shrine between Badoh and Pathari, Madhya Pradesh. AIIS Photo Archive.

F ig u r e

2.9: Saptamatr Panel, w ith Vlrabhadra (left) and GaneSa (right). State Museum, Ashapuri, Madhya Pradesh. A lIS Photo Archive. F ig u r e

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6o

a m o n g th e M o th e rs as a gana-lo rd , o rig in ally , I a m less c o n fid e n t a b o u t th e e a rly id e n tity o f th e V ln a d h a ra im a g e ty p e ; n o gana b y th is d e s c rip tio n is m e n tio n e d in c o n n e c tio n to m atrs in p e r io d te x tu a l so u rc e s k n o w n to m e. T h is p ro b a b ly p o in ts to w a rd s h im b e in g a fo rm o f Siva, w h o is in d e e d a s so c ia te d w ith th e vm a .84 In a n y case, a s h ift in th e p e rc e p tio n o f b o th , fro m gana-lo rd s to fo rm s o f Siva, m ig h t a t so m e p o in t h av e tra n s p ire d , m u c h a s G a n e sa u n d e rg o e s a s h ift in id e n tity fro m gana-lo rd to c h ild o f Siva a n d P arv a tl. It a p p e a rs th a t th e M o th e r s h rin e a t K o tiv a rsa p r e d a te s th e a sso c ia tio n o f th e M o th e rs w ith V lra b h a d ra o r th e V ln a d h a ra , a n d th e e le p h a n tin e V in ay a k a, all u n m is ­ ta k a b ly S aiva s a c re d fig u re s w h o s e im a g e s a c c o m p a n y th e g o d d e s s e s in p o s t fifth c e n tu r y sh rin e s. In K o tiv a rsa 's iconic p ro g ra m , th e ganas C h a g a la a n d K u m b h a k a rn a a p p e a r in s te a d , s ta tio n e d o u ts id e th e s h rin e p ro p e r, w ith S iva h im se lf jo in in g th e M o th e rs in th e s a n c tu m . T h is p a n th e o n s u g g e s ts a tra n s itio n a l p ic tu re , fo r a lth o u g h d e s c rib e d in th e Skandapurana as ganas o f Siva, C h a g a la a n d K u m b h a k a rn a h a v e clear ties w ith th e o ld e r c u lt o f S k a n d a . P e rh a p s n o t u n c o in c id e n ta lly , th e y m o re o v e r re ­ se m b le S k a n d a a n d K u b e ra , re sp ectiv ely , th e p r im a r y d e itie s d e p ic te d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s in early, K u sa n a -e ra statu ary . C h a g a la , " th e G o a t," is in all p ro b a b ility a n a m e o f N a ig a m e s a , a g o a t-h e a d e d d e ity p ro m in e n t in th e m y th o lo g y a n d c u lt o f S k a n d a , w ith w h o m S k a n d a is s o m e ­ tim e s e v e n id e n tifie d .85 S u ch th e rio m o rp h ic fig u re s a re a tte s te d in th is p e r io d a s 84 There might however be som e indication in early sculpture of a status similar to Virabhadra's. N ote that in the Mother shrine of the Ellora Ramesvara cave, the vma-bearer flanks, on the left, the row of matrs on the main shrine wall; on the left wall is installed a grand Siva image, Natesa. This could suggest that the vma-bearet was a gana-lord, for Siva-forms would otherwise appear twice, moreover in adjacent images. It is conceivable that the vma-bearer was a gana-locd of a type similar to Nandin, described in the Skandapurana as a "mini-Siva" w ho in appearance mirrors his divine lord. 85 In the Mahabharata, Naigam esa is also called Chagavaktra, "Goat Face;"cf. Mahabharata, Ara­ nyakaparvan 215.23, where Agni is said to become Naigameya or Chagavaktra, Skanda's companion. In Aranyakaparvan 217, mention is m ade of Chagavaktra, and then, connecting the two, one of Skanda's six faces is said to be that of a goat, this being his primary face, "dear to the Mothers:" esa vtrdstakah proktah skandamatrganodbhavah \ chdgavaktrena sahito navakah parikvrtyate |j 11 || sastham chdgamayam vaktram skandasyaiveti viddhi tat \ satsiro 'bhyantaram rajan nityam matrgandrcitam || 12 || sannam tu pravaram tasya sTrsdndm iha sabdyate \ In another passage, Salyaparvan 43.37-40311, Skanda makes himself fourfold, becoming Skanda, Sakha,

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6i

d o o r-g u a rd ia n s ; cf. figure 2.11. K u m b h a k a rn a , a p p a re n tly a yaksa-ty p e , is less r e a d ­ ily id e n tifie d . A rdksasa b y th is n a m e fe a tu re s in th e Ram ayana as R a v a n a 's b ro th e r, a d e a d ly w a rrio r a n d v o ra c io u s e a te r a n d sleep er. I s u s p e c t th a t in th e Skandapurana, K u m b h a k a rn a (" P itc h e r-e a rs" ) is a n a lia s o f G h a n ta k a rn a , "B ell E ars," th e n a m e o f a gana o f S iva m e n tio n e d in th e Skandapurana a n d in o th e r s o u rc e s .86 It is a lso p o s sib le t h a t in K o tiv a rsa , a n a ssim ila tio n h a s b e e n m a d e b e tw e e n a lo cal yaksa a n d a gana o f Siva. A s a set, th e K o tiv a rsa M o th e rs a n d th e ir tw o g a n a -g u a rd ia n s a p p e a r to re ­ p la c e th e g ro u p o f N in e H e ro e s m e n tio n e d in th e Mahabharata, Aranyakaparvan 2x7: th e sev e n sisum atrs (" M o th e rs o f th e In fa n t[s]" ), th e ir fe ro c io u s so n , p e r h a p s n a m e d L o h ita k sa ,87 a n d C h a g a v a k tra . In th e Skandapurana a c c o u n t o f K o tiv arsa , C h a g a la o r C h a g a v a k tra is c a rrie d o ver fro m th e o ld e r sisum atr set, w h ile S iv a 's gana K u m b h a k a r­ n a re p la c e s L o h ita k sa , b o th a p p a re n tly fierce yaksa-ty p e s. P itc h e r- o r b e ll-s h a p e d e a rs s u g g e s t th e m a s siv e e a rrin g s c o m m o n ly d e p ic te d o n yaksas-, cf. figure 2.10, a n d c o m ­ p a r e also th e b u s t o f a fa n g e d , la rg e -e a re d yaksa (5 th -6 th c e n tu ry ) f o u n d a t P aw ay a, M.P., n e a r to G w a lio r (figure 2.12). C o n tin u ity is th u s a p p a r e n t b e tw e e n th e M ahabharata's " N in e H e ro e s " a n d th e K o tiv a rsa M o th e rs a n d th e ir g u a rd ia n s , C h a g a la a n d K u m b h a k a rn a , th e n e w se t o f n in e p re s id e d o v er b y S iva in s te a d o f S k an d a. Visakha, and Naigamesa. 86 Cf., e.g., Skandapurana 164.61, quoted in the next note. Satsahasrasamhita 4.136a lists Ghantakarna in a series of palakas, "guardians," a list which includes gana-lords such as Gajanana (136b). 87 The name of the son of the sisumatrs is not unambiguous: he is described as "endowed with vitality," "very terrible," "born by the grace of Skanda," "having red eyes," "terrifying," and a "little child:" Aranyaparvan 3.10-11: etasam vlryasampannah sisur namatidarunah \ skandaprasddajah putro lohitakso bhayamkarah || 10 || esa vlrastakah proktah skandamatrganodbhavah \ chdgavaktrena sahito navakah parikvrtyate || 11 || Here ndma probably has an emphatic sense, for it seems probable that the proper name of the gana is Lohitaksa. Salyaparvan 45.22 lists the latter among four attendants (anucara) of Skanda: nandisenam lohitaksam ghantakarnam ca sammatam \ caturtham asyanucaram khyatam kumudamalinam || 22 || Cf. Skandapurana 164.61, in a chapter closely parallel to and drawing upon Salyaparvan 45: ghantakarnam suraktaksam nandisenam ca durjayam | caturtham balinam srestham khyatam kumudamalinam || 62 |j On this passage's dependence upon the Mahabharata, see Yokochi, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 100. N ote in these lists the presence of Ghantakarna, w hom I suggested above could be identical to Kumbhakarna at Kotivarsa.

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F i g u r e 2 .1 0 : Yaksa at pillar base, Nagarjunakonda. National Museum, N ew Delhi. AIIS Photo Archive.

Theriomorphic gana or dvampala. Deorani temple (circa 6th century); Tala, near Bilaspur, M.P. AIIS Photo Archive.

F i g u r e 2 .1 1 :

A t K o tiv arsa , th e e m p h a s is o n C h a g a la /N a ig a m e s a a n d K u m b h a k a rn a in s te a d of G a n e sa a n d V lra b h a d ra th u s a p p e a rs arch aic, a n d c o u ld s u g g e s t tra n s itio n a l ic o n o g ­ r a p h y o f th e fifth c e n tu r y o r s o m e w h a t earlier. T h e p o s s ib ility o f u n k n o w n re g io n a l v a ria tio n s m u s t h o w e v e r b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t, e sp e c ia lly g iv e n th a t K o tiv a rsa lies in a p e r ip h e ra l z o n e o f B ra h m a n ic a l c u ltu re . M o reo v er, w h a t a p p e a rs in th e te x tu a l d e s c rip tio n as arch aic c o u ld s im p ly b e a c o n tin u ity o f n a rra tiv e , th e e ffo rt to lin k c o n te m p o ra ry c u lt a n d re v e re d m y th . T h a t is, th e Skandapurana m ig h t n o t re p re s e n t th e ico n ic p r o g r a m a t K o tiv a rsa " a c c u ra te ly ." T h e p o s s ib ility is n o n e th e le s s sig n ifi­ c a n t th a t th e site p o s s e s s e d a c o m p a ra tiv e ly a n c ie n t s h rin e o f th e M o th e rs. W h ile th e Skandapurana, c o m p o s e d s o m e w h a t later, c a n n o t b e ta k e n a s a re lia b le in d ic a to r of th e e a rlie s t c u ltic p ra c tic e s a t K o tiv arsa , it d o e s a t le a s t in d ic a te th a t in th e s ix th o r

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e a rly s e v e n th ce n tu ry , if n o t earlier, a Y ogiru c u lt h a d d e v e lo p e d p o s s e s s in g close ties to th e c u lt o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a t im p o r ta n t S aiva te m p le s a n d p ilg rim a g e sp o ts. T h e Skandapurana's d e s c rip tio n of th e d e itie s o f K o tiv a rsa fin d s so m e c o r ro b o ra tio n in ta n tric lite ra tu re . K o­ tiv a rsa fe a tu re s in th e B raYa's s a c re d g e o g ra p h y as o n e o f e ig h t c re m a tio n g ro u n d s (smasdna);88 a n d in th e e la b ­ o ra te in itia tio n m a n d a la d e s c rib e d in BraYa iii, th e s e a re re p re s e n te d in F i g u r e 2.12: Head of a fanged, large-eared yaksa. Pawaya, Gwalior, M.P. 5th-6th century. AIIS Photo Archive.

n o rth e a s t.

th e e ig h t d ire c tio n s a r o u n d th e m a n ­ d a la p e rim e te r, w ith K o tiv a rsa in th e

Its d e p ic tio n in c lu d e s th e P o o l o f th e S pear, b u t n o t B a h u m a m sa a n d

M o th e r g o d d e ss e s. H e tu k e s v a ra h o w e v e r p re s id e s in a circle o f e ig h t rudras, b e y o n d w h o m lie six y o g in is h e a d e d b y H e tu k l. In th e o u te r d e ity c irc u it a re fo u r rdksasas, a n d th re e o f S iv a 's ganas: N a n d in , C h a g a la , a n d K u m b h a k a rn a .89 T h e Tantrasadbhava, a te x t p ro b a b ly p o s td a tin g th e BraYa,90 a lso m e n tio n s K u m b h a k a rn a as th e ksetrapala (" s a c re d field g u a r d ia n " ) o f P u n d ra v a rd h a n a , th e v e ry re g io n o f B en g al w h e re K o ti­ v a rs a is s itu a te d .91 A t K o tiv a rsa itse lf (kotakhye) p re s id e th e g o d d e s s K a rn a m o tl a n d " th e fie ld -g u a rd ia n H e tu k a ." 92 A lth o u g h n o t c o n firm in g th e im p o rta n c e o f M o th e r 88 BraYa

l x x x i v . 8i :

prayaga varund kolla attahasa jayantika \ caritraikamrakan caiva kotivarsam tathastamam || 81 || a t ta h a s a ] em.; h a t t a h a s a B y * 1 Sanderson discusses the probable locations of these sites in "History through Textual Criticism," 7 (n. 4). Tantrasadbhava 15.21 is identical to this verse, offering as substantive variants attahasa (adopted above) and the corrupt caritrekdmbukam (81c; m s s as reported by Dyczkowski). 89 BraYa m.120-27. 90 See chapter 4, section 3. 91 Tantrasadbhava 19.57-58. On the location of Kotivarsa, see Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 7, and Yokochi, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 106-7. Yokochi reports that Kotivarsa "is referred to as a Visaya of the Pundravardhana Bhukti in a grant of Mahlpala 1, issued on his ninth regnal year, which was discovered am ong som e ruins called Bangarh in the West Dinajpur district, Bengal." N ote however that Tantrdloka 15.87-88 lists Devikotta and Pundravardhana as separate plthas. 92 Tantrasadbhava 19.32-33:

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g o d d e s s e s a t K o tiv a rsa , th e se s c rip tu re s o f th e Y oginI c u lt d o a sso c ia te th e site w ith ta n tric p ra c tic e , lin k in g it m o re o v e r to s o m e o f th e sa m e d e itie s a s Skandapurana 171. E lse w h e re in th e Skandapurana, e v id e n c e fo r th e Y oginI c u lt a p p e a rs m eag er. C h a p te r 155 m e n tio n s a class o f fe m a le b e in g s ca lle d yogesvans, a s y n o n y m o f yoginf, in th e c o n te x t o f th e n e v e r-e n d in g b a ttle o f sura a n d asura. F ro m d ro p s o f th e b lo o d of A n d h a k a , im p a le d b y Siva, s p r a n g w a rrio rs w h o r o u t S iv a 's ganas. S iva th e n , it se e m s, c re a te s th e M istre sse s of Y oga {yogesvans),93 a n d o rd e rs th e m to slay a n d " e a t th e g re a t asuras w h o w e re b o r n fro m d r o p s of b lo o d ." T h e y ob lig e. N o te w o rth y h e re is th a t as a class o f b e in g s, th e yogesvans ta k e o n th e m a rtia l ro le w h ic h h a d b e e n th e d o m a in o f S k a n d a 's d e m o n -sla y in g m dtrs a n d o th e r ganas in th e Mahabharata, illu s tra tin g th r o u g h m y th a n im p o r ta n t h is to ric a l c o n tin u ity .94 N o te also c h a p te r sev ­ en ty, w h ic h c o n ta in s th e m a h d tym a -n a n a tiv e o f th e s a c re d m o u n ta in S rlp a rv a ta o r S rig iri, a site e a rly ta n tric S aiva te x ts m e n tio n a s a n im p o r ta n t s a c re d s ite (pitha).95 Its close a sso c ia tio n w ith th e Y oginI c u lt is a tte s te d in a n e a rly e ig h th -c e n tu ry d ra m a , th e M alatim adhava o f B h a v a b h u ti, as d is c u s s e d su b se q u e n tly . H o w ev er, in th e Skandapurana a c c o u n t, th e d e s c rip tio n o f re lig io u s p ra c tic e s a t S rlp a rv a ta a p p e a rs la rg e ly to re fle c t P a s u p a ta S aiv ism , w ith lib e ra tio n th e g o a l a n d y o g a th e m e a n s; m e n tio n e d a lso a re p ilg rim a g e p ra c tic e s o f th e S aiva laity.96 T h is a c c o rd s in g e n e ra l w ith th e karnamotT tu kotyakhye mahabalakulodbhava \ sulahasta sthita devf sarvayogesvaresvan j| 32 || tasmin ksetre sthita devi vatavrksasamasritah \ ksetrapalo mahakayo hetuko nama namatah || 33 |j 32b “kulodbhava ] G; °kulodbhavah K Kh

32d °svare£varl ] K Kh; °svaraisvarl G

as reported by Dyczkowski. 93 In this section, io a -i3 b , there is loss of about four verse quarters in the editio princeps, including the object of [mahadevo] 'srjat ("Siva created ..."). The beings he creates are however identified as yogesvans in 13b. 94 The bellicosity of the early Mothers is illustrated for example in Aranyakaparvan 215 (16-22). 95 Cf., e.g, Svacchandatantra 9.37a. 96 N ote Skandapurana 167, which describes Srlparvata as a siddhiksetra ("a sacred field for attainment") with hundreds of sivalihgams, where Brahmins devoted to the practice of yoga attain spiritual success (siddhi). This Saiva, Brahmin sect of yogins is surely the Pasupatas. Skandapurana 167.103-07: m ss

tatra sriparvato nama parvatah sriniketanah \ siddhamarasatakirnam siddhiksetram tad uttamam || 103 j| sulino yatra lihganam punyanam varadayinam \ sahasram sthapitam vyasa siladena mahatmana || 104 || ye pasyanti tam Tsanam snparvatanivdsinam \

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s e c ta ria n o rie n ta tio n o f th e Skandapurana. Yet th e te x t m ig h t m a k e a llu s io n to th e M a n tra m a rg a as w ell, te llin g th e ta le o f h o w P a rv a ti b e c a m e a " g re a t p e rfe c te d yog in l" (siddha mahayogesvari) b y d o in g p e n a n c e o n S rlp a rv a ta .97 T h is te rm in o lo g y is s u g g e s tiv e o f th e Y oginI cu lt, p a r tic u la rly in a sso c ia tio n w ith S rlp a rv a ta . T h u s w h ile th e S aiva Y oginI c u lt d o e s n o t a p p e a r p r o m in e n t in th e Skandapurana, c h a p te r 171 p ro v id e s u n a m b ig u o u s e v id e n c e fo r its ex iste n c e in th e e ig h th ce n tu ry , fa irly se c u re e v id e n c e fo r it in th e s e v e n th ce n tu ry , a n d a sig n ific a n t p o ss ib ility fo r th e six th , d e p e n d in g u p o n th e d a tin g o f th e Skandapurana itself.

V ag u e re fe re n c e

janmamrtyubhayam tesam nasti pumsdm kadacana || 105 || anenaiva sanrena tasmin ksetre bhavdtmake \ yogdbhydsapara viprah siddhim yanti yathepsitdm |j 106 |J manasdpy abhigacchanti ye nardh sngirim mune \ na te yanti yamdvdsam mrtyav api samdgate || 107 || 97 After Sanatkumara tells the tale of the asura Hiranyakasipu's penance and defeat of the gods, Vyasa asks him about the mountain, Srlparvata, where he practiced his austerities. The Devi, while sporting w ith Siva on the mountain, had noticed powerful yogins there circumambulating [an image or lihgam of] Siva, perfected through austerities and possessed of great yoga. She questions the lord about the yogins, and he describes them as "great ones perfected in yoga, abiding in the Pasupata yoga" (7o.48ab). The Devi too desires this attainment, and performs penance there; as boon, Siva declares that she w ill become the Great Perfected Mistress of Yoga (siddha mahayogesvari), knowing the highest doctrine or meaning (pardrtha) of the "entire adhyatmatantra [spiritual treatise?]" taught by Siva. The mountain upon which she performed penance w ill be given the name "Srlparvata." Skandapurana 70.42-59, Bhattaral edition: hiranyakasipur daityo yatra tepe mahat tapah j| 43 jj girau tasmin mahdpunye devadevo vrsadhvajah \ umaya sahito devya reme nityam mahadyutih jj 44 |j tisthatas tatra devasya devi girivardtmaja \ tapahsiddhan mahayogah jvalanadityavarcasah jj 45 || krtvd pradaksinam sambhoh saprandmam mahamune \ gacchatas tan muhur drstva papraccha bhuvanesvaram jj 46 || ka ete deva samsiddha yogisas tvam pranemire \ tato devah prahasyainam uvdca paramesvarah || 47 j| yogasiddha mahatmdno yoge pasupate sthitah \ ya iharadhya mam devi jahuh prdndn narottamdh || 48 || te ete siddhadeharthah svacchandagaticarinah \ moksasiddheh param nisthdm gantdrah paramam padam || 49 j| atha samcintya suciram vismayayatalocana \ devam provdca sarvdnl vacah paramapujitam jj 50 || yathdham api devesa prdpnuyam siddhim TdrsTm | karisyami tathd yatnam esa cdsmi gata vibho j| 51 || tatah krtva sriyo rupam devi paramasobhand \ mahat tatra tapas tepe sahasram parivatsardn || 52 |j devas cdsya varam pradat taih samdnam mahadyutih | krtsnasyadhydtmatantrasya mayd proktasya bhdmini || 53 || mahayogesvari siddha pardrthajhd bhavisyasi \

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to " T a n tra s b y th e th o u s a n d s " su g g e s ts th a t e v e n a t th is e a rly d a te th e re m a y h av e e x is te d a la rg e a n d p e r h a p s d e v e lo p e d c o r p u s of M a n tra m a rg a lite ra tu re . T h is te x tu a l s itu a tio n fin d s m u tu a l c o rro b o ra tio n in th e BraYd, o n e o f th e s c rip tu re s th e Skanda­ purana lists, w h ic h a s I s h a ll d is c u ss in c h a p te r th re e d e s c rib e s a siz e a b le b o d y of S aiv a s c rip tu re in its a c c o u n t o f th e c a n o n . It is sig n ific a n t, m o reo v e r, th a t th e Skanda­ purana p la c e s th e Y oginI c u lt in close a sso c ia tio n w ith th e c u lt a n d s h rin e s o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, fo r in th is p e rio d , m o n u m e n ta l s h rin e s o f th e M o th e rs s u c h a s m a y h av e e x iste d a t K o tiv a rsa w e re c o n s tru c te d in c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs . It is to m o re o f th is e v id e n c e th a t w e t u r n next.

P O S T -G U P T A E R A T E M PL E S O F T H E M O T H E R S

A la rg e n u m b e r o f M o th e r-g o d d e s s s h rin e s s u rv iv e fro m th e six th a n d s e v e n th ce n ­ tu rie s ,98 a n d th e circa m id s ix th -c e n tu ry Brhatsamhita o f V a ra h a m ih ira s p e a k s o f th e te m p le c u lt o f M o th e rs a lo n g s id e m a jo r s e c ta ria n d e n o m in a tio n s o f th e p e rio d , in ­ c lu d in g B u d d h ism , Ja in ism , a n d th e V aisnava B h a g a v a ta s.99 N o n e th e le ss , th e s u rv iv ­ in g M o th e r s h rin e s h a v e cle a r S aiva o rie n ta tio n s , o c c u rin g p rim a rily in asso c ia tio n w ith S iva te m p le co m p lex e s. W h ile th e s e h e n c e a tte s t th e e x isten c e o f a w id e s p r e a d 98 See Katherine Harper, Iconography o f the Saptamatrikas, 101-49. 99 Brhatsamhita 59.19: visnor bhagavatan magdms ca savituh sambhoh sabhasmadvijan mdtfnam api mandalakramavido vipran vidur brahmanah \ sakydn sarvahitasya iantamanaso nagndn jindndm vidur ye yam devam updsritah svavidhind tais tasya kdryd kriyd || 19 || Edition of A. V. Tripathi. The Saiva "brahmins with ashes" (sabhasmadvijan) are in all likelihood Pasupatas. While this passage does not specify the Mothers' identities, elsewhere the text speaks of con­ structing the images of Mothers in accordance w ith the appearances of the deities they are named after (matrganah kartavyah svandmadevdnurupakrtacihnah, 57.563!?). It therefore seem s likely that Varahamihira knows of and refers to the Brahmanical Seven Mothers. His terminology for describing specialists in the cult of Mothers, "knowers of the (Mandate-sequence" (mandalakramavidah) or "kriowers of the Mother-mandala" (matrmandalavidah, edition of H. Kern), has been taken by Harper as an indication of a tantric cultic orientation. Iconography o f the Saptamatrikas, 122. However, the mere occurrence of the term mandala does not warrant this; here it probably means "the gro u p /set [of Mothers]." N ote the same terminology in the inscription of the contemporaneous saptamdtr shrine at Deogarh, which in its benedictory verse refers to the enshrined deities as the mandala of Mothers: sthanam jagadraksdksamaujasam matrnam lokamdtfm(tf)ndm mandalam bhutaye I’lstu vah || 1 || Epigraphia Indica xxx.15 (pp. 125-27).

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S aiv a te m p le c u lt o f th e M o th e rs, th e y b e a r a n u n c le a r re la tio n s h ip to d e v e lo p m e n ts in ta n tric fo rm s o f S aiv ism . T h a t th e tw o w e re in so m e c o n te x ts lin k e d is s u g g e s te d b y th e Skandapurana a c c o u n t o f K o tiv arsa . In th e p re s e n t se c tio n a re d is c u s s e d tw o fa cets o f M o th e r s h rin e s th a t c o u ld p ro v id e in s ig h t in to th is co n n e ctio n : cases o f a n e ig h th g o d d e s s in so m e s c u lp te d se ts o f th e M o th e rs , a n d th e p re s e n c e o f kdpalika d e itie s a n d ic o n o g ra p h y . T antric S aiva so u rc e s of th e Y oginI c u lt s o m e tim e s s p e a k o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s as a n o c ta d , ra th e r th a n th e e a rlie r a n d m o re w id e ly a tte s te d B ra h m a n ic a l h e p ta d , e v e n w h e n a ffirm in g th e ir id e n tity as " th e S ev en M o th e rs ." 100 In ta n tric lite ra tu re , th e e ig h th , a d d itio n a l M o th e r is s o m e tim e s M a h a la k sm I, o r e lse th e s u p re m e G o d d e s s of th e bhairavatantras h e rse lf, o fte n b y th e n a m e YogesI (=Y oginI).101 H e n c e in th e BraYd, B h a ira v l o r A g h o re s I is ca lle d " th e o n e w h o c o m p le te s th e M o th e rs " (m atrpuranf).102 Puranic a c c o u n ts e v id e n c e m o re v a rie ty ; th e DevTmahatmya o f th e M arkandeyapurana, fo r in s ta n c e — a te x t w h ic h m a rk s th e e n tr y o f ta n tric S aiva n o tio n s o f sakti in to th e puranic th e o lo g y o f g o d d e s s e s 103— a d d s N a ra s im h I to th e M o th e rs , th e e m b o d im e n t 100 Thus chapter l of the Svacchandatantra, in the published Kashmiri recension, distributes the phonem es of the alphabet in vargas connected w ith eight Mothers—the usual heptad plus MahalaksmI—after enumerating w hom the text states, "these are the seven Great Mothers, situated in the seven worlds" (etdh sapta mahamdtrh saptalokavyavasthitah, 36cd). Sanderson points out that this reference to the Mothers is absent from the recension of the Svacchandatantra preserved in N epalese manuscripts (personal communcation, January 2007). 101 For YogesI as the name of the eighth Mother, cf., e.g., BraYd xxxxv.32, Tantrasadbhava 14.155b, Tantraloka 29-52d, and the Brhatkalottara, mentioned previously (n. 73). 102 E.g. BraYd 11.18b. 103 The DevTmahatmya is frequently spoken of as a text foundational to the formation of Hindu goddess traditions, providing, for instance, an early example of the textual depiction of the Mothers. Note e.g. Harper, w ho assumes a circa 400-600 c . e dating of the text. Iconography of the Saptamatrikas, 91, citing R. C. Hazra, Studies in the Pur?n?ic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, 10-12. Cf. Thomas Coburn, w ho accepts a fifth- or sixth-century dating of the DevTmahatmya, citing D. R. Bhandarkar, "Epigraphic N otes and Questions," Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society xxm (1909): 73-74; he also refers to V. V. Mirashi, "A Lower Limit for the Date of the Devi-Mahatmya," Purana v i 1 (Jan. 1964): 181-84. Coburn, D evT-M dhdtm ya: The C rystallization o f the Goddess Tradition, 1, 63 (n. 204). However, the DevTmahatmya is probably not as old as has been supposed: Yuko Yokochi questions on strong grounds the minimal evidence adduced in support of a sixth-century (or earlier) dating. She instead proposes the second half of the eighth century, primarily on the basis of the iconic type described for the Warrior Goddess. Rise of the Warrior Goddess, 21-23 (n - 42)Yokochi notes that the DevTmahatmya is the first source of its type to draw upon the tantric Saiva conception of sakti in relation to the nature of goddesses more generally. She points out that Skanda­ purana 171 does not describe the Mother-goddesses emitted by male gods as their $aktis, in contrast to the DevTmahatmya. Ibid., 15 (n. 31.). Her revised dating of the DevTmahatmya fits w ell w ith the emerging picture of the chronology of tantric Saiva literature, for the tantric Saiva goddess cults that might have

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of th e fe m in in e " p o w e r" (sakti) o f V isn u 's M a n -lio n avatar a. S c u lp te d se ts o f M o th e r g o d d e s s e s d o n o t a d o p t e q u iv a le n t ic o n o g ra p h ic sc h e m e s, a lth o u g h se v e ra l a d d a n e ig h th g o d d e s s. T h e m id s ix th -c e n tu ry s h rin e in th e S aiv a cave te m p le a t A ih o le, m e n tio n e d e a rlie r (n. 73), d e p ic ts e ig h t M o th e rs a n d m ig h t in c lu d e M a h a la k sm I in p la c e o f V aisnavl, a d d in g P a r v at! to th e h e p ta d a s w e ll.104 M e is te r m e n tio n s tw o o th e r cases o f a n e ig h th g o d d e s s a m o n g th e M o th e rs: th e la te s ix th -c e n tu ry Elep h a n ta cave e a s t o f th e m a in s h rin e , a n d th e e ig h th -c e n tu ry V aital D e u l te m p le of B h u v a n e sv a r, O ris s a .105 In b o th cases, th e ic o n o g ra p h ic a lly a m b ig u o u s e ig h th g o d ­ d e s s a p p e a rs s u b o rd in a te to C a m u n d a , r a th e r th a n tra n s c e n d in g h e r in th e m a n n e r o f A g h o re s l/B h a ira v l in th e S aiva Y oginI c u lt.106 T h e e ig h th g o d d e s s a t V aital D e u l b e a rs a trid e n t in o n e o f h e r tw o a rm s , s u g g e s tin g a n a s so c ia tio n w ith Siva, b u t h a s n o vahana m a rk in g h e r id e n tity ; T h o m a s D o n a ld s o n s u g g e s ts M a h a la k sm I, b u t o n u n c le a r g ro u n d s .107 A n o th e r c a se o f a n e ig h th g o d d e s s jo in in g th e h e p ta d o f M o th e rs is th e matr s h rin e o f th e little -s tu d ie d A u r a n g a b a d B u d d h is t cave co m p le x , p e r h a p s o f th e six th c e n tu ry .108 T h is sm a ll cave te m p le p re s a g e s te x tu a l e v id e n c e o f th e se v e n th c e n tu ry inspired the theology of sakti alluded to in the DevTmahatmya seem likely to have been widespread by the eighth century. 104 The central wall of this shrine features two goddesses framing a dancing Siva, w ith diminutive im ­ ages of Ganesa and either Vlrabhadra or Skanda standing below them. Meister identifies the goddesses as Parvatl and Sri (i.e. Srilaksmi or MahalaksmI). "Regional Variations," 240. The latter deity holds a lotus, and could instead be (an unusual) Vaisnavl, w hile the image identified as Parvatl possesses a crescent m oon upon her headdress, like Mahesvarl on the wall to the viewer's left. This set could thus include both MahalaksmI and the supreme Saiva goddess, the tw o m ost common additions to the heptad in tantric accounts of the Mother goddesses—or else it sim ply adds Parvatl to the usual heptad. 105 Ibid., 237-38. 106 While I follow Meister in identifying the emaciated image adjacent to Ganesa, on the left, as Camunda, Harper identifies the image as Kala, a male deity, in w hich case the standard heptad of Mother-goddesses is present. Iconography o f the Saptamatrikas, 113. This w ould to som e extent bear comparison w ith the Ravan-ka kal shrine at Ellora; there, however Mahakala is depicted to the right of Ganesa, rather than within the row of Mothers, and is accompanied by a smaller, emaciated goddess— presumably Kali. 107 Donaldson, Tantra and Sakta A rt o f Orissa, vol. 1,109 ( f i g u r e 2x1). Perhaps Yogesl/Bhairavl? 108 This is the so-called "Brahmanical cave," located near to cave six. See Carmel Berkson, The Caves at Aurangabad. Early Buddhist Tantric A rt in India, 217, 225-28. Katherine Harper suggests a close stylistic relationship between the Aurangabad Mothers and the matr sets of Elephanta and Ellora, Ramesvara cave, hence situating the shrine in the sixth century. Harper, Iconography o f the Saptamatrikas, 114. My description of the temple is based upon personal observation, as w ell as the images published by Berkson, ibid., passim.

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69 p o in tin g to w a rd lim ite d in c o rp o ra tio n o f th e M o th e r-g o d d e s s e s in T antric B u d d h ism , d is c u s s e d in c h a p te r 4. A lo n g its le ft w a ll a re s itu a te d a ro w o f six s ta n d in g M o th ­ ers, fla n k e d n e a r th e e n tra n c e b y a fo u r-a rm e d m a le g u a r d ia n fig u re , p re s u m a b ly V lra b h a d ra . O n th e c e n tra l w a ll, o p p o s ite th e e n tra n c e , is s itu a te d a n im p o s in g s e a te d G a n e sa , fla n k e d o n e ith e r s id e b y g o d d e ss e s: th e s e v e n th M o th er, C a m u n d a , to th e v ie w e r's left, a n d a fo u r-a rm e d g o d d e s s o n th e r ig h t w h o b e a rs a trisula, sw o rd , b ell, a n d p itch er, p o s s ib ly w ith a lio n a s vahana— D u rg a , it h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d .109 A lo n g w ith th e ca se o f A ih o le, th is p o in ts to w a rd a c o n v e n tio n o f re p re s e n tin g th e sp o u s e g o d d e s s o f S iva a s e ig h th o f th e M o th e rs , in th is case in th e g u is e o f th e "W a rrio r G o d d e s s " fa cet th a t ro s e to g re a t p ro m in e n c e in th e p e r io d , e u lo g iz e d in th e e a rly s e v e n th -c e n tu ry Candisataka o f B an a.110 O n th e r ig h t w a ll a re p re s e n t tw o n o n d e ­ s c rip t s e a te d B u d d h a s (o n e b a d ly d a m a g e d ) w ith a tte n d e n t fig u re s, d is p la c in g Siva a n d p ro v id in g a B u d d h is t id e n tity to th e M o th ers. Kdpdlika d e itie s a n d ic o n o g ra p h y fig u re in re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e M o th e rs fro m as e a rly a s th e m id -s ix th ce n tu ry . T h is d e v e lo p m e n t a p p e a r s first, it se e m s, in th e M o th e r s h rin e s o f th e R a m e sv a ra a n d R av an -k a k a l cave te m p le s o f E llo ra, o f th e m id - o r la te -six th ce n tu rie s; th e s e d e p a r t fro m e a rlie r m o d e ls b y th e a d d itio n o f a s k e le ta l d iv in e c o u p le a d ja c e n t to th e M o th e rs

(f ig u r e

2.13). T h e id e n tity o f th e s e

d e itie s is p ro b le m a tic : a rt-h is to ria n s h a v e s u g g e s te d K a la (i.e. M a h a k a la ) a n d K ali, w h ic h is p la u s ib le .111 A s d is c u s s e d su b se q u e n tly , e a rly s e v e n th -c e n tu ry lite ra tu re e v ­ id e n c e s th e e x isten c e o f a ta n tric c u lt o f M a h a k a la , w h o s e a s so c ia tio n w ith th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s is d e s c rib e d in c h a p te r fifty -fo u r o f th e BraYa. In c lu s io n o f M a h a k a la in th e ic o n o g ra p h ic p r o g r a m s o f E llo ra 's s ix th -c e n tu ry M o th e r s h rin e s h e n c e s u g g e s ts a d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e w ith p e r io d texts. T h e id e n tity o f th e fe m a le d e ity se e m s less ce rta in ; B ana s p e a k s o f M a h a k a la as th e c o n s o rt o f C a n d ik a , a d e ity w h o s e id e n tity 109 Berkson attributes this identification to Ramesh Gupte. Caves at Aurangabad, 227. 1,0 It should be pointed out, however, that this eighth goddess is not contiguous w ith the other seven, for the image of Ganesa intervenes; she might therefore not have been considered one of the Mothers, per se. 111 Cf. Harper, Iconography of the Saptamatrikas, 113-14,116-17.

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70 m a y s u b s u m e a n y n u m b e r o f fierce S aiva g o d d e ss e s, e s p e c ia lly D u rg a a n d C a m u ­ n d a .112 A s c o n s o rt o f M a h a k a la , th is fierce g o d d e s s c o u ld b e v ie w e d a s a n e ig h th M o th er, c o m p le tin g a p a n th e o n a k in to th a t d e s c rib e d in BraYa

l i v — th e

S ev en M o th ­

e rs h e a d e d b y M a h a k a la (id e n tifie d w ith B h airav a) a n d B h a ira v l o r Y ogesvarl. It d o e s n o t s e e m p o s sib le to s itu a te w ith p re c is io n th e M o th e rs , a s re p re s e n te d in s ix th -c e n tu ry s c u lp tu re , w ith th e g o d d e s s e s a s d e s c rib e d in e x ta n t S aiva y o g in l lite ra tu re ; th e la tte r m ig h t in d e e d b e lo n g to a s o m e w h a t la te r p e rio d .

H o w ev er,

th e e v id e n c e fo r a c o n v e n tio n o f in c lu d in g a n e ig h th g o d d e s s a n d th e p re s e n c e of M a h a k a la in p a r tic u la r s u g g e s t p o ss ib le c o rre la tio n s w ith d e v e lo p m e n ts in T antric S aiv ism . O n th e o th e r h a n d , it se e m s h ig h ly lik ely th a t th e kapalika ico n ic p ro g r a m o f th e V aital D e u l te m p le o f la te e ig h th -c e n tu ry O rissa is in fo rm e d b y c o n te m p o ra ­ n e o u s ta n tric p a n th e o n s a n d ic o n o g ra p h y , a p e r io d a n d re g io n in w h ic h ta n tric S aiva g o d d e s s c u lts w e re u n d o u b te d ly p ro m in e n t.113 T h is e x tra o rd in a ry te m p le e n s h rin e s a c u lt im a g e o f C a m u n d a in a p r o g r a m th a t in c lu d e s sev e n o th e r M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a n d se v e n m a le d e itie s. H e re w e fin d th e M o th e rs in a cu ltic c o n te x t th a t is c le a rly sakta— C a m u n d a , r a th e r th a n S iva, p re s id e s as s u p re m e d e ity — a n d m a n ife stly kapalika in ic o n o g ra p h y . B esid es V ira b h a d ra a n d G a n e sa , w h o n o rm a lly a c c o m p a n y th e M o th e rs , th e m a le d e itie s in c lu d e K u b e ra, V a rah a (w h o h o ld s a sk u ll-b o w l), a s e a te d y o g in w ith a c a n o p y o f h o o d e d s e r p a n ts id e n tifie d a s " N a g a ra ja " ("K in g o f S e rp a n ts " ), a n d tw o S aiva, kapalika d eities: a sk e le ­ ta l (" A tirik ta h g a " ) B h airav a h o ld in g a sk u ll-c u p a n d k n ife , a s trid e a co rp se; a n d a sk e le ta l, ith y p a llic d e ity s e a te d in yogasana o n a c o rp se , w h o m D o n a ld s o n id en tifie s as G a ja s a m h a ra m u rti: S iva a s "S layer o f th e E le p h a n t d e m o n " (figure 2.14).114 A n O riss a n -p ro v e n a n c e te x t re fe rs to th e p re s id in g C a m u n d a o f th e te m p le a s " K a p a lim " (" S k u ll-b e a re r" ), su g g e stiv e o f th e p rin c ip le e p ith e t o f B h a ira v l in th e BraYa: C a n d a 112 On Bana, see the subsequent section. In the BraYa, the name Candika occurs as a synonym of Camunda; cf. BraYa n .i6d . 113 While the outer structure contains an inscription of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the core shrine has a short inscription apparently dating to the late eighth century, on paleographic grounds. Krishna Chandra Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhuvaneswar, 32-33. ” 4 Donaldson, vol. 1, 108-12.

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F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 : Mahakala and Kali? Ellora, Ramesvara cave temple, w est wall of Mother-goddess shrine. AIIS Photo Archive.

K a p a lin i, " G rim B earer o f th e S k u ll." 115 S ignificantly, th e te m p le 's d e c o ra tiv e re lie fs in c lu d e c a rv in g s o f m a le S aiva ascetics b e a rin g sk u ll-sta v e s (khatvanga) a n d e n g a g in g in e ro tic a c tiv ities, w h ile th e re is e v id e n c e o f sacrificial c u ltu s a s w ell— b o th su g 115 Svarnadrimahodaya, cited by Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhuvaneswar, 2 3 3 . Cf. Tantrasadbhava 2 1 , which provides a vidya-mantra addressing A ghoii as "Camunda Kapalini." Tantrasadbhdva 2 i . i 54 cd- 56 ab: siddhacamundakalpedam kathitam sarvakamadam || atah parataram vaksye aghorya bhTmavikrama \

154

|j

cam unde [']ti padam adau kapalini atah param || 155 ||

svahdntam pranavadyam ca mulamantram idam subham \ ° v ik r a m a ] conj.; “ v i k r a m a m m s s

k a p a l in i ] em.; k a p a l in i m s s

"This kalpa of Siddhacamunda, which grants all wishes, has been spoken. Next, I shall teach som ething further: [the kalpa] of Aghori, the fierce indomitable one. The word c a m u n d e at the beginning, then k a p a l i n i , ending with s v a h a and beginning w ith o m [i.e. o m c a m u n d e k a p a l i n i s v a h a ]: this is the auspicious root mantra." As I mention in chapter 4, this mantra appears m odelled upon the nine-syllable vidya-mantra of Aghoresi in the BraYd: [ o m ] h u m c a n d e k a p a l i n i s v a h a .

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F ig u r e

2.14: Siva "Gajasamharamurti," Vaital Deul temple, Bhuvanesvar. A IIS Photo Archive.

g e stiv e o f a V id y a p lth a ritu a l c o n te x t.116 T h e Tantrasadbhava, a V id y a p lth a s c rip tu re p e r h a p s also o f th e e ig h th c e n t u r y / 17 d e sc rib e s ta n tric ritu a l c e n te re d u p o n C a m u n ­ d a a n d p e r fo rm e d in te m p le s o f th e M o th e rs (matrgrha), in o n e case w ith th e a im of e n c o u n te rin g y o g in ls .118 116 Donaldson publishes a relief from Vaital Deul of three kapalikas engaged in amorous activities; Tantra and Sakta A rt, vol. 3, fig. 627. Panigrahi notes remains of a stone sacrificial altar (yupa) outside of the temple. Archaeological Remains at Bhuvaneswar, 234. 117 On the Tantrasadbhava, see chapter 3, section 3, and chapter 5, section 3. 118 Both of the references identified belong to Tantrasadbhava 21, referred to above (n. 115); one has as its context the vidya-mantra and worship of "Red Camunda" and the other, those of Camunda as AghoresT or Canda Kapalini—supreme goddess of the BraYd. In the latter case, the ritual is said to bring about direct encounter w ith the yoginls. Tantrasadbhdva 2 i.2 iic d -i3 a b :

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2 .3

W O R K S OF

THE LATER LITERARY EVIDENCE

bana

:

the kadam bar

!

a n d h a r s a c a r it a

In B a n a 's KadambarT a n d Harsacarita, p ro s e w o rk s o f th e firs t h a lf o f th e se v e n th c e n ­ tu r y c o m p o s e d b y a c o n te m p o ra ry o f k in g H a rs a (r. 6 o 6 -4 7 119), w e fin d e v id e n c e fo r ta n tric S aiva ritu a lis ts a n d p ra c tic e s c h a ra c te ristic o f th e bhairavatantras.120 H o w ­ ever, w h ile th e d iv in itie s a n d v a rie tie s o f ritu a l B ana d e p ic ts a re in n o sm a ll m e a s u re c o n s is te n t w ith th e S aiva Y ogini cu lt, y o g in ls th e m se lv e s fin d n o m e n tio n . In th e KadambarT, a love ta le in o rn a te p ro se , th e h e ro C a n d r a p ld a h a p p e n s u p o n a ju n g le te m p le o f th e g o d d e s s C a n d ik a w h ile jo u rn e y in g to th e city o f U jjayinl. O f­ fic ia tin g o v er h e r w o rs h ip is a n e ld e rly " D ra v id ia n " ascetic (jaraddravidadharmika), w h o s e g ro te s q u e a p p e a ra n c e a n d d u b io u s m a g ic a l p ra c tic e s a re d e s c rib e d in so m e d e ta il.

T h e Harsacarita to o , B a n a 's c h ro n ic le o f th e e a rly life o f K in g H a rs a , p r o ­

v id e s s u b s ta n tia l e v id e n c e fo r th e T an tric S a iv ism o f th e bhairavatantras. A s w ith th e KadambarT, th is w o rk fe a tu re s in its th ird c h a p te r a ta n tric ritu a list: a " S o u th e r n e r" (daksinatya) a n d " g re a t S aiv a" b y th e n a m e B h a ira v a c a ry a , in th is case a n e x h a lte d a n d p o w e rfu l g u r u r a th e r th a n m a c a b re m a g ic ia n . T h e a sso c ia tio n b e tw e e n B h airav ­ a c a ry a a n d H a r s a 's an cesto r, th e k in g P u s p a b h u ti, c u lm in a te s in th e k in g s e rv in g as a n a s s is ta n t in vetalasadhana— th e " z o m b ie rite " b y w h ic h B h a ira v a c a ry a a s c e n d s to th e sk ies a s a s e m i-d iv in e w iz a rd (vidyadhara). matrgrham pravistva tu pujayitva tu mandalam || 211 || japed yogesvarim devlm supattas tadgateksanah \ bhramamdnam ivakdse tdvat tam nadate grham || 212 || agacchanti tato devyo yoginyo vikrtanandh \ "After entering a temple of the Mothers and worshipping [their] mandala, one should incant the [Vidya-mantra of the] goddess Yogesvarl, (1) having a good cloth, one's gaze fixed on that—up until the temple resounds, as though roaming through the sky (?). Afterwards com e the goddesses, yoginls of grotesque visage." The interpretation of 2i2bcd is som ewhat uncertain; is the temple supposed to ascend into the sky? For supattas, perhaps read svapattas ("one's ritual cloth"), referring to a cloth inscribed w ith a ritual diagram. 119 D. Devahuti, Harsa: a Political Study, vii. 120 Bana's accounts of Saivism have been discussed by Lorenzen, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas, 16-23; and briefly but w ith m uch substance by Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 11,13 (n. 11). The latter's remarks are referred to below.

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T h e ac tiv itie s o f th e D ra v id ia n ascetic in th e KadambarT a re h ig h ly su g g e stiv e of th e p o w e r-se e k in g p ra c tic e s o f th e sadhaka ta u g h t in bhairavatantras. T h e se in c lu d e th e u s e o f m a g ic a l o in tm e n ts (siddhahjana),121 p o w d e rs (curna),122 m in e ra ls (dhatu),123 h e r b a l salv es (ausadhahjana),124 b in d is o r fo re h e a d d o ts (tilaka),125 a n d m u s ta r d se e d (siddharthaka);126 a lc h e m y (rasayana);127 th e effo rt to fin d h id d e n tre a s u re s a n d to e n ­ te r th e n e th e r w o rld s ;128 p ra c tic e o f m a n tra -p ro p itia tio n (m antrasadhana) fo r a tta in in g in v isib ility ;129 a n d s e e k in g p o w e r o v er yaksa m a id e n s .130 W h ile th e s e a n d s im ila r m a g ic a l p ra c tic e s a re n o t re s tric te d to th e bhairavatantras, th e y receiv e th e ir g re a te s t e la b o ra tio n in th e la tte r s c rip tu re s .131 In a d d itio n , B a n a 's D ra v id ia n ascetic is s a id to 121 He is referred to as having had one eye rupture "because of a magical eye-ointment given by a quack" (kuvadidattasiddhahjanasphutitaikalocanataya . ..). 122 anyadeMgatositasu jaratpravrajitasu bahukrtvah samprayuktastnvasTkaranacurnena ("one w ho had often em ployed powder for controlling w om en on elderly nuns, w ho were staying [in the Candika temple precincts] after arriving from another land"). 123 samjatadhatuvadavayuna ("one in w hom the wind-humour disease (vayu) of belief in [magical] pig­ m ents/m etals had arisen"). 124 ihgudikosakrtausadhahjanasamgrahena ("one having a collection of herbal salves made from the bark of the Ingudl"). 125 duhsiksitasramanadistatilakabaddhavibhavapratyasena ("one whose hope for power is bound to a [mag­ ical] tilaka taught [him] by a poorly tutored ascetic"). 126asakrdabhimantritasiddharthakaprahatipradhavitaihpisacagrhitakaih karatalatadanacipitikrtasravanaputena ("one the inside of w hose ears have been flattened by slaps of the palm s of those possessed by goblins, w ho had been chased away by [his] blows of sesame seeds enchanted by mantras no few times"). 127 asamyakkrtarasayananltakalajvarena ("one w ho has an untim ely fever brought on by improperly per­ formed alchemy"). 128 avirbhutanid.hivadavyad.hina ("one in w hom the disease of belief in hidden treasure was manifest"), and lagndsuravivarapravesapisacena ("one w hom the 'goblin' of [desiring] entry to the netherworlds of the Asuras has latched onto"). 129 vardhitantardhanamantrasadhanasamgrahena ("one w hose collection of rites of mantra-propitiation for [achieving] invisibility had grown large"). 130 pravrttayaksakanyakakamitvamanorathavyamohena ("one in w hom has commenced an infatuation w ith the desire to be the lover of a t/afofl-maiden"). 131 N ote for example BraYa xv.13-14, which contains a typical enumeration of magical attainments: adhuna sampravaksyami mahavetalasadhanam \ yena tv astavidha siddhih sadhakasya prajayate || 13 || khadgam rocanapatalam vidyadharapadam tatha \ padukau ahjanah caiva uttisthantardhanakam tatha || 14 |[ "I shall now teach the great zombie rite, through which the eightfold siddhi arises for the sadhaka: [magical] sword and pigment, [ability to enter] the netherworlds, the state of being a vidyadhara, [magical] sandals and eye-ointment, levitation (? uttistha), and invisi­ bility." This list includes three of the "fruits" sought by the Dravidian ascetic: the ability to enter the nether­ worlds, invisibility (antardhana), and magic ointment (ahjana). Uddamaresvaratantra 14.10 links the latter two, mentioning a siddhahjana having invisibility as its purpose. Siddhahjana is also mentioned as a magical attainment in BraYa Lxiv.yicd (gudikakhadgavetalasiddhahjanarasani tu). The BraYa has a chapter ostensibly devoted to the subject of ahjana: the ahjanayogapatala, number l x v i i i . Regarding magical

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b e v e rs e d in " th o u s a n d s o f w o n d e r-ta le s o f S r lp a r v a ta /'132 a m o u n ta in clo sely a s s o ­ c ia te d w ith e so te ric S aiv ism , a n d n o t to w a v e r in h is " se lf-id e n tifc a tio n w ith Siva" (saivabhimana).133 A lth o u g h h e n c e a S aiva, h is d e v o tio n to C a n d ik a s u g g e s ts e n g a g e "powders" (curna), BraYa i.xxx.8ocd mentions a recipe for one that, as is the case in Bana's description, is used for bringing another person under one's power (curnena stripumam vdpi ydvajjmam vasam nayet). Concerning the magical dhatus mentioned in connection w ith Bana's Dravidian, note for instance the mineral pigments haritdla (yellow orpiment) and manahsila (red arsenic) in a list of siddhis in BraYa XLV-58-59ab: padukau rocand caiva haritdlam manacchilam \ yoganjanarasd devi khadgam cintamanis tatha\\ 58 || upatistanti vai tasya sadhakasya tu siddhayah \ 58a padukau ] em.; paduka BYa

58c °rasa ] em,; °rasam Bya

58d 0mams ] em.; °manin Byq

As w ith citrna, ahjana, osadhis ("herbs"), etc., dhatus are substances used in ritual, which, it appears, are also thought to manifest in siddhi-bestowing varieties as fruits of ritual. Rasayana, which appears to refer to the potent material product of alchemical processes, is listed alongside these as a siddhi-inducing substance, manifesting as the fruit of ritual. See for example Tantrasadbhava 20: ksubhyanti puravdsinyah sadhakam tu tato 'naghe || 317 || prarthayanti pravesanti dadanti manasepsitam \ rasam rasdyanam divyam ausadhyo baladarpitah || 318 || anjanam padalepam ca paduko 'tha manahsila | gudika Sastramald vd yad anyam siddhikaranam || 319 || 319a anjanam ] em.; anjana TskTskhTs8

319c gudika ] Ts8; gutika TskTskh

"The w om en of the city get aroused; then, O sinless woman, [they] beseech the sadhaka, give him entry, [and] proud of their power, grant him what his mind sought: divine elixir or rasayana, herbs, ointment, foot balm, sandals, red arsenic, pills, a set of weapons (sastramdld), or else another cause of siddhi." ( m s s as reported by Dyczkowski.) Forehead marks or tilakas comprise a related category. Chapter five of the BraYa, for example, provides recipes for preparing tilaka com pounds that bestow siddhi when enchanted by mantra and applied in ritual. On the other hand, siddharthaka or white mustard seeds do not as far as I know appear to manifest as a "fruit" of ritual, although they are certainly used in magical rites. Bana's reference to nidhivada apparently refers to seeking hidden treasure by magical means. Com­ pare for instance chapter nine of the Uddamaresvaratantra, which makes several references to obtaining wealth or hidden treasures as the result of ritual. For more detailed accounts, see the Buddhist Mahjusrtmulakalpa, e.g. chapter 55. As for w hat Bana refers to as asuravivarapravesa, "entry into the netherworlds of the Asuras," tantric sources com m only call this patalasiddhi, "power [to enter] the netherworlds," or sim ply patdla. Cf. xv.13-14 above. Regarding the i/a/csn-maidens the Dravidian is said to lust after, these (yaksakanya, yaksinl, etc.) are frequently mentioned among the various females a sadhaka might seek erotic power over. On such vastkarana, see chapter 5 of the present dissertation. Note also the practice of yaksinlsadhana, rites specifically aimed at gaining the control of a yaksini, and not sim ply for erotic, but also magical ends. Cf., e.g., b o r i m s no. 503 of 1895-98, "Yaksinlsadhana." In the BraYa, an entire chapter is devoted to this subject: lx iv (labelled lx), the yaksimsadhanapatala. Bana's list of magical powers and substances bears comparison with that of the Buddhist Subahupariprcchd, discussed by Ronald Davidson, Indian Esoteric Buddhism, 200-01. 132 sriparvatascaryavdrttdsahasrdbhijnena ("One well-versed in thousands of wonder tales of Srlparvata"). 133 Although this phrase might mean "pride in being a Saiva," abhimdna also has in tantric literature the technical sense of "meditative identification" w ith a deity. N ote that the expression saivdbhimdna occurs with this m eaning in Tantrdloka 13.252a, where Abhinavagupta quotes or paraphrases the Nandisikhatantra.

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76 m e n t in a ta n tric g o d d e s s cu lt, w h ic h is w h o lly c o n s is te n t w ith th e bhairavatantras of th e V id y a p lth a .134 A lth o u g h th e Harsacarita's B h a ira v a c a ry a is n o t re fe rr e d to a s s u c h , h is ritu a l p ra c tic e s to o a re th o s e o f th e s/dd/n’-se e k in g s p e c ia lis t o r sadhaka o f th e bhairavatantras, a n d B an a u tiliz e s th e te c h n ic a l te rm in o lo g y o f ta n tric ritu a l. B h a ira v a c a ry a 's p ra c tic e o f purvaseva, p re lim in a ry w o rs h ip o f a m a n tra -d e ity , is d e s c rib e d in so m e d e ta il.135 A d d itio n a lly , th e vetalasadhana B h a ira v a c a ry a u n d e r ta k e s b e a rs affin ity in sev e ral re ­ s p e c ts w ith th is ritu a l a s d e s c rib e d in BraYa xv, a c h a p te r d e v o te d to th e subject. T h is rite m a rk s th e c u lm in a tio n o f h is p r o p itia tio n o f th e h e a rt-m a n tra o f M a h a k a la .136 O n th e f o u r te e n th n ig h t o f th e w a n in g m o o n , th e k in g , d u ly i n i t i a t e d / 37 jo in s th re e o th e r d isc ip le s in ta k in g u p p o s itio n s a s g u a r d ia n s o f th e q u a r te rs in a n a s h - d ra w n m a n d a la in a d e s e rte d te m p le n e a r th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d .138 In th e c e n te r sits B h aira v a c a ry a , u p o n a c o rp se. H e p e rfo rm s fire sacrifice (homa) w ith b la c k se sa m e se e d s u s in g a fire lit i n th e v e ry m o u th o f th e body. A s h e p e r fo rm s homa, in c a n tin g m a n tra s , s p irits a tte m p t to d is r u p t h im , u n til fin a lly a p o w e rfu l ndga e m e rg e s fro m a fissu re in th e e a rth n e a r th e m a n d a la . A n g e re d a t n o t b e in g m a d e bali o fferin g s, th e ndga a ttac k s, b u t su ffe rs d e fe a t a t th e h a n d s o f th e k in g , w h o n o n e th e le s s s p a re s th e s n a k e lo r d 's life o n s p o ttin g h is s a c re d th re a d . A t th is p o in t th e ritu a l c o m e s to fru itio n : w o n o v e r b y th e p io u s k in g , L ak sm I h e rs e lf m a n ife sts in h is e n c h a n te d s w o rd , attahasa. 134 Besides presiding over a temple of Candika, note that he is described as pattikalikhitadurgastotrena ("one w ho by w hom a eulogy-hym n of Durga has been copied onto a small cloth"), and jar am gatendpi daksindpathadhirdjyavaraprarthamkaddrthitadurgena ("despite having grown old, he afflicts Durga with prayers for the boon of overlordship of the Deccan"). 135 Bhairavacarya states, in Sanderson's translation, "I have com pleted the preliminary service {purvaseva) of the great Mantra called the Heart of Mahakala by muttering it ten m illion times in a great cremation ground w hile wearing a garland of black flowers, a black robe and black unguent, w ith all the adornments prescribed in the Kalpa" (bhagavato maha.kdlahrdayandm.no mahamantrasya krsnasragambardnulepenakalpena kalpakathitena mahasmasane japakotya krtapurvasevo'smi). "History through Textual Criticism," 13 (n. 11). 136 tasya [mahakalahrdayanamno mahamantrasya] vetalasadhanavasana siddhih. 137 It is possible that the king takes samayadtksa, the initiation of the samayin or "pledge holder," by which he becomes a Saiva neophyte. This is suggested by Bana's terminology, in w hich niyamavan ("possessing/observing the rules") might be synonym ous w ith samayin: athdtikrantesv ahahsu prdptdyam ca tasyam eva krsnacaturdasydm saivena vidhina diksitah ksitipo niyamavan abhut ("Then, w hen the days had past and that very [designated] fourteenth of the dark fortnight arrived, the King, initiated by Saiva procedure, became niyamavan"). 138 mahdsma§dnasamTpabhdji sunydyatane.

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G ra n te d b o o n s, h e re q u e s ts o n ly siddhi fo r h is g u ru , B h a ira v a c a ry a , w h o th e re u p o n jo in s th e ra n k s o f th e vidyadharas— fly in g , se m i-d iv in e w iz a rd s . O f h e r o w n acco rd , th e g o d d e s s g ra n ts th a t P u s p a b h u ti s h a ll b e c o m e p r o g e n ito r o f a lin e o f g re a t k in g s. B a n a 's d e s c rip tio n o f vetalasadhana m a tc h e s in b asic d e ta ils w ith th e m o re e la b ­ o ra te a c c o u n t o f BraYa xv .139 In th e BraYa's d e s c rip tio n , th e ritu a l ta k e s p la c e in a c re m a tio n g r o u n d o n th e fo u r te e n th o r te n th n ig h t of th e w a n in g m o o n , w ith th e a id of a s sis ta n ts. T h e b a sic se q u e n c e o f a c tio n is id en tical: th e sadhaka, se a te d o n th e c h e st o f th e ritu a lly p r e p a r e d c o rp se , p e r fo rm s th e fire sacrifice in its m o u th , d u r in g th e c o u rs e o f w h ic h v a rio u s o b s tru c tin g fo rces (vighnas) a n d s p irits a p p e a r to d is tra c t o r frig h te n h im . A m o n g th e e ig h t siddhis p ro m is e d is " th e s ta te o f b e in g a vidyadhara” ('vidyadharapada), B h a ira v a c a ry a 's a im in u n d e r ta k in g th e ritu a l.140 In b o th d e s c rip ­ tio n s, th e su cc e ssfu l ritu a l e n d s w ith th e sadhaka fly in g o ff in to th e sky.141 B o th th e KadambarT a n d Harsacarita m a k e re fe re n c e to ta n tric m a n u s c rip ts a n d S aiva texts. B h a ira v a c a ry a 's lip s d ro o p slightly, a s th o u g h la d e n w ith th e w e ig h t of th e e n tire S aiva c a n o n " o n th e tip o f h is to n g u e ." 142 F o r h is p a r t, th e KadambarT' s D ra v id ia n ascetic p o sse s se s a co llec tio n o f m a n u s c r ip ts th a t in c lu d e a stotra o f D u rg a c o p ie d o n to a c lo th (pattika) / 43 a n d p a lm -le a f m a n u s c r ip ts w ith re d -la c le tte rin g c o n ­ 139 This chapter contains, to the best of my knowledge, the most detailed account of such a practice in tantric literature. Its description of vetalasadhana begins with verse 13. 140 See BraYa xv.13-14, quoted above. Those seeking only "petty" (ksudra) or "middling" (madhyama) siddhis discontinue the ritual w hen the sought attainments are achieved. 141 In the BraYa, one attains a magical sword and becomes "lord of emperors," w ith mastery over a crore of aerial vehicles. BraYa xv.63cd-64: yavad dhaste bhavet tasya tavat khadgam mahaprabham \ tatas tam grhya mantrajno utpate gaganangane || 63 || uttisthati vimanastho vimanaih parivaritah \ tatraruhya mahadhTra§ cakravarttTsvaro bhavet \ kotya caiva vimananam adhipatyam avapnuyat j| 64 || 63b tavat ] cm.; tavad B y u 63d gagana0 ] cm.; gagana0 B y “ 64a uttisthati ] corn; uttistati By“ vimanastho ] em.; vimanastham By“ 64b parivartitah ] em.; parivaritam BYa 64d "Isvaro ] corr.; °isvaro BYQ64e vimananam ] corn; vimananamm

By

11

"At that time, there w ould appear in his hand a sword of great brilliance. Then, grasping this, the knower of mantras w ould fly up into the vault of the sky. H e rises up in an aerial vehicle, surroimded by aerial vehicles. Mounting that, he, very w ise, he w ould become the lord of emperors, and w ould obtain mastery over aerial vehicles, by the crore." 142jihvagrasthitasarvasaivasamhitatibhareneva manakpralambitaustham. 143 A s mentioned previously, he is described as pattikalikhitadurgastotrena, "One w ho by w hom a stotra

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78 ta in in g " b o g u s s p e lls a n d m a n tr a s ." 144 A te x t h e p o s se s se s is m o re o v e r id e n tifie d b y n a m e : M ahakalamata, th e " D o c trin e o f M a h a k a la /' c o p ie d a c c o rd in g to th e in s tru c ­ tio n s o f a n e ld e rly P a s u p a ta ascetic (mahapdsupata).145 S im ilarly, B h a ira v a c a ry a is s a id to h a v e p e r fo rm e d purvaseva (" p re lim in a ry se rv ic e ") o f " th e g re a t h e a rt-m a n tra o f M a h a k a la " a c c o rd in g to th e in s tru c tio n s la id d o w n in its kalpa.

It is p o s sib le

th a t th e Mahakalamata m e n tio n e d in th e KadambarT is th e s a m e kalpa o f M a h a k a la fo llo w e d b y B h aira v a c a ry a , a kalpa b e in g " th e m a n u s c r ip t o f a te x t s e ttin g o u t th e p ro c e d u r e fo r th e p r o p itia tio n o f a M a n tra ." 146 S a n d e rs o n re m a rk s th a t " n e ith e r th e [mahakalahrdaya] m a n tra n o r its kalpa c a n b e id e n tifie d n o w b u t th e d e ta ils o f th e p r o ­ c e d u re g iv e n b y B ana ta lly clo sely w ith w h a t is la id d o w n in T antric S aiva s o u rc e s ." 147 P ro v id in g p a ra lle ls, S a n d e rs o n also p o in ts o u t th a t c h a p te r fifty -fo u r o f th e BraYd is a kalpa o f M a h a k a la .14® It s h o u ld b e m e n tio n e d , fu rth e rm o re , th a t o n e o f th is c h a p te r 's title s is in fa ct Mahakalamata, a lth o u g h th is is n o t n e c e ss a rily th e s a m e M ahakalamata B an a a p p e a rs to h av e k n o w n o f.149 B ana a sso c ia te s w h a t w e m ig h t c o n s id e r ta n tric ritu a l p r o p e r w ith a v a rie ty o f o th e r ex o tic iz e d p ra ctices. T h is n e x u s is p a rtic u la rly a p p a r e n t in d e s c rip tio n s o f th e rite s a n d p e n a n c e s u n d e r ta k e n b y th o s e s e e k in g to a v e rt th e d e a th o f p rin c e H a rs a 's of Durga has been copied onto a small cloth." 144 dhumaraktalaktakaksaratalapatrakuhakatantramantrapustikasamgrahina ("One having a collection of small manuscripts of bogus (kuhaka) spells (tantra) and mantras on palm leaves w ith letters in smokey red lac"). It might be possible that kuhaka is here a norm rather than adjective, in the sense of "quack"— the source of the manuscripts of tantras and mantras. The term occurs in a different sense in Netratantra 18.89b, where Ksemaraja glosses it as yantrakrtyadi, "rites involving yantras, etc." However, in the Svacchandoddyota, he instead glosses, ku h a ka m vismapakam mitahrdayapratyayakarmdrajalaprayam (“kuhaka means som ething astonishing which causes faith in those of limited awareness—virtually m ag­ ical trickery"). 145 jTrnamahapasupatopadesalikhitamahakalamatena, "One by w hom the Mahakalamata had been copied, as instructed by an old Mahapasupata." 146 TantrikabhidhanakoSa, vol. 11, 78, citing Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 13. 147 "History through Textual Criticism," 13. 148 Ibid. Following the colophon, Sanderson refers to this as chapter 52. 149 Although the colophon of BraYa l i v provides as the chapter title mudraptthadhikara ("the Seat of Mudras chapter"), verse n c d gives its title as Mahakalamata (mahakalamatam hy etad yat surailh] paripujitam). Kalpas outlining the propitiation of a specific mantra-deity probably circulated in m ultiple versions. Nothing in this chapter specifically matches Bana's description of the purvaseva of Mahakala, although vetalasadhana is mentioned in 194c as one of the applications of the mandala of Mahakala and the Mothers. As I discuss in chapter 4, som e of the kalpa texts included as chapters of the BraYa, such as the Mahakalamata, bear tenuous relationships to the text as a w hole and could conceivably have been independent in origin.

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a ilin g sire, a n d , in th e KadambarT, in th e p ra c tic e s Q u e e n V ilasav a ti o f U jjayinI e n g a g e d in h o p in g to co n ceiv e a so n . In th e fo rm e r case, fo r in s ta n c e , th e k in g 's re la tiv e s fa st in d e fin ite ly w h ile la y in g in th e p re s e n c e o f th e d e ity A h i r b u d h a n / 50 n o b le m e n p r o ­ p itia te th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s b y b u r n in g th e m se lv e s w ith la m p s ,151 a " D ra v id ia n " p r e p a re s to o ffer h is h e a d to th e g o d A m a r d a k a ,152 a n a tiv e o f A n d h r a p ra y s to th e g o d d e s s C a n d ik a k e e p in g h is " ra m p a rt-lik e a r m s " (bahuvapra) u p l i f t e d / 53 se rv a n ts p ro p itia te M a h a k a la b y b u r n in g in c e n se re s in u p o n th e ir h e a d s / 54 in tim a te s o f th e k in g o ffer slices o f th e ir o w n fle sh in fire s a c rific e /55 a n d p rin c e s o p e n ly p e r fo rm " b a rte r in h u m a n fle s h ." 156 W h ile m a n tra -p ra c tic e a n d o th e r d istin c tiv e c h a ra c te ris ­ tics o f ta n tric ritu a l d o n o t fig u re in th is a c c o u n t, B ana a sso c ia te s b o th T a n tra a n d th e s e a u s te ritie s w ith th e s a m e d e itie s— M a h a k a la , C a n d ik a , a n d th e M o th e r g o d ­ d e sse s. In a d d itio n , h e lin k s b o th w ith S o u th In d ia n s a n d trib a l p e o p l e s / 57 F o r h e r p a r t, Q u e e n V ilasav ati o f th e KadambarT e n g a g e s in a w id e ra n g e o f o rth o d o x a n d 150 The royal skandhavara, "military camp"— the capital, according to E.B. Cowell and F.W. Thomas (p. 135)—is thus described: kvacit pratiMyitasnigdhabdndhavdradhyamandhirbudhnam ("in which, in one place, Ahirbudhan is being worshipped by close relatives [undertaking the vow of indefinite] laying before the deity"). Ahirbudhan or Ahirbudhnya, a minor and archaic Vedic divinity, is listed in Mahabharata 1.60.2-3 am ong the eleven rudms w ho are "mind-born sons" (mdnasdh putrah) of Siva (sthanu). 151 kva cid dlpikadahyamdnakulaputrakaprasadyamdnamatrmandalam ("[where,] in one place, the group of Mothers is being appeased by sons of good families being burnt by lamps"). 152 kva cin mundopahdrdharanodyatadravidaprarthyamanamardakam. Lorenzen, following the translation of Cowell and Thomas, interprets this line as referring to "a Dravidian ready to solicit the Vampire [Vetala] with the offering of a skull." Kapalikas and Kdldmukhas, 17. In all likelihood, this is however a reference to a dravida preparing to offer a head to the deity Amardaka—perhaps his own, as would fit the context of extreme self-mortification. Saiva sources speak of Amardaka or Amardakabhairava as a deity, but m ention also a class of spirits called amardakas. For example, BraYd Lxn.19 lists amardakas alongside the semi-divine siddhas, gandharvas, vetdlas, and kinkaras, w hile BraYd l x x v i i is a to/pa-manual of Mahamardakabhairava (cf. BraYd Lxxn.2cd: mahdmardakadevasya kalpam vaksydmi tattvatah—"I shall now teach the kalpa of lord Mahamardaka, as it truly is"). Amardaka is, furthermore, one of eight Bhairavas mentioned in Svacchandatantra 2. 153 kva cid dndhroddhriyamdnabahuvapropayacyamanacandikam ("where in one place Candika is being worshipped by a man of Andhra holding up his rampart-like arms"). 154 anyatra sirovidhrtavilTyamanagugguluvikalanavasevakdnunTyamanamahdkdlam ("where elsewhere M ah ak ala is b e in g p r o p itia te d b y y o u n g a tten d a n ts d e fo r m e d b y th e m e ltin g in c e n se r esin h e ld o n the

head"). 155 aparatra nisitasastrmikrttdtmamdmsahomaprasaktdptavargam ("where elsewhere intimates [of the king] are engaged in offering homa of their ow n flesh cut off by sharp knives"). 156 aparatra prakdsanarapatikumdrakakriyamdnamahdmdmsavikrayaprakramam ("where elsewhere the pro­ cess of bartering human flesh is being performed by the king's princes, openly"). On mahdmamsavikraya, see the subsequent discussion of the Malatmddhava. 157 On the connection with tribals, note for instance the KadambarT's mention of Sahara wom en ap­ plying tilaka of red powder (sindura) to the image of Candl (p. 225, lines ines 21-22). The introduction draws similar connections between Sahara tribesmen and the fierce goddess.

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u n o rth o d o x p ra c tic e s in h e r q u e s t to co n ceiv e a ch ild . T h e se in c lu d e n u m e ro u s a u s ­ te ritie s a n d w o rs h ip o f C a n d ik a a n d th e M o th e rs, a m o n g o th e r d eities. S o m e o f h e r p ra c tic e s in v o lv e m a n d a la a n d m a n tr a .15® In B a n a 's w o rk s w e th u s fin d a b u n d a n t e v id e n c e fo r c h a ra c te ristic ritu a l sy ste m s o f th e bhairavatantras. A b se n t, ho w ev er, is re fe re n c e to th e s a c re d fig u re o f th e y o ­ g in i o r yogesvan. A n a sso c ia tio n b e tw e e n ta n tric ritu a l a n d g o d d e s s e s is n o n e th e le s s e v id e n t: th e D ra v id ia n ascetic o f th e KadambarT, fo r in sta n c e , officiates a s p rie s t o f a C a n d ik a te m p le , a n d h is e n g a g e m e n t in ta n tric p ra c tic e s a p p e a rs lin k e d to d e v o ­ tio n to th e G o d d e ss. T h is m ig h t s u g g e s t ta n tric S a iv ism as k n o w n to B ana w a s in a s ta g e w h e re ritu a l fo rm s c h a ra c te ristic o f th e bhairavatantras a n d a ta n tric c u lt of C a n d ik a h a d d e v e lo p e d , b u t in w h ic h fo c u s u p o n th e y o g in i w a s n o t y e t c e n tra l o r w e ll-k n o w n . In p e r io d lite ra tu re , e sp e c ia lly B a n a 's CandTsataka a n d th e DevTmahatmya o f th e M arkandeyapurana, th e te rrib le w a rrio r g o d d e s s C a n d l o r C a n d ik a b e c o m e s o n e o f th e p rin c ip le c ip h e rs fo r e m e rg e n t c o n c e p tio n s o f a s in g u la r M a h a d e v I, w h o s e id e n tity s u b s u m e s th e m y ria d m a n ife sta tio n s o f fe m in in e d iv in ity . A lth o u g h th u s lin k e d to all g o d d e s s e s, C a n d l m ig h t in th is p e r io d h a v e b e e n id e n tifie d in p a r tic u la r w ith C a m u ­ n d a , le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs , o n e in d ic a tio n b e in g th e s y n o n y m ity o f th e se n a m e s in th e BraYd.159 T h e Harsacarita lin k s C a n d ik a to th e g o d M a h a k a la a s c o n s o r t/ 60 fo r m in g a d iv in e c o u p le w h o s e c u lt is n o t h o w e v e r w e ll-re p re s e n te d in s u rv iv in g ta n tric lite ra tu re . O n e d e ta ile d a n d e a rly tre a tm e n t o f th e ta n tric c u lt o f Mahakala 158 The description begins, yad yac ca kimcit kutas cic chusrava garbhatrsnayd tat tat sarvam cakdra ("And she did eveything she heard from anywhere out of her yearning for [conceiving] a fetus"). N ote for instance that she "engaged in lustration and auspicious rites in the crossroads on m any fourteenth nights [of the lunar fortnight], standing in the m iddle of a mandala drawn by the great king [i.e. her husband], through w hich the deities of the directions were gratified by gifts of various food of­ ferings" (mahanarendralikhitamandalamadhyavartint mvidhabalidanananditadigdevatdni bahulapaksacaturdasfnisasu catuspathe snapanamangaldni bheje). It is also said that she "bore bamboo mantra-caskets contain­ ing birch-bark written on with yellow pigment," and that she "fastened [on herself] strands of herbs having protective cords" (gorocandlikhitabhurjapatragarbhan mantrakarandakan uvdha | raksdpratisaropetany osadhisutrani babandha). 159 In the BraYd, the seventh Mother is variously called Candika, Carcika, and Camunda. On this matter, see m y annotation on BraYd 11.16. 160 Candika is described as mahdkdldbhisdrikdvesavibhramam bibhratTm, "exhibiting coquettry w ith the guise of a women on a night rendevous w ith Mahakala."

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8i

is BraYa

l iv

,

th e M ahakalamata. T h is d e sc rib e s w o rs h ip o f th e d e ity in a m a n d a la

o f th e e ig h t M o th e rs , a c o n fig u ra tio n u n u s u a l in th e BraYa a n d p ro b a b ly archaic. In a d d itio n , tw o la te six th -c e n tu ry s h rin e s o f E llo ra d e p ic t a sk e le ta l d iv in e c o u p le in th e c o m p a n y o f th e S ev en M o th e rs, a c o u p le w h o h a v e b e e n , w ith a d e g re e o f p la u sib ility , id e n tifie d a s M a h a k a la a n d K ali.161 T h e s e v e n th -c e n tu ry ta n tric c u lts o f M a h a k a la a n d C a n d l m ig h t th e re fo re h a v e e m p h a s iz e d M o th e r g o d d e ss e s; b u t B an a d o e s n o t in tim a te th is a sso c ia tio n , n o r d o e s h e m a k e cle a r re fe re n c e to a ta n tric c u lt o f M o th e rs. T h e se g o d d e s s e s a re n o n e th e le s s m e n tio n e d : B h a ira v a c a ry a , fo r in sta n c e , is s a id to d w e ll n e a r a d e s e rte d te m p le o f th e M o th e rs, th e q u e e n V ilasav ati v isits M o th e r sh rin e s, a n d re fe re n c e is m a d e to fo re st te m p le s o f C a m u n d a .162 T aken a s a w h o le , B a n a 's w o rk s a tte s t th e ex isten c e o f c h a ra c te ristic ritu a ls a n d d e itie s o f th e bhairavatantras, a s w e ll a s th e e m e rg e n c e o f g o d d e s s -c e n te re d ta n tric p ra c tic e . It is n o te w o rth y th a t B ana a sso c ia te s tantrikas w ith th e D eccan a n d S o u th In d ia . W h ile I a m h e s ita n t to p la c e excessive v a lu e u p o n th is re g io n a l a sso c ia tio n , it a t le a s t s u g g e s ts T an tric S a iv ism w a s a sso c ia te d w ith a re a s a n d p e o p le s m a rg in a l to th e N o rth -c e n tra l h e a rtla n d o f B ra h m a n ic a l c u ltu re , th e " M id d le C o u n try " (madhyadesa). It is n o t clea r w h e th e r ta n tric c u lts o f th e M o th e rs w e re y e t w id e s p r e a d , n o r w h e th e r th e y o g in i h a d e m e rg e d a s a s a c re d fig u re . H e n ce, w h ile B a n a 's e a rly s e v e n th -c e n tu ry re fe re n c e s to T a n tra a re b y n o m e a n s in c o m p a tib le w ith th e S aiva y o g in i cu lt, th e y c o u ld in s te a d im p ly a p h a s e o f S a iv ism th a t p re d a te s its d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e re m ig h t, in a d d itio n , b e h isto ric a l sig n ifican c e to th e d iv e rg e n t c h a ra c te riz a tio n s o f B a n a 's tw o tantrikas: w h ile B h a ira v a c a ry a is p re s e n te d as a re s p e c te d a n d p o w e rfu l fig u re , th e D ra v id ia n ascetic is d e s c rib e d a s a n exotic, m o ra lly a m b iv a le n t, a n d r a th e r in e p t sorceror. It is tem p tin g to read into this d istin ction an em ergen t d iv id e b etw een a 161 See the discussion in the previous section. 162 In Harsacarita in, w hen the king asks the whereabouts of Bhairavacarya, he is told, asya jtrnamatrgrhasyottarena bilvavatikam adhydste ("he sits in a grove of bilva trees to the north of a decrepit Mother-goddess temple"). Chapter seven makes reference to forested areas having tem ples of Camun­ da erected in dense groves (gahanatarusandanirmitacdmundamandapair vanapradesaih). Cf. Yokochi, "Rise of the Warrior Goddess," 108 (n. 81). In the Kadambari, Queen Vilasavati "went to temples of the Moth­ ers in the vicinity, where faith is displayed [or perhaps, 'where portents/signs are shown']" (darsitapratyaydni samnidhdnamatrbhavanani jagama).

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w e ll-e sta b lish e d ta n tric S aiva c u lt o f B h airav a, o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d n ew er, m a rg in a l, a n d m o re eso te ric g o d d e s s cu lts. It is w ith in th e la tte r th a t th e ro o ts o f th e Y ogini c u lt w o u ld lie.

T H E GAUDAVAHO O F VAKPATI

In th e Gaildavaho, a P ra k rit p o e tic w o rk c o m p o s e d b y V a k p a tira ja , a c o n te m p o ra ry o f B ana, th e re o c c u rs a re fe re n c e to " K a u la w o m e n " (kaulanano) in a h y m n to th e g o d d e s s V in d h y a v a sin i, "S h e W h o D w e lls in th e V in d h y a M o u n ta in s ." T ravellin g th r o u g h th e V in d h y a ra n g e of c e n tra l In d ia , th e k in g Y a so v a rm an a p p ro a c h e s a ju n ­ g le cave te m p le a n d o ffers eu lo g y , m a k in g v iv id a llu s io n to th e s a n g u in a r y c u lt o f th e p re s id in g G o d d e ss. T h e h y m n lin k s h e r id e n tity w ith th a t o f th e s in g u la r "W ar­ rio r G o d d e ss " w h o is a t o n ce D u rg a , K ali, C a n d ik a , a n d so fo rth , a s w ell a s th e p ac ific P a rv a tl— p r im a r y lo c u s o f c o n c e p tio n s o f th e o n e M a h a d e v l.163 A s d o e s B ana, V a k p a ti a sso c ia te s w o rs h ip of th e fierce g o d d e s s w ith ex o tic, m a c a b re p ra c tic e s a n d p e o p le s m a rg in a l to th e c iv iliz e d " M id d le C o u n try " (madhyadeSa)— in th is case fo restd w e llin g sabara trib a ls .164 S ignificantly, th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e G o d d e s s 's c u lt s u g g e s ts a ta n tric , kapalika ritu a l d im e n s io n , a n d m a k e s re fe re n c e to a h u m a n sacrifice v ie w e d e a g e rly b y th ro n g s o f fe m a le p ra c titio n e rs , d e s c rib e d a s "kaula w o m e n ." 165 T h is se e m s to b e th e e a rlie st u s e o f th e w o rd kaula in lite ra r y w o rk s to d e sc rib e a S aiv a sect o r its m e m b e rs; th e re fe re n c e is, fu rth e rm o re , s o m e w h a t s u rp ris in g g iv e n t h a t th e te rm is n o t e m p lo y e d in th is se n se in V id y a p lth a te x ts s u c h as th e BraYd a n d Siddhayogesvanm ata— th e e a rlie s t S aiva lite ra tu re c o n n e c te d w ith y o g in ls .166 "K aula" 163 Gaildavaho, verses 285-338. Cf. Bana's Candlsataka, where the conflation of the Warrior Goddess w ith Parvatl is prominent. For a discussion focused on the iconic dim ension of the Goddess's descrip­ tion in Gaildavaho, see Yokochi, 146—51. 164 Cf. Bana's KadambarT, p. 65, in the description of the general of the Sabaras. Quoted by Yokochi, ibid., 148. 165 The kapalika ritual context is suggested by reference to the temple environs as a cremation ground (masana), at which "heroes" (vlra) sell human flesh, in verse 327. This is briefly discussed by Yokochi, ibid., 147. On the reference to Kaula women, see Sanderson, "History through Textual Criticism," 11 (n. 9). He translates the relevant passage as follows: "The Kaula w om en seem to form a shrine in the air as they clamber over each other in their eagerness to watch a victim of human sacrifice being carved up" (visasijjantamahapasudamsamsambhamaparoprpararudha \ gayane cciya gamdhaudim kunamti kaulanano). 166 On this distinction of "Kaula" and "Vidyapltha," see chapter 3.

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83 c o u ld in th is case h av e th e se n se of " [w o m en ] o f /b e lo n g in g to th e M o th e r-g o d d e s s c la n s," re fe rrin g to fe m a le ta n tric in itia te s, b u t n o t n e c e s sa rily im p ly in g th e ritu a l s y s te m s k n o w n fro m e x ta n t K a u la sc rip tu re s . N o n e th e le ss , th e c o n te x t o f c o rp o ra te w o rs h ip b y w o m e n b e lo n g in g to cla n s o f th e M o th e rs d o e s s u g g e s t th e ex isten c e of a Y ogini c u lt c o n n e c te d w ith th e fierce G o d d e ss. T h is m ig h t, conceivably, b e a n h isto ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t re la te d to id e n tific a tio n of th e W a rrio r G o d d e ss w ith C a m u ­ n d a , " le a d e r o f th e M o th e rs ," w ith w h o m Skandapurana 171 c o n n e c ts th e c u lt o f yoginls. T h o u g h v a g u e , th e Gaildavaho's re fe re n c e to fe m a le p ra c titio n e rs th u s p ro v id e s a v a lu a b le a d d itio n to th e e v id e n c e fro m B ana, w h o in o th e r re s p e c ts p ro v id e s m o re d e ta ile d a c c o u n ts o f T an tric S aivism .

T H E D A SA K U M A R A C A R IT A O F D A N D IN

A n a r ra tiv e p ro b a b ly o f th e la te se v e n th o r e a rly e ig h th c e n tu r y /67 D a n d in 's Dasa­ kumaracarita h a s a n e p is o d e o f p a s s in g sig n ifican c e to th e y o g in i cu lt. A y o u n g ro g u e , K a la h a k a n ta k a , p lo ts to e n tra p th e b e a u tifu l, fa ith fu l w ife of a m e rc h a n t b y h a v in g h e r a c c u se d o f w itc h c ra ft. H e claim s b e fo re th e m e rc h a n ts ' g u ild to h av e se e n h e r a t n ig h t in th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d d ra g g in g a c o rp s e fro m a fu n e ra l p y re ; u p o n s e e in g h is c o n triv e d e v id e n c e fo r th is, th e to w n s p e o p le b eliev e h e r to b e a sakini—a d re a d fu l fe m a le b e in g d e s c rib e d in S aiva ty p o lo g ie s o f y o g in ls. A b a n d o n e d b y h e r h u s b a n d , s h e falls in to th e h a n d s o f th e ro g u e .168 D e sp ite th e iro n ic a n d u n d o u b te d ly false e ty m o lo g ic a l c o n n e c tio n to saka ("leafy g re e n s" ), it re q u ire s little im a g in a tio n to g u e s s w h a t b u s in e s s th e d e c id e d ly n o n ­ v e g e ta ria n sakini m ig h t h a v e w ith a h a lf-ro a s te d h u m a n c o rp se . K se m a ra ja q u o te s th e fo llo w in g d e fin itio n fro m th e Tantrasadbhava: A fe m a le w h o , fo r th e p u r p o s e o f s h a p e s h iftin g , e v e r d r in k s th e flu id s of l67Dandin has been linked w ith the Pallava court of the late seventh and early eighth centuries; Walter Smith provides a brief bibliography on this matter in "The Visnu Image in the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram," Artibus Asiae 56 (1996): 22. Isabelle Onians suggests the period of 690-725 for Dandin, placing Dasakumaracarita within the earlier part. Onians, trans., introduction to What Ten Young M en Did, 25. 168 Dasakumaracita, chapter 11. I have consulted the text and translation given in Onians, ibid., 440-49.

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liv in g b e in g s, a fte r d ra w in g th e m clo se b y artifice, a n d w h o a fte r o b ta in ­ in g [th a t flu id ] slay s th e c re a tu re s — s h e s h o u ld b e k n o w n a s a sakini, ev er d e lig h tin g in d r e a d fu l p la c e s .169 T h e Dasakumaracarita's re fe re n c e is th e e a rlie s t I a m a w a re o f to th e sakini in n o n ta n tric lite ra tu re , o c c u rin g in th e c o n te x t o f a n e p is o d e s im ila r in n a tu r e to a c c o u n ts of sakim s a n d dakim s in th e m u c h la te r Kathasaritsagara.

Yet h e re th e d e s c rip tio n

so lack s in d e ta il a n d c o n te x t a s to b e u n c le a r w h e th e r it re flects in flu e n c e fro m a ta n tric c u lt o f y o g in ls; b e lie f in " w itc h e s " a n d fe m a le c re m a tio n -g ro u n d sp irits a re u n d o u b te d ly o ld e r p h e n o m e n a . H ow ev er, th e p e r io d a n d te rm in o lo g y in q u e s tio n s u g g e s t th e p o s sib ility th a t th is sakini ta le is d ire c tly in s p ire d b y ta n tric ty p o lo g ie s of fe m a le sp irits a n d c o n te m p o ra ry p e rc e p tio n s o f c re m a tio n -g ro u n d ritu a l.

T H E M A L A T lM A D H A V A OF BH A VABHUTI

S u b s ta n tia l e v id e n c e fo r th e S aiva M a n tra m a rg a , a n d m o re p a r tic u la rly th e Y ogini c u lt o f th e bhairavatantras, e m e rg e s in B h a v a b h u ti's M alatim adhava, a n e a rly e ig h th c e n tu r y p lay .170 W h ile n o t re fe rrin g to specific t e x t s / 71 it p o rtra y s ritu a l p ra c tic e s w h ic h re fle c t th e cu ltic m ilie u o f th e V id y a p lth a bhairavatantras. T h is d r a m a rev o lv es a r o u n d th e clev er e ffo rts o f a B u d d h is t n u n , K a m a n d a k I, to b rin g a b o u t th e m a rria g e o f M a d h a v a a n d M alatl, d e s p ite th e la tte r h a v in g b e e n p r o m is e d to a fa v o rite o f th e k in g . E v en ts ta k e a d ra m a tic tu r n w h e n M a la tl is a b d u c te d in th e n ig h t b y a fierce S aiva sadhaka n a m e d A g h o ra g h a n ta , a n d h is fe m a le a tte n d a n t, a y o g in i n a m e d K a p a la k u n d a la , w h o a re in te n t o n o ffe rin g h e r in sacrifice to th e g o d d e s s C a m u n 169 Netroddyota, quoted in the commentary on Netratantra 2.71: chalenakrsya pibati ksudra pranipayah sada \ rupaparivartanartham labdhva patayati pasun \ sakini sa tu vijneya raudrasthanarata sada \ With minor variants and corruptions, this corresponds to i6.i63cd -64 in Dyczkowski's draft edition of the Tantrasadbhava. 170 On the dates of Bhavabhuti, see V.V. Mirashi, Bhavabhuti, 1-11. 171 Siva is, however, described as nigamanidhi, the "repository of scripture." Act 9, verse 4. It seems probable that nigama refers to the Saiva Agamas/Tantras, for no other large body of scripture assigns its origin to him.

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85 d a . 172

T h is t u r n o f e v e n ts fo rm s th e su b je c t o f th e MalatTmadhava's fifth act, set in th e e n v iro n s of a la rg e c re m a tio n g r o u n d (smaSanavata) in th e city, n e a r to w h ic h s ta n d s a te m p le o f K a ra la , a lo cal C a m u n d a . D istre ss e d a t th e p r o s p e c t o f M a la tl's im m in e n t m a rria g e , M a d h a v a see s n o re c o u rs e b u t to a d o p t th e d e s p e ra te m e a s u r e o f " se llin g h u m a n fle sh " (mahamdmsasya vikrayah) a t n ig h t to th e s p irits o f th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d , in r e tu r n fo r h is c h e ris h e d b o o n .173 A s w o rd in th e r ig h t h a n d a n d h u n k o f fle sh in th e left, M a d h a v a sets o u t fo r th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d . S im u lta n e o u sly , A g h o ra g h a n ­ ta, a s k u ll-b e a rin g sadhaka fro m th e s a c re d m o u n ta in S rlp a rv a ta w h o d w e lls n o w in a n e a rb y f o r e s t / 74 also avails h im s e lf o f th e fo u r te e n th n ig h t o f th e w a n in g m o o n to fu lfill h is p le d g e to sacrifice a "jew el o f a w o m a n " to th e g o d d e s s / 75 W h ile h e p ro c e e d s to a b d u c t th e sle e p in g M a latl, th e y o g in i K a p a la k u n d a la flies off to th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d to g a th e r th e re ite m s n e e d e d fo r th e ritu a l.

M a la tl is th e n le d

b e fo re th e g o d d e s s a d o r n e d in th e r e d g a r m e n ts a n d g a r la n d s o f a sacrificial v ic­ tim , w h ile A g h o ra g h a n ta a n d K a p a la k u n d a la o ffer w o rs h ip . H e a rin g h is b e lo v e d 's p ite o u s a d ie u to th e w o rld , M a d h a v a ru s h e s to th e te m p le a n d slay s A g h o ra g h a n ta , re s c u in g M a la tl b u t in c u rr in g th e w r a th o f K a p a la k u n d a la . 172 David Lorenzen has discussed the MalatTmadhava w ith the aim of highlighting evidence for a "lost Saivite sect" called the kapalikas, of which he assumes Aghoraghanta to be a representative. The Kapalikas and Kdldmukhas. Two Lost Saivite Sects, 53-57. The limitation of this perspective is that the term kapalika, assuming a Saiva sect by this name in fact existed, can also be applied as a descriptive term to any and all carrying out mortuary observances—whether Atimarga Saivas, Tantric Saivas, or Buddhist tantrikas. Caution is called for in reading more than this into the term in any particular instance. Lorenzen, w hose work w as first published in 1972, was then unaware of the existence of a large body of tantric Saiva scripture attesting kapalika practices, although he addresses this in a cursory fashion in an appendix to the second edition. 173 In Act Four, Madhava says to himself, hanta sarvathd samsayitajanmasdphalyah samvrtto ’smi \ tat kim iddmm kartavyam \ na khalu mahdmdmsavikrayad anyam updyam pasydmi | ("Alas, m y life's fulfillment has become com pletely jeopardized. What should I hence do now? I see no recourse at all other them the sale of human flesh"). Prose preceding verse 8. Sanskrit text as printed in Francois Grimal, ed., Hariharaviracitd Mdlatmadhavatlka. 174 In Act One, Kamandaki's disciple Avalokita describes him thus: "a sadhaka named Aghoraghanta w ho has come from Srlparvata, w ho roams at night, dwelling in the forest not far away and bearing a skull" (.:.. sirlpawadado dadassa rattivihdrino nadidurarannavasino sahadssa mundadharino aghoraghantanamadheassa ...) . 175 Kapalakundala remarks to herself, kathitam ca me gurund 'vatse kapalakundale adya bhagavatyah karaldydh prdg upaydcitam strfratnam upahartavyam' ("And m y guru said to me, 'my dear Kapalakun­ dala, today the jewel of a woman previously promised to the goddess Karala is to be sacrificed' "). Act Five, prose following verse 4. Cf. verse 25.

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T h e v e n g a n c e o f th e y o g in i b e a rs fr u it w h e n sh e a b d u c ts M a latl, w h is k in g h e r off to th e s a c re d m o u n ta in S rlp a rv a ta to o ffer u p in sacrifice. In th is te rrib le d e e d s h e is fo ile d b y S a u d a m in I, K a m a n d a k i's first d isc ip le , w h o h a s h e rs e lf a tta in e d th e p o w e rs o f a y o g in i a n d u n d e r ta k e s th e S k u llb e a re r-o b se rv a n c e (kapalikavrata) o n S rlp a rv a ta .176 S a v in g th e day, S a u d a m in I th e n a p p lie s h e r p o w e r c a lle d aksepinl siddhi to s h u ttle th e h e ro in e a n d h e ro th ro u g h th e sk y b a c k in to th e p re s e n c e o f K a m a n d a k l. T h e g o o d y o g in i th e n flies off to re sc u e M a la ti's fa th e r fro m su ic id e , r e tu r n in g a g a in to m a g ic a lly re v iv e th e s w o o n in g m a id e n . M a d h a v a 's a p p e a ra n c e a n d a c tiv ity m a k e it clea r h e w a s c a rry in g o u t a ta n tric vrata o r " sp e c ia l o b se rv a n c e ." A lth o u g h I a m u n a b le to fin d a d e s c rip tio n in ta n tric S aiva so u rc e s c o r re s p o n d in g p re c is e ly to th e vrata M a d h a v a u n d e r ta k e s , a lm o s t a ll a s p e c ts h a v e p a ra lle ls. W h ile th e p ra c tic e o f o ffe rin g h u m a n fle sh in fire ritu a l (homa) is m o re c o m m o n , M a d h a v a 's fle sh -fo r-b o o n s b a r te r w ith c r e m a tio n -g ro u n d s p irits is a tte s te d in ta n tric so u rc es, a n d m e n tio n e d , fo r in sta n c e , b y B an a in th e Harsacarita.177 M alatTmadhava's tw e lfth -c e n tu ry c o m m e n ta to r H a rih a ra a ttrib u te s s u c h a p ra c tic e to th e a u th o rity o f th e SiddhayogesvarTmata, a n d q u o te s a p a s s a g e to th is effect w h ic h d o e s n o t o c c u r in th e te x t's s u rv iv in g s h o rt re c e n s io n .178 Svacchandatantra 4, m o re ­ over, in th e c o n te x t o f in itia to ry d re a m p ro g n o s tic a tio n , lis ts a m o n g a u s p ic io u s p o r ­ te n ts th e s ig h t o f h e ro e s , z o m b ie s, a n d siddhas tr a d in g h u m a n flesh in th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d .179 T h is c re m a tio n -g ro u n d p ra c tic e is a p p a re n tly m e n tio n e d in th e B u d d h is t 176 In Act One, Avalokita says to Kamandakl, "Your reverence, SaudaminI now carries out a kapalika observance on Srlparvata, having obtained wondrous powers of mantrasiddhi" (bhadvadi sa sodamint ahuna samasadidaaccariyamantasiddhippahava siripawade kavaliawadam dharedi). 177 A relevant passage is quoted above (n. 156). N ote also a reference in Harsacarita v i to the son of Prayota, described as mahamamsavikrayavadavatula, "mad w ith the doctrine of selling human flesh;" he loses his life to a vetala called Talajangha. '78 T he p a s sa g e attrib u ted to th e SiddhayogesvarTmata read s, virahastan m aham am sam g rh ltva viraya-

bhimatavaradanam ("Having accepted human flesh from the hand of a hero, there is the bestowing of the desired boon to the hero"). Comments ad prose preceding verse 8 (p. 154). While the first eight syllables could form an odd-numbered pada, the remainder is unmetrical. 179 In the Kashmiri recension of the Svacchandatantra, as reflected in the k s t s edition, dreaming of a cremation ground and dreaming of the sale of human flesh appear to be separate portents. However, in the Nepalese recension, as well as this passage as it was redacted into Tantrasadbhdva 9, the cremation ground forms the setting for this flesh trade. Comparing the k s t s edition (S t ksts), three m s s of Tantra­ sadbhdva 9 (as reported by Dyczkowski), and an early Nepalese Svacchandatantra codex (S t “’i,= n a k i 224/NGM PP reel B 2 8 /1 8 ), all of which have independent value for constituting the text, the following

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87

Subdhupariprccha as w e ll.180 A s fo r tim in g , th e fo u r te e n th n ig h t o f th e w a n in g lu n a r fo r tn ig h t (krsnapaksa) o n w h ic h b o th M a d h a v a a n d A g h o ra g h a n ta u n d e r ta k e th e ir ritu a ls is c u s to m a rily fa v o re d fo r c re m a tio n g ro u n d rite s, in c lu d in g th o s e in v o lv in g fle sh o ffe rin g s.181 M a d h a v a is d e sc rib e d as d a rk , h is b o d y n o n e th e le s s g rey .182 T h is c o u ld b e a re f­ ere n c e to th e o th e rw is e d a r k M a d h a v a b e in g p a le fro m lo v e-sick n e ss, w h ic h is in fa ct a llu d e d to e ls e w h e re in th e p lay .183 H o w ev er, th is m ig h t p o s sib ly re fe r to h is d a r k b o d y b e in g s m e a re d w ith a sh e s, fo r vratas d e s c rib e d in S aiva so u rc e s u s u a lly en jo in w e a rin g p a r tic u la r co lo rs, esp e c ia lly b la c k o r re d , o r else g o in g n a k e d , s m e a rin g th e b o d y w ith ash e s, etc. H e h a s b o u n d h is c u rly h a ir u p w a r d s in th e fa sh io n o f th e is p r o p o s e d a s th e o r ig in a l f o r m o f th e v e r s e i n q u e s ti o n

(Svacchandatantra

4 .i4 c d - i5 a b , in th e k s ts

e d itio n ):

jvalatpitrvane ramye vTravtresibhir vrte || 14 || vTravetalasiddhai§ ca mahdmamsasya vikrayam \ jv a la t 0 ] STOT1 , W S T KSTST skh; jv at° S t ^ ^ ; gTKSTs

jv a la n ° T sk-®

r a m y e ] STc“ iT sk'kh; ra m y a m St ksts; ( - - ?) Ts®

° v a n e ] S t ^ T s 15' ^ g;

“v a n a m

“v lre s ib h ir ] STKSTST sk-kh; “v lre sa b h ir

STctrf; (?) j sg

Vrte ] T sk,kh; v r ta m ST“ rfSTK5TS; (?) T sg

“s id d h a s T sk,kh

v ik ra y a m ] STc“ iSTKSTST sk; v ik ra m a m Ts®; (?) T s1*

“s id d h a is ] St ksts; “sid d h is S x ^ T s® ;

"And in a lovely, flaming cremation ground, surrounded by heroes and heroines, [one sees in dream] the trading of human flesh by heroes, zombies, and siddhas." Ksemaraja, however, understands °siddhais in the Kashmiri recension as an associative instrumental (viravetalasiddhais ceti sahdrthe trtvya). 180 Davidson, Indian Esoteric Buddhism, 203. 181 por exampie/ jn BraYa xv, the practice of vetalasadhana, a cremation-ground rite involving a corpse, is enjoined on the eighth or fourteenth night of the waning m oon (xv.15). SiddhayogesvarTmata 13 pro­ vides a further example of an heroic rite (sadhana, performed after completion of purvaseva) on the fourteenth dark lunar night. In this case, the hero fasts three nights and offers homa of human flesh before preceding on the fourteenth to the cremation ground, naked and alone. Standing erect, he recites the mantra until yoginls surround him, to w hom he offers blood from his left hand as the guest-offering (argha). Tantrasadbhdva 17 attests a rite in which one proceeds to the cremation ground on the krsnacaturdasT, bearing a human skull and reciting a mantra of Camunda. One offers there, in front of the cremation ground, animal flesh as bali. om camunde tiri tiri cchinda chinda vidhatre hiri hiri sphura sphura tistha tistha vividha vividha svaha i anena smasdnam gatva mdnusyakapalam dharayitva krsnacaturdasyam pasumamsena tasydgrato balim datva tavaj japed yavat sphutati | dkdsena gacchati yatra smasane tisthati tatra grham pasyati \ as reported by Dyczkowski; s / s silently regularized. The sequence of events envisioned in the last sentence is unclear ("he goes via the sky[;?] in the cremation ground where he stands[,?] there he sees a building"). 182 Act Five, verse 5a: [ya esah] kuvalayadalasyamo 'py ahgam dadhat paridhusaram. 183 In Act Three Kamandakl refers to Madhava having a body by nature dark like the priyahgu vine, now pale and emaciated through his love-sickness (priyahgusydmahgaprakrtir api capandumadhuram vapuh ksdmam ksamam vahati ramantyas ca bhavati, 9cd). mss

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m a tte d , u p w a rd -fa s te n e d lo ck s o f th e S aiva asc etic.1®4 In a d d itio n , h is b e a rin g o f a s w o rd h a s p a ra lle ls in c re m a tio n -g ro u n d o b se rv a n c e s. T h e Kulapancasika, fo r e x a m ­ p le , re fe rs to " g re a t h e ro e s " w h o , d e v o te d to w o rs h ip a n d m e d ita tio n , s w o rd s in h a n d a n d lu s tin g to d r in k h u m a n b lo o d , w a n d e r th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d s se e k in g e n c o u n ­ te rs (melaka) w ith y o g in ls.185 C o m p a re a lso th e m ahocchusmavrata o f BraYa xxi, f o u r th of five vratas c o r re s p o n d in g to th e F o u r D e v ls a n d B h airav a. In th is o b se rv a n c e , th e sadhaka w e a rs b la c k c lo th in g a n d g a rla n d s a n d a v a rie ty o f o rn a m e n ts , a p p lie s re d lac o n th e feet, a n d b e a rs a sk u ll, sk u ll-sta ff (khatvanga), a v a rie ty o f w e a p o n s , a n d a d a m a ru -d ru m , etc. M e d ita tin g a n d p ra c tic in g p e n a n c e in s o litu d e , h e w a n d e rs b y n ig h t th ro u g h p la c e s th a t in c lu d e th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d .186 In a d d itio n to th is p o rtra y a l o f a ra d ic a l vrata, B h a v a b h u ti's d r a m a a tte s ts te c h ­ n ic a l k n o w le d g e o f a n u m b e r o f o th e r a sp e c ts o f S aiva ritu a l. A g h o ra g h a n ta is d e ­ s c rib e d as a sadhaka, th e sp e c ia list e n g a g e d in so lita ry p ra c tic e s in p u r s u it of siddhi. H e h a d p ra c tic e d h is mantrasadhana in th is v e ry te m p le of K a ra la , n e a r th e c re m a ­ tio n g r o u n d ,1®7 a n d d w e lls in th e fo re s t nearby.

H is p ra c tic e s a re s a id to in v o lv e

ro a m in g b y n ig h t, th e sacrifice o f liv in g b e in g s, a n d c a rry in g o u t th e S k u llb e a re ro b se rv a n c e .1®8 H is close c o n n e c tio n to a fe m a le d is c ip le is a lso n o te w o rth y : h e r ro le 184 Act Five, prose preceding verse 5: tat ko 'yam atigambhuamadhurakrtir uttambhitakutilakuntalah krpanapanih smasanavatam avatarati (spoken by Kapalakundala). 185 Kulapancasika 3 ( f . 4 V ): pujadhyanarata ye tu narasrkpanalampatah | nityodyukta mahavirah khadgahastah pratisthitdh || smasananilaye deva ratrau niyatane rata \ katham nu labhate nityam yogmeldpakam ham || “la m p a ta h ] ms

em.; ° l a m p a t a m

ms

n u ] conj. (I s a a c s o n ); n a m s

n i t y o d y u k t a ] conj.; n i t y o d r a k to m s h a ra ]

em.; h a r a h

p ra tis th ita h ]

em.; p r a t i s t h i t a

ms

"O Hara, how do those great heroes w ho are devoted to worship and meditation, lusty for drinking human blood, endeavoring constantly, standing w ith swords in hand, devoted to w a n d e r in g th e c rem a tio n g r o u n d s at n ig h t, O g o d , a lw a y s o b ta in melapa w ith th e Y oginls?" transcription courtesy of Somadeva Vasudeva. 186 BraYa xxi.83cd-ioo. Owing to length, an edition of this material is not provided here. 187 Act Five, prose following verse 4: smasanavatasya nedlyah karalayatanam yatra paryavasitamantrasadhanasyasmadguror aghoraghantasyajnaya saviSesam adya pujasambharo maya samnidhapamyah. On mantrasadhana, the practices following the siidfe/ai-consecration for achieving mastery of one's mantradeity, see Brunner-Lachaux, "Le Sadhaka." It appears that it was the norm to practice mantrasadhana in a single, isolated place, as Aghoraghanta is said to have done in the tem ple of Karala. Ibid., 431. 188 Avalokita describes Aghoraghanta as "one w ho wanders by night" and a "skull-bearer," as quoted in n. 174 above. In Act Five, verse 29, Aghoraghanta refers to himself as himsaruci ("fond of violence"), n a k 1 -1 0 7 6 (n g m p p A 4 0 /1 3 );

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m ig h t b e re s tric te d to th a t o f a s tu d e n t a n d a ss is ta n t, b u t th e im p lic a tio n c o u ld b e t h a t sh e is h is ritu a l c o n s o rt a s w ell. T h is p o ssib ility la c k s e x p lic it in tim a tio n . W h ile m o rtu a ry , kapdlika e le m e n ts w e re p re s e n t in th e S aiva A tim a rg a , c re m a tio n g r o u n d rite s fo c u s e d u p o n c o n tro l o f th e p o w e rfu l a n d d a n g e ro u s fo rces w h ic h c o n g re g a te th e re a p p e a r u n iq u e to th e M a n tra m a rg a , a n d p a r tic u la rly c h a ra c te riz e th e V id y a p lth a bhaim vatantras. B h a v a b h u ti v iv id ly d e s c rib e s th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d 's frig h tfu l n ig h t d e n iz e n s , w h ic h in c lu d e b e in g s s u c h as ulkam ukhas (" m e te o r m o u th s " ), putanas (" s tin k e rs" ), a n d pisacas (" g o b lin s" ), a s w e ll a s fe m a le v a rie tie s o f th e s a m e .’89 M a d h a v a b e a rs h is fo o d -o ffe rin g in th e le ft h a n d , as b e fits ra d ic a l ta n tric ritu a l. H e a d v e rtiz e s th is fle sh a s u n c u t b y w e a p o n s, a c rite rio n th a t a p p a re n tly m a k e s it a c c e p t­ a b le to th e s p irits .190 S aiva so u rc e s h o w e v e r s o m e tim e s p ra is e th e c o rp s e o f o n e fa lle n in b a ttle a s p a rtic u la rly s u ita b le fo r ritu a l u s e .191 B ey o n d th e a lre a d y e x tre m e p ra c tic e o f m a k in g o ffe rin g s o f h u m a n flesh , s c rip tu re s s u c h a s th e BraYa a n d YoginTsancara m e n tio n th e rite o f a c tu a l h u m a n sacrifice as w e l l / 92 w h e th e r o r n o t th is a c tu a lly to o k p la c e w ith a n y freq u en cy . G iv e n its se n sa tio n a l q u ality , B h a v a b h u ti is n o t a lo n e a m o n g m e d ie v a l p o e ts in u tiliz in g th is th e m e fo r d ra m a tic p u rp o s e s . A tte m p te d h u ­ m a n sacrifice to a fierce g o d d e s s c o m p rise s, fo r e x a m p le , th e d ra m a tic fo c u s o f th e and prdnyupahdraketanajus ("frequenting places where there is sacrifice of living beings"). 189 Act Five, verses 11-18. The ulkamukha is a som ewhat uncomm on category in Indian spiritology. In his commentary on the Netratantra, Ksemaraja identifies these w ith the pisaca ("goblin"): glossing pisacaih in 2.14b, he states, smasanddivdsina ulkamukhah pisacah. Cf. his comments ad i8.99d (pisaca asucisthdnadivasim ulkamukhah). Tantrasadbhdva 19 mentions a ksetrapala named Ulkamukha. 190 MdlatTmadhava, Act Five, verse 12: bho bhoh smasananiketandh kataputanah j asastraputam avydjam purusahgopakalpitam \ vikrlyate mahamdmsam grhyatam grhyatam idam || 12 || "O Corpse Stinkers, denizens of the cremation groimd, the greatest of meats is for sale, not purified by [being slain in battle with] weapons, unadulterated, prepared from the body of a man; please take it, take it!" 191 Cf. Svacchandatantra i3-24cd: ranasastraghatapatitam narapisitam trimadhusamyutam juhuydt, "One should offer oblations of human flesh felled by the blows of weapons in battle, m ixed w ith the 'three types of honey'." 192 N ote YoginTsancara 6.26cd, a som ewhat random example: sarvayogTsvansiddhilr] mdnusat pasunad bhavet ("Due to a human as sacrificial victim, there w ould be [attainment of] power over all yoginis"). But note also, in contrast to MdlatTmadhava, that this source (6.iooab) appears to prohibit sacrifice of a woman: stn paiutve niyukta tu mahdsiddhivighatakla] ("but a woman employed as a sacrificial victim ruins the major siddhis").

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90 Yasastilaka of S o m a d e v a s u ri as w ell, a n d fin d s m e n tio n in n u m e r o u s o th e r w o rk s of th e m e d ie v a l p e rio d . P a rtic u la rly re le v a n t a re th e d e s c rip tio n s a n d ac tiv itie s o f th e tw o yogirils, K a p alak u n d a la a n d S a u d a m in l. B oth c a rry o u t S k u llb e a re r-o b s e rv a n c e s (kapalikavrata), a n d th e f o r m e r 's kapalika a ttire is d e s c rib e d in v iv id d e tail.

B o th fre q u e n t th e sa c re d

m o u n ta in S rlp a rv a ta , a n d p o s s e s s th e s p e c ta c u la r p o w e r o f flight.

A lth o u g h th e

s o u rc e o f S a u d a m im 's a b ility to fly is u n s ta te d , it p e r h a p s s te m s fro m th e s a m e m e a n s b y w h ic h sh e h a s th e p o w e r to d ra w o th e rs a lo n g th ro u g h th e air. W h e n th e b e w il­ d e r e d M a d h a v a a n d M a k a ra n d a in q u ire as to h e r id e n tity , sh e re p lie s, " th is y o u sh a ll s u re ly u n d e r s ta n d ," a n d rises: I n o w s h a ll fo r y o u r b e n e fit u s e th is p o w e r o f 'd r a w in g ' [th ro u g h th e air], w h ic h a rise s fro m m y d e d ic a tio n to th e g u ru , th e o b se rv a n c e s, p e n a n c e , tantras, a n d m antrasT93 T h is lis t b e a rs c o m p a riso n w ith a c c o u n ts of th e p ra c tic e s sadhakas c a rry o u t in o rd e r to a tta in e n c o u n te rs (melapa) w ith y o g in ls .194 K a p a la k u n d a la in tro d u c e s h e rs e lf a n d h e r p o w e rs w ith th e s a m e p h ra s e , iyam aham idantm. B u t th e so u rc e o f h e r a b ility to fly d iffe rs c o n sid e ra b ly : th e p e rn ic io u s p ra c tic e o f e x tra c tin g th e e sse n ces o f liv in g b e in g s b y in v a siv e y o g ic m e th o d s . S he d e ­ sc rib e s h e rs e lf a s u n tir e d b y a flig h t fu e le d b y e x tra c tio n o f th e "five n e c ta rs " th ro u g h th e b o d y 's c h a n n e ls (nadi). T h is sh e d o e s w h ile a b s o rb e d in m e d ita tio n u p o n th e Self as S iva in th e h e a rt l o t u s / 95 in a cakra o n w h ic h th e six a n c illa ry m a n tra s {anya) h av e b e e n in s ta lle d .196 S h e p ra is e s Siva as " lo rd o f th e saktis" (saktinatha), s u r r o u n d e d b y 193 Act Nine, verse 52: jhasyathah khalv etat | (utthaya) iyam aham idamm, gurucaryatapastantramantrayogabhiyogajam \ imam aksepinlm siddhim atanomi sivaya vah || 52 || Although I cannot locate parallels for the expression aksepim siddhi, the ability of yoginis to enable men to fly pervades the literature, indeed characterizes in no small measure their popular image. It is worth noting that here, tantra seem s unlikely to mean "text," but instead "spell" or som ething of this nature. Cf. the previous discussion of the Gahgdhar inscription. 194 Cf Svacchandatantra i5-32cd-33, BraYa Lxxm.4oab, and BraYa xcix.2-5. 195 Cf. YoginTsancara 6.563b: hrccakramadhyam atmanam dhyatva sivasamaprabham. 196 A c t F ive, v e rse 2:

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9i w h o m h e is m e d ita te d u p o n in th e h e a r t in a cakra of s ix te e n nadls, b e s to w in g siddhi u p o n sadhakas.197 T h is c o n c e p tio n o f th e d e ity w ith six an c illa rie s (sadahga) in th e c e n te r o f a cakra o f nadTs v is u a liz e d in th e h e a rt is c o n s is te n t w ith te rm in o lo g y o f th e BraYa, w h ic h a tte s ts sim ila r c o n fig u ra tio n s o f six te e n .198 M a tc h in g m o re p recisely , th e u n p u b lis h e d YoginTsancara o f th e Jayadrathayamala d e s c rib e s as w h a t a p p e a rs to b e its b a sic c o n fig u ra tio n th e d e ity a n d six an c illa rie s (sadahga), w h o a re th e Six Yogirus, in a cakra o f six te e n nadTs.1"

T h e la tte r c o rre s p o n d to th e vo w els, a s d o th e s ix te e n

m a n tra -d e itie s o f th e B raYa's bhautikacakra a n d kulacakra, th e la tte r m o re o v e r h a v in g a s p e c ia l a sso c ia tio n w ith y o g in is.200 It s e e m s p ro b a b le th a t K a p a la k u n d a la s p e a k s o f a iyam aham idamm nityam nyastasadahgacakranihitam hrtpadmamadhyoditam pasyantl sivarupinam layavasad atmdnam abhydgata | nadlnam udayakramma jagatah pancamrtakarsanad apraptotpatanasramd vighatayanty agrenabho 'mbhomucah || "I have now arrived, ever view ing by the power of meditative absorption the Self, in the form of Siva, arisen in the heart-lotus and placed in a cakra where the six ancillary [mantras] have been installed. Parting the clouds in the sky before me, I am untired by my flight, [caused] by extraction of the five nectars of living beings (jagat) via the ascending sequence of nadls." 197 Act Five, verse 1: sadadhikadasanddlcakramadhyasthitatma hrdi vinihitarupah siddhidas tadvidam yah \ avicalitamanobhih sadhakair mrgyamdnah sa jayati parinaddhah saktibhih saktindthah || 1 || "Victorious is the Lord of the Saktis, surrounding by Saktis and placed in the m iddle of a cakra of sixteen nadls, his form placed in the heart bestowing siddhi upon those w ho know him, sought after by sadhakas w ith unwavering minds." 198 Perhaps the m ost significant cakra of sixteen mantra-deities is the kulasodasa cakra, the subject of BraYa xiv, which does not, however, use the terminology of nadls. It encodes a configuration of the sixteen vowels around the central deity. The bhautikacakra of chapter nineteen, on the other hand, explicitly correlates its sixteen nadls w ith the vowels. 199 On the sixteen nadls as the vowels, cf., e.g., Yoginlsancara n.47ab: nadlsodasabhagottha[n] kramald] varndn samuddharet. Chapter ten narrates how the Six Yogirus arose from the ancillary (ahga) mantras of the vidya, protecting Skanda from the Seven Mothers, w ho had becom e proud of their power after slaying the dem ons and receiving Siva's boon. The Six arise as deities of the kdlacakra, the same deity configuration mentioned in chapter 5 in connection w ith extraction of the five nectars. 2°° connection is suggested in the Goddess's opening question of BraYa xiv, which teaches the kula[sodasa]cakra or khecarlcakra: yoginyah svalpabuddhyas tu svalpacittdlpasattvikdh \ bhartuh susrusanapara gurubhaktisamanvitah || 1 j| tdsam siddhir yathd deva tam me bruhi samdsatah \ i a y o g in y a h ] emc, y o g in y o h B y “ Bya

° b u d d h y a s ] em.; “b u d d h y a s B y “

xc b h a r t u h ] corr.-, b h a r t u B y 11

l b ° s a t t v i k a h ] em.; “ s a tt v ik a h

° g u s r u s a n a ° ] em.-, ° s v a s r u s a n a ° B y “

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92

c o m p a ra b le c o n fig u ra tio n o f six te e n nadls o f th e S a n sk rit v o w e ls e n c irc lin g B h airav a a n d h is six a n c illa ry m a n tra s. S a n d e rs o n h a s, in a d d itio n , d r a w n a tte n tio n to th e fa c t th a t th e p ro c e s s K a p a la k u n d a la a llu d e s to o f e x tra c tin g th e v ita l e sse n ces is d e ­ s c rib e d in c o n s id e ra b le d e ta il in th e YoginTsancara.201 A s d e s c rib e d in its fifth c h a p te r, th is in v o lv e s p la c in g th e v ic tim (pasu) b e fo re o n e a n d y o g ic a lly d ra w in g o u t th e 'n e c ­ ta r s ' v ia th e nadls, th ro u g h c o o rd in a te d a p p lic a tio n o f b r e a th c o n tro l a n d m a n tra .202 In th is c h a p te r, " m e d ita tio n " (dhyana) is d e fin e d a s th e " c o n jo in in g o f frf/fl-m antras a n d nadls.''203 W h ile flig h t is m e n tio n e d a m o n g th e siddhis a c q u ire d th ro u g h s u c h p ra c tic e s, it is b y n o m e a n s th e ex clu siv e a im , how ever. In th e d ic h o to m y o f th e c ru e l K a p a la k u n d a la a n d v ir tu o u s S audam i.nl, R o n a ld D a v id s o n see s th e c o n tra s t o f th e (Saiva) " K a p a lik a p ro p e n s ity fo r v io le n c e " a n d th e " sp e cifica lly B u d d h is t c o n trib u tio n to e x tre m e ascetic p ra c tic e " o f " re s tra in t in th e se rv ic e o f a m o ra l d ire c tio n ." In h is in te rp re ta tio n , S a u d a m in I is th e first " B u d ­ d h is t s id d h a " to b e re p re s e n te d in n o n -B u d d h is t lite ra tu re .204 A n u m b e r o f q u e s tio n s m ig h t b e ra is e d c o n c e rn in g th is fo rm u la tio n , how ever. S a u d a m in l's in v o lv e m e n t w ith kapalika o b se rv a n c e s m ig h t in d e e d a tte s t e m e rg e n t B u d d h is t p a r tic ip a tio n in th is d o ­ m a in o f e x tre m e S aiva p ra c tic e , fo r s u c h b e g in s to b e d e s c rib e d in e ig h th -c e n tu ry T antric B u d d h is t so u rc es. Yet th e c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f S a u d a m in I a s " B u d d h is t" w a r­ r a n ts fu r th e r c o n s id e ra tio n , all th e m o re so w ith re g a rd to s o m e o f th e p la y 's o th e r m a jo r c h a ra c te rs. A lth o u g h o n e w o u ld e x p e c t th e d is c ip le o f a B u d d h is t n u n to fo l­ lo w h e r in re lig io u s o rie n ta tio n , th e o n ly te s ta m e n t o f S a u d a m in l's d e v o tio n is p r o ­ v id e d w h e n , w h ile fly in g , sh e sp o ts th e n a tu ra lly -fo rm e d im a g e o f S iva c a lle d S u v ar"Yoginls, of very little intellect, very little brains and little heroic spirit, [but] intent on serving their husbands, and possessing devotion to the gurus— tell m e succinctly, O god, h o w th e y m a y h a v e siddhi."

Cf. BraYa i.i2 c d -i3 , and the annotation thereon. The implication appears to be that the pantheon and practices of the kulacakra are specifically for yoginis, female practitioners emulating their flying exemplars. 201 "Purity and Power," 213 (n. 89). 202 YoginTsancara 5, especially from verse 41. 203 5.373b: dhyane tu nadibTjanam samyogo jnanapurvakah ("but in the case of meditation, there is the conjoining of the fy/a-mantras and midis, which depends upon knowledge"). 204 Indian Esoteric Buddhism. A Social History o f the Tantric Movement, 203.

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n a b in d u , to w h o m sh e o ffers h o m a g e a n d a v erse o f p ra is e . It w o u ld th u s a p p e a r th a t h e r kapalika p ra c tic e s in v o lv e h e r in d e v o tio n to Siva. O f th e y o u n g la d ie s a n d m e n w h o c o m p rise th e re m a in in g ca st— " th e B u d d h is ts " D a v id s o n s p e a k s o f S a u d a m in I a id in g 205— little in d ic a tio n o f re lig io u s a ffilia tio n is in fa c t p ro v id e d . K a m a n d a k l's a c o ly te s B u d d h a ra k s ita a n d A v a lo k ita h av e , u n s u rp ris in g ly , B u d d h is t n a m e s. H o w ­ ever, th e h e ro in e M a la ti is s a id to v isit th e te m p le o f S iva o n th e fo u r te e n th d a y o f th e w a n in g m o o n ; th is sh e d o e s e s c o rte d b y n o n e o th e r th a n th e B u d d h is t n u n .206 A n o th e r re a s o n w h y it m ig h t b e u n w a rra n te d to r e a d th e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n K a p a la ­ k u n d a la a n d S a u d a m in I in se c ta ria n te rm s is th a t th e d ic h o to m y o f th e p e rn ic io u s, c ru e l so rc e re ss a n d b e n e v o le n t fly in g d e m i-g o d d e s s re flects y o g in l ty p o lo g ie s fo u n d t h r o u g h o u t S aiva s o u rc e s.207 M o reo v er, B h a v a b h u ti's th e m e o f th e ev il v e rs u s g o o d w itc h m ig h t h a v e b e e n in s p ire d b y ta le s fro m th e lo s t Brhatkatha— th e so u rc e fro m w h ic h B h a v a b h u ti in fa ct d re w th e b a sic p lo t of h is d r a m a .208 If D a v id so n is n o n e th e ­ less c o rre c t in s e e in g in S a u d a m in I e v id e n c e fo r B u d d h is t e n g a g e m e n t in kapalika p ra c tic e , it s h o u ld still b e p o in te d o u t th a t h is in te rp re ta tio n reflects a o n e -s id e d , b lo o d -a n d -p o w e r c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f S a iv ism th a t little c a p tu r e s th e c o m p le x itie s of th is tra d itio n , e c h o in g d ra m a tic , p o le m ic a l, o r e x o tic iz in g tre a tm e n ts o f e x tre m e S aiva p ra c tic e in m e d ie v a l lite ra r y texts. T h is a ttitu d e s e e m s to e x te n d e v e n b e y o n d D a v id ­ s o n 's d e p ic tio n o f kapalikas; n o te , fo r in sta n c e , h is c h a ra c te riz a tio n o f th e m e d ie v a l 205 Davidson remarks, "She [SaudaminI] has gained the siddhis, m ost particularly that of flight (khecari [sic]), and has come to assist the Buddhists in their struggle w ith the evil Kapalika siddha, Aghoraghanta, and his female companion, Kapalakundala." Ibid., 203. 206 Act Three, p. 103: ajja kasanacaiiddasi tti bha'dvadie samam maladlsamkaragharam gamissadi tado evatn kila sohaggam vaddhadi tti devadarahananimittam sahatthakusumdvacadm uddisia lavahgiadudTam maladim bhaavadT jevva kusumaarujjanam anaissadi tado annonnadamsanam bhodu tti ("Since today is the fourteenth of the waning moon, Malati w ill go w ith Her reverence [KamandakI] to the temple of Siva. Then, as it is believed conjugal fortune (saubhagya) thus increases, Her reverence shall herself bring Malati, attended by Lavarigika, to the garden 'Treasury of Flowers,' with the aim of [her] gathering flowers with her own hands for the purpose of worshiping the deities. Thus may [Malati and Madhava] behold each other"). 207 See the critical editions and annotation of BraYa l x x i i i . 208 See the introduction to M.R. Kale's edition of the MdlatTmadhava, 24-27. On the theme of the good versus wicked witch, note in particular an episode in Kathdsaritsagara x n .i, a Sanskrit retelling of the Brhatkatha, in w hich a woman—secretly an evil sdkim—transforms her husband into a buffalo w hen he catches her in a compromising position with a buffalo herder. He is later rescued through the kindness of a benign yoginl, w ho restores his form, provides him her daughter in marriage, arms him w ith magical mustard seeds to enact revenge, and instructs him finally in the Adi/a-mantra of Kalasamkarsinl. I discuss related material in the subsequent section on the Brhatkatha retellings.

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re p re s e n ta tio n o f Siva: " a k ille r d iv in ity w ith a p e r m a n e n t e re c tio n ." 209 W h a t I see th is fa s c in a tin g p la y p ro v id in g e v id e n c e fo r is sev e ralfo ld . F irst, th e p ra c tic e s d e s c rib e d a re o f c o u rse th o s e o f th e M a n tra m a rg a , a n d n o t o f a n o n -ta n tric kapalika sect.210 T h is is e v id e n c e d in p a r tic u la r b y A g h o ra g h a n ta 's s ta te d e n g a g e ­ m e n t in mantrasadhana, a n d th e a b o v e d e s c rip tio n s o f th e tw o y o g in is ' so u rc e s of r itu a l po w er. S ig n ific an t p a ra lle ls in d e s c rip tio n s o f ritu a l a n d its a im s, as w e ll a s th e im p o rta n c e o f C a m u n d a , " le a d e r o f th e M o th e r g o d d e s s e s " (m dtrndyikd), p o in t m o re ­ o v e r to w a rd s th e kapalika- a n d g o d d e s s -o rie n te d c u lts o f V id y a p ith a sc rip tu re s . A lso p r e s e n t is a f u n d a m e n ta l fo rm u la tio n of th e Y oginl cu lt: th e p o s sib ility o f w o m e n b e c o m in g fly in g M istre sse s o f Y oga th ro u g h ritu a l p e rfe c tio n . T h a t th is ta n tric a n d kapalika c u lt h a d its c e n te rs o f a c tiv ity a t s a c re d pithas s u c h as S rlp a rv a ta , w a s v ie w e d p rim a rily a s a d o m a in o f S aiv ism , a n d in v ite d B u d d h is t p a rtic ip a tio n , m ig h t also b e s u g g e s te d . A lto g e th e r, th e e v id e n c e fro m th e MdlatTmadhava s u g g e s ts th a t b y th e e a rly e ig h th c e n tu ry , th e Y oginl c u lt d e s c rib e d in bhairavatantras o f th e V id y a p ith a w a s p re v a le n t, c o rro b o ra tin g re fe re n c e s to th is lite ra tu re in th e o ld Skandapurana.

T H E HARAVIJAYA OF R A T N A K A R A

W h ile th e MdlatTmadhava sh o w s g e n e ra l a w a re n e s s of th e kapalika c u lt o f y o g in is d e ­ s c rib e d in V id y a p ith a so u rc es, th e e a rly n in th -c e n tu r y Haravijaya o f R a tn a k a ra ,211 in c o n tra s t, c o n ta in s c le a r re fe re n c e s to th e T rika— th e c u lt o f th e g o d d e s s tria d P a ra , P a ra p a ra , a n d A p a ra — p ro b a b ly in its d e v e lo p e d K a u la variety.

T h is K a sh m iria n

mahdkavya ec h o es specific siddhantatantras, as id e n tifie d b y S a n d e rs o n ,212 a n d in a h y m n to th e g o d d e s s C a n d l, d is p la y s te c h n ic a l k n o w le d g e o f th e T rik a 's sy s te m of d e ity v is u a liz a tio n .213 T his h y m n m a k e s p a s s in g re fe re n c e to y o g in is as w ell, d e sc rib ­ 209 Indian Esoteric Buddhism, 90. 210 In contrast, note that the Mattavilasa, a seventh-century drama which parodies the antinomian and kapalika activities of a Saiva ascetic, provides no conclusive indications of Mantramarga practices. 211 Concerning the date of composition, Sanderson suggests "around 830," based upon his assessment of the dates of Cippatajayaplda, the Kashmiri monarch in w hose court Ratnakara apparently wrote the Haravijaya. "History through Textual Criticism," 6 (n. 3). 212 "History through Textual Criticism," 5-6. 213 See Sanderson, "Mandala and Agamic Identity in the Trika of Kashmir," 169 (n. 1); and "History through Textual Criticism," 18-19 (n. 21). See also David Smith, Ratnakara’s Haravijaya: A n Introduction

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95 in g th e G o d d e s s in u n io n w ith B h airav a a s th e ra d ia n t n a v e o f a cakra o f yogesvarls, i.e. y o g in is, u p o n w h o m o n e m e d ita te s to a tta in id e n tity w ith S iva.214 A lso n o te w o rth y is th e fact th a t y o g in is, in c o n tra s t to th e S ev en M o th e rs, h a v e n o t b e e n in c o rp o ra te d in to th e ric h S aiva m y th o lo g y of th is w o rk to a n y sig n ific a n t d e g re e : th e y fig u re o n ly in th e ab o v e re fe re n c e to e so te ric ritu a l.215 In m a rk e d c o n tra s t, th e th irte e rith -c e n tu ry H aracaritacintamani o f R a jan a k a J a y a d ra th a , a lso a K a sh m iri, p ro m in e n tly in te g ra te s y o g in is in to S aiva m y th o lo g y .216

T H E B R H A T K A T H A A N D ITS R E T E L L IN G S

T h e v a rio u s re te llin g s o f th e lo st P ra k r it Brhatkatha o f G u n a d h y a , "T h e G ra n d Tale," o ffer a w e a lth o f m a te ria l p e r tin e n t to T antric S a iv ism a n d th e Y oginl cult.

The

Kathasaritsagara, a n e a rly e le v e n th -c e n tu ry S a n s k rit v e rs io n b y th e K a sh m iri a u th o r S o m a d e v a b h a tta , is p e r m e a te d w ith re fe re n c e s to ta n tric p ra c tic e s a n d p ra c titio n e rs a n d c o n ta in s v iv id a c c o u n ts o f y o g in is. C lo se ly p a ra lle l to th is is th e m id elev e n th c e n tu r y Brhatkatham ahjan o f K s e m e n d ra , th is to o o f K a sh m iri p ro v e n a n c e . A n e a rlie r S a n s k rit v e rsio n , th e Brhatkathaslokasam.graha, also c o n ta in s m u c h th a t is re le v a n t to th e s tu d y o f T an tra; b u t th e re a re te llin g c o n tra s ts in th e s e te x ts, p ro b a b ly s e p a ra te d b y a c e n tu r y o r m o re in tim e.

R e a c h in g fu r th e r b a c k to th e Vasudevahindi o f Sa-

iig h a d a s a g a n in , a n e a rly Ja in a re te llin g in P ra k rit, e v id e n c e fo r T a n tra a n d th e y o g in l c u lt re c e d e s fro m v iew .217 In th e Vasudevahindi, "T h e O d y sse y s o f V a su d e v a ," w e d o n o n e th e le s s g lim p s e p ro to -ta n tric id e a s a n d p ra c tic e s o f so m e re le v a n c e to th e fo rm a tio n o f th e Y oginl c u lt, e sp e c ia lly its ta le s o f th e vijjaharas (i.e. vidyadhara) a n d th e ir " lo re s" (vijjd, i.e. to the Sanskrit Court Epic, 263-66. 214 Haravijaya 4.28; this has been quoted and translated by Smith, Ratndkara's Haravijaya, 262. 215 I base my knowledge of the deities and m yths in the Haravijaya largely on the studies by Smith (Ibid., 225-76), and Santosh Kumari Sharma, Haravijaya o f Ratnakara: a Criticism, 268-316. 216 A n episode prominently featuring yoginis is described in Sanderson, "Religion and the State," 285-86. 217 For an overview of the Brhatkatha and a thesis on the relations between its various retellings, see Donald A. N elson, "The Brhatkatha: a Reconstruction from the Brhatkathaslokasamgrha, Peruhkatai and Vasudevahindi-," and "Brhatkatha Studies: the Problem of an Ur-text," Journal o f Asian Studies 37:4 (1978), 663-676.

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96 vidya.).218 W h ile o f u n c e rta in d a tin g , th e te x t is w r itte n in a P ra k rit L u d w ig A lsd o rf a rg u e s b e lo n g s to th e e a rly c e n tu rie s o f th e c o m m o n e ra .219 T h e Vasudevahindi th e re fo re c o m p ris e s th e e a rlie s t s u rv iv in g re te llin g o f th e Brhatkatha, th o u g h o w in g to its a d a p ta tio n to Ja in a " u n iv e rs a l h is to r y /' n o t th e m o s t fa ith fu l.220 W h ile y o g in is h a v e n o ro le in th is tale, a n o th e r c a te g o ry o f d iv in e w o m a n d o e s h a v e a sig n ific a n t p o s itio n : th e vidyadhari, fe m a le c o u n te r p a r t o f th e vidyadhara o r " lo re -h o ld e r." It is th e s e " lo re s" (vidya) a n d th e ir se m i-d iv in e m a s te rs , b o th m a le a n d fe m a le, th a t h av e sig n ifican c e fo r th e p re s e n t stu d y . In D o n a ld N e ls o n 's a s se ssm e n t, th e co re n a rra tiv e o f th e o rig in a l Brhatkatha h a d th re e co n c ern s: th e h e ro N a ra v a h a n a d a tta 's g r a d u a l a c q u is itio n o f w iv es, vidyas, a n d o v e rlo rd s h ip o f th e vidyadharas. T h e se a lso fo rm a n in te g ra l se q u e n c e , fo r vidyas m u s t b e m a s te re d in o rd e r to c o n q u e r vidyadharas, a n d N a ra v a h a n a d a tta le a rn s m a n y of th e s e fro m h is vidyadhari b rid e s .221 O n th e tre a tm e n t o f vidyas in th e Vasudevahi­ ndi, I ta k e as e x a m p le a n e p is o d e fro m b o o k fo u rte e n , w h ic h tells th e ta le o f th e h e r o 's m a rria g e to th e vidyadhari p rin c e s s M a y a n a v e g a .222 In a n a e ria l scuffle w ith h is vidyadhara a b d u c to r, th e h e ro , V a su d e v a, falls fro m th e sk y a n d fin d s h im se lf in th e R iver G a n g a. H e e n c o u n te rs a p e r s o n e n d e a v o rin g to m a s te r a vidya, s ta n d in g in th e w a te r in th e g a rb o f a m e n d ic a n t ascetic, w h o say s, " o n se e in g y o u , m y vidya h a s b e c o m e p e rfe c te d (siddha) . . . tell m e , w h a t to k e n o f fr ie n d s h ip m ig h t I offer y o u ? I a m a vidyadhara."223 V a su d e v a re q u e s ts to le a r n a vidya th a t b e s to w s th e p o w e r of 218 Sanghadasaganin's text has been published as Vasudevahindiprathamakhandam, 2 vols., edited by Caturavijaya and Punyavijaya[-muni?] (Kathiawar: Shri Jain Atmanand Sabha, 1930). On vidyas in the Vasudevahindi, see A. P. Jamkhedkar's useful appendix, Vasudevahimdl: A Cultural Study, 225-35. Note also Jagdish Chandra Jain, "Vidyadharas in the Vasudevahindi," Journal of the Oriental Institute ofBaroda 24 (1974?): 120-127. 219 Alsdorf argues that the text is written in an archaic form of Jaina Maharastrl dating to a period "centuries" prior to the sixth century c . e ., possessing linguistic features that bear comparison w ith the Ardhamagadhi of the early Jaina canon. Alsdorf, "The Vasudevahindi, a Specimen of Archaic JainaMaharastri," Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 8:2-3 3r 9_33 (quote on p. 320). 220 N elson, "Brhatkatha: a Reconstruction," 256. 221 N elson, "Brhatkatha: A Reconstruction," 282-83, 294/ 305-06. 222 This chapter was brought to m y attention by Nelson, 222-23, and Jamkhekdar, Vasudevahimdl: A Cultural Study, 228. Here and elsewhere, I have consulted the comparative sum m ary/translation of the Vasudevahindi and Brhatkathaslokasamgraha by Jagdish Chandra Jain, The Vasudevahindi: A n Authentic Jain Version of the Brhatkatha. 223 Vasudevahindi 14 (vol. 2), p. 229: siddha me vijja tumha damsanena . .. samdisaha, kim va payacchami

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flig h t. A fte r in itia tin g h im , th e vidyadhara in s tru c ts V a su d e v a in th is lo re. H e fo llo w s th e p re s c rib e d ritu a l fo r a d ay ; in th e e v e n in g a d iv in e w o m a n m a n ife sts b e fo re h im , a n d w ith h is a ss e n t, c a rrie s h im off in to th e sky.224 T h e m e th o d a n d te rm in o lo g y fo r uz'di/fl-practice in th e Vasudevahindi b e a rs re ­ m a rk a b le c o n tin u ity w ith la te r ta n tric ritu a l. F irst a n d fo re m o s t, vidyas a re n o t o n ly " lo re s ," in th e se n se o f s p e lls to b e m a s te re d th a t a c c o m p lish specific a im s, b u t a lso d e itie s to b e p ro p itia te d . T h u s w h e n th e d iv in e w o m a n m a n ife sts b e fo re V a su d e v a, h e w o n d e rs w h e th e r s h e is th e v id ya -g o d d e ss h erself, p le a s e d w ith h is w o rs h ip .225 T h is sh o w s c le a r s im ila rity w ith th e ta n tric c o n c e p tio n o f vidyas a s g o d d e s s e s, fe m a le m a n tra -d e itie s . F u rth e rm o re , access to th e vidya re q u ire s in itia tio n , fo r w h ic h th e te r­ m in o lo g y is id e n tic a l to th a t o f la te r S aivism : V a su d e v a b e c o m e s dikkhio, i.e. diksitah, " in itia te d ;" th e rite is u n fo r tu n a te ly n o t d e s c rib e d . Ju st lik e a ta n tric m a n tra -d e ity , a vidya b e a rs fr u it w h e n it b e c o m e s " p e rfe c te d " o r " m a s te re d " (siddha).226 T h is in itia l p ro c e s s o f m a k in g th e m a n tra effective is, in o u r e x a m p le , d e s c rib e d a s puraccarana (S a n sk rit purascarana), " p re lim a ry s e r v ic e /p r o p itia tio n ," a te rm h a v in g s im ila r m e a n ­ in g in ta n tric ritu a l. A s in ta n tric purascarana, th is in v o lv e s p rim a rily in c a n ta tio n , a lo n g s id e o th e r rite s a n d o b se rv a n c e s.227 F o r e x a m p le , in o r d e r to m a s te r th e vidyas c a lle d sumbha a n d nisum bha, V a su d e v a m u s t m a k e fo o d o ffe rin g s to d e itie s (bali) o n a m o u n ta in p e a k o n th e fo u rte e n th n ig h t o f th e w a n in g m o o n , a n d r e p e a t th e vijja o n e - th o u s a n d a n d e ig h t tim e s. H e re , sig n ifican tly , n o d is tin c tio n is m a d e b e tw e e n th e pttidanam? aham vijjdharo. 224 Ibid., 229-30; cf. Jagdish Chandra Jain, Vasudevahindi, 435-37. 225 Vasudeva at first wonders whether the divine woman is an "obstruction personified" (viggha, i.e. vighna) taking the form of a beautiful temptress, but then decides she is the goddess of the vidya (vijjabhagavatt), "pleased by his preliminary worship" (puraccaranatosiyd, i.e. purascaranatosita). It be­ com es clear in the course of the story that she is rather Mayanavega, a vidyadhari princess— the sister of Dandavega, the vidyadhara Vasudeva encountered upon falling from the sky. Vasudevahindi 14 (vol. 2), p. 230. 226 Hence, the vidyadhara w ho teaches Vasudeva the lore for magical flight states, ahorate atle aham te samlvam essatn ti, punnapuraccaranassa ya vijja siddha bhavissai tti na samdeho so gato ("He said, 'When a day and a night have passed, I w ill come to you', and 'you will master the vidya w hen the preliminary worship is complete; of this, there is no doubt,' then left"). Vasudevahindi 14 (vol. 2), p. 229-30. 227 On the subject of purascarana or purvasevd, "the 'preliminary ritual' for making a mantra effective (siddha)," see Gudrun Buhnemann, "On Purascarana: Kularnavatantra, Chapter 15," in Teun Goudriaan (ed.), Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism. Studies in Honor of Andre Padoux, 61-64 (quote on p. 61); and Sanderson, "Religion and the State: Initiating the Monarch" (forthcoming), n. 355.

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vidya a n d its m a n tra : th e vidya is th e m a n tra to b e p e rfe c te d , u p o n w h ic h it g ra n ts its p o w e rs. In th is case, h o w ev er, th e tw o vidyas a re n o t e x p lic itly d e ifie d — a lth o u g h th e y m ig h t c o n c e iv a b ly e m b o d y th e ir n a m e s a k e d e m o n s: th e S u m b h a a n d N is u m b h a of DevTmahatmya fa m e .228 In a n o th e r story, a vidyadhara w h o h a d lo st h is p o w e rs is s a id to p ra c tic e th e sahana (S a n sk rit sadhana) o f a vidya, th is b e in g in T an tric S aiv ism th e te r m fo r th e o b s e rv a n c e s o n e u n d e r ta k e s to ac h ie v e p o w e r (siddhi) w ith a p a r tic u la r m a n tr a o r vidya.229 It is u n c le a r w h e th e r in th e Vasudevahindi th is is d is tin c t fro m purascarana. F u rth e r in v e s tig a tio n is re q u ir e d in to e a rly In d ia n c o n c e p tio n s o f vidyas, fo r th e y s e e m h ig h ly re le v a n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f T a n tra a n d th e Y oginl cu lt.

In th e

Vasudevahindi's vidyas, it w o u ld se e m th a t w e fin d , a lre ad y , a c o n fla tio n o f m a n tra s , fe m a le d e ities, a n d specific m a g ic a l p o w e rs , access to w h ic h re q u ire s in itia tio n . In o th e r w o rd s , b y th e te rm vidya /v ijja is c o n n o te d a sp ecific m a n tra , th e p o w e r re ­ s u ltin g fro m its m astery , a n d th e g o d d e s s w h o e m b o d ie s it, w h o m u s t b e w o n o v er t h r o u g h purascarana a n d / o r sadhana. T h is n e x u s o f id e a s h a s clea r c o n tin u ity w ith later, self-co n scio u sly ta n tric c o n c e p tio n s o f m a n tra a n d ritu a l. T h e id e a o f vidyas as g o d d e s s e s ta k e s o n e x tra o rd in a ry sig n ifican c e in th e la te r tra d itio n , fo r th e e a rli­ e s t lite ra tu re o f th e S aiva Y oginl c u lt id e n tifie s itse lf a s b e lo n g in g to th e V id y a p ith a d iv is io n o f th e S aiva ca n o n : "T h e S eat o f F em ale M a n tra -d e itie s ." T h is lev el o f th e tr a d itio n is d is tin g u is h e d b y its e m p h a s is o n p ra c tic e s fo r a tta in in g p o w er, siddhi, a n d u p o n vidyas o r fe m a le m a n tra d e itie s— m y ria d m a n ife sta tio n s o f S iv a 's p rim o rd ia l e n ­ e rg y o r p o w e r, sakti. T h ro u g h th e c o n c e p tio n o f th is sakti a s fe m in in e , g o d d e s s e s a n d 228 Vasudevahindi 6 (vol. 1), p. 195: aham vijjdharo, atthi me duve vijjao suhasahanao sumbhanisumbhao uppayanippayamo, tdo tava demi. tumam si tasim bhayanam. jam puna balivihdnam tarn aham savvam uvanemi. tu m a m kalacaiiddasTe egagT m am am m ilasu. attasahassavattiya ya te vijja sijjh ih iti tti [=sijjhahi tti?]: "I am a vidyadhara, and I have two vidyas easily mastered, Sumbha and Nisumbha, for flying up and coming down; I'll give them to you—you are a fit recipient for these. I w ill on m y part take care of all the ball food offerings. Meet w ith m e alone on the fourteenth of the w aning m oon, and w hen the vidya has been repeated one-thousand and eight times, you w ill master it." M y attention w as directed to this passage by Jamkhedkar, Vasudevahimdl: A Cultural Study, 228. 229 Vasudevahindi 4 (vol. 1), p. 176: esa amgdrao vijjabhatto sdhanam kunati vijjde ("this is Angaraka, w ho has lost his lore and [hence again] does sadhana of the vidya"). Cf. the description of the vidyas sumbha and nisumbha as suhasdhana, "the sadhana of which is easy," i.e. "easily mastered," quoted in the previous note.

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p o w e r b e c o m e c o n s u b s ta n tia l— a c o n n e c tio n a b s e n t in p ro to -ta n tric c o n c e p tio n s of vidyas. It w o u ld a p p e a r th a t siddhi-o rie n te d fo rm s o f ta n tric p ra c tic e , w h ic h c u lm in a te in th e c u lt o f y o g in is, r e p re s e n t th e c o n tin u ity o f p ro to -ta n tric vidya p ra c tic e s in te g ra te d w ith in S aiva a n d B u d d h is t s o te rio lo g ia l sy ste m s. O n e o f th e m o s t d is tin c tiv e c h a ra c ­ te ristic s o f T antric S aiv ism , as w ell a s B u d d h is t T an tra , is in d e e d th e claim o f efficacy fo r b o th so te rio lo g ic a l e n d s a n d th e p u r s u it o f po w er. T h is p u r s u it o f p o w e r w a s, in th e b r o a d e s t sen se , a q u e s t fo r s u p e r h u m a n ag en cy : to e m b o d y th e p o w e rs o f d eities. O n e im p o rta n t lo c u s fo r s u c h c o n c e p tio n s is th e fig u re o f th e vidyadhara, th e in d i­ v id u a l w h o s e m a s te ry of vidyas a ffo rd s tra n s c e n d e n c e o f th e h u m a n c o n d itio n . T h is tra n s c e n d e n c e is e x p re s s e d th ro u g h a b ilitie s s u c h a s flig h t, a n d e n try in to p a r a d is a l re a lm s n e ith e r o f th is w o rld no r, stric tly s p e a k in g , b e y o n d it; o n e m a y e n te r in to th e c o m m u n ity o f vidyadharas. A tta in m e n t o f vidyadharapada, th e s ta tu s o f a vidyadhara, w a s in fa ct th e a im of m u c h o f th e n o n -so te rio lo g ic a lly o rie n te d ritu a l o u tlin e d in e a rly ta n tric lite ra tu re , fro m th e S aiva N isvdsa c o rp u s to e a rly T antric B u d d h is t te x ts.230 R ecall th a t th is w a s, fo r in sta n c e , th e a im o f th e 'z o m b ie rite ' (vetalasadhana) in w h ic h th e k in g P u s p a b h u ti a s sis te d B h aira v a c a ry a , a s p o rtra y e d in B a n a 's e a rly se v e n th -c e n tu ry Harsacarita. W ritin g in 673

c .e

.,

a C h in e se m o n k in In d ia n a m e d Y i-jing re fe rs to

th e e m e rg e n t c o r p u s o f B u d d h is t ta n tric lite ra tu re a s th e Vidyadharapitaka, " th e c a n o n o f th e vidyadharas.”231 T h is c o n c e rn w ith vidyas a n d b e c o m in g a vidyadhara m u s t a lso b e se e n as a b ro a d e r th e m e in a n c ie n t In d ia n fo lk lo re, a p p a re n tly p re d a tin g th e e a rly m e d ie v a l fo rm a tio n o f ta n tric sects. N o w h e re is th is m o re e v id e n t th a n in th e re te llin g s o f th e Brhatkatha— th e n a rra tiv e o f a n in d iv id u a l's jo u rn e y fro m h u m a n p rin c e to e m p e r o r o f th e vidyadharas. W ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c u lt o f y o g in is, th e 230 Becoming a vidyadhara appears as the goal of many of the siddhi-oriented practices outlined in the Cuhyasutra of the Nisvasa, this being mentioned a dozen times. Note, for instance, 11.85: om paramesvaraparaya namah \ anena mantrena parvatasikharam aruhya bhiksaharo daMaksani japet \ vidyadharo bhavati || ( " o m p a r a m e s v a r a p a r a y a n a m a h —after ascending the peak of a mountain, one should incant one m illion times with this mantra. One becomes a vidyadhara"). 231 Stephen H odge, ed., The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: with Buddhaguhya's Commentary, 10.

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fig u re o f th e vidyadhara/T re c e d e s s o m e w h a t in to th e b a c k g ro u n d in T an tric S aiv ism , w h ile th e q u e s t to e m b o d y d iv in e p o w e rs ta k e s o n n e w fo rm s. T h e fig u re o f th e y o g in l is itse lf a m o n g th e fo re m o s t o f th e s e e x p re ssio n s, fo r as is th e case w ith th e vidyadhari, a w o m a n m a y a s p ire to b e c o m e one. T h o u g h w ritte n p e r h a p s h a lf a m ille n iu m a fte r th e Vasudevahindi,232 th e S a n sk rit Brhatkathaslokasamgraha still c o n ta in s sc a n t re fe re n c e s to y o g in is. A sce n e in c h a p te r tw e n ty d e s c rib e s a c re m a tio n g ro u n d , w h e re a t n ig h t a v a rie ty o f ta n tric p ra c titio n e rs co n g re g a te : In o n e p la c e I sa w a circle o f w itc h e s [dakinlmandala] w ith u p ra is e d a rm s a n d flo w in g h a ir d a n c in g n a k e d a r o u n d a c o rp se . In a n o th e r p la c e I sa w a m a n b ra n d is h in g a s w o rd a n d h o ld in g a s k u ll th a t h e w a s u s in g as a bow l. H e w a s say in g , 'M ig h ty o n e s, b u y s o m e h u m a n flesh !' T h e n , g u a r d e d in e a c h o f th e c a rd in a l d ire c tio n s b y a tro o p o f a r m e d m e n , th e re w a s a n a s p irin g m a g ic ia n [sadhaka] w ith a m a g ic a l s w o rd w h o w a s flo a tin g u p in to th e sky.233 H e re w e see d e p ic tio n s o f ta n tric c re m a tio n -g ro u n d ritu a l fa m ilia r fro m o th e r lite ra ry so u rc es: th e sa le o f h u m a n fle sh (mahamam savikraya), a s d e p ic te d in th e MdlatTmadhava, a n d a rite p a ra lle l to th e vetalasadhana B h a ira v a c a ry a u n d e r ta k e s u n d e r a r m e d g u a r d in th e Harsacarita. H o w ev er, th e re is also d e sc rib e d a c o v e n ex c lu siv e ly o f w o m e n , dakim s, e n g a g e d in a w ild rite w ith a co rp se. M o st in te re s tin g o f all is th e s u b s e q u e n t d e p ic tio n o f D h a n a m a tl, a vidyadhari q u e e n w h o h a s ta k e n th e g u ise o f a n e ld e rly trib a l w o m a n (matarigavrddha). T h ere in th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d a t th e ro o t o f a b a n y a n 232 The dating of the Brhatkathaslokasamgraha of Budhasvamin is problematic. Its editor, Felix Lacote, places the text in the eight or ninth century c . e . Lacote, Essai sur Gunadhya et la Brhatkatha. Suivi du Texte Inedit des Chapitres x x v i i a xxx du Nepala-Mahatmya, 147; cited by N elson, "Brhatkatha: a Reconstruction," 5. N elson, w ithout explaining his reasons, sees the text as a com position of the late Gupta period; ibid. The text's m ost recent editor and translator, James Mallinson, remarks more cautiously that w e can only be sure of a pre eleventh-century dating. The Emperor of Sorcerors, vol. 1, 13. 233 Brhatkathaslokasamgraha 20.94-96: ujjhitambaram udbahu prakirnakacasamcayam \ paritah kunapam nrtyad dakimmandalam kvacit || 94 || kvacit purusam utkhadgam upattaghatakarparam \ mahamamsam mahasattvah knyatam iti vadinam || 95 |j sasastrapurusavrataraksitasacatustayam \ sadhakam siddhinistrimsam utpatantam nabhah kvacit || 96 || Text and translation as given by Mallinson, Emperor o f Sorcerors, vol. 2,186-87.

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tre e sh e p e r fo rm s fire sacrifice, o ffe rin g h u m a n b lo o d in to a c h a rn e l fire w ith a la d le h e ld in h e r left h a n d , in c a n tin g a m a n tra e n d in g w ith th e sy lla b le ' h a m '.234 A n im a t­ in g a c o rp se to d o h e r b id d in g , sh e u s e s th is rite o f s u b ju g a tio n (vaSikarana) to b rin g th e h e ro u n d e r h e r p o w e r a n d m a rr y h im to h e r b e a u tifu l g ra n d d a u g h te r. H e offers s c a n t p ro te st. I n th e p a ra lle l e p is o d e o f th e Vasudevahindi, c h a p te r fo u r, th e d is g u is e d vidyadhari is s a id m e re ly to re cite a m a n tra in th e c re m a tio n g r o u n d , b y w h ic h sh e c a u se s a n a n im a te d c o rp s e (veydla, i.e. vetdla) to k id n a p th e h e ro .235 It th u s a p p e a rs th a t a re fe re n c e in th e o rig in a l to a vidyadhari p ra c tic in g h e r a r t in th e c re m a tio n g ro u n d h a s in th e Brhatkathaslokasamgraha b e e n fle sh e d o u t w ith re fe re n c e to la te r ta n tric ritu a l. T h a t is, vidyas a n d th e ir vidyadhara/T m a s te rs a re to so m e e x te n t re c a st in th e im a g e o f c o n te m p o ra n e o u s ta n tric ritu a l a n d ritu a lists . B esid es th e re fe re n c e ab o v e to dakinis, th e fig u re o f th e y o g in l d o e s n o t, h o w ev er, fe a tu re w ith a n y p ro m in e n c e . In c o n tra s t, th e Kathdsaritsagara a ffo rd s a fa sc in a tin g v ie w o f y o g in is fro m a re g io n a n d p e r io d in w h ic h th e ir c u lt w a s h ig h ly p ro m in e n t— e le v e n th -c e n tu ry K ash m ir. In th is tex t, y o g in is ta k e o n m u c h o f th e im a g e ry a n d ro le s o f th e vidyadhari fro m e a rlie r re te llin g s o f th e Brhatkatha.236 In th e Kathdsaritsagara, w e e n c o u n te r y o g in is a s b o th d iv in e a n d c o rp o re a l w o m e n : p o w e rfu l a n d n a m e le s s g ro u p s o f fly in g g o d d e s se s, as w e ll a s re m a rk a b ly h u m a n c h a ra c te rs, b e tw e e n w h ic h , p e r h a p s , little d is tin c tio n w a s in te n d e d .237 T h o se d e p ic te d a s " a c tu a l" w o m e n r a n g e fro m im p e tu o u s , e v e n v ile 234 Brhatkathaslokasamgraha 20.97-98: ityadibahuvrttantam pasyata pretaketakam j yatram yd gacchata drsta sa drsta sthavira mayd || 97 || vatamtile citavahnau vdmahastarpitasruva | hamkarantena mantrena juhvatT narasonitam || 98 || 235 Vasudevahindi 4 (vol. 1), p. 178-79, especially p. 179: ... sampavio piuvanam | dittha ya maya mayamgavuddha kim pi jampamtT \ ("I reached a cremation ground, and saw the elderly tribal woman incanting som e powerful [mantra]"). 236 Though omitted from the present discussion, the same may be said of the Brhatkathdmanjarl, a text closely parallel to the Kathdsaritsagara written not long after it in Kashmir. 2371 am grateful to Isaacson for first directing m y attention to accounts of yoginis in the Kathasaritsagara, beginning with a Sanskrit reading seminar in the autumn of 2002. My awareness of the material has also benefitted from a stimulating article by A delheid Herrmann-Pfandt, which draws on stories of yoginis from the Kathasaritsagara-. "The Good Woman's Shadow: Some Aspects of the Dark Nature of Dakinis and Sakinls in Hinduism," in Cornelia Vogelsanger and Anette Wilke, eds.,

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" w itc h e s " to v irtu o u s a n d a c c o m p lis h e d ta n tric a d e p ts . T h is s p e c tr u m o f c h a ra c te rs a c c o rd s w ith ta x o n o m ie s of y o g in is fro m ta n tric lite ra tu re : in th e Kathasaritsagara, y o g in is a re classifie d , v ario u sly , a s dakinis o r sakim s— lo w ly a n d c ru e l v a rie tie s— w h ile y o g in is w ith o u t s u c h q u a lifie rs a re fre q u e n tly b en e v o le n t. T h e y o g in is o f th e Kathdsaritsagara fo rm a co lo rfu l a s so rtm e n t. In b o o k six w e m e e t o n e n a m e d C itra le k h a , w h o s e p ro w e s s in flig h t fa c ilita te s th e u n io n o f h e r frie n d , th e p rin c e s s U sa, w ith A n ir u d d h a of D v a ra v a tl.2^8 A n o th e r w e ll-m e a n in g y o g in l in s tru c ts h e r frie n d in m a n tra s fo r tu r n in g h e r illicit lo v er in to a m o n k ey , a n d fo r re s to rin g h e r p e t to h u m a n fo r m o n d e m a n d .239 In c o n tra s t, n o te fo r in ­ s ta n c e th e dakinT K a la ra tri, th e g ro te s q u e a n d lu s ty w ife o f a n o rth o d o x b r a h m in te a c h e r (upadhyaya) w h o p o s se ss e s th e p o w e r o f flig h t th r o u g h m a n tra -p ra c tic e a n d c o n s u m p tio n o f h u m a n flesh. S he se c re tly acts as g u ru to a co v en o f dakinis, w h ic h a f u tu r e q u e e n jo in s w ith d is a s tro u s c o n s e q u e n c e s.240 A n o th e r s to ry tells o f a w e a ry tra v e lle r w h o u n k n o w in g ly ac c e p ts th e h o s p ita lity o f a sdkinT. H e th w a r ts h e r a t­ te m p t to u s e e n c h a n te d b a rle y to t u r n h im in to a g o a t, b u t e n d s u p b e in g tu r n e d in to a p e a c o c k b y th e b u tc h e r 's w ife, a " w ic k e d " (dusta) y o g in l.241 In a n o th e r e p is o d e of b o o k six, w e fin d n o t y o g in is, b u t fa lse a c cu satio n s: a je a lo u s q u e e n , a g re e d y fe m a le re n u n c ia n t, a n d clev er b a r b e r c o n s p ire to m a k e th e k in g th in k h is n e w e s t b rid e is s e c re tly a dakinT, w h o su c k s o u t h is v ita ls w h ils t h e sle e p s .242 A d iffe re n t s o rt o f y o ­ g in l is re p re s e n te d b y S a ra b h a n a n a , w h o s e n a m e a n d d e s c rip tio n a re su g g e stiv e o f a th e rio m o rp h ic g o d d e s s ra th e r th a n h u m a n 's o rc e re s s '.243 A n u m b e r o f ta le s in th e Kathasaritsagara p it b e n e v o le n t a n d m alefic y o g in is a g a in s t e a c h o th e r, m u c h a s d o e s th e B rhatkathd-inspired MdlatTmadhava. B ook se v e n in c lu d e s th e s to ry o f a c e rta in B h a v a s a rm a n o f V a ra n a si, w h o h a d a n affair w ith a Wild Goddess in India and Nepal, 39-70. 238 Kathasaritsagara vi.5.1-36. 239 Ibid., vii. 107-18. 240 Ibid., 111.6.102-218. 241 Ibid., xii.4.263-77. 242 Ibid., vi.6, especially 153-80. 243 Ibid., vm .5.123-134. This name means "Sarabha-face," the sarabha being an exotic, mythical beast.

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fickle b ra h m in w o m a n , S o m a d a , a " se c re t y o g in l" (guptayogim , i5 o d ) o f th e w o rs t s o rt— a " p e tty sakinT" (ksudrasakim , 168b). O n e day, in a fit o f je a lo u s a n g e r h e b e a ts her. H id in g h e r ra g e , th e n e x t d a y sh e slip s h is s a c re d th r e a d a r o u n d h is n e c k a n d tu r n s h im in to a n ox.

S o ld a s a b e a s t o f b u rd e n , a n o th e r y o g in l, B a n d h a m o c in i,

s p o ts h im a n d re s to re s h im to h u m a n fo rm . T ra n s fo rm in g th e m s e lv e s in to h o rse s, th e tw o y o g in is d u e l, a n d B h a v a sa rm a n a n d B a n d h a m o c a n i fell S o m a d a .244 In a n ­ o th e r, p a ra lle l e p is o d e , a c e rta in V a m a d a tta d isc o v e rs th a t h is w ife, S a sip ra b h a , is se c re tly b o th a n a d u ltre s s a n d a sakim. C a u g h t in th e ac t w ith a h e rd s m a n , sh e tu r n s h e r e n r a g e d h u s b a n d in to a b u ffa lo , b e a ts h im , a n d sells h im off. A " p e rfe c te d y o ­ g in l," ho w ev er, re c o g n iz e s h im in a n im a l fo rm a n d re s to re s h is h u m a n n e s s . S he g iv es h im h e r o w n d a u g h te r in m a rria g e , s u p p lie s h im w ith e n c h a n te d m u s ta r d s e e d s to e n a c t re v e n g e , a n d in th e e n d , in itia te s h im a n d h is w ife in to th e vidya o f th e g o d ­ d e s s K a la sa m k a rsa m . U p o n th e s a c re d m o u n ta in S rlp a rv a ta , th e ir m a n tra -p ra c tic e ac h ie v es fru itio n , a n d K a la s a m k a rs a m h e rse lf m a n ife sts a n d b e s to w s a m a g ic sw o rd . T h e y b e c o m e vidyadharas.245 In th e s to ry o f K a n d a rp a o f R a tn a p u ra , in Kathasaritsagara x v m .4 , w e e n c o u n te r y o g in is as g ro u p s o f p o w e rfu l, fly in g b e in g s. O n e day, w h e n a t d u s k th e b ra h m in K a n d a rp a g o es to fe tc h w a te r fro m th e riv e r V ena, th e c u r r e n t sw e e p s h im away. H e n e a rly d ro w n s , a w a k e n in g o n th e riv e rb a n k n e a r a d e s e rte d te m p le o f th e M o th e r g o d d e s se s. E n te rin g th e te m p le , h e p ra y s to th e M o th e rs fo r succor. A t n ig h t, fro m a m o n g th e M o th e rs e m e rg e a g ro u p o f fly in g y o g in is w h o ta k e K a n d a rp a u n d e r th e ir p ro te c tio n . L ater, w h ile in flig h t, a n o th e r g ro u p o f y o g in is ac co st th e m , d e s irin g to h a r m K a n d a rp a , a n d in th e scuffle h e falls to th e g ro u n d , lo s t.246 T h is h a s so m e 244 T h is e p is o d e o c cu rs as v u .3 .147-69.

245 Ibid., xil.1.31-72. 246 There are considerable inaccuracies in David White's summary of this episode (Kathasaritsagara 18.4.204-22). In his words, A brahmin named Kandarpa from Ratnapura comes upon a deserted Mother goddess temple (iunya matrdevagrha) in the night. Entering, he sees a brilliant light. He prays to the Mothers to protect him. When the daylight comes, he finds garlands of bones and the skulls of children. He realizes they are from a host of Mothers [i.e., witches]. He later hears the group of Yoginis speaking amongst themselves: "Today w e m ust go to the gathering of the circle (cakramelaka) that is taking place in Cakrapura." The Yoginis

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p a ra lle ls in a s to ry fro m b o o k fo u rte e n .247 A fte r fa ilin g in h is s tu d ie s , a c e rta in N a g a s v a m in sets off fro m P a ta llp u tr a to see th e g o d d e s s V in d h y a v a sin l. In a to w n a lo n g th e way, a h o u se w ife g iv es h im a r e d lo tu s a lo n g w ith th e a lm s h e seeks. T h e la d y o f a n o th e r h o u s e see s h im , a n d ex claim s, " O alas! Y ou h av e b e e n se le c te d b y a y o g in l.

U n d e r th e p re te x t o f a re d flow er, sh e h a s g iv e n y o u a h u m a n h a n d —

lo o k !" 248 A n d so it w as. T h e h o u se w ife s e n d s h im to a b ro w n co w (kapila) in th e h o m e o f a c e rta in D e v a ra k sita ; n e s tle d b e tw e e n h e r h o o v e s, th e d iv in e co w a ffo rd s h im p ro te c tio n th ro u g h th e n ig h t w h e n th e y o g in l a n d h e r co v e n d e s c e n d u p o n h im , se e k in g fle sh a n d b lo o d . N e x t h e see k s th e a id o f a " g re a t P a s u p a ta ," b u t h e to o c a n k e e p th e y o g in is a t b a y o n ly te m p o ra rily , a n d s e n d s h im off to s o m e o n e else. A lo n g th e w ay, th e y o g in is ca tc h N a g a s v a m in a n d w h is k h im off in to th e sky. L ike K a n d a rp a , h e falls to th e g r o u n d w h e n th e re e n s u e s a n a e ria l b a ttle w ith a riv a l g ro u p . H e la n d s in a d e s e rte d p la c e n e a r a te m p le , w h e r e d w e lls a b e a u tif u l yaksinT, S u m itra , c u r s e d to d w e ll a m o n g m o rta ls. S he ta k e s h im a s lo v e r fo r th e d u r a tio n of h e r cu rse. L o o k in g a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e Brhatkatha c o rp u s , it a p p e a rs th a t th e y o g in l b e c o m e s a n in c re a sin g ly im p o r ta n t lo c u s fo r ta le s o f m a g ic a l w o m e n , e n c ro a c h in g find him hiding there, and carry him off w ith th em ... One of their number, named Sumanas, marries him. Leaving the circular gathering of the Yoginis (yoginyascakmmelaka), she carries him away with her up into the sky. Kiss of the Yogim, 213. Compare w ith the sound translation of Charles Tawney, The Ocean o f Story, vol. ix, 57-61. In fact, having been swept away by a river, Kandarpa comes upon the Mother temple at dawn (dinagame), and overcome by exhaustion, sleeps there into the night (205-10). N o reference is m ade to "garlands of bones and the skulls of children;" the night is described as a female ascetic (rajanitdpast) w ho is white w ith the ashes of moonlight, w ho wears a necklace of bones that are the stars, and w hose gleaming skull-bowl is the m oon (agat tarasthimaladhya jyotsnabhutisita tatah \ sasisubhrakapala ca raudrl rajanitapasT, 2 iicd ; perhaps White finds sisu, "child," in SaSiiubhrat). In order not to leave him improtected in the w ild, the assembled yoginis decide to take Kandarpa along for their airborne night journey, and drop him off at the home of a brahmana. It happens that the gentleman's daughter's auspicious period for marriage (lagna) had arrived, but no suitable groom. Kandarpa is promptly married to Sumanas, and w e are given no indication she was but an ordinary yoim g woman (213-20). Late in the night (pascime yame), the yoginis return from their ritual gathering (yoginyas cakramelakat dgatya; White appears to understand yoginyascakramelakat as a compotmd, or else the nominative plural yoginyas as genitive plural). They carry Kandarpa back up with them into the sky, from which he is dropped w hen a battle ensues with a group of yoginis desiring to do him violence (°jihfrsubhih) (221-22). 247 Kathasaritsagara xiv.4.20-61. 248 Ibid., xiv.4.25d-26a: tatratya gehinT ha dhig yoginya svtkrto bhavan || pasya datto nrhastas te raktabjavyajato 'naya.

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u p o n th e te rr ito r y o f th e vidyadhari especially. A n u m b e r o f c o n c e p tu a l c o n tin u itie s lin k th e vidyadhari a n d y o g in l, ab o v e all th e ir c o m m a n d o f m a n tra s , p o w e rs of flig h t a n d s h a p e s h iftin g ,249 a n d th e ir v a rie g a te d tra n s a c tio n s w ith m o rta ls , fo r w h o m th e y p re s e n t b o th d a n g e r a n d access to p o w e rs. W e fin d , fo r in s ta n c e , th e vidyadhari H ira n n a m a ti o f th e Vasudevahindi re c a s t in th e Brhatkathaslokasamgraha as a ta n tric so rceress, D h a n a m a tl, w h ile in th e Kathasaritsagara, th e vidyadhari B h a d ra is also re fe rre d to as a yogesvari.250 N o te also h o w in th e Kathasaritsagara s to ry o f V a m a d a tta , a p e rfe c te d y o g in i (siddhayogini) ta k e s o n ro le s p la y e d b y th e vidyadhari in e a rlie r re te llin g s: th e y o g in l b e s to w s h e r o w n d a u g h te r in m a rria g e to th e h e ro , a s d id fo r in s ta n c e H ira n n a m a ti/D h a n a m a ti, a n d s h e fa cilitate s th e h e r o 's m a s te ry o f vidyas, ju s t a s d o H ira n n a m a ti's d a u g h te r a n d o th e r vidyadharis. In th is case th e vidya is th e m a n tra of K a la sa m k a rsa m , a fo rm o f K ali im p o r ta n t in th e K ra m a c u lt o f c o n te m p o ra n e o u s K a sh m ir.251 Its fru it, h o w ev er, re m a in s th a t w h ic h th e o rig in a l Brhatkatha w o u ld h av e a ttr ib u te d to m a s te ry o f vidyas: V a m a d a tta a n d h is w ife b e c o m e vidyadharas.252 W h ile th e Kathasaritsagara’s y o g in is h a v e d ire c t c o n tin u ity w ith th e e a rlie r fig u re o f th e vidyadhari, w e a lso fin d yaksinis, a class of d e m i-g o d d e s s w ith s tro n g c o n n e c ­ tio n s to tre e s a n d th e n a tu r a l w o rld , re c a s t as y o g in is. N o te th a t th e s to rie s o f K a n ­ d a r p a a n d V a m a d a tta , s u m m a riz e d ab o v e, b o th in v o lv e th e th e m e o f y o g in is d r o p ­ p in g a m a n to th e g r o u n d w h e n th e y a re a c c o ste d in th e sk y b y riv a l g ro u p s. T h is a p p e a r s to re c a s t ta le s o f yaksinis fro m e a rlie r Brhatkatha v ersio n s: in th e Vasudevahi­ ndi, in th e b e g in n in g s o f c h a p te rs five a n d fo u rte e n , th e h e ro fa b ric a te s sto rie s of h a v in g b e e n d r o p p e d fro m th e sk y w h e n th e re e n s u e d a scuffle o v er h im b e tw e e n tw o yaksinis 253 T h is is o f p a r tic u la r in te re st, fo r it illu s tra te s th e b r e a d th o f th e c a te ­ 249 W h ile b o th sh a re th e a b ility to c h a n g e fo rm s, y o g in is m ore ty p ic a lly take o n a n im a l form , as

discussed in the introduction to this dissertation. Cf. Kaulajnananirnaya 23, quoted later in this chapter (n. 309). Vidyadharis, on the other hand, more often transform themselves by taking on human guise; note e.g. the case of Dhanamatf/Hirannamati, mentioned above, w ho along w ith her daughter takes on the form of a tribal woman (mdtahgi). 250 Ibid., 111.4.378. 251 On Kali as Kalasamkarsam, see Sanderson, "Mandala and Agamic Identity in the Trika of Kash­ mir," 188-204. 252 Kathasaritsagara x i i . 1.64-68. 253 For example, in chapter fourteen, after being dropped by the w icked vidyadhara Manasavega, the

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io 6 g o ry 'y o g in l', w h ic h c o u ld e n c o m p a s s e a rth ly w o m e n o f p o w e r a s w e ll a s g o d d e sse s. T h is a lso re in fo rc e s th e d e g re e to w h ic h m u ltip lic ity w a s in te g ra l to c o n c e p tio n s o f y o g in is: p a irs o f riv a l yaksinis b e c o m e c a st as fe u d in g g ro u p s o f y o g in is.

T H E Y A SASTILAKA OF SO M A D EV A SU R I

B ey o n d th e n in th ce n tu ry , re fe re n c e s to y o g in is b e c o m e c o m m o n in lite ra ry so u rc es, a n d a c o m p re h e n s iv e re v ie w is b e y o n d th e p re s e n t stu d y . O n e w o rk m e ritin g p a r ­ tic u la r m e n tio n is th e Yasastilaka, c o m p o s e d b y a Ja in a a u th o r, S o m a d e v a s u ri, in th e S ak a y e a r 881 (i.e. 959

c .e

.).254 T h e Yasastilaka's fra m e s to ry c o n c e rn s th e b a ttle -lu s ty

a n d p a s s io n a te M a ra d a tta , a k in g w h o , a d v is e d b y a K a u la g u r u (kulacarya) n a m e d V lra b h a ira v a , p la n s a m a ssiv e sacrifice to th e g o d d e s s C a n d a m a rl. T h ro u g h th is h e s e e k s to a tta in a m a g ic a l s w o rd a n d th e re b y b e c o m e lo r d o f th e vidyadharas.255 O n th e a p p o in te d day, a v e rita b le zo o o f sacrificial a n im a ls is a s se m b le d , w h ile th e k in g h im s e lf is to slay tw o h u m a n v ictim s. U n b e k n o w n s t to th e m o n a rc h , th o s e b ro u g h t b e fo re h im in th e te m p le a re h is o w n n e p h e w a n d niece, w h o h a d le ft h o m e as ch il­ d r e n to b e c o m e Ja in a ascetics. C h a s te n e d b y th e ir tra n q u il p re se n c e , th e s o v e re ig n se ts d o w n h is s w o rd a n d lis te n s to h is n e p h e w n a r ra te th e life o f k in g Y a so d h a ra— th e co re n a rra tiv e o f th e Yasastilaka. In th e e n d , M a r a d a tta a b a n d o n s h is v io le n t w a y s a n d b e c o m e s a re n u n c ia n t. W ith its th e m e o f a n a rro w ly -a v e rte d h u m a n sacrifice to hero says, aham jakkhinihim dohim maham tumam. ti bhamdamtlhim padimukko agase iham padio ("I fell here, released into the sky by two yaksinis threatening 'you're mine!' "). Vol. 2, p. 229. 2541read primarily from the editio princeps: Yasastilaka o f Somadev Suri, with the commentary Candrika of Srutadeva Suri, ed. Pandit Sivadatta and Vasudeva Laxman Sastrl Panasikar (2 vols.). The more recent edition is that of Sundaralala Sastrl, Srlmatsomadevasuri-viracitam Yasastilakacampu Mahakdvyam. This work has been the subject of a rich and useful study by Krishna Kanta Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, or Somadeva's Yasastilaka and Aspects o f Jainism and Indian Thought and Culture in the Tenth Century. On the dating of the text, see ibid., 2. 255 sa p u n a r ekada n rp a tir atm arajadhanyam eva candam aridevatayah puratah sakalasattvopasarnharat svayam

ca sakalalaksanopapannamanusyamithunavadhad vidyadharalokavijayinah karavalasya siddhir bhavatlti virabhairavanamakat kulacaryakad upasrutya khecanlokalocandvalokanakutuhalitacetas tathaiva pratipannatadaradhanavidhih . .. ("Once, the king heard from a kuto-master named Vlrabhairava that by sacrificing all [sorts of] creatures before the goddess Candamarl in one's ow n capital city, and oneself slaying a pair of humans endowed w ith all the auspicious marks, one gains the power of a magical sword that gives victory over the vidyadharas. His heart m ade eager to gaze into the eyes of the flying [vidyadhara-] wom en, and having learned the procedure for worshipping her [Candamarl], . .. "). Yasastilaka 1, vol. 1, p. 44.

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th e G o d d e ss , th is w o rk h e n c e a p p e a rs to e c h o th e M alatim adhava o r th e la tte r 's o w n so u rc es. R efe ren c es to S a iv ism in th e Yasastilaka a tte s t to K a u la g o d d e s s c u lts in th e te n th ce n tu ry , a p e r io d fro m w h ic h in a n y case th e re su rv iv e s a b u n d a n t K a u la lite ra ­ tu re .256 U n s u rp ris in g ly , th e te x t's Ja in a a u th o r p ro v id e s a p o le m ic a l c h a ra c te riz a tio n of th e K a u la — w h a t h e re fe rs to a s th e te a c h in g s o f th e " c la n m a s te rs " (kulacarya)— c o n n e c tin g it in trin sic a lly w ith b lo o d sacrifice a n d th e c o n s u m p tio n o f fo r b id d e n su b sta n c e s. S o m a d e v a s u ri also m e n tio n s a specific K a u la sect, re fe rrin g tw ic e to th e "T rik a s y ste m " (trikamata)— th e im p o r ta n t c u lt o f th e g o d d e s s e s P a ra , P a ra p a ra , a n d A p a ra .257 T h e te x t a lso a llu d e s to p ra c tic e s c o n n e c te d w ith yoginis: a sp y o f th e k in g Y a so d h a ra d is g u ise s h im se lf as a co lo rfu l a n d se e d y S aiva, a n a n tin o m ia n siddha w h o m im ic s S iva in h is fo rm as th e trib a l h u n ts m a n (kirata), a n d w h o , o n a c c o u n t of c o m m u n io n w ith y o g in is, is a d v e rtiz e d as p o s s e s s in g a s to n is h in g k n o w le d g e a n d p o w e rs .25® H is " c o m m u n io n w ith y o g in is" (mahayoginTsahgati) u n d o u b te d ly signifies 256 Handiqui identifies and discusses numerous references to Saivism in the Yasastilaka, which concern Pasupatas, the Saivasiddhanta, and the Kaula. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, 199-219, 224-29, and 35460. 257 One reference to the trikamata occurs in a brief doxography of view s on liberation: saroesu peydpeyabhaksyabhakysadisu nihsankacittad vrttad iti kulacaryakah \ tathd ca trikamatoktih madiramodameduravadanatstarasarasatprasannahrdayah savyapdrsvavinivesitasaktih saktimudrasanadharah svayam umdmahesvarayamdnah krsnaya sarvamsvaram [em. (silent) Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, 204 (n. 3); sarvanC Ed.] aradhayed iti ("According to the kula-gurus, [liberation transpires] due to acting w ith a mind free of inhibition with regard to all that is considered fit or imfit for drinking, and fit or unfit for eating, etc. Hence the saying of the Trika system, 'having one's heart (

bindu

1 Sadasiva

ni$kalajnanaugha

l

The Vimalatantra o f 125,000 verses

Snkantha

The Right Stream

£ Bhairava

The Root Tantra

The M iddle Stream The Left

y The G oddess

y Humankind

The Bhairavatantras o f Four PTfhas Mudrapitha MandalapTfha Mantrapitha Vidyapftha

Ten scriptures of the sivabheda

Eighteen The Vamatantras scriptures of the rudrabheda

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264

T h ro u g h th e L o rd S a d asiv a, w h o fo llo w s b o th p a th s [viz., th e p u r e a n d im p u re ], all th is [sc rip tu re ] e m e rg e d fro m th is m a s s o f s c r ip tu ra l w is d o m , u n d o u b te d ly . [323cd-24ab] F o r th e p u r e w ay, th e im p u re , a n d lik e w ise th e [m ixed] p u re -im p u r e , w e re ta u g h t p u r e [tantras], so m e th a t a re im p u re , a n d o th e rs th a t a re p u re -im p u re . H a v in g th e se d iv is io n s , S adaS iva ta u g h t a v a rie ty o f s e p a ra te m a n tra s w ith n u m e ro u s e la b o ra tio n s fo r th e fo llo w ­ e rs o f b o th [th e p u r e a n d im p u re ] w ay s. [324cd-26] B u t th is [sc rip tu re ] is th e m a s s o f s c rip tu ra l w is d o m , e x is tin g a s [its] v e ry tr u e n a tu re . S ince it is se c o n d to n o n e , it is th e re fo re k n o w n as 's u p re m e ly n o n d u a l'.84 [326-27] P u re , im p u re , a n d m ix e d c o m p ris e th e th re e fo ld sta te s , u n d o u b te d ly . T he s u p re m e m a s s o f s c rip tu ra l w is d o m re m a in s ta u g h t in a c c o rd a n c e to th e sta te .85 [328] S ince th e m a n tra s [an d ] th e trip le u n iv e rse , w ith its a n im a te a n d in a n i­ m a te [beings], c a m e fro m th is, [and] th e tantras, w ith o u t re m a in d e r, h av e d iv id e d fro m th is, it is th e re fo re ca lle d th e P rim o rd ia l R o o t T a n tra (adyam m ulatantram ), w ith o u t d o u b t. F ro m th is e m e rg e d , O g o d d e s s , th e B h airav a[tan tra ] w ith fo u r d iv isio n s {catuspltham bhairavam). [329-30] T h e re fo re o n e in ita te d in to th is is in itia te d in to all th e tantras, p u re , im p u re , a n d m ix e d . A b o u t th is, th e re is n o n e e d fo r d e lib e ra tio n . [331] H e re to o th e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n th e p rim o rd ia l s c r ip tu ra l w is d o m a n d th e tex t o n e a c tu a lly re a d s is o b fu sc a te d : th e p ro x im a te p ro n o u n (ayam ) d e sc rib e s th e jnanaugha, a s th o u g h it is th e p re s e n t tex t, w h ile th e catuspltham bhairavam— i.e. th e BraYa— is re fe rr e d to a s a n o th e r s c rip tu re a lto g eth er. T h ro u g h s u c h rh e to ric a l claim s, th e BraYa c o n tin u a lly in sc rib e s u p o n itse lf th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l id e n tity o f th e p rim o rd ia l s c rip tu ra l w isd o m . F u rth e r e v id e n c e o n th is q u e s tio n e m e rg e s in c h a p te r x x x v m , w h ic h , e n title d "A D e fin itiv e J u d g m e n t o n th e S tre a m s o f R e v ela tio n " (srotanirnayapatala), is d e v o te d to d e fin in g th e S aiva ca n o n . Its a c c o u n t a rtic u la te s m o re c lea rly th e n a tu r e o f th e R o o t T a n tra in re la tio n to th e jnanaugha, th e tw o o f w h ic h a re n o t in th is case m u ­ tu a lly id e n tifie d .

F ro m th e jnanaugha e m e rg e th e tantras in th re e stre a m s, w h ic h

catus0 ] corr.; catuh Byq B y u in 324b transmits jhanoghdsmd, which I understand to mean asmaj jnanaughat; cf. 329a. The text

should probably be corrected to jnanaughasman, with metri causa contraction of jnanaughat. On elision of the final -t of the ablative in the BraYa, see the annotation ad 1.5 in the critical edition. 84 There is here a play on the words dvaya ("two," and "dual") and dvitiya ("second"). 85 The implication here is that scripture is redacted from its primordial source in accordance with the differences in the speakers and audience—i.e. prcchakasrayabhedena, as stated in xxxvm. 14a (quoted below). Cf. Svacchandatantra 8.32b, referring to adharabheda, "difference in the locus [of revelation]."

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265 S a d a siv a te a c h e s to S rik a n th a . T h ese c o rre s p o n d to th e p u re , im p u re , a n d m ix e d w a y s, a n d to th e b h a ira v a ta n tra s of th e R ig h t s tre a m , s id d h a n ta ta n tr a s o f th e M id d le s tre a m , a n d v a m a ta n tr a s o f th e L eft s tre a m , respectively. A t th e ro o t o f th e B hairav a s tre a m lies th e m u la ta n tr a , th e B h a ira v a ta n tra o f F o u r D iv is io n s (c a tu s p lth a m . . . ta n tr a m b h a ir a v a s a m jn ita m , i9 c d ):86

P ro c la m a tio n of th e ta n tr a s is d o n e a c c o rd in g to d iffe re n c e s in [their] in ­ te rlo c u to rs a n d re c ip ie n ts. T h ro u g h th re e stre a m s [of re v elatio n ] fo r th e p u re , im p u re , a n d m ix e d , re sp ectiv ely , th e ta n tr a s e m e rg e d fro m th e m a ss of s c rip tu ra l w is d o m , [an d ] w e re sp o k e n . [ i4 - i5 a b ] T h e w is d o m is n o t in all re s p e c ts u n d iv id e d ; ra th e r th e ta n tr a s ex ist w ith d iffe re n c e s in ritu a l for th e p u re , im p u re , a n d m ix e d , O fa ir w o m a n . [ i5 c d - i6 a b ] T h e s u p re m e m a s s o f s c rip tu ra l w is d o m e m e rg e s fo rth in th re e s tre a m s , s itu a te d o n th e left, rig h t, a n d m id d le w ith m a n ifo ld d iv isio n s. S e v e n ty -m illio n m a n tra s e m e rg e fro m th e R ig h t s tre a m , w ith a p ro fu s io n o f m a n ifo ld ta n tr a s b a s e d u p o n it, h a v in g d iffe ren c es in ritu a l. E v en w ith in th is [stream ], th e re ­ c ip ie n ts vary, b e in g p u re , im p u re , a n d m ix ed . [ i 6 c d - i8 ] V ia th e w a y of th e R ig h t s tre a m a ro se th e ta n tr a ca lle d th e B h a ira v a , p o s s e s s in g th e fo u r 86 BraYa xxxvm i4-26ab: prcchakasrayabhedena tantranam kvrtanam krtam \ suddhasuddhavimisrebhyas tribhih srotair yathakramam || 14 || vinirgatani tantrani jhanaughad bhasitani tu \ nabhinnam saroatha jm narn kriyabhedaih sthitani tu || 15 || suddhasuddhavimisresu tantrani varavarnini \ jnanaughah paramo yas tu tribhih srotair vinirgatah || 16 || vamadaksinamadhyastho nanabhedavyavasthitah \ sapta kotyas tu mantranam daksinaya vinirgatah j| 17 || tam asritya kriyabhedair nanatantrapravistaraih \ tatrapi asrayo bhinnah suddhasuddhavimisritah || 18 || daksinasrotamargena kriyabhedavyavasthitam \ catuspltham samutpannam tantram bhairavasamjnitam || 19 || daksinasrotasambhutam sarvam asmad vinirgatam | 14b tantranam ] em.; tantranam BYa 14c vimisrebhyas ] con.; vimisrebhyah By“ 14c! tribhih ] con.; trbhih Byu srotair ] em.; srotrai Byq 15b jnanaughad ] corr.; jnanoghad Byq 15 sarvatha ] em.; sarvvartha By“ 13d °bhedaih ] conj.; °bhede By“ 16c jnanaughah ] corr.; jnanoghah By“ i6 d tribhih ] corr.; trbhih By“ srotair ] em.; srotrair Bya 1 7 b °vyavasthitah ] em.; °vyavasthitah Bya 17c °kotyas ] em.; “kotyas Bya 18a asritya ] con.; a§rtya BYa “bhedair ] conj.; “bhede 19a °srota° ] em.; °srotra° By“ 19b 0vyavasthitam ] em.; “vyavasthitah By“ 19c catus° ] corr.; catuh° B ya 20a ° sro ta ° ] em.; °sro tra ° By11 20b sa rv a m ] con.; s a rv v a m m B y“

In referring to the "right" stream of scriptural revelation, the BraYa alternates between the masculine daksina and feminine daksina. In 13d, Byq transmits kriyabhede, which appears to require em endation to the instrumental °bhedaih. Cf. xxxvm.33ab, vinirgatani tantrani kriyabhedena caiva hi, where however the instrumental is singular. Cf. also kriyabhedavibhagasah, BraYa 1.41b. In 15c, nabhinnam w ith its double negative is som ewhat suspect; one might consider na bhinnam. It is possible that the line intended som ething along the lines of "scriptural w isdom [or 'doctrine'] is singular, but the tantras are divided according to differences in ritual." In 18a, tam probably refers to the daksina-stream, but one might also consider tan [mantran].

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pithas [or Catusplthabhairavatantra], a n d a r ra n g e d a c c o rd in g to d iv isio n s in ritu a l. E v e ry th in g a ris e n fro m th e R ig h t s tre a m e m e rg e d fro m this. [i9 -2 o a b ] T h e p a s s a g e im m e d ia te ly fo llo w in g n a r ra te s th e g e n e sis o f th e L eft a n d M id d le stre a m s. A lth o u g h n o t sp ecifically d e s ig n a te d a s th e m ulatantra, th e te x t BraYa x x x v m d e ­ sc rib e s as catuspltham bhairavam, id e n tifie d e ls e w h e re w ith th e BraYa itself, fu n c tio n s as th e R o o t S c rip tu re , in s o fa r a s it is th e s o u rc e o f th e s c rip tu re s o f th e B h airav a S tre a m in its fo u r d iv isio n s— th e m antra-, mandala-, m udra-, a n d vidyaplthas— w h ic h it a lo n e c o n ta in s w ith in itself.87 A s s u c h , it o c c u p ie s a p o s itio n in th e c a n o n ab o v e all b u t th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l jnanaugha o r Vimala. In th e c o n c e p tio n o f th is c h a p te r, a fte r S a d a siv a tra n s m its th e th re e s c rip tu ra l s tre a m s to S rik a n th a , th e la tte r tra n s m its th e c a n o n to th e w o rld in te n s tre a m s in th e te n d ire c tio n s, w ith tantras b y th e m illio n s ( t a b l e 5.2).88 In th is te n -s tre a m m o d e l, th e th re e p r im a r y s tre a m s re m a in la rg e ly th e 87 BraYa xxxvm 29cd-33ab: daksinena tu vaktrena daksindsrotasambhavam |j 29 || catuspTthaprabhedena suddhasuddhavibheditam \ prcchakasrayabhedena bahudha samvyavasthitam || 3o || vidyasritani yani syur vidyapTtham varanane \ mantrasrtani yani syur mantrapltham tathaiva ca || 31 [| mudrasrtani yani syur mudrapTtham tu suvrate \ mandalapithakani syur mandalam pTtham ucyate || 32 j| vinirgatani tantrani kriyabhedena caiva hi \ 29c! °srotasambhavam ] em.', °srotrasambhavah By“ 30a catus0 ] corr.) catu° BYa 31a syur ] em .) syu By° 31c syur ] em.) syu By“ 3 id °pltham ] em.) °pltha By° 32a syur ] em.) syu By11 32b °pltham ] em.) °pltham B y a 32c syur ] em.) syu BYa 32d pltham ] em.) pltha By° 33a tantra­ ni ] corr.) tantrani B y a

"Through [Sadasiva's] right face arises the daksinasrotas [of the bhairavatantras], divided into the pure and impure, w ith division of Four Pithas, existing m anifoldly because of differences am ong the interlocutors and audiences. Those based upon vidya-mantras com­ prise the Vidyapltha, O fair woman, and likewise, those based upon mantras comprise the Mantrapltha. Those based upon mudras comprise the Mudrapltha, O pious woman. The ones belonging to the Seat of Mandalas are called the Mandalapitha. And [thus] did emerge the tantras, w ith differences in ritual (kriyabhedena)." In 32c, mandalapithakani appears to exhibit metrical lengthening, thus avoiding the fault of short sylla­ bles in both the second and third positions. 88 BraYa xxxvm.84-86: adimo jnanasandohas tribhih srotair vinirgatah \ sadasivena devena srlkanthaya prabhasitah || 84 || sapadajnanasandohah srikanthena mahayase \ dasasrotavibhagena bhasitah sadhakecchaya || 85 ||

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sam e. H o w ev er, th e siddhantatantras b e c o m e d is trib u te d a m o n g five stre a m s, w ith th e u p w a r d face o f S a d a siv a re v e a lin g s/ua-di v isio n tantras, a n d fo u r s tre a m s in th e in te rm e d ia te d ire c tio n s re v e a lin g ru d ra -d iv isio n tantras. T h e e a s te rn face o f S a d a siv a is s a id to te a c h th e V edic re v e la tio n , w h ile th e " d o w n w a r d " s tre a m is a lso o f c o n ­ s id e ra b le in te re st, fo r h e re th e BraYa p la c e s th e te x ts it c o n s id e rs le a s t w o rth y of v e n e ra tio n : tre a tise s o n alchem y, m a g ic a l h e rb s , ex o rcism , a n d s n a k e b ite cu re; last, a n d p e r h a p s le a st, a re th e tantras o f th e V aisnavas (see

tables

4.2-4).

T a b l e 5.2: The Ten Streams of Revelation according to BraYa xxxvm F A C E O F S A D A S IV A

P R E S ID IN G S A K T I

D IR E C T IO N

S C R IP T U R A L C A T E G O R Y

S o u th e rn N o r th e r n U p w a rd W e ste rn E a s te rn E a ste rn S o u th e rn W e ste rn N o r th e r n

D a k sin a V arn a M adhyam a V arn a a n d M a d h y a m a V arn a a n d M a d h y a m a

[S] [N] [U p] [W] [E] E, SE

bhairavatantras vam atantras sivabheda [;rudrabheda?] vedas, etc. (vedadm i) rudrabheda rudrabheda rudrabheda rudrabheda rudrabheda

n

/

a

?

s, sw W, N W N , [NE?] D ow n

T h is th re e - a n d te n -s tre a m m o d e l is u n u s u a l, a n d p ro b a b ly arch aic; w h a t a c tu a lly b e c o m e s n o rm a tiv e is a fiv e -stre a m m o d e l o f S aiva re v e la tio n , in w h ic h th e p rim a ry th re e stre a m s a re a u g m e n te d b y th e lo w ly bhutatantras, in th e w e st, a n d garudatantras koti koti pravistaraih kalpakalpasahasrakaih \ pracodito mahadevi tadvidair bahudha punah || 86 || 84a sandohas ] em.; sandehas By“ 84b srotair ] em.; srotrair 84d prabhasitah ] em.; prabhasitam By“ 85b m ahayase ] corr.; mahayase By“ 85a "sandohah ] em.; °sandehah Bya 85c °srota° ] em.; °srotra° Bya 83d bhasitah ] em.; bhasitam By11

"The primordial mass of Wisdom emerged forth in three streams. The Lord Sadasiva taught it to Srikantha. Srikantha, O woman of great renown, taught the mass of scriptural w isdom (1) having [one hundred] and a quarter [thousand verses] (?), through divisions of ten streams, according w ith the w ishes of sadhakas. Those w ho learned these further revealed [the w isdom ] manifoldy, w ith m illions and m illions of elaborations, (1) and kalpatexts by the thousands (?)." The interpretation of sapadajnanasandohah (85a) is uncertain. I have taken this as an abbreviation of sapadalaksajhanasandoha (jhanasandoha meaning jnanaugha), i.e. the "mass of scriptural w isdom measur­ ing 125,000 verses;" however, it is conceivable that sapada here means "having verse-quarters," i.e. actual text in verse. Of linguistic interest in this passage is the thematized fl-stem tatvida, for tadvid.

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in th e ea st; th e s e h av e a s th e ir re sp e c tiv e c o n c e rn s e x o rc ism a n d th e m a g ic a l c u re of sn a k e b ite . A n d a lth o u g h th e R o o t S c rip tu re , th e Bhairava Tantra o f Four D ivisions, h a s h e re a r tic u la te d fo r it a c o m p e llin g p o s itio n w ith in th e c a n o n , n e v e r in th is c h a p te r is a re la tio n s h ip o f id e n tity w ith th e BraYa s ta te d directly. In fact, th e BraYa a p p e a rs to h a v e a h u m b le p o s itio n in th is a c c o u n t o f th e c a n o n , b e in g m e n tio n e d o n ly as th e th ir d o f e ig h t yam alatantras in th e V id y a p lth a -d iv is io n o f th e bhairavatantras. T h e c lo sin g v e rse s o f th e BraYa p ro p o s e w h a t se e m s to b e a n o th e r v a ria tio n o n th e c o n c e p tio n o f its 'd e s c e n t'. In a g re e m e n t w ith c h a p te r o n e , th e tw e lv e -th o u s a n d v e rse BraYa e m e rg e s fro m th e Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-Thousand. H o w ­ ever, th e BraYa is also s a id to b e th e u ltim a te e sse n c e o f a tantra o f o n e b illio n v e rse s.89 T h is m ig h t im p ly th a t th e b illio n -v e rse te x t fo rm s th e so u rc e o f th e 125,000v e rse s c rip tu re , th is in t u r n b e in g th e s o u rc e o f th e BraYa; e lse w h e re , ho w ev er, th e laksapadadhika tantra is s a id to e m e rg e fro m th e u n d iffe re n tia te d to ta lity o f s c rip tu ra l w is d o m (niskalajhanaugha). B o th sc h e m e s o f c o u rse a g re e in p o s itin g th re e f u n d a ­ m e n ta l lev els o f o rig in a ry sc rip tu re : g a rg a n tu a n , 125,000 v e rse s, a n d 12,000 verses. In v o k in g th e a u th o rity o f a n in ta n g ib le U r-w is d o m a n d c la im in g fo r itse lf th e s ta tu s o f m ulatantra, th e BraYa p o s itio n s itse lf a t th e a p e x o f a c tu a l a n d p o ss ib le te x ts w ith in th e p a r a m e te rs o f e x istin g m o d e ls o f th e c a n o n .

'S c rip tu ra l w is d o m '

(jhana) is a tra n s c e n d e n ta l esse n ce w h ic h d e s c e n d s in s tre a m s fro m a p rim o rd ia l so u rc e , ta k in g o n c o n c re te fo rm a c c o rd in g to th e ca p a c itie s o f its v a rio u s re d a c to rs a n d a u d ie n c e s. T h e se lin g u istic m a n ife s ta tio n s o f s c rip tu re a re p ro v isio n a l, a n d th e c a n o n fu n d a m e n ta lly a n o p e n one. P o ssib ilitie s fo r n e w re v e a le d te x ts a re e n d le s s , e a c h c o n ta in in g w ith in itse lf th e e sse n c e o f w h a t p re c e d e s. T his m o d el of revelation dictates that a n e w s c rip tu re claim for itse lf ci p riv ileg ed p o s itio n o n a h ie ra rc h ic a l scale o f tex ts, a p ro c e ss w h ic h in v o lv es, if n ecessary , re ­ c o n fig u ra tio n a n d e x te n s io n o f m o d e ls o f th e c a n o n a n d th e ir im p lic it h ie ra rc h ie s. A s th e R o o t T an tra, th e BraYa c la im s to b e u n iq u e ly reflectiv e o f th e p rim o rd ia l w is ­ 89 See chapter 4, n. 27.

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269 d o m . B eing th e s o u rc e a n d e sse n ce o f th e V id y a p lth a , it p la c e s itse lf a t th e h e a d of th e fo u r-fo ld (catuspltha) c a n o n of bhairavatantras, w h ic h in t u r n it p la c e s a s h ig h e s t o f th e th re e s tre a m s o f S aiva re v elatio n . A n d in b r o a d e r s e c ta ria n te rm s , its a d d i­ tio n a l ta x o n o m y o f te n s c rip tu ra l s tre a m s p o s itio n s th e BraYa a b o v e th e o rth o d o x V eda, th e V aisnava P a n c a ra tra , a n d so fo rth . M o s t d is tin c tiv e a b o u t its a rtic u la tio n of a p la c e in th e c a n o n , h o w ev er, is th e la y e rin g o f th e BraYa's id en tity . D ra w in g u p o n th e n o tio n o f s c rip tu re a s a n e sse n ce e x istin g o n a sca le o f te x ts, th e BraYa c o n tin u a lly b lu rs th e b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e n itse lf a n d 'h i g h e r ' lev els o f th e s c rip tu ra l w is d o m . T h is b e g in s w ith c h a p te r o n e 's re v e la tio n n a rra tiv e : th e te x t o p e n s w ith th e G o d d e ss s ta tin g th a t, h a v in g le a r n t th e m ulatantra, sh e n o w d e s ire s to h e a r th e Vimala fro m w h ic h it e m e rg e d . B h a ira v a 's n a r ra tio n m o re o v e r is c o n c e rn e d p rim a rily w ith th e d e s c e n t o f th e Vimala, a n d th is— n o t th e tw e lv e -th o u s a n d v erse BraYa— is in fact w h a t h e p ro m is e s to te a c h h er.90 T h ro u g h o u t th e text, re fe re n c e s to th e BraYa " a s " th e R o o t T an tra, th e Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-Thousand, a n d th e Vimala, th e b o u n d a r ie s o f w h ic h a re n e v e r c o m p le te ly clear, se rv e to a rtic u la te m u ltip le levels of id e n tity : it is b u t o n e o f sev e ral yam alatantras, b u t a lso th e R o o t S c rip tu re o f th e e n tire B h airav a s tre a m , h a v in g m o re o v e r a s its h ig h e s t e x isten c e th e p rim o rd ia l s o u rc e of s c r ip tu re itself. BraYa is b y n o m e a n s u n iq u e in u tiliz in g th e c o n c e p t o f m ulatantra. T he id e a o f a v a s t s c rip tu re as th e so u rc e o f te x ts o n a sm aller, m o re h u m a n scale is a tte s te d in b o th S aiva a n d B u d d h is t ta n tric so u rc e s, a n d s im ila r c o n c e p tio n s a re fo u n d in S a n sk rit te x ts o f a v a rie ty o f g en res. Id e a s o f a d iv in e -s c a le s o u rc e te x t a b o u n d in th e purana c o rp u s , w h ile th e Mahabharata itse lf is s o m e tim e s s a id to ex ist a m o n g th e g o d s in a v e rs io n o f m illio n s o f v e rse s.91 N o te also , fo r in sta n c e , in th e m e d ­ 90 Cf. BraYa 1.42-44, especially. 91 On the notion of an Ur-purana, both in the puranas themselves and colonial-period Indology, see Ludo Rocher, The Puranas, 41-47. It seems probable to me that the puranic notion of a mulasamhita has influenced the notion mulatantras. As for the Mahabharata, note for example two verses found in som e manuscripts of Svargarohariaparvan 5 (quoted on p. 29 in the apparatus of the critical edition), which speak of the Mahabharata as having an Ur-text of six m illion verses, a three-million verse recension in the world of gods (devaloka), versions of one and a half and 1.4 m illion verses am ong the Ancestors (pitr) and the nagas and yaksas, respectively, as w ell as the 100,000-verse text known to men.

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ical lite ra tu re , th a t th e Susrutasam hita c la im s o rig in s fro m a te x t o f 100,000 v erses c o m p o s e d b y B ra h m a h im self, w h ic h w a s d iv id e d a n d a b r id g e d fo r th e g o o d o f a sh o rt-liv e d a n d d u ll-w itte d h u m a n ity .92 In th e B u d d h is t tra d itio n , th e e x e g etical tr a ­ d itio n o f th e C a k ra s a m v a ra cycle o f yoginTtantras co n c eiv es o f a R o o t S c rip tu re o f o n eh u n d r e d th o u s a n d v e rse s as th e s o u rc e o f th e Laghusam varatantra o r Herukabhidhana.93 C o m m e n ta to ria l lite ra tu re o f th e H e v a jra cycle a lso in v o k e s a fa b u lo u s ly la rg e R o o t T a n tra ,94 w h ile th e K a la c a k ra tra d itio n p u r p o r ts to h av e th e lo s t Paramadibuddha as its o rig in a l sc rip tu re ; th e e x ta n t Kalacakratantra is b u t a n " a b rid g e d tantra" (th e Laghukdlacakratantra), m u c h as is th e Laghucakrasamvaratantra.95 A m o n g e a rly S aiva sc rip tu re s , th e Svacchandatantra p ro fe s s e s d e s c e n t fro m a v e r­ s io n o f a b illio n v erses, w h ic h p o s e d u n d e r s ta n d a b le o b sta c le s fo r s h o rt-liv e d m o r­ tals. L ike th e m ulatantra th e BraYa d e sc rib e s, th e o rig in a l Svacchandatantra c o n ta in e d w ith in itse lf all fo u r d iv is io n s (pitha) o f th e B h airav a c a n o n .96 T h e c o n c e p tio n o f R o o t 92 Susrutasamhita 1.1.6. This case was brought to m y attention by Isaacson. 93 Cf. Bhavabhatta's remarks on Laghusamvaratantra 1.1, commenting on its opening phrase, athato rahasyam vaksye: bhagavan sncakrasamvaradhimuktdnam arthaya laksaparimanan mulatantrat tad [laghusamvaratantram] dkrsya desayate... mulatantradesanayd anantaram mulatantram evakarTkrtya rahasyam va k sy e iti sambandhah. Sarnath edition, p. 3. Similarly, Vajrapani makes numerous references in the LaghutantratTka to the Root Tantra as Laksabhidhana, the "One-Hundred Thousand Verse [Heruka]Abhidhana Tantra." 94 Although conceptions of the Hevajra vistaratantra or mulatantra are diverse, perhaps m ost com ­ mon is that of a Hevajratantra five-hundred thousand verses in extent, from w hich the received text was drawn. Isaacson, lecture handout, "The Problem of the Lost 'Root-Tantra' of the Hevajratantra," University of Pennsylvania, February 2001. 93 On the subject of the Paramadibuddha, the Root Scripture of the Kalacakra cycle, see John Newm an, "The Outer Wheel of Time: Vajrayana Buddhist Cosm ology in the Kalacakra Tantra," 118; and especially Francesco Sferra, "Constructing the W heel of Time. Strategies for Constructing a Tradition," 255-273. Sferra also mentions the case of the Yogimsahcaratantra and its references to a mulatantra; ibid., 268, 96 Svacchandatantra i-4cd-7 (ksts edition): yat tvaya kathitam mahyam svacchandam paramesvara || 4 jj satakotipravistTrnam bhedanantyavisarpitam j catuspltham mahatantram catustayaphalodayam [j 5 || na saknuvanti manuja alpavTryaparakramah | alpayuso 'IpavittaS ca alpasattvas ca samkara || 6 || tadartham samgraham tasya svalpasastrarthavistaram bhuktimuktipradataram kathayasva prasadatah |j 7 || "O supreme lord, the great Svacchandatantra which you had taught me, possessing [all] four divisions (catuspTtha) [of the bhairavatantras], bestowing the four fruits [of kama, artha, dharma, and moksa], ten-million verses in extent, and spread forth w ith an infinitude of divisions, humans are incapable [of comprehening], being of little wealth, little spiri t, little vital energy and courage. For this reason, please teach an abridged version (samgraha) of it w ith very little elaboration on the scripture's meaning, w hich bestows supernatural experience and liberation."

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T a n tra s c o n tin u e d to h av e c u rre n c y in K a u la so u rc e s a s w ell; n o te fo r e x a m p le th a t th e Urmikaularnava o r N iratantra re fe rs to itse lf as " e x tra c te d fro m th e Tantra o f a H undredThousand (laksapadoddhrta)."97 B oth th e M anthdnabhairavatantra a n d Sarvaviratantra re ­ p o r te d ly a ttrib u te th e ir o rig in s to m a ss iv e m ulatantras,98 as a lso d o V aisriava tantras s u c h as th e Jaydkhyasamhitd a n d Pddmasamhita 99 N o t all R o o t T a n tra s w e re p io u s fictio n s, m o reo v e r, fo r th e e p ith e t is a lso a p p lie d to re a l te x ts d e e m e d f u n d a m e n ta l to p a r tic u la r tra d itio n s . A s is th e c a se w ith th e BraYa itself, b e in g o r c la im in g to b e a n a u th o ra tiv e s o u rc e -te x t ju stifie s th e d e s ig n a ­ tio n mulatantra. T h e T rika Tantrasadbhava, fo r e x a m p le , re fe rs to th e Siddhayogesvanm ata a s m ulatantra, a lth o u g h in a v e rs io n o n e b illio n v e rse s in e x te n t.100 T his m ig h t b e lin k e d to th e Siddhayogesvarim ata's o w n c la im o f b e in g th e s o u rc e o f th e s ix ty -fo u r tantras, in c lu d in g th e BraYa.101 R e in fo rc in g th is s ta tu s , th e M alinw ijayottaratantra c la im s o rig in fro m a v e rsio n o f th e Siddhayogesvarimata " n in e ty -m illio n [verses] in e x te n t," v ia th e in te rm e d ia r y sta g e s o f a M alinw ijayottaratantra v e rs io n o f tw elv eA Nepalese codex, n g m p p reel B 2 8 -1 8 , offers as substantive variants °ananta° for °anantya° in 5b, alpacittas in 6c, and ato 'rthasamgraham samyak for 7a. However, in the latter case the Bodleian Library's Nepalese codex of the Svacchandatantra agrees w ith the k s t s edition, according to Torzsok's transcrip­ tion. “Doctrine of Magic Female Spirits," 1 9 8 . 97 Thus the colophon to Urmikaularnava 1: iti mratantre snmadurmikaularnnave mahasastre laksapadoddhrte paramarahasye srisribhogahastakramaydte srikaulagiripithavinirgate mmlnapadavatdrite sadsatadhike sate mamtroddhararahasyagurusisyapariksavicaro nama prathama patalah. n a k 5 - 5 2 0 7 ( n g m p p reel B 1 1 5 / 9 ) . 98 Dyczkowski, Canon of the Saivagama, 99,110-11. 99 Sferra, "Constructing the Wheel of Time," 268. 100 Tantrasadbhava i.i3 -i4 a b : siddhayogesvantantre satakotipravistare \ mulatantre mahasiltre sutradvayavinirgatam || 13 || tantraikam tu maya jndtam yonydrnavasamudbhavam \ Text as constituted by Dyczkowski; read however yonyarnava°. 101 Siddhayogesvarimata 29.19: evamadyas tu ye tantras catuhsastivibheditah \ nirgata iha candaksi siddhayogesvanmate || 19 |j N ote also that Siddhayogesvarimata 31.5 seems to refer to the bhairavasrotas as possessing one hundredthousand verses: srnusvaikamana bhadre yad vaksyami samasatah j yena puryanti kdrydni kalabhir bhairavasya tu \ srotasya tu samagrasya laksapadayutasya ca |j 5 || Torzsdk understands laksapadayutasya to refer to multiple lacs of verses, w hich is also possible. "Doc­ trine of Magic Female Spirits," 182.

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th o u s a n d v e rse s, a n d th e th irty -m illio n v erse XJr-M alinwijayottaratantra.102 W h ile it d o e s n o t a p p ly th e te rm m ulatantra, th e fu n c tio n is a n a lo g o u s . A t le a s t tw o la te r so u rc e s s u p p o r t th e B raYa's c la im fo r th e s ta tu s o f R o o t T antra. In th e Bhairavamangala, th e G o d d e ss sta te s, " y o u h a v e in d ic a te d th e e ig h tfo ld smaranam a n tr a [ta u g h t] in th e m ulatantra."103 C o n firm in g th a t m ulatantra re fe rs to th e BraYa, se v e ra l v e rse s la te r th e te x t re fe rs to th e " e ig h t-fo ld smarana-m a n tr a o rig in a tin g in th e P icutantra," i.e. BraYa.104 T h e Jayadrathayamala, w h ic h co n c eiv es o f m u ltip le R o o t S c rip tu re s , lists five yam alatantras b e g in n in g w ith th e BraYa a m o n g th e m ulatantras of th e V id y a p lth a . T h is a c c o u n t o f th e V id y a p lth a a n d yam alas g iv es p r id e o f p la c e to th e BraYa, a n d in d e e d m a n y lists o f yam alatantras p la c e th e BraYa a t th e ir h e a d . In s u p p o r t o f its c la im to b e a R o o t S c rip tu re , th e re a re m o re o v e r in d ic a tio n s th a t th e BraYa s e rv e d a s th e p rim a ry a u th o riz in g s c rip tu re fo r a b o d y o f p ra c tic e a n d exegesis. W h ile th e re c o rd is m o re fra g m e n ta ry th a n in th e c a se o f th e T rika, se v e ra l s u rv iv in g so u rc e s, s u c h as th e Pihgalamata (a pratisthatantra, i.e. c o n c e rn e d w ith rite s of e m p o w e rm e n t fo r im a g e s a n d so fo rth ) a n d th e M atasdra c la im to b e lo n g to th e tr a d itio n o f th e BraYa. 102 Mdlimvijayottaratantra 1.8-12: svasthanastham uma devT pranipatyedam abravlt \ siddhayogesvantantram navakotipravistaram || 8 j| yat tvaya kathitam purvam bhedatrayavisarpitam \ malimvijaye tantre kotitritayalaksite || 9 || yogamargas tvaya proktah suvistlrno mahesvara \ bhuyas tasyopasamharah prokto dvadasabhis tatha \ 10 sahasraih so 'pi vistfrno grhyate nalpabuddhibhih \ atas tam upasamhrtya samasad alpadhlhitam || 11 || sarvasiddhikaram bruhi prasadat paramesvara \ "The goddess Uma prostrated to [Siva] in his ow n abode, and said this: 'the Siddhayogesvanmata w hich you had previously taught m e extended ninety-million verses, spread forth w ith the three divisions [of the sakti?]. [And] the path of yoga w hich you had taught in the Malinwijayottaratantra possessing thirty-million verses w as extremely lengthy, O Mahesvara. And furthermore, the abridgment of this you had taught w ith twelvethousand verses w as also lengthy, not understood by those o f little intellect. Hence, for the good of those of little intelligence, please further abridge this and teach [a tantra] which produces all the siddhis, O supreme lord'." 103 Bhairavamangala 23oab: astadha smaranam deva mulatantre tu sucitam. 104 Bhairavamangala 235ab: smaranam astadha jhatvd picutantrasamudbhavam.

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273

5 .5

D

v a d a sa sa h a sr a k a

:

the

"T a n t r a

of

T w e l v e -T h o u s a n d V e r s e s "

A n u m b e r o f In d ie te x ts a re k n o w n b y th e ir v erse co u n t. F a m o u s e x a m p le s in c lu d e th e SattasaT c o m p ile d b y H a la , a n d th e DurgasaptasatT o r DevTmahatmya, b o th o s te n s i­ b ly c o m p o sitio n s o f s e v e n -h u n d re d v erses. T h ere ex ists a ls o th e sataka o r " c e n tu ry " g e n re , c o m p ris in g te x ts of a p p ro x im a te ly o n e - h u n d re d v e rse s s u c h a s th e A m aru sataka, a n d th e CandTsataka o f B ana. A n u m b e r o f S aiva s c r ip tu re s to o m a k e p ro m i­ n e n t re fe re n c e to th e ir le n g th in c o lo p h o n s o r th e tex t, s o m e tim e s e v e n in th e ir ti­ tles; n o te fo r e x a m p le th e Sardhatrisatikalottara ("T h e T h re e -h u n d r e d a n d Fifty-V erse A d d e n d u m - ta n tr a o f th e K a la ta n tra " ).

T h e BraYa fo r its p a r t calls itse lf Dvadasa­

sahasraka, th e "[T a n tra of] T w elve T h o u s a n d [V erses]." T w e lv e -th o u sa n d is m o re o v e r n o t a n e x a g g e ra tio n , a s th e te x t in fa ct c o n sists o f ro u g h ly 12,800 v e rse s.105 A c c o rd in g to th e re v e la tio n n a rra tiv e (sastravatarana) o f c h a p te r o n e , th e Tantra o f Twelve Thousand is b u t o n e o f m a n y re d a c tio n s o f v a r io u s le n g th s fro m th e Vi­ mala o r Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-thousand. In th is n a rra tiv e , th e n u m e ro u s tantras m e n tio n e d a re a lm o s t all re fe rre d to b y le n g th a lo n e. T h e Dvadasasahasraka d e ­ s c e n d s a t th e a d v e n t o f th e K a liy u g a , re v e a le d to th e re s id e n ts o f th e Isle o f M a id e n s. T a u g h t th e Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-thousand b y th e s u p re m e G o d d e s s h e r­ self, a g u r u n a m e d S v a c c h a n d a b h a ira v a c o n tra c ts th is to th e siz e o f tw e lv e -th o u sa n d v erses, a n d th e n te a c h e s th e s c rip tu re to V isn u b h a ira v a in th e v illa g e o f K alap a. Visn u b h a ira v a th e n re v e a ls th e te x t to th e re s id e n ts o f th e Isle o f M a id e n s (kum aridvipa), a m o n g w h o m th e s c r ip tu re a tta in s p a r a m o u n t p o p u la rity . In th e la s t p o rtio n o f th e K a liy u g a , h o w e v er, th e s c rip tu re a n d lin e a g e d is a p p e a r a lto g e th e r, s n a tc h e d b y th e y o g in is, n o t to r e a p p e a r u n til th e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f th e n e x t K a liy u g a .106 T h e e p ith e t Dvadasasahasraka h e n c e p la c e s th e BraYa w ith in a c a n o n o f m y ria d ac­ tu a l, p o ssib le , a n d m y th ic a l tex ts, s tru c tu ra lly e m b e d d e d in th e c o sm o s a n d its cycles 105 Approximated on the basis of an average of eighteen verses on each of seven-hundred and thirteen folio sides. There is a margin of error of perhaps three-hundred verses, for it is possible that I have overlooked errors in the folio numbering. The typical range of verses per folio is 17.5-18.5. 106 BraYa i.io2cd -io5.

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274 of tim e . In th e c o u rs e o f co sm ic cycles, th e lin e a g e s of g u r u s a b b re v ia te th e s c rip tu ra l w is d o m a n d re d a c t it in to c o u n tle s s s c rip tu re s o f v a rio u s le n g th s fo r th e g o o d o f a v a rio u s ly -a b le d h u m a n k in d . Its u ltim a te c o n d e n s a tio n c o n sists o f th e vidya-m a n tra a lo n e .107 A t th e o th e r e x tre m e lies th e Vimala o f 125,000 v e rse s, fro m w h ic h d ire c tly e m e rg e s th e m ulatantra of tw e lv e -th o u sa n d v erses— th e BraYa.

In th e s e id e a liz e d

te rm s , th e BraYa is th u s a re d a c tio n o f m e re ly m e d iu m le n g th . Its size, how ev er, m a k e s it a lm o s t u n iq u e ly v o lu m in o u s a m o n g s u rv iv in g tantras, s u rp a s s e d only, I b e ­ lieve, b y th e Jayadrathayamala.108 O th e r la rg e a n d e a rly s u rv iv in g s c rip tu re s in c lu d e th e Tantrasadbhava, a n d th e re m a y h a v e e x iste d se v e ra l m o re e x tre m e ly v o lu m in o u s tantras. B raYa's re v e la tio n n a rra tiv e s p e a k s o f a tantra in tw e n ty -fo u r th o u s a n d v erses, a n d th e im p lic a tio n a p p e a rs to b e th a t a n y th in g la rg e r th a n th a t is b e y o n d th e c a p a c ­ ity o f m e re h u m a n s .109 W ith in th e w id e r S aiva tra d itio n , th e e p ith e t dvadasasahasra d o e s n o t a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a s so c ia te d ex c lu siv e ly w ith th e BraYa. I a m n o t in fa ct a w a re of e x te r­ n a l re fe re n c e s to th e BraYa b y th is e p ith e t, a n d A b h in a v a g u p ta re fe rs in Tantraloka 15 to a n o th e r s c rip tu re , th e AnandeSvaratantra, w h ic h h is c o m m e n ta to r d esc rib e s as dvadasasahasra.110 A s m e n tio n e d earlier, th e M alinw ijayottaratantra a s w e h av e it c la im s to b e a n a b r id g e m e n t o f a v e rs io n o f tw e lv e -th o u sa n d v erses, a lth o u g h it s e e m s d o u b tfu l th a t s u c h a te x t ex isted .

T h e SnkanthTyasamhita a lso re fe rs to th e

Saukrasamhita, a lo s t vdm atantra, a s c o n ta in in g tw e lv e -th o u sa n d v e rs e s .111 A m o n g T an tric B u d d h is t so u rc es, th e Vimalaprabha " c o m m e n ta ry " o n th e Kalacakratantra is dvadasasahasra, a s is its p u r p o r te d R o o t T an tra, th e Paramadibuddha.112 107 BraYa 1.67. 108 Sanderson reports that the Jayadrathayamala consists of twenty-four thousand verses. "Saivism and th e Tantric T raditions," 674. A c c o r d in g to D y c z k o w s k i, th e M anthanabhairavatantra ca lls itse lf a tantra o f

twenty-four thousand verses as well, its actual verse-count being closer to 17,000. Canon of the Saivagama, 97109 i .4 9 a b .

110 Jayaratha, commenting on Tantraloka 15.281. As mentioned previously (chapter 4, section 3, n. 89), the Tantrasadbhava appears to m ention a dvadasasahasra scripture, although the groimds for linking this to the BraYa appear weak. 111 The SnkanthTyasamhita describes the Saukrasamhita as dvadasasahasrT, "containing twelve-thousand." Verse 258 in the transcription of Hanneder, Abhinavagupta's Philosophy o f Revelation. 112 The Laghutantrattka in fact quotes from the Paramadibuddha, referring to it as dvadasasahasrika (chap­

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275 5 .6

V im

a la a n d the

U

cch usm atantra

A lth o u g h th e re a re b u t a h a n d f u l o f re fe re n c e s to th e BraYa a s th e Vimalatantra a n d th e Ucchusm atantra, th e s e m a y h av e d is p ro p o rtio n a te sig n ifican c e. W h a t sets a p a r t th e s e p a r tic u la r e p ith e ts is th a t th e y m ig h t p o s sib ly re fe r to in d e p e n d e n t s c rip tu re s u p o n w h o s e tra d itio n a n d a u th o rity th e BraYa d ra w s , a n d w ith w h ic h th e te x t a lso o c c a sio n a lly id e n tifie s itself. T h ese te x t title s h e n c e h a v e a sp e c ia l s ta tu s in th e self­ p re s e n ta tio n o f th e Brahmayamala.

M o reo v er, th e BraYa in trin sic a lly c o n n e c ts th e

Vimalatantra w ith th e d e ity U c c h u sm a b h a ira v a , s u g g e s tin g a re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e Vimala a n d U cchusmatantra. A s d is c u s s e d p re v io u sly , th e B raYa's re v e la tio n n a r ra tiv e p ro v id e s 'Vim ala' (" U n ­ b le m is h e d " ) a s th e n a m e fo r th e jnanaugha in its m a n ife st fo rm a s a te x t o f 125,000 v e rse s, th e s o u rc e o f all s c rip tu re . In se v e ra l in sta n c e s th e BraYa re fe rs to itse lf b y th e title Vimala, th u s c la im in g a s its h ig h e s t id e n tity th e o rig in a ry s c rip tu ra l w is d o m .113 W h ile th e n o tio n o f 125,000 v e rse s is s u re ly m y th ic , a S aiv a s c rip tu re ca lle d th e Vimala m ig h t n o n e th e le s s h av e ex isted . N o o ld tantra b y th is title a p p e a rs to s u rv iv e ;114 h o w ­ ever, th e Vimala h a s a p la c e in so m e a c c o u n ts o f th e fu n d a m e n ta l S aiva c a n o n , a n d m a y h e n c e h a v e b e e n a n e a rly S id d h a n ta ta n tra . A m o n g th e e x ta n t e a rly S a id d h a n tik a s o u rc e s a tte s tin g th e te n -p lu s -e ig h te e n m o d e l o f th e c a n o n — th a t o f te n s c rip tu re s of th e szba-division (sivabheda) a n d e ig h te e n o f th e rw dra-di v is io n (rudrabheda)— sev eral, a lth o u g h n o t p e r h a p s th e e a rlie st, in c lu d e th e Vimala a m o n g th e rudrabheda tantras.115 T h e c o lo p h o n to BraYa xxxv p ro v id e s Ucchusm atantra a s y e t a n o th e r title fo r th e ter xiv, p. 124). 113 Viz., divyadivyams tathd hy ete tantre 'smim vimalahvaye (iv.8cd.); iaktayas tu tavakhyatals] tantre'smin vimalahvaye (Lxxxvm.i49cd); and etas tu tithayah proktlah] tantre vimalasamjhake (xxiv.iogcd). 114 There does survive som e material attributed to a Vimalagama in composite South Indian manuscripts, but these Saiddhantika ritual tracts give no suggestion of antiquity. Cf, e.g., Institut Frangais de Pondichery manuscript T. 7 1 , which contains a tract on "temple mantras" (prasadamantra) drawn from the Vimalagama. (This is a transcription of Government Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras, m s no. R 1 4 3 9 8 .) There also exists a Saiva paddhati (ritual manual) called the Vimalavatl, but this is certainly unrelated. It is preserved in a Nepalese palm-leaf m s ( n a k 1 - 1 5 3 6 , n g m p p reel B 2 8 / 7 ) , and apparently two paper manuscripts as well ( n a k 3 - 5 8 6 , n g m p p reel A 1 8 7 / 1 ; and n a k 1 - 1 3 1 , n g m p p reel A 1 8 6 / 1 0 ).

115 See Goodall, Bhatta Ramakantha's Commentary, appendix in.

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276

t e x t / 16 w h ile

x lv

cites a te x t ca lle d th e U cchusmottarabhairavatantra a s th e so u rc e of

th e e x te n d e d v e rs io n o f a ritu a l it te a c h e s .117 W e d o h a v e so m e k n o w le d g e c o n ­ c e rn in g a te x t e n title d U cchusmatantra o r Ucchusmabhairavatantra, a lth o u g h n o th in g b y th e n a m e a p p e a rs to h av e su rv iv e d . A b h in a v a g u p ta cites a s c rip tu re b e a rin g th is title in th e Tantrasara a n d Paratrimsikavivarana, w h ile K se m a ra ja q u o te s fro m it in h is c o m m e n ta rie s o n th e Sivasutra, N etratantra, a n d Svacchandatantra. O n e o f th e v e rse s K sem a raja a d d u c e s fro m th e U cchusmatantra is a lso q u o te d b y J a y a d ra th a , w ith o u t a ttrib u tio n , in th e Tantralokaviveka. F ro m m o s t o f th e s e s h o rt q u o te d p a s s a g e s it is d if­ fic u lt to a sc e rta in th e c h a ra c te r o f th e text. K sem a raja, fo r e x a m p le , q u o te s a p a s s a g e w h ic h d e sc rib e s th e d is tin c t m a n tra -fu n c tio n s of and

h u m . 118

om , n a m a h , s v a h a , p h a t, v a u s a t,

M o re illu m in a tin g , in th e Tantrasara, A b h in a v a g u p ta a p p e a rs to re fe r

to th e Ucchusm atantra a s re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e ra d ic a l " fa r le ft" o f S aiva s c rip tu re , p a ir e d o p p o s ite th e S a id d h a n tik a Paramesvara .119 T h is is c o rro b o ra te d to a n e x te n t b y a p a s s a g e K sem a raja q u o te s se v e ra l tim e s in s u p p o r t fo r th e n o n d u a lis t p o s itio n of th e re b e in g n o s u c h th in g a s 'im p u r ity '.120 O ffe rin g fu r th e r c o n firm a tio n o f th e te x t's 116 ity ucchusmatantre picumate nadTsancarapatalah sattrmsatimah. 117 BraYa xtv.124-25: purvam eva mayakhyatam ucchusmottarabhairave \ mahamanthanavidhanam vistarena yasasvini || 124 || samksiptam tantrasadbhavam sarahasyasamuccayam \ dadhnad ghrtam ivodhrtya sarat sarataram subham || 125 || 124c! yaSasvini ] corr.; yasasvini BYa

125c dadhnad ghrtam ] conj.; dadhnaghrtav By“

"I had earlier taught the Great Rite of Churning at length in the Ucchusmottarabhairava­ tantra, O w om an of renown. The essence of [that] tantra, along w ith its collection of secret teachings, has been extracted like ghee from yoghurt and abbreviated—the auspicious essence of the essence." Underlying what B y 11 transmits as dadhna I conjecture to be an ablative, dadhnad, formed from the thematized stem dadhna, for dadhi ("yoghurt"). 118 Commenting ad Netratantra 19.8. This passage is quoted by Peter Bisschop and Arlo Griffiths, "The Practice Involving the Ucchusmas (Atharvavedaparisista 36)" (forthcoming), 3-4. 119 Tantrasara 4.45: tasm at vaidikat prabhrti param esvarasiddhantatantrakulocchusm adisastrokto 'pi yo niyam o

vidhih vd nisedho vd so ’tra yavad akimcitkara eva iti siddham | ("Therefore, starting w ith Vedic revelation, any regulation, whether a rule or prohibition, stated even in the scriptures—the Paramesvara Siddhantatantra, the Ucchusmatantra of the Kula, etc.—is in this case inoperative. So it is established"). 120 Quoted in the Svacchandoddyota ad Svacchandatantra 8.249 artci 11.927, and in the Sivasutravimarsim, k s t s edition, p . 8: yavan na vedaka ete tavad vedyah katham priye \ vedakam vedyam ekam tu tattvam nasty asucis tatah || "As long as they are not knowers, how can there be objects of knowledge, m y dear? But the knower and object of knowledge are one; therefore 'impurity' is not something real

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2 77

o rie n ta tio n , th e B u d d h is t a u th o r A d v a y a v a jra q u o te s a v e rs e fro m th e Ucchusmatantra w h ic h s p e a k s o f th e b liss o f th e u n io n o f Siva a n d S akti a s th e s u p re m e n o n d u a lity (paramadvaya).121 It w o u ld h o w e v e r b e a m a tte r o f c o n s id e ra b le s u rp ris e if a bhairavatantra a n te d a tin g th e BraYa e x h ib ite d d e v e lo p e d n o n d u a lis m o f th e g n o stic variety , to th e e x te n t o f b e in g s in g le d o u t fo r th is b y A b h in a v a g u p ta . T h is ra is e s th e p o s s i­ b ility th a t th e Ucchusm atantra re fe rre d to in th e BraYa is d is tin c t fro m th e tex t o f th is n a m e c ite d b y la te r a u th o rs. A s fo r th e title, th e te rm ucchusma o c c u rs in th e Taittinyasam hitd,122 a n d is p r e ­ s u m a b ly re la te d to susm a o r susm an, w o rd s c o n n e c te d w ith h e a t a n d lig h t. O n e of th e parisista te x ts o f th e Atharvaveda b e a rs th e n a m e Ucchusmakalpa, o n w h ic h P e te r B issch o p a n d A rlo G riffith s h av e ju s t c o n trib u te d a s tu d y .123 T h is te x t o p e n s w ith a n in v o c a tio n o f th e ucchusm as, h e re a p p a re n tly a class o f m in o r m a le s p irits .124 T h e Tantrasadbhava, m o reo v e r, d e s c rib e s a class o f fe m a le s p irits c a lle d ucchusm ikas.125 B u d d h is t ta n tric so u rc e s a tte s t a d e ity c a lle d U c c h u sm a ja m b h a la , a fo r m o f th e yaksa(tattva)." Cf. Bisschop and Griffiths, "Practice Involving the Ucchusmas," 4, to which m y interpretation is in­ debted. See also the entry ucchusma in Tantrikabhidhanakosa, vol. I, 225-26. 121 Sekanirdeia, verse 10: sivasaktisamayogat satsukham paramadvayam j na sivo napi saktis ca ratmntargatasamsthitam || Advayavajrasamgraha, part iv, p. 50. Remarking upon the verse, the (anonymous) editors identify the Ucchusmatantra w ith the BraYa, on the authority of Goudriaan and Gupta, "Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature," 42. I am grateful to Isaacson for providing this reference. 122 Taittiriyasamhita 1.6.2.2; see Bisschop and Griffiths, "Practice Involving the Ucchusmas," 2. 123 Bisschop and Griffiths, "The Practice Involving the Ucchusmas (Atharvavedaparisista 36)" (forth­ coming). 124 om nama ucchusmebhyah, Parisista 36. 125 The Tantrasadbhava uses both the terms ucchusma and ucchusmika for this variety of female spirit. In a passage Ksemaraja quotes in commenting on Netratantra 19.55, the ucchusmika is described thus: ratrau bhutva vivastra ya mutrayitva pradaksinam \ krtva tu prasayed raktam muktakesl tu karsayet |j ucchusmika tu sa jheya sadhakair vtranayika \ "A woman w ho at night becomes naked, urinates, then circumambulates, and would consume blood—and then w ith hair unbound, w ould subdue—she sadhakas should know to be an ucchusmika, a heroine." This corresponds to i6.i87-88ab in Dyzckowski's collation/draft edition. Aside from several proba­ ble corruptions, the N epalese m s s collated attest two substantive variants: prasayate for prasayed, and vlravatsala for vtranayika. The syntax is ambiguous, for either prasayed or karsayet lacks an object. Cf. the interpretation of Bisschop and Griffiths, "Practice Involving Ucchusmas," 5.

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278 lo rd J a m b h a la ,126 w h ile in S aiv ism , a rudra b y th e n a m e U c c h u s m a is k n o w n fro m e a rly S a id d h a n tik a so u rc e s s u c h as th e Kiranatantra.127 U c c h u s m a th e rudra a p p e a rs to h a v e d e v e lo p e d in to a bhairava a n d a c q u ire d h is o w n c u lt, fo r th e Ucchusmatantra o r Ucchusmabhairavatantra m u s t h a v e e x p o u n d e d a p a n th e o n h e a d e d b y U c c h u sm a b h a ira v a . S im ilarly, th e B raYa's K a p a lisa a p p e a rs also to h a v e b e g u n h is c a re e r a s a rudra, h e a d in g th e list o f o n e - h u n d re d rudras in th e N isvasaguhya b e fo re a c h ie v in g h is p la c e a m o n g th e e ig h t bhairavas in th e m a n d a la o f S v acc h an d a. T h e BraYa a sso c ia te s U c c h u s m a w ith th e g ro u p s o f g o d d e s s e s fo r m in g th e m a ­ n d a la o f K a p a llsa b h a ira v a , w h ic h s u g g e s ts th e p o s sib ility th a t th e BraYa's K a p alisa h a s in h e rite d h is p a n th e o n .128 T h e a sso c ia tio n se e m s p a r tic u la rly s tro n g b e tw e e n U c c h u s m a a n d th e M o th e rs, w h o a re re fe rre d to as " th e M o th e rs a ris in g fro m th e U cchusm altantra/bhairava?]/' o r sim ply, " th e U c c h u sm a M o th e rs ." 129 A fe m a le c o u n ­ t e r p a r t to th is d eity, U c c h u s m a o r M a h o c c h u s m a , h a s a n im p o r ta n t p o s itio n w ith in th e m a n d a la o f K a p a lisa a n d A g h o re s v a ri, as th e last— b u t p e r h a p s h ig h e s t130— of th e F o u r D u tls. U c c h u s m a b h a ira v a h im s e lf m a k e s a n a p p e a ra n c e o n ly in th e m a n 126 Bisschop and Griffiths, "Practice Involving the Ucchusmas," 5-6. 127 In the cosm ology of the Matahgaparamesvara (i2.34d), Ucchusma is one of the rudras presiding over kdlatattva, w hile in the Kiranatantra, Ucchusma is listed am ong the rudras at the tattvas kala and niyati (8.129a). 128 N ote in particular the following passages from BraYa iv: rakta kardlT candakhyam mahocchusma tathaiva ca || 252 |j ucchusmatantre namani guhyakdndm na samsayah \ And, raktayas tu karala syat karalyayas tu dantura | bhimavaktra tu candaksya ucchusmaya mahdbald || 262 || guhyakanucard hy etah kihkaryocchusmasambhavah \ k a ra la

] em.; k a r a l a m B y “ c a n d a k s y a ] conj.; c a n d a k s l ] em.; k i n k a r y a c c h u s m a s a m b h a v a B y “

By“

e ta h

] corr.; e t a

By“

k in k a ry o c c h u s m a -

sam bhava

See also the text and annotation to the translation of BraYa 1.8-9, and BraYa Lix.77: ucchusmasambhavam tantram devyaS cocchusmasambhavah \ tvayoktam tu mahadeva sutradibhi mahesvara || 77 j| d e v y a S ] em.; d e v y a B y q "O Mahadeva, w ith sutras, you have taught the tantra arising from Ucchusma and the goddesses arising from Ucchusma, O Mahesvara." 129 BraYa 1.133b and Lxxxvm.244d. 130 The high status of Mahoccusma is suggested by her position in cosmology: in descriptions of the "pervasion" (vyapti) of the tattvas by the mantra-deities, Mahocchusma is placed at the level of SadaSiva, above the other goddesses (t a b l e 4.70-0).

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279 d a la o f P ic u b h a ira v a , in a c o n fig u ra tio n o f m a le c o u n te r p a rts to th e e ig h t g o d d e s s e s of th e m a n d a la o f K a p a lis a .131 O n se v e ra l o ccasio n s, ucchusm a is h o w e v e r u s e d as a s y n o n y m o f th e s u p re m e B h a ira v a .132 T h e BraYa's a p p e a l to th e a u th o rity o f th e Vimala e s ta b lis h e s its lin k w ith th e e a rlie st c a n o n ic a l s c rip tu re s o f th e M a n tra m a rg a . W h e th e r o r n o t its c o n te n ts b o re a re la tio n s h ip is a n o th e r m atter. A d is tin c t p o ss ib ility ex ists th a t th e Vimala, a s s u m in g th e te x t in fa ct e x is te d b e y o n d lists o f th e c a n o n / 33 h a d b e e n lo s t b y th e tim e o f th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e BraYa, c o n tin u in g n o n e th e le s s to c o m m a n d c o n s id e ra b le p re stig e . Its a c tu a l c o n te n ts la rg e ly fo rg o tte n , it re m a in e d n o n e th e le s s a n e m p ty sig n ifie r of c a n o n ic a l a u th o rity o n w h ic h to in sc rib e th e p e d ig re e o f th e BraYa ,134 In c o n tra s t, th e Ucchusmabhairavatantra is m o re lik ely to h av e b e e n a te x t c o n te m p o ra n e o u s to th e BraYa, p e r h a p s ly in g in its im m e d ia te cu ltic b a c k g ro u n d . Its m a n d a la a p p e a rs to h a v e c o n siste d o f p rim a rily fe m a le d e itie s, h e a d e d b y U c c h u s m a a n d p e r h a p s h is c o n s o rt M a h o c c h u sm a . F u rth e rm o re , th e BraYa p o s its a clo se c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e Vimala a n d U c c h u s m a b h a ira v a , d e s c rib in g th e Vimala a s " th e tantra o rig in a tin g fro m U c c h u s m a ." 135 T h e re c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly b e su b s ta n c e to th is lin k , g iv e n U c c h u s m a 's e a rly h is to ry as a rudra a n d th e Vim ala's p re s e n c e in s o m e lists o f th e n r/ra -d iv is io n sc rip tu re s. A c c o rd in g to th e M rgendragam a, o n e o f th e so u rc e s lis tin g th e Vimala in its a c c o u n t o f th e c a n o n / 36 S iva o n ly in d ire c tly te a c h e s th e rudrabheda-sc rip tu re s; th e s e 131 BraYa l x v i i i , e s p e c i a l l y v e r s e 2 1 . 132 BraYa Lxxxvn.96cd: niracara[h] sa evatra ucchusmam parikirtitam (“That very [state of the supreme Bhairava known as] 'beyond conduct' (niracara) is here called ucchusma"). 533 It might also be possible that the notion of a mythic Vimala contributed to the inclusion of a text by this name in lists of the canon. 134 This perhaps bears comparison with the phenom enon of "replacing" forgotten but authorative scriptures, passing off the new as the ancient so as to authorize contemporary practice. Such is best attested in the case of the South Indian Saivasiddhanta, in which case texts were duly provided to fill in gaps between extant scripture and authorative accounts of the canon. See Goodall, Bhatta Ramakantha's Commentary, xxxvi-xlvii. A s mentioned in the introduction, the BraYa itself appears to have been "updated" in later times in both east India and Nepal, besides South India. 135 BraYa 1.4b. The opening of chapter xxvm , moreover, announces it w ill teach the "Vimala-division" (vimalam vibhagam) "brought forth by the lotus [mouth?] of Ucchusma, revealed by Ucchusma:" atah param pravaksyami vibhagam vimalam dhruvam | ucchusmakamalodgTrnam ucchusmendvataritam |j 1 || 136 Mrgendragama 1.46.

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28 o are " b ro u g h t fo rth b y rudras w h o h a v e b e e n p o s s e s s e d /e n te r e d in to b y S iva— n o t [b ro u g h t fo rth ] fro m th e ir o w n in te lle c ts." 137 It m ig h t b e p o ss ib le th a t th e h is to ri­ cal Vimala h a d a s its sp e a k e r th e rudra U c c h u sm a , in w h ic h case its lin k w ith th e Ucchusm atantra w o u ld b e b a s e d u p o n th e s h a re d fig u re o f U c c h u sm a , a s a rudra a n d bhairava, respectively. W h a t c a n b e a s s e rte d w ith m o re c o n fid e n c e is th a t th ro u g h its a p p r o p r ia tio n o f th e fig u re o f U c c h u sm a , th e BraYa p ro je c ts a p e d ig re e ro o te d in e a rlie r lay ers o f th e tra d itio n : b o th th e e a rly c a n o n o f S id d h a n ta ta n tra s , th ro u g h a Vimalatantra p u r p o r te d ly s p o k e n b y th e rudra U c c h u sm a , a n d th e bhairavatantras, th r o u g h th e c u lt a n d s c rip tu re o f U c c h u sm a b h a ira v a . C o n s p ic u o u s b y th e ir a b se n c e a re th e Vimala a n d Ucchusm atantra in th e e x te n d e d a c c o u n t of th e S aiva c a n o n in BraYa x x x v m , d e s p ite th e ir im p o rta n c e in th e re v e la tio n n a r ra tiv e (sastravatarana). U n d e rs ta n d a b ly so g iv e n its s ta tu s a s th e " m a s s /to ta lity of s c r ip tu ra l w is d o m " (jnanaugha), th e Vimala fin d s n o p la c e in th e list o f tw e n ty -e ig h t S a id d h a n tik a s c rip tu re s ; b u t n e ith e r d o e s U c c h u s m a fig u re a m o n g th e e ig h t bhairava­ tantras.138 T h e p o s sib ility se e m s s u b s ta n tia l th a t th e BraYa h a s in th e fo rm o f th e Vimala­ tantra a n d / o r Ucchusm atantra w o v e n h isto ric a l te x ts in to its g e n e a lo g y a n d id e n tity , a lth o u g h o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e se so u rc e s re m a in s v a g u e . T h a t th is s c e n a rio is p la u ­ sib le fin d s s u p p o r t in th e a u th o riz in g stra te g ie s o f la te r s c rip tu re s , w h ic h o ffer in ­ s ig h t in to th e p ro c e s se s of le g itim iz a tio n th e BraYa itse lf m ig h t h av e e m p lo y e d in re la tio n to o ld e r lite ra tu re . A d d in g n e w lay ers to th e p a lim p s e s t o f re v e la tio n , s u b s e ­ q u e n t lite ra tu re c la im in g to b e lo n g to th e tra d itio n o f th e BraYa c o n tin u e s th e p ra c ­ 137 Mrgendragama 3.433b: raudrd rudraih sivavistair udgirna na svabuddhitah. 138 The eight Bhairavas, w ho correspond to the eight bhairavatantras of the Vidyapltha, are Svacchanda, K rod ha, U n m a tta , U g ra , K ap ali, Jhahkara, Sekh ara, a n d Vijaya. B raYa x x x v m .3 3 c d -3 5 a b :

svacchandabhairavam devi krodhabhairavam eva ca || 33 || unmattabhairavam devi tatha caivograbhairavah \ kapalTbhairavam caiva tatha jhankarabhairavah || 34 j| sekharah ca tatha caiva vijayabhairavam eva ca || Perhaps closest to this list of eight bhairavas is that of the SrTkanthtya, quoted by Jayaratha commenting on Tantraloka 1.18: Svacchanda, Canda, Krodha, Unmatta, Asitanga, Mahocchusma, and Kapali. See also Svacchandatantra 2 .iv jc d -ig . N ote in the passage quoted above free alternation of the nominative and accusative cases, the sense being nominative.

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28l

tice o f self-id e n tific a tio n w ith a u th o riz in g so u rc es. T h u s th e fin a l c o lo p h o n o f th e M atasara, "E sse n ce o f th e [P ic u ]m a ta :" 139 " T h u s e n d s th e th irty -th ir d c h a p te r w ith in th e Matasara in th e Vidyapltha, in th e Tantra o f Twelve-Thousand, w ith in th e G re a t S crip ­ tu r e n u m b e rin g 125,000 v e rs e s ." 140 H e re th e a m b ig u ity o f th e lo c a tiv e s is m e a n in g fu l: th e p a s s a g e m a y in p a r t b e re a d as a h ie ra rc h y o f tex ts w ith in tex ts, fro m th e o rig in a r y w is d o m o f 125,000 v e rse s d o w n to th e Essence o f the [Picu]mata, o r it m a y b e r e a d as a serie s o f id en tific a tio n s: th e M atasara w h ic h " is" th e BraYa w h ic h " is" th e Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-Thousand. A n d so c o n tin u e s th e p e r p e tu a l d e s c e n t of th e s c r ip tu ra l w is d o m in to th e m u ltip lic ity o f texts.

139 While the text refers to itself sim ply as the Matasara, Sanderson suggests that this means "Picumatasara." Personal communication, May, 2004. Given the text's close relationship w ith and appeal to the authority of the BraYa, this seems quite plausible. 140 iti laksapadadhike mahasamhitayam dvadasasahasre vidyapTthe matasare trayovim§atimah patalah. n a k 3-379, f. i6 iv . Transcription courtesy of Somadeva Vasudeva.

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C h apter 6 C

o n c l u s io n

A s ig n ific a n t c o n c e rn o f th e p re s e n t th e s is h a s b e e n to p o s itio n th e BraYa re la tiv e to firs t-m ille n n iu m te x tu a l a n d o th e r so u rc e s c o n c e rn e d w ith y o g in ls. W ith th is a im in m in d , c h a p te rs tw o a n d th re e h a v e s u rv e y e d e a rly e v id e n c e fo r th e c u lt o f y o g in ls, a tte m p tin g to e sta b lis h a c h ro n o lo g y o f so u rc e s a n d im p o r ta n t d e v e lo p m e n ts w ith in w h ic h to s itu a te th e BraYa. It h a s b e e n s h o w n th a t, a lth o u g h a S aiva c u lt o f y o g in ls m u s t h av e d e v e lo p e d p r io r to th e e ig h th ce n tu ry , it is in th is p e r io d th a t y o g in ls b e g in to co m e in to p ro m in e n c e , a tr e n d w h ic h c o n tin u e s w ith th e e m e rg e n c e o f a p u b lic te m p le c u lt in th e te n th ce n tu ry . I h av e a r g u e d th a t th e BraYa in all lik e lih o o d b e lo n g s to a n e a rly s tr a tu m o f e v id en c e: b e in g m e n tio n e d in th e o ld Skandapurana, p r e d a tin g th e B u d d h is t Laghusamvara a n d (m o st p ro b a b ly ) th e S aiva Tantrasadbhava, m a k in g n o o b v io u s re fe re n c e to K a u la lite ra tu re , s h o w in g n o a w a re n e s s o f tra d itio n s o f s ix ty -fo u r y o g in ls, h a v in g a n a rch aic m o d e l o f th e S aiv a c a n o n , a n d b e in g a w elle s ta b lis h e d a u th o rity b y th e m id -te n th c e n tu ry — a t th e v e ry la te s t— th e BraYa sh o w s n o ta b le sig n s o f a rc h a ism . It h a s n o t y et, ho w ev er, b e e n p o s s ib le to d a te th e te x t w ith a n y p re c isio n . L ik ely a s th e BraYa is to b e o n e of th e o ld e s t s u rv iv in g bhairavatantras— a n d p e r ­ h a p s a m o n g th e o ld e r e x ta n t w o rk s o f ta n tric S aiva lite ra tu re — th e te x t n o n e th e le s s p r e s u p p o s e s a w id e v a rie ty o f S aiva c u lts a n d ta n tric sc rip tu re s . W ith ro o ts in th e c u lts o f R u d ra /B h a ira v a , M o th e r g o d d e s s e s, th e S iste rs o f T u m b u ru , dakinTs, a n d 282

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283 bhutas, th e BraYa a n d o th e r V id y a p lth a so u rc e s s y n th e s iz e a ra n g e o f eso te ric tr a d i­ tio n s a n d s a c re d fig u re s, o u r k n o w le d g e o f w h ic h h a s sig n ific a n t g a p s. F u rth e rm o re , w h ile th e BraYa re p re s e n ts , in ritu a l te rm s , a ra d ic a l a n d h ig h ly eso te ric tra d itio n , its ro o ts in a sp e c ts o f e a rlie r S aiv ism a re n o ta b le , a s s u g g e s te d b y c o m p a riso n w ith th e N isvasatattvasam hita in p a r tic u la r— a te x t th e BraYa a p p e a r s in o n e case to d ra w fro m . In th e fig u re s o f S v a c c h a n d a b h a ira v a , K a p a lisa th e rudra, U c c h u sm a , a n d th e S iste rs o f T u m b u ru , tra c e s in th e BraYa o f p a s t c u lts p o in t to w a rd it b e in g th e p r o d u c t o f c o m p le x h isto ric a l lay erin g . T his p ic tu re b e c o m e s all th e m o re c o m p le x w h e n th e B raY a's o w n te x tu a l d e v e lo p m e n t is q u e rie d ; it h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t th e tex t a s w e h a v e it p o s se s se s tw o o r m o re s tra ta , a n d c o n ta in s c h a p te rs p o te n tia lly d r a w n fro m o r o th e rw is e c o n n e c te d w ith in d e p e n d e n t S aiva w o rk s. " L a y e rin g " is a th e m e in th e B raY a's reflexive v is io n a s w ell, fo r in a rtic u la tin g a m o d e l o f s c rip tu ra l re v e la tio n , th e te x t p o s itio n s itse lf a t m u ltip le levels: it is b u t o n e o f se v e ra l yam alatantras, y e t a lso th e R o o t T a n tra of th e e n tire bhairava-s tre a m , itself a c o n tra c te d fo rm o f th e Tantra o f O ne and a Q uarter H undred-thousand Verses— s c rip tu re in its p rim o rd ia l lin g u istic fo rm . A k e y d e v e lo p m e n t in th e BraYa a n d V id y a p lth a so u rc e s lies in th e fig u re o f th e y o g in i: a m a lle a b le g o d d e s s ty p o lo g y w h ic h c o m e s to e n c o m p a s s c u lt d e ities, e v ­ e ry m a n n e r o f fe m a le s p irit a n d d e m i-g o d d e s s , a n d e v e n fe m a le ta n tric a d e p ts , all o f w h o m b e c o m e lin k e d in a h ie ra rc h ic a l m a trix o f c la n s (kula) e m a n a tin g fro m th e S u p re m e S akti h e rse lf.1 W h ile it h a s b e e n s h o w n th a t S aiv a c o n c e p tio n s o f y o g in ls h a v e ro o ts in M o th e r g o d d e s s e s a n d fig u re s s u c h a s th e vidyadhan, a s p e c ts o f th e fo r­ m a tio n o f th is c a te g o ry o f s a c re d fig u re in S aiva ta n tric lite ra tu re re m a in m u rk y . T h is u n d o u b te d ly h a s m u c h to d o w ith c h ro n ic lo sses in ta n tric S aiva lite ra tu re ; in d e e d , th e BraYa. m a k e s re fe re n c e to n u m e ro u s o th e r V id y a p lth a so u rc e s, fe w of w h ic h a re e x ta n t. O n th e o th e r h a n d , it a p p e a rs p o ss ib le to m a p th e e m e rg e n c e o f th e yoginx 1 BraYa L V .3 -1 9 describes a hierarchy of nine principal goddess clans, correlated w ith nine tattvas: mdtrs, yoginls, dutls, rudradakinls, damans, davls, sivds, bhaginls, devls, and their "genetrix" (prasiiti), the supreme Sakti, w hich exists at the level of the sivatattva. Human practitioners enter into the hierarchy of clans through 'initiatory kinship' w ith the Mothers, goddesses w ho exist at the level of the prakrtitattva.

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284

o r dakini in B u d d h is t ta n tric lite ra tu re , o n w h ic h su b ject c h a p te r th re e h a s a tte m p te d to c o n trib u te . T h e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e s e tw o te x tu a l c o rp u s e s — a n d m o re im ­ p o rta n tly , th e re lig io u s tra d itio n s w h ic h p ro d u c e d th e m — re m a in s a sig n ific a n t a re a fo r f u tu re re se a rc h . C o n c e rn in g th e case o f th e BraYa, e v id e n c e h a s b e e n a d d u c e d in s u p p o r t o f A lex is S a n d e rs o n 's c o n te n tio n th a t it is a s o u rc e fo r m a te ria l re d a c te d in to a B u d d h is t yoginltantra— th e Laghucakrasamvaratantra. D e sp ite th e e ffo rts d o c u m e n te d in th e p re s e n t th esis, s tu d y o f th e BraYa re m a in s a t a n e a rly sta g e . T h e e n d e a v o r to critica lly e d it th e te x t— a p re re q u is ite to d e e p u n d e r s ta n d in g — re m a in s a p ro je c t o f sig n ific a n t p ro p o rtio n s . It is e x p e c te d th a t d a ta g le a n e d fro m th e close s tu d y e n ta ile d b y fu r th e r critical e d itin g w ill le a d to re v is io n of s o m e claim s I h av e m a d e , w h ile o p e n in g u p n e w a v e n u e s o f in v e s tig a tio n a s w ell.

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Pa r t II

T h e B r a h m a y a m a l a : A C r it ic a l Ed it io n

and

C h apters i,

Tr a n s l a t i o n

of

i i , lv, l x x iii , a n d xcix

285

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In t r o d u c t i o n

T h e la te T. G a n a p a ti S astrl, th e d is tin g u is h e d firs t e d ito r of, a m o n g a g re a t m a n y S a n s k rit tex ts, th e M anjusnm ulakalpa, o ffe re d in h is p re fa c e th e fo llo w in g a p o lo g y fo r re p ro d u c in g th e te x t p re c ise ly as f o u n d in th e o n ly m a n u s c r ip t a v a ila b le to him : T h is is a h o ly w o rk o f th e B u d d h is ts a n d d e s e rv e s to b e p la c e d a lo n g w ith th e V edas. A s th e n o n -o b s e rv a n c e o f th e ru le s o f V y a k ara[n ]a in re g a rd to g e n d e r, n u m b e r a n d case, f o u n d th r o u g h o u t th is w o rk is b e c o m in g o f its s a c re d c h a rac te r, a n d as n o se c o n d m a n u s c r ip t h a s b e e n o b ta in e d , th e tex t in th is e d itio n is a d o p te d ex a ctly as it is f o u n d in th e o rig in a l m a n u s c r ip t.1 It is n o t clea r w h ic h o f th e tw o p o in ts w e ig h e d m o re h e a v ily in S a strl's d ecisio n : th e te x t's h o lin e ss, o r th e p a u c ity of m a n u s c r ip t e v id en c e. In e ith e r ev e n t, th e ch o ice s p a r e d h im c o n s id e ra b le tro u b le , fo r ca ses s u c h a s th e BraYa o r ManjusrTmulakalpa, in w h ic h th e la n g u a g e is n o n -c la ssic a l a n d m a n u s c r ip t e v id e n c e v e ry lim ite d , p re s e n t sp e c ia l p ro b le m s. T h e a p p r o a c h o f th e p re s e n t e d itio n m ig h t b e fa u lte d a s re p re s e n tin g th e o p p o s ite e x tre m e , fo r th e critica lly c o n s titu te d te x t o f th e BraYa in tro d u c e s n u m e ro u s e m e n ­ d a tio n s a n d c o n jec tu res. B u t to av o id th e " ris k " o f e m e n d a tio n w o u ld , in th is case, b e to e m b ra c e u n in te llig ib ility , fo r th e re a d in g s o f th e o ld e s t co d e x — fro m w h ic h , I c o n te n d , th e o th e r e x ta n t

m ss

a re d e s c e n d e d — a re w ith v e x in g fre q u e n c y in c o m p re ­

h e n sib le . F u rth e rm o re , in th e a b se n c e o f c o rro b o ra tin g e v id e n c e , I h a v e e rre d in fav o r o f n o rm a liz in g p o te n tia l lin g u istic irre g u la ritie s . C o n s id e ra tio n s of se n se , c o h e ren c e, a n d c o n te x t h av e s e rv e d as th e p rin c ip a l b a s e s fo r e m e n d a tio n , w ith a tte n tio n to th e 1 Ganapati Sastrl, preface to Aryamanjusnmulakalpa, vol. 1, 2.

286

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287

p a le o g ra p h ic p la u s ib ility o f sc rib a l e r ro r as w e ll as in tra - a n d in te rte x tu a l p a ra lle ls (as a d d u c e d in th e a n n o ta tio n to th e tra n sla tio n ). T h e p re s e n t e d itio n is a w o rk in p ro g re s s ; a lth o u g h it se e m s u n lik e ly th a t v a lu a b le n e w m a n u s c r ip t e v id e n c e w ill su rfa c e , I p r e s u m e th a t f u r th e r re flectio n , th e id e n ti­ fic a tio n o f a d d itio n a l p a ra lle ls, a n d th e in s ig h ts o f o th e r re a d e r s w ill m a k e p o s sib le c o n s id e ra b le im p ro v e m e n t in th e c o n s titu tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f th e tex t, p r io r to its e v e n tu a l p u b lic a tio n .

THE M AN U SC R IPTS

n a k

3-370 (re p o rte d in th e critical e d itio n as "A ," a n d a s "B ya " in p a r t 1).

ngm pp

m ic ro film re e l no . A 4 2 / 6. P alm -leaf, 358 folios. D a te d S u n d a y (adityadina), th e 8 th o f M a g h a (w a x in g fo rtn ig h t), N e p a l s a m v a t 172— i.e. S u n d ay , 12 Ja n u a ry , 1052

c .e .

C o p ie d b y Jay a k ara jlv a, a re s id e n t o f th e P a s u p a tin a th a te m p le a re a

of K a th m a n d u .2 T h is c o d e x w a s c a ta lo g e d m o re th a n a c e n tu r y a g o b y H a ra p r a s a d S astrl, w h o n o tes: " th e M S. is m a rk e d w ith le tte r n u m e ra ls o n th e left a n d w ith N e w a ri fig u re s o n th e rig h t. T h ey a g re e u p to th e 129th leaf, a n d fro m th e 130th th e N e w a ri fig u re m a k e a m is ta k e of 10, a n d th e m is ta k e s o n th e rig h t sid e c o n tin u e d to b e a d d e d to a n d s u b tra c te d fro m till la s t leaf (358) b e c o m e s 364 in th e N e w a ri s id e ." 3 T h e tex t-fin a l a n d sc rib a l c o lo p h o n s a re as follow s: iti bhairavasrotasi mahatantre vidyapTthe brahmayamale navaksaravidhane picum ate dvadasasahasrake ekottarasatimah patalah samdptah || || sam vat a cii 2 maghasukldstam yam adityadine rajadhirajaparamesvarasribaladevarajye | snpasupativastavya \ s n iayakarajivena brahmayamalam nama sastram likhitam. n a k

5 -1 9 2 9 (re p o rte d as "B ").

ngm pp

m ic ro film re e l n o . A 1 6 5 /1 4 . P a p e r, N e p a le s e

2 Cf. Luciano Petech's discussion of this colophon in Mediaeval History o f Nepal (circa J50-1482), 2nd ed., 44. 3 Sastrl, A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscripts Belonging to the Durbar Library Nepal, vol. 11, reprinted in Reinhold Griinendahl, A Concordance of H. P. Sastri's Catalogue o f the Durbar Library and the Microfilms of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project, 60-61.

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288

N a g a ri sc rip t; u n d a te d a n d u n s ig n e d . C o m p le te in 353 folios. T h e firs t p o rtio n o f th is

m s

a p p e a rs to h a v e b e e n c o p ie d fro m th e s a m e h ig h ly c o r r u p t e x e m p la r

as C (see b elo w ). H o w ev er, th e la tte r se c tio n s o f th e te x t a p p e a r c o p ie d fro m a d iffe re n t, s u p e r io r e x e m p la r, o n th e b a sis o f w h ic h c o rre c tio n s a re in tro d u c e d in to th e e a rlie r p o rtio n o f th e te x t as w ell. T his s e c o n d e x e m p la r a p p e a rs to b e A itself. H ow ev er, th e sc rib e fre q u e n tly e m e n d s th e tex t, " c o rre c tin g " so m e o f its m o s t g la rin g lin g u is tic a b e rra tio n s. T h u s fa r n o e v id e n c e s u g g e s ts th a t its d e p a r tu r e s fro m A re flect a n y th in g m o re th a n th e e d ito ria l ac tiv ity o f th e scribe. A lth o u g h h e n c e o f little v a lu e in c o n s titu tin g th e te x t o f th e BraYa, th e re a d in g s o f th is

m s

re flect th e in te rp re tiv e a c tiv ity o f a n e d u c a te d re a d e r, a n d

are r e p o rte d in all c h a p te rs o f th e critica l ed itio n .

n a k

1-143 (re p o rte d as "C ").

ngm pp

m ic ro film re e l n o .

a i6 6 /

1.

P a p e r, N e p a le s e

N a g a ri scrip t; u n d a te d a n d u n s ig n e d . C o m p le te in 4 4 0 folios. D e sc e n d e d fro m A , b u t h o p e le s s ly c o rru p t, th is

m s

offers little to re w a rd th e la b o r o f its tr a n ­

sc rip tio n . Its re a d in g s n o n e th e le s s a re re c o rd e d in th e a p p a r a tu s o f c h a p te rs 1 and

n a k

in th e critica l e d itio n .

lv

1-286 (re p o rte d a s "D ").

tw ice).

ngm pp

m ic ro film re e l nos. A 1 6 5 /13 a n d A 1 1 7 8 /1 (film ed

P a p e r, N e w a ri sc rip t; u n d a te d (th e w o rd " s a m v a t" a p p e a rs in th e

c o lo p h o n , b u t w ith n o n u m b e r) a n d u n s ig n e d .

C o m p le te in 248 folios.

Ff.

2 1 0 -2 3 3 a re w ritte n in N e p a le s e N a g a ri, p e r h a p s re p la c in g d a m a g e d o r m is s ­

in g leaves. T h is

m s

is clo sely re la te d to E, a n d it se e m s lik ely to d e s c e n d fro m

A, fo r in th e se c tio n s co lla te d , n o n e o f its v a ria n t re a d in g s a p p e a r to h a v e in d e ­ p e n d e n t v a lu e . Its re a d in g s a re re p o rte d in all c h a p te rs e x c e p t

lv

o f th e critical

ed itio n .

n a k

6-2 6 0 8 (re p o rte d a s "E ").

ngm pp

m ic ro film re e l no . A 1 3 1 9 /4 . P a p e r, N e p a le s e

N a g a ri sc rip t; u n d a te d a n d u n s ig n e d . In c o m p le te , w ith 136 folios. T h e re a d in g s o f th is

m s,

w ritte n in a N e w a ri-in flu e n c e d N a g a ri, a re v e ry close to th o se o f D.

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289 T h e tw o m ig h t s h a re a (lost) e x a m p la r d e s c e n d e d fro m A.

E 's re a d in g s a re

r e p o rte d fo r c h a p te r 1 alo n e.

A s a llu d e d to , it is th e w o rk in g h y p o th e s is o f th e p re s e n t e d ito r th a t co d ice s D a n d E, a n d to a le s se r d e g re e B a n d C, a re clo sely re la te d , all fu r th e rm o re b e in g d e ­ s c e n d e d fro m A. W h ile fu r th e r c o lla tio n is n e c e s s a ry to r u le o u t o th e r p o ssib ilitie s, I b e lie v e th a t th e m a n u s c r ip t e v id e n c e fo r BraYa 1, c o lla te d fu lly in th e critica l e d itio n , is su ffic ie n t to s u s ta in th e p re m is e th a t n e ith e r B, C, D , n o r E p ro v id e v a ria n ts n o t a ttrib u ta b le to sc rib a l e rro r or, in th e case o f B, e d ito ria l activity. I w ill a rg u e th is in g re a te r d e ta il w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e critica l e d itio n . A lth o u g h n o t u tiliz e d in th e p r e s e n t e d itio n , th e re ex ists a n o th e r co d e x of N e p a l­ e se p ro v e n a n c e tra n s m ittin g BraYa

iv

-

v ii,

h o u s e d in th e S a n s k rit m a n u s c r ip t co l­

le c tio n o f V isv a b h a ra tl U n iv ersity , W est B engal.4 B eing w r itte n o n p a p e r in N a g a rl c h a ra c te rs , th is is o f n o p a r tic u la r a n tiq u ity . F u rth e r c o lla tio n o f th e

m s

is re q u ir e d

to d e te rm in e if it o ffers re a d in g s in d e p e n d e n t o f A; th e s a m p le s tu d ie d so fa r s u g ­ g e s ts o th e rw ise . In a d d itio n , S. N . G h o sh a l S a stri h a s p u b lis h e d c h a p te r BraYa b a s e d u p o n a n u n tra c e d

m s

x l ii

o f th e

tra n s c rib e d b y th e la te H a ra d a s M itra .5 T h e te x t

tra n s m itte d is ta n ta liz in g , fo r it d e p a r ts fro m A m o re sig n ific a n tly th a n th e o th e r ex ­ ta n t

m ss

.

H o w ev er, th e re is n o c o n c lu siv e e v id e n c e th a t i t re p re s e n ts a n in d e p e n d e n t

tra n s m is s io n .6 W h e th e r o r n o t G h o sh a l S a s tri's

m s

d e s c e n d s fro m A , it a p p e a rs to

4 Sanskrit Manuscript Section, Vidya-Bhavana, Visvabharatl University. "Old collection;" no acces­ sion number. 5 See chapter 1, section 2. 6 Although containing almost identical material, the order of verses in Sastri's m s differs signifi­ cantly from A. Its readings also vary frequently, containing a comparatively large number of obvious corruptions. However, variants are also plentiful. Some of these are synonym s, giving no indication of the relationship between the m s s . Many of its readings which differ from A's appear to be products of secondary editing. N ote for example the crude attempt to correct A's kanisthanamikobhau tu angusthau parisamsthitau, which contains what appears to be a non-standard contraction of kanisthdndmikau ubhau. Sastri's m s reads kanisthandmike dve tu angusthopari samsthitau, which provides the correct fem­ inine dual in the first pada; but this still agrees w ith the masculine samsthitau. However, angusthopari appears likely to be the original reading, in whatever manner it w as arrived at. N ote also the pada transmitted by A as ubhayo hastayo [’Jfigulya (31c in A, 37a in Sastri's m s ) . Here A's text arrives at the correct meter by non-standard sandhi, viz. hastayoh + ang° —>°yo ’hg° (rather than —> °yor ahg°). In the m s used by Sastri, there appears the grammatical but hypermetrical hastayor angulyah, w ith "correct" sandhi, as well as the correct plural angulyah. While the BraYa allows this sort of hypermetricism (cf.

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290 r e p re s e n t a c o m p le x tra n sm iss io n . T h e d e g re e o f c o r ru p tio n a n d a p p a r e n t re o rg a ­ n iz a tio n o f th e v e rse s s u g g e s t th e p o ss ib ility th a t th e te x t— p e r h a p s c o n ta in e d in a n a n th o lo g y — p a s s e d th ro u g h n u m e ro u s copies. In th e e d itio n p re s e n te d b elo w , th e critical a p p a r a tu s is p o sitiv e : th e re a d in g s of all th e

m ss

u s e d a re re p o rte d , in c lu d in g th e ir la c u n a e . S ev eral n o rm a liz a tio n s a re

h o w e v e r silent: th o s e o f anusvara (sivan, fo r in sta n c e , w h e n it o c c u rs b e fo re a d e n ta l c o n s o n a n t, is n o rm a liz e d to sivam ), a n d cases o f d e g e m in a tio n (e.g. tatva fo r tattva) a n d g e m in a tio n (e.g. p u m v a fo r pum a). H ow ev er, w h e n th e

m ss

a re re p o rte d , th e ir

re a d in g s a re r e p ro d u c e d exactly. T h e m o s t d o u b tfu l re a d in g s a p p e a rin g in th e c rit­ ically c o n s titu te d tex t, w h e th e r o r n o t e m e n d a tio n s , h a v e b e e n id e n tifie d th ro u g h w a v y u n d e rlin in g .

In th e a p p a ra tu s , p a r e n th e s e s en c lo se p o o rly leg ib le sy llab les,

w ith th o s e w h o lly ille g ib le re p re s e n te d b y h y p h e n s . S y lla b le s w h ic h h a v e b e e n co r­ re c te d o r m a rk e d a s e r ro n e o u s b y th e sc rib e a p p e a r in p a re n th e s e s , fo llo w e d b y th e s u p e r s c rip t " co n ." a n d " e rr." resp ectiv ely . S h o rt in te rlin e a r a n d m a rg in a l in se rtio n s a re e n c lo s e d w ith in a p a ir o f p lu s sig n s. T h e upadhm aniya, w h ic h o c c u rs n u m e ro u s tim e s in A , is r e n d e re d a s /. A ste ris k s m a r k folio c h a n g e s in A, th e n u m b e rs fo r w h ic h a re re p o r te d in th e first lev el of th e critica l a p p a ra tu s , a lo n g w ith o c c a sio n a l n o te s o n la c u n a e , m a rg in a l in s e rtio n s, a n d so fo rth . A m o n g th e

m ss,

o n ly A 's re a d in g s a re

r e p o rte d as u n m e tric a l, w h e n th is is th e case.

the annotation on BraYa 1.20), there are several other cases where Sastri's m s violates meter in favor of grammar—quite the reverse of the language of the BraYa, in which meter overrides grammar. N ote for example the unmetrical "correction" of bandhayet to badhmyat (44d in Sastri, 47b in A). In some cases Sastri's m s contains better readings which could but might not reflect later editorial activity. Note e.g. kim cid unnamitau karau (19b) for A's 0 unnamatau 0 (i9d), and saramudra (37c) for A's suramudra (32a). The two m s s do however share obvious corruptions, an indication of possible affinity: note in particular tarjanlmkusarupinTm (38d in A) or tarjanlmkusarupinTm (Sastri 29d) for, presumably, tarjany ankusarupinl.

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I br a h m a y Am ale SAMBANDHAPATALAH PRATHAMAH

|| OM N A M A H SIVADIBHYO GURUBHYO YOGISVARINAM ||

y a t ta ttv a m m a n tra g a rb h a m sa k a la s iv a m a y a m h e tu n irv a n a b im b a m d u tln a m p a d m a s a n d e 's a m a s u k h a v ila s a llin g a ru p a m b ib h a rti | n a n a b h o g a d h iv a s a ir v iv id h a la y a p a d a ih f s a k tir a v a r d d h a k a n d e f ta t ta ttv a m v is v a g a rb h a m b h a v a n a g a d a la n a m b h a ira v a m v a h p u n a t u || i s ru tv a s a s tra m p u r a d e v l m u la ta n tr a m m a h o d a y a m | m u d ra m a n d a la m a n tr a u g h a m v id y a p lth o p a la k s ita m || 2 || s a h a s ra n i d a s a d v e ca c a tu s p ith a m tu b h a ira v a m | Codices : ABCDE

A: f. lv

M a n g a la m : o m n a m a h siv a d ib h y o g u r u b h y o y o g e sv a r m a m ] em.; . . . sv a r (I/a )n (a ) A (aksara tops miss­

ing; bottoms consistent with D and L from g u r u 0; final anusvara possibly lost); o m n a m a h siv a y a B; erasure Cpc (before correction, perhaps o m sr lg a n e sa y a nam ah ); o m n a m a li s iv a d ib h y o g u r u b h y a y o g lsv a r ln a DE 1a ta ttv a m ] ABCE; tatva° D “ga rb h a m ] BC; °g a r b h a ] ADE °m a y a m ] BCDE; °m a y a A “b im b a m ] C; °v isv (a m ? ) A; °b im b a d B; ° v isv a m DE l b d u tln a m ] ABDE; d u tin a (- ?) C p a d m a sa n d e ] AB; p a d m a k h a n d e DE; (- ? )a d m a sa m d e Cac; + p a d m a s a n d e + Cpc °su k h a ° ] ABC; “(srasva?) D; °su k h a ° E °r u p a m ] AD; °r u p a ° E; °k a y a m BC b ib h arti ] B; bib h arttih AC; v ib h u r ttih DE i c °b h o g a ° ] ABC,KDE °a d h iv a sa ir ] BC,,CE; °a d h iv a s(a ir? ) A; ° a d h iv a sa i D v iv id h a 0 ] ABC; d v iv id h a 0 DE °laya° ] conj. (S an d erson ); °n a y a ° ABCDE id bh a ira v a m ] AC; b h airavo B; b h airavas DE 2a sr u tv a ] BDE; sr u tv a AC sa stra m p u ra ] B; sastra p u ra AC (anusvara possibly lost in A); m an trap aro DE d e v ! ] BC; d e v ( i / a / o ) A; d e v o DE 2b mulatantram mahodayam ] em.; (m /s)u -----------A; parvatim pratyuvaca ha B; parvvatim pratyu+vaca ha+ C; mulatantramahodayah D; mfilatantramaha( - )yah E 2c “mantraugham ] em..; °mantr(- gh -) A; °mamtrani BC; “mantroghe DE 2d “plthopalaksitam ] ABC; °plthe ya laksit;ih DE 3a dasa ] ABCD; ddasa E 3b catus° ] con.; catuh° ABCDE bhairavam ] ABC; bhairavah DE

291

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292

v im a la n n irg a ta m y a t ta d a g h o r l b h lm a v ik ra m a | p ra ty u v a c a m a h a d e v a m b h a ira v a m m a n tra v ig r a h a m || 3 || y a t p u r a s u c ita m d e v a ta n tra m u c c h u s m a s a m b h a v a m | v im a la h v e ti y a t p r o k ta m jn a n a u g h a m s a k tip u rv a k a m || 4 || y a s m im s tu s a m s th ita m h y etac c a tu s p ith a m t u b h a ira v a m | y a s m a h i n irg a ta m s a rv a m m a n tra p T th a m m a h o d a y a m || 5 || c a tu s p lth a s y a s a m b a n d h e y a t tv a y a c o d ita m m a m a | ta n tra v a ta ra s a m y u k ta m a d y a m y a t s id d h ik a ra n a m || 6 || s a ra h a s y a m m a m a c a k s v a jn a n a u g h o c c a ra p u jita m | s iv a s a k tiv ib h e d a n ca b in d u b h e d a m ta th a iv a ca || 7 || n a v a s a k tiv ib h e d a n ca s rs tib h e d a m s u v is ta ra m | e k a k in i y a th a s a k tir n a v a b h e d a ir v y a v a s th ita || 8 || g u h y a k a k im k a rlb h is ca k im k a ry o c c h u s m a s a m b h a v a h | y o g in y o la k in ln a m t u b a h u b h e d a ir v y a v a s th ita h || 9 || A: f. xv 3c v im a la n ] em.-, v im a la ABCDE

n ir g a ta m ] ABCD; n ir g g a ta E

a g h o r l ] ADE; ar+ (- ?)+ B; a(- rgho?)ri Cac; a + g h a + r l Cpc

B®C; m a h a d e v o Bpc

je

3 ! “v ig r a h a m ] ABC,,C; 0v ig ra h a h m DE

y a t ] ACD; y e DE

3d

m a h a d e v a m ] ADE; m a h a d ev a 4 b tantram u c c h u s m a 0 ] Bpc;

tan tram u c c h u s m a 0 A; tam tr(- n - ? )su sm a° C; m cUxtr(om re?)cchusm a° D; m a n tro (m -? )cch u sm a ° E °sa m b h a v a m ] ABC; sa m b h a v a h DE

4c v im a la h v e ti ] ABCE; v is(a ? )la h v e ti D

p r o + k ta + m Bpc; p r o k sa (- ?)r B" C

D; ste n a (g h )a m E; jn(- n ath - m ?) etac ] ACD; h atac D; h e ta E

p r o k ta m JADE;

4 d jn a n a u g h a m ] em.; jn a n o g h a m A; (- n a g h a m ? ) B; ste n a d y a m

C

5a

y a sm im s ] A; y a s m in BCE; (y- sm - n?)

5b c a tu s° ] corn; ca tu h ° ABCDE

D

hy

5 c y a sm a h i n ir g a ta m ] D;

yasma( ) A; yasmat pltham tu tat B; yasmat pltham tu +tat+ C; yasm adi nirggatam E 5d °pltham ] ABDE; °pitha° C mahodayam ] ABDE; mahodayahm C 6a catus0 ] corn; catuh° ABCDE sambcmdhe ] ABC; samvatta D; Scimvartta E 6b tvaya ] ABC; tvayo DE coditam ] em.; codito ABCDE mama ] Bac; mamah AB^CDE 6c tantravatara0 ] ADE; tamtravataram BCpc; tamtrovataram Cac °samyuktam ] A; sampreks(- )m BC; “samyuktam DE 6d adyam ] ABDE; adya C 7a sa° ] ABCE; sa(m?)° D mamacaksva ] A; samacaksva B,KCED; samacaksve B"‘ 7b jnanaughoccara0 ] em.; jnanoghocara0 A; jnanadyacara0 BC; stenadyocara° D; stenaghocara0 E 7c °sakti° ] BCDE; °sakti° A °vibhedan ] ADE; 0vibhedas BC 7d °bhedam ] A D pc; °bhedas BC; °bhen 8a °vibhedan ] ADE; °vibhedas B,KC; °vibhedadas Bac 8c ekakini ] corn; ekakini ABCDE 8d °bhedair ] ABC; °bhedai DE vyavasthita ] Bpc; vyavasthitah AB"CCDE 9a guhyaka0 ] ABC,K; (- - ?)ka° Cac; suhyaka0 DE 9b kimkaryo0 BCDE; kim(yya?) A °sambhavah ] em.; °sambhavam ABCDE 9c lakinlnam ] ABCE; lakirumam D 9d °bhedair ] ABC; °bhedai DE

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293 eka eva mahavlrya vyapini sakti cottama | tasya yagam asesam tu kriyate surapujita | yatha tatha mahadeva yoginlsiddhikanksinam || 10 || gurususrusanirate vamamarganuvartine | advaitabhavanavasthe nirvikalpe mane sthite || 11 || siddhir yatha bhaved deva tadvidhanam vada prabho | yoginyah svalpabuddhyas tu alpacittalpasattvikah || 12 || bhartuh susrusanapara gurubhaktisamanvitah | tasam siddhir yatha deva bhavate ca samasatah || 13 || isvara uvaca || sadhu sadhu mahadevi yat tvayaham procoditam | nikhilam tat pravaksyami sarvasamdohalaksanam || 14 || yatha ca tantrasadbhavam bahvartham gudhavikramam sarahasyam mahabhage srnusvekagramanasa || 15 || pura -d- akasmad devesi krldamanasya svasthitau | A: f.

iv

10a eka ] ABCD; eko E °vlrya ] ABD; °viryyo CE 10b vyapini ] BC; vyapini ADE sakti cottama ] ACDE; saktir uttama BfK; saktis cottama B"1' 10c tasya ] em.', tasya AD; tan me BC; tamsya E yagam ] em.; yogam ABCDE lo d surapujita ] em.; surapujitah ABCDE lo f “kariksinam ] BCDE; °kaksinam A 11a °susrusa° ] corn; °susrusa° A; °susuna° Bpc; °susosa° Bac; °susrosa° C; °sa(nto?)sa° D; °mantrosa° E °nirate ] ABpcE; “nirato B™Ccorr" ; °nirat(- ?) D 11b 0marganuvartine ] ABC; “margan tu varttine DE 11c advaita0 ] AB; advaitad0 C; a(rdvai?)a° D; arddheta E °bhavana° ] ACDE; °( - )avana° B n d nirvikalpe ] em.; nirvikalpair ABCDE 12a bhaved deva ] em.; bhaved eva ABCDE 12b vidhanam ] ADE; vidhanam BC 12c yoginyah ] Bpc; yoginyo AB“ CDE svalpa0 ] ABC; alpa0 DE °buddhyas ] em.; °buddhas AB; 0bud d ha ms C; buddhan DE X2d °cittalpa° ] ACDE; °cinta+lpa+° B “sattvikah ] ABCD; °sotvikah E 13a susrusanapara ] corr.; susrusanapara A; susrusanaparah BC; santosanaparo DpcE; santroscinaparo D ac 13d samasatah ] A; namo namah BC; samanatah DE 14b yat tvaya0 ] B; yatvaya0 ADE; yatvayo0 C pracoditam ] em.; pracoditah ABCDE 14c nikhilam ] ABC; nisilat DE pravaksyami ] ABC; pravaksami DE 15a tantra° ] ACD; tatra DE °sadbhavam ] ABCD; satbhavam E 15b bahvartham ] BC; bahvartham A; bahvartha0 DE °vikramam ] B; ’vikramam A; °vikramah C; vikrama DE 15c °bhage ] ABC; °se(no?) D; °se(ro?) E 13d “ekagramanasa ] corr.; °ekagramanasah ACDE; “aikagramanasa B 16a pura -d- akasmad ] conj.; ( - rodakas)ma A; purodaka(- ?) B; pudodcikamnya C; purodakasma DE 16b krldamanasya ] ADE; kridamanasya BerrC

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294

yadi yagavijnata syam iccha yavan mamotthita || 16 || icchaya preritenaiva srikantho bhaktavatsalah | divyam varsasahasram tu ijyanjalipurahsaram | aradhito maya devi bhaktyavistena cetasa || 17 || srikanthena tato mahyam parakarunaya mahat

j

jnanaughas tu samakhyatah padabandhakramena tu || 18 |] srlkanthasya prasadena* sarvo 'yam parinato mama | matsamparkat tvaya caiva asesas cavadharitah || 19 || tatas tvaya hitarthaya adesena vina priye | parijanasya samakhyatum prarabdham bhaktihrstaya || 20 viplapyamanam tarn drstva mahatantram maya punah | krodhavistena saptasi jnanam te nasitam yaya || 21 || A: ff. iv-*2r 16c yagavijnata syam ] conj.; yagam vijanasya A; yogam vijana(nya) BC; yogam vijenanyo DE i6d iccha yavan ] conj.; icchaya ca ABCDE mamotthita ] e m mamotthitah A; samasthita BC; sarnasthitah DE 17b srikantho ] ABC; sr!kanth(a/o?) DE bhakta0 ] em.; bhakti0 A D ,,CE; laksmi°BC; bhaktibha D‘" 17c divyam ] ABCD; divya° E Vcirsa0 ] ABDE; varse C “sahasram tu ] ABCpcDE I7d ijya° ] BC; ijya° A; icchal° DE °purahsaram ] B; °purassaram A; “purahsarahm Cpc; °puramsara(h?) Q.ac; °puratsarah DE 17c aradhito ] ACDE; aradhita B maya ] ABC; naya DE Tyf bhaktyavistena ] ABC; bhaktavisnena DE cetasa ] ABCDE'"; cetasahC'" 18a srikanthena ] BCDE; srlka(n- n- ?) A tato ] ACpcDE; tamo B mah­ yam ] ABCF ; seham DE 18b 0karunaya ] em.; “karunaya AB; °kar+u+naya C; “karunayo DE mahat ] ABC'"; sahat DE 18c jnanaughas ] A; jnanakhyam BC; steno(gha)n D; stena(ghe)n E samakhyatah ] ABD; sama(khya)(rrr'’tah E; mamakhyatah C i8 d padabemdha0 ] ACP