The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance

MURRAY

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PETER

With IS6

Mf

KFN

illustrations

SB 134

^y

:n

,

^^

um^^.

%

$:

3

1

SELECTED SCHOCKEN PAPERBACKS Art

& A rt

History

ALAZARD, JEAN BINYON, LAURENCE FINBERG, A. J. FRIEDLAENDER, WALTER FRIEDLAENDER, WALTER GOETHE, J. W. V.

KLINGENDER, F. D. KRIS, ERNST MURRAY, PETER READ, HERBERT READ, HERBERT

REWALD, JOHN REYNOLDS, GRAHAM WOLFFLIN, HEINRICH WORRINGER, WILHELM Literature

&

Portrait

SB203

English Water-Colors SB218 Turner's Sketches and Drawings

SB 163

Caravaggio Studies SB243 David to Delacroix SB 195 Italian Journey 1786-1788 SB193 Goya in the Democratic Tradition SB171 (

)

Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art SB76 The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance SB134 Icon and Idea SB 105 To Hell With Culture SB8 Paul Cezanne SB 162 Constable SB242 The Art of the Italian Renaissance SB42 Form in Gothic SB70

Poetry Bridal Canopy SB182 Illuminations SB241 Israeli Stories SB 108

The

AGNON, S. Y. BENJAMIN, WALTER BLOCKER, JOEL, ed. BROD,

The Florentine

MAX

Franz Kafka

BURNSHAW, STANLEY,

ed.

GIDE & BARRALLT

HALLIDAY, F. E. HARBAGE, ALFR/ .. HARRISON, JOHN R. KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ KAFKA, FRANZ SERRANO, MIGUEL

— A Biography SB47

The Poem Itself SB 146 The Trial (a dramatization

of Kafka's novel Shakespeare and His Critics SB41 Conceptions of Shakespeare SB 145

)

SB53

The Reactionaries SB205 Amerika. A Novel SB28 The Diaries 1910-1913 SB103 The Diaries 1914-1923 SB104 Letter to His Father

The Metamorphosis

(

bilingual

)

(bilingual)

SB 27 SB 172 SB 12 1

Parables and Paradoxes (bilingual) The Penal Colony SB4

The

Trial

SB200

C. G. Jung and

Hermann Hesse SB192

Juveniles

SB224

AVERY, GILLIAN, ed.

Victorian Doll Stories

CHANG, ISABELLE C. HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER

Chinese Fairy Tales SF6 Uncle Remus SB 101

KIPLING,

RUDYARD

LANG, ANDREW, ed. SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON THOMAS, LESLIE

Psychology

&

So Stories SB 11 Arabian Nights Entertainments SB 168 Biography of a Grizzly SB 152 The Story on the Willow Plate SB223 Just

Education

BAKAN, DAVID BAZELEY, E. T. BOWLBY, JOHN, et al. BREARLEY & HITCHFIELD FRANK, JEROME D. FREUD, ANNA FYVEL, T. R. ISAACS, SUSAN ISAACS, SUSAN JONES, ERNEST LANE, HOMER MONTESSORI, MARIA MONTESSORI, MARIA MONTESSORI, MARLA STANDING, E. M.

WAELDER, ROBERT continued on back cover

Sigmund Freud & Jewish Mystical Tradition SB 109 Homer Lane & the Little Commonwealth SB221 Maternal Care and Mental Health SB 124 A Guide to Reading Piaget SB222 Persuasion and Healing SB44 The Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children SB84 Troublemakers SB73 Intellectual Growth in Young Children SB125 The Nursery Years SB 189 Treatment of the Neuroses SB55 Talks to Parents and Teachers SB220 Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook SB98 The Montessori Method SB88 Spontaneous Activity in Education SB97 The Montessori Revolution in Education SBl 14 Basic Theory of Psychoanalysis SB80

3

Florence.

Pdla:;^:;^c

Medici

voussoir patterns verv' similar to those below them, but the open-

ing

is

divided into two lights by

means of

a single colonette

with

round-headed arches over it. a more classically expressed form of the type of two-hght window in the Bargello or the Palazzo \'ecchio. The storey as a whole is smaller than the ground floor and is sharply distinguished from it by the fact that the rusticated stonework has no rough bosses but consists solely of channels cut along the joints. The top storev is identical with the piano nchile except that

gradation in optical effect

actually *

now

smooth^ the stonework through

it is

is

to

entirely

make

the palace

is.

'Ashlar'

is

the technical word.

6s

so that there all

is

a

marked

three storeys and the

seem even higher than

it

PALACE DESIGN

The arrangement outside in that

it

of the inside of the palace

consists of a

is

similar to the

re-working of a traditional type with

The basic shape of hollow square with a large, open, central court ground level, forms an open arcade exactly like a monas-

great attention to proportion and symmetry.

the building

which, at

tic cloister

is

a

and

is

palaces as the Bargello.

and

its

same type as the court in such earlier The differences between the Medici Palace

of the

predecessors are

significant.

all

apparently small but nonetheless

For example, the planning

metrical, with the

is

now

main entrance doorway

original front leading

through

central axis of the court.

a

very nearly sym-

in the centre of the

long tunnel-like entrance into the

The departures from symmetry can be

seen in the plan [33] where it is clear that the far end of the court wider than the other sides and the arrangement of the rooms is

is

by no means strictly symmetrical on the axes. It may be noted that the main staircases are still comparatively unimportant, but at least they open out of the covered arcade and are not completely exposed, as was the case in many of the earlier palaces. The idea of a grand ceremonial staircase as a principal architectural feature was nearly another century in arriving. It

is

in

the

disposition

Brunelleschi's influence it

is

is

of the

most

courtyard

clearly to

be seen;

itself

at the

[54]

same time

evident that Michelozzo was far less inventive and far

sensitive

an architect than Brunelleschi, since

difficulties

inherent in the problem

is

his

that

less

handling of the

rather unimaginative. In

effect, the court of the Medici Palace is the facade of the Foundling Hospital bent round to form a hollow square. The sides of the square reveal at a glance their derivation from the Foundling

Hospital [compare 15 and

;^4],

since there

is

a series of round-

headed arches carried on columns with a very wide frieze above them, the cornice above this frieze forming the sills of the windows of the first floor. What Michelozzo failed to recognise is that by bending the straight fagade of the Foundling Hospital he raised problems at the angles which he was unable to solve. In the first place, in the Foundling Hospital the ends of the facade are given apparent strength by the large pilasters supporting the entablature which runs above the round-headed openings. These 66

PALACE DESIGN

34 Florence, Pala^io Medici, court pilasters are also necessary, in theory at

entablature.

any

Michelozzo omits the large

would have coincided with the angles

rate, to pilasters,

in his court,

so he modifies the original design in three

support the since

they

but by doing

ways which between

them rob his own of much of its effect. By omitting the pilasters and making the angles of the square meet on a single column, not distinguished in any way from the other columns of the arcade, he makes the angles of the court appear rather weak. The whole point apparent support of the entablature, was to provide visually strong areas to close the ends of the fagade. Next, and perhaps still more important, is the unfortunate effect produced by the grouping of the windows. Michelozzo of the pilaster system, apart from

its

used round-headed windows on the

first floor

similar in shape

and

proportion to the arches below them, and, following Brunelleschi, the centres of the windows coincide with the centres of the arches

below them

so that an

even and symmetrical distribution of voids

obtained. Unfortunately, by turning the arcade at right angles at each of the corners the two windows in the corner come much

is

67

PALACE DESIGN closer together than those in the centres of the walls, so that the

weak

effect

produced by the use of a single column

at

the angles

is

further accentuated by the over-close spacing of the windows.

emphasised by the separates the which entablature with tops of the arcades from the bases of the windows. The very deep frieze has roundels placed below the window centres so that they also come too close together at the corners and appear too widely spaced in the centres. The problems presented by the design of such a court were comparatively slow in being solved, and in fact Instead of

making matters

better, this effect

is

excessively high frieze

its

most of the great Florentine palaces repeat this general type for at was outside Florence, in Rome and above all in Urbino, that these problems were first solved. The next important palace type in Florence was provided almost immediately afterwards by Alberti's Rucellai Palace, begun in 1446. It is smaller than the Medici Palace and was probably least a century. It

finished

the

first,

little

so that

it is

possible that

some

colonettes separating the windows,

of the details, such as

may have

influenced

Michelozzo. The Rucellai Palace differs essentially from the Medici Palace in that

it is

the

first

consistent attempt to apply the classical

orders to a palace front and, indeed, the whole building [35] has a much more consciously antique air. It is in some ways a more has a great variety of texture and

sophisticated building, since

it

some subtle emphases

main

with

its

bays. Unlike the Medici Palace,

single entrance in the centre of the facade, the Rucellai

Palace has two to

in the

be read

main doors

so disposed that the facade

AABAABAA(in fact

is

intended

the last 'A' bay was never built,

but the beginnings are clearly visible and it must be supplied by the spectator's imagination to complete the symmetrical disposition). The bays containing the doors are very slightly wider than

marked by the elaborately carved arms over the first-floor windows. This disposition is more complex than the Medici Palace and the feeling of complexity is increased by the horizontal division into three storeys by elaborately decorated entablatures, supported by correctly proportioned pilasters of a more or less Tuscan and a more or less Composite and a Corinthian order. This is clearly a rather free handhng of the the other bays and are also coats of

68

PALACE DESIGN

theme

basic

the

Rome,

pilasters

substi-

Colosseum with

of

in

tuted for columns, and

with the very unortho-

dox Composite tuted

for

the

on the

first floor.

Following

classical

Ionic

precedent, of

substi-

correct

the

those

the heights

storeys fixed

by

were the

heights of the pilasters,

which in themselves were predetermined by the fact that they bore a

fairly

proportional

relationship one to another. is

The ground

floor

given the necessary

height

—since

Bj~^'

Tuscan

must be shorter and heavier than the others—by the addition of

pilasters

forming

a long seat with a

35 Florence, Palu'^^io Rucellai a considerable base

back to

it

made up

below them

of stone carved in a

diamond pattern to imitate Roman opus reticulatum. This apparently minor detail is significant of much of Alberti's approach to classical architecture. Since he was using pilasters as the main element in the whole facade he was obviously debarred from employing graded rustication like that which Michelozzo used so effectively on the Medici Palace. Alberti's palace has a richly textured effect owing to the contrast provided by the channelled rustication of the main wall surfaces, the emphasised channeUing of the round-headed

by the smooth

windows and the further

pilasters

and the opus

contrasts provided

reticulatum

which serves

as a

base. It is clear, therefore, that Alberti used this diamond pattern as a means of obtaining a textural contrast at a point where he

69

PALACE DESIGN

needed some form of base below the pilasters, and for this reason he adopted the diamond shapes which must have been familiar to him in ancient Roman buildings. In fact, however, opus reticulatum was not merely a decorative device. To the Roman architect it

was the equivalent of the modern technique of reinforcing concrete. The Romans had found that vast quantities of concrete can be made even stronger by the provision of some kind of reinforcement which holds the mass together while it hardens and acts as a core

when

the concrete has

set.

For

this

reason they occasionally

inserted pyramidal blocks of stone point foremost into the soft concrete, so that the stone blocks held the

the concrete had

set,

mass together, and,

after

the bases of the pyramids formed on the

outside a pattern which

became known

as opus reticulatum. Alberti

seems to have been entirely unaware of the constructional purpose which underlay this decorative effect and it is characteristic of him that he carved a stone surface to represent this network because he was aiming at a visual effect which had nothing in common with the aims of the original Roman inventors of the technique. Nevertheless, he would have justified his action on the grounds that the visual effect was 'antique', and it is clear also from the cornice at the top of the building that he had specific Roman prototypes in mind. This cornice presented him with a very great difficulty. Michelozzo's immense overhang could be regarded as being proportioned to the whole height of the building and not merely to the top storey. Alberti, however, was limited by the fact that each of the lower storeys had a proper entablature proportioned to the pilasters carrying it, and it was therefore essential that the top storey should have a cornice proportioned to the topmost order. This, however,

would have been

totally inadequate for the practi-

purposes of providing shade during the heat of the day. Alberti therefore designed the highest possible cornice consistent with the

cal

topmost order, but he then gave it a very strongly emphasised overhang and supported the overhanging parts by a series of classical corbels inserted into the frieze. In this way one is

size of the

entitled,

when looking at

the building

from

street level, to read the

cornice simultaneously as a part of the top storey and also as a part

of the building as a whole.

The

device adopted was copied

70

from the

36 Florence, Pala^^o

what

Colosseum, so

that, in

whole attitude

to classical antiquity

so

is

his

tendency to regard

norm for modern

Pitti

probably

is

his first

work, Alberti's

already clearly visible, and

is

Roman architecture as

the only possible

architecture.

In spite of Alberti's great authority, both as an architect and as a

had few successors and most Florentine and i6th centuries evolved a much freer type which can be seen in various forms in several other of the great palaces such as the Pitti, the Pazzi-Quaratesi and the vast Strozzi Palace, built right at the end of the century. The Pitti Palace [36] is extremely problematic. As we now see it, it is very largely of the i6th and 17th centuries, but we know from paintings and early writer, the Rucellai Palace architects of the 15th

records that scale, if

it

was intended from the beginning

not quite so huge

as

it

now^

is.

It

to be gigantic in

consisted originally of

seven bays, the central seven of the present facade, and seems to

have been begun for Luca Pitti after the middle of the century. Luca FanceHi, who had been Alberti's assistant, was certainly concerned in the work, but the design has been attributed both to Brunelleschi and to Alberti. Its conception is so grandiose that an attribution to Brunelleschi

is

15th-century sources records

easily it

understood; but not one of the

as his

work, and an early 16th-

it was not begun until Luca Pitti, who thought of himself as Cosimo de' Medici's great rival, was a vain and rather silly old man and there can be little doubt that he intended to build

century source makes

it

seem

likely that

1458, 12 years after Brunelleschi's death.

71

— PALACE DESIGN

would make the Medici Palace look insignificant and it may therefore be that the model made for Cosimo by Brunelleschi, and rejected as too magnificent, underlies the design a palace that

;

of the Pitti Palace.^

An

attribution to Alberti seems highly im-

probable, for two reasons. In the

first place,

the grandeur of the

palace owes nothing to any direct imitation of a Indirectly,

it

Roman prototype.

can be argued that the sheer scale of the building

the storeys are about 40 feet high

—derives

from a real underseem to be almost

standing of Roman architecture, yet this would

conclusive evidence against Alberti's authorship since even the

Andrea Palace and there

enormous barrel vault of

Sant'

Mantua

at

lacks the stark

Pitti is no other work by him which demonstrates so confident a handling of large empty

simpHcity of the

spaces.

Whoever designed built anything

the original Pitti Palace seems not to have

else, since all

the other late 15th- and early 16th-

century Florentine palaces derive

prototype such

as the

more

or less directly from a

Medici Palace and few of them

make any

The Palazzo Pazzi-Quaratesi and the advance on

it.

Palazzo Gondi

taken

as

may

[37, 38]

be

of the late

typical

15th-century trend, discernible

towards smoothand prettiness and away from the rugged and heroic

in all the arts,

ness

style of Masaccio,

Donatello

and Brunelleschi. The Palazzo Pazzi-Quaratesi tional

has

a

tradi-

with

association

the

name of Brunelleschi, and may be that the rustication

it

of

the ground floor and the design of the

building as

reflects his style in

terms.

37 Florence, Pala!i^o Pa^iiQuaratesi

much 72.

On

the

of the

a

whole

very general other

hand,

work seems

to

PALACE DESIGN

38 Florence, Pala^^o Gondi

date from 146^/70, and the decorative sculpture can be associated

with GiuHano and Benedetto da Maiano. This decoration is typical of the late 15th century in its freedom and charm, but it could not under any circumstances be dated before 1450. The Palazzo

Gondi the

[38]

was begun about 1490 and was inhabited

work of the most important of all

in 1498.

It is

Brunelleschi's later followers,

Giuliano da Sangallo, the eldest of the most important Florentine

end of the 15th century. Giuliano was he was too young ever to come in direct contact with the Brunelleschi and Michelozzo generation. Nevertheless, the Gondi Palace is very close indeed to the Medici Palace and also to the other great descendant of the Medici Palace, the Palazzo Strozzi. The Gondi Palace is obviously smaller and simpler than the Medici, but the most interesting architectural dynasty at the

born about 1443 and died

architectural feature of

on the ground

in 15 16, so that

it is

the transformation of the rustication

floor of the Medici Palace

73

from huge rough-hewn

39 Florence, Pala!i!io

Stro!(^^i

lumps of masonry into evenly spaced rounded blocks of more or less the same size. This tendency to smooth out the roughness is further accentuated by the surface patterns introduced on the first floor in the shape of little crosses between the windows, or the pattern made by the voussoirs of the entrances on the ground floor. The Strozzi Palace [39] deserves separate mention, if only on account of its sheer size. Once more it is dependent on the Medici Palace for almost

all its

architectural merits.

74

It is

very

much larger

PALACE DESIGN

and has

rustication, of the

same rounded type

as that in the

running up the whole height of the facade, but

Palace,

it is

Gondi

only in

very minor details such

as these that it differs from the Medici was begun in 1489, but the grand cornice was designed bv II Cronaca before 1504. The original wooden model is still preserved in the Palace, and there is a document of payment to GiuHano da Sangallo for making it. Nevenheless, it is generally beheved that Giuliano was paid only for executing the model, not for designing it; and it mav be that the original design should be attributed to Benedetto da Maiano.

Palace.

The

It

great Florentine palaces provided models for most of the

of Italv. and almost everv Italian town can show several examples of the tvpe of comfortable, large house \\ hich. somerest

what grandiloquentlv, is referred to in Itahan as a palace. There are a few dating from the 15th century- outside Florence which made advances in one wav or another on the tvpe as established in Florence, and the most famous of these are in Pienza. Rome and Urbino.

When Pius

II

the humanist .-Eneas Silvius Piccolomini was elected Pope

in 1458

he began to rebuild

Pienza after himself.

It is

his native village

a small

between Siena and Perugia and

town almost

since

its

brief

the 15th centurv has hardlv changed at

important place

in the history of

all.

cit^'

it

exactlv half-wav

moment but

town planning.

elevate the village to the status of a

and renamed

it

of glon." in

occupies an

Pius .";-_:. ro

and because

^: :;;:>

he

began to build not onlv a cathedral and a bishop's palace, but he also found himself building a large palace for himself and his familv and a small town hall. Since he knew well enough that most of the work would have to be completed within his own lifetime, he set about it very early in his pontificate and between 1459 and his death in 1464 he had achieved a remarkable piece of town planning. The design was supervised by himielf and executed bv the Florentine architect Bernardo Rossellino, who had worked for Alberti on the Rucellai Palace. Pius was a rather unusual pope and has left us a long and extremelv candid autobiographv in which 15

PALACE DESIGN

40

Pien;ia, Pius IVs rebuilding

several pages are devoted to his activities in Pienza and to the type

and far the most important, is the fact that the centre of the town was consciously planned as a single unit based on the cathedral. The layout [40] shows that the cathedral itself lies on the main axis of a piazza, the sides of which converge towards the town hall at the north end. The east and west sides of the piazza are occupied by Pius's own palace and the bishop's palace, while the south side, apart from the cathedral, slopes very sharply downwards. The cathedral itself is extremely unusual since it is based on an Austrian church which Pius had admired on one of his extensive journeys, journeys which had taken him as far afield as Scotland. He was obviously prepared to impose an architectural type, and this is confirmed by the fact that he left strict instructions that no changes of any kind were of building that he wanted to create.

First,

ever to be introduced into the structure or decoration of the cathedral.

The

palace also has

deliberately sited so that

it is

new

features. In the first place,

it is

related to the cathedral, and, second-

76

PALACE DESIGN ly,

the garden front looks out southwards to a magnificent view

towards Monte Amiata. Perhaps palace

is

an almost

literal

it is not surprising that the copy of Alberti's Rucellai Palace, since

Bernardo Rossellino was responsible for building it, but, as Pius had shown elsewhere that he was prepared to impose his archi-

worth noting that for his own palace he adopted the strictly symmetrical and classical principles of his fellow humanist, Alberti. There is, however, one exception to this which was due to Pius himself. The south side of the palace consists of three open porticoes, one above the other, looking out across the garden to the distant view of the mountains and we know that tectural preferences,

it is

;

Pius caused these porticoes to be built simply for the sake of the

view. Thus, the httle city of Pienza contains one of the

of regular

town planning

since

Roman

days

first

pieces

—apart from one or

two mediaeval examples based on existing Roman market places and similar features and it seems also to contain the first palace in which the view across an extensive landscape is an important feature in the design. It is often said that Petrarch was the first modern man to cHmb a mountain for the sake of the view, and it seems that Pius was the first modern to spend money on a building which should provide a view.

—

According to exceeded

Pius's

his estimates.

own autobiography, Bernardo He had spent more than 50,000

RosselHno ducats

(his

was 18,000), and was not unnaturally apprehensive when the Pope sent for him. The autobiography continues: When he arrived after a few days in some apprehension since he knew that many charges had been brought against him, Pius said, original estimate

'

"You

did well, Bernardo, in lying to us about expense involved in

the work.

If

you had

us to spend so

told the truth

much money and

you could never have induced

neither this splendid palace, nor

would now be

standing. Your which are praised by all except the few that are consumed by envy. We thank you and think you deserve a special honour among all our architects of our time" and he ordered full pay to be given him and, in addition, a present of 100 ducats and a scarlet robe. Bernardo, when he this

church, the finest in

all Italy,

deceit has built these glorious structures

.

.

.

heard the Pope's words, burst into tears of joy.' 77

PALACE DESIGN

who died in 1455, had employed number of schemes in Rome itself, of

Pius's predecessor, Nicholas V,

Alberti as his consultant on a

which the most important was a project for extensive alterations to St. Peter's, which later had a profound effect upon the building as we know it today. Rather surprisingly, Rome was of little importance, either pohtically or

artistically, in

the

first

half of the

15th century, largely owing to the absence of the Popes. Nicholas

do something about the state of the city, but with comparatively little success, and there are only two secular buildings of any real importance which have come down to us from the 15th century: the palaces known as the Cancelleria and the Palazzo Venezia. In both cases, the influence of Alberti is very clearly marked, though it is extremely unlikely that he had a hand in either. The small, unfinished court of the Palazzo Venezia dates from the 1460's and is the first important Roman secular building for a very long time. Although Alberti did not design it, it offers a solution to the problem of the angles in a courtyard. The problem had, as we have seen, arisen in buildings like the Palazzo and Alberti attempted

to

Medici in Florence, but the

Roman

solution

is

characteristic of

which was Colosseum or the ancient theatre of Marcellus, across the street from the Palazzo Venezia. The court [41] differs from that of the Palazzo Medici [34], since it is not a series of arches carried on single columns but a series of arches carried on solid piers. The piers have half-columns set on high bases, used as a decorative rather than a structural element as in both the Roman prototypes. From the point of view of architectural design this has the great advantage over the Florentine type that the angles have an appearance of greater solidity, caused by the L-shape of the

Alberti in that

it

derives

from

a classical prototype,

either the

piers; together

with a better spacing of the columns, since their

proportions can be adjusted to suit the bases below them. Very

was first worked out by Alberti, inspired by the Colosseum, and used by him in the Benediction Loggia of Old St. Peter's which is known to us from drawings. These drawings show that the Benediction Loggia was the link between the Colosseum and the Palazzo Venezia and Alberti must therefore be given the probably

this idea

;

credit for this particular innovation.

78

41 Rome,

Pdazz^

Vene-:^ia,

court

PALACE DESIGN

The second important

building, the Cancelleria,

is

an enormous

palace begun for Cardinal Riario but subsequently taken over as

from which it derives its name. The one of the greatest mysteries of ItaHan architecture. It seems certain that it was designed and largely built between i486 and 1496. Like the Pitti Palace in Florence, it is enormous in scale and shows the influence of Alberti, although it cannot possibly be by him since he died long before it was begun. It used to be the

Papal

Cancelleria

Chancery,

is

attributed to Bramante, presumably because

it is

so fine a building,

bur Bramante did not arrive in Rome until 1499 or 1500 and there is no doubt that the decisive features of the Cancelleria were fixed well before then. The enormously long facade consists of a high podium with two storeys above, both of which have pilaster facings [42].

It is

obvious at a glance that the type

is

very simi-

lar to that of the Rucellai palace, but the Cancelleria

subtle in

its

proportions, and, for this reason,

Rossellino's rather feeble

copy

is

far in

is

more

advance of

at Pienza. In the first place, the

horizontal division into three parts

is

made

simpler and clearer

by the omission of the pilasters on the ground floor. The rustication and the comparatively small windows of the ground floor are thus made to form a large and imposing base for the two upper storeys, both of which are also rusticated. The upper storeys are, however, diff'erently treated. The piano nobile has larger windows, and the attic storey two windows between the pilasters, instead of the large one on the floor below. The great mass of wall is broken up both vertically and horizontally by projections at each end of the facade, although than the same division in the Rucellai palace

it

[35]

that these projections are really too shallow

must be admitted

both more effective and more subtle. In the Palazzo Rucellai Alberti had established a very simple pattern of identical window bays separated by single pilasters, each of which stood on the cornice of to be fully effective.

the pilaster below

it,

The

horizontal articulation

the cornice thus serving as

sill

is

windows more complex

for the

and base for the pilasters. The Cancelleria has a rhythm, consisting of a pair of pilasters with a narrow, windowless bay between them, followed by a wider bay containing the window, so that in place of the ABAB rhythm of the Rucellai 80

42 Rome,

Palace bases

Pala-^-^o delta Cancelleria

we now have ABA. Both the sills of the windows and the of the pilasters are now separate, and kept distinct from

the cornice of the order below.

narrow bavs leads

also to a

The introduction

new kind

of wide and

of proportion. In place of the

simple one-to-two, or two-to-three proportions of the earlier

makes extensive use the Golden Section. Thus,

the Cancelleria

palaces,

of the irrational

known as for example, the width of an entire four-pilaster unit is to its height as the height of one of the main windows is to its width, and the same proportion rules the widths of the narrower and the wider bavs. From this proportion

was a man deeplv versed in Alberti's theon* as well as his practice, and one capable of advancing the art of architecture by a considerable alone

it is

clear that the architect of the Cancelleria

degree.

The

third important palace

for^vard

is

which

also

makes

a

major

step

the Ducal Palace at Urbino, built mainly during the 8i

43 Rome, Palu'^'^o della Cancelleria, court

1460's for the greatest soldier of the age, Federigo,

Duke

of Urbino,

whose small court was probably the most civilised centre in the whole of Europe. The palace at Urbino also presents considerable problems, both of attribution and dating, but on the whole it seems most likely that the important parts were built by a rather mysterious architect from Dalmatia called Luciano Laurana. We know very little about Laurana and nothing about his early training, but we do know that he was in Urbino by 1465/6, and he is named as the Chief Architect of the palace in a document of 1468. We know also that he died at Pesaro in 1479. It seems most likely that the courtyard of the palace, which is its chief glory, can be dated between 1465 and 1479 and it is therefore reasonable to assume that both it and the main entrance facade are the work of Laurana. There were, however, other artists at work in Urbino and the palace was certainly begun before Laurana appeared on the scene. It was 82

PALACE DESIGN

probably completed by the Sienese Francesco di Giorgio and there is still room for debate about the exact demarcations between

Laurana and Francesco in some of the interior decoration. Furthermore, we know that the Duke, who was Commander-in-Chief of the Papal Forces and a man who had risen from very humble beginnings, was on friendly terms with almost all the major artists of the day and Piero della Francesca, Mantegna and Alberti were all welcome visitors at Urbino. It was there, in 1444, that Bramante was born and there, 39 years later, Raphael was also born. Attempts have been

made

to give the credit for the extra-

ordinary perfection of the proportions, both of the court and. the

main facade of the palace, to Piero della Francesca; but there seems no reason to doubt the enthusiastic terms in which Federigo speaks of Luciano Laurana in the document of 1468 which refers to

him as the Architect-in-Chief. The palace at Urbino is situated on ^

the very top of a mountain

with the ground faUing steeply away from that of the

main

it

on every

side except

entrance, which faces the piazza and cathedral

superb view was taken into two high, round towers were built with three round-headed openings between them forming a loggia on each of the three storeys looking out across the mountains. This [46].

As with the palace

at Pienza, the

account, and on the steepest side

triumphal arch type of design can be connected with the triumphal arch built in Naples for Alfonso of Aragon and it is possible that Laurana began his career working there. The court [45] and the main entrance fagade [46] are, however, the most important parts of the palace as it exists, although the interior with large, bare rooms, elaborately carved fireplaces, and doorways with perhaps the finest existing intarsia work, is one of the most beautiful that has

come down

to us.

Marches and contains

The palace is now

the National Gallery of the

a collection of paintings

worthy of its

setting.

We have searched everywhere, Montis Feretri Urbini etc in Tuscany (which is the fountainhead of architects) without finding a really skilled man, learned in the said mystery; but at last we learned of the reputation which has been confirmed by experience of the excellent Master Lutiano, bearer of this patent. We have appointed the said Master Lutiano as Overseer and Head of all the miasters working [on the Palace] 10 June 1468' ^

'Federicus,

.

.

..

and especially

—

—

.

.

.

.

83

.

.

44 Urhino, the Palace

The is

[46]

ing. It

facade of the palace seen at first sight, is

Hke

so

from the main piazza of the town

many ItaUan

poles and

is

obviously unfinished, with

walled up and some of the doorways theless,

buildings, very disappoint-

riddled with the small holes intended for the scaffolding

it

well repays a closer study.

some

much The

of the major

reduced in

first

windows

size.

Never-

thing clearly visible

main entrance facade, which has three doorways and main windows, is entirely different, both in the size and in the disposition of the windows, from the other main front of the palace, where the windows are all round-headed and some of them are of the two-light form famihar from much earher Florentine palaces. We know that part of the palace was begun in 1447 and it is reasonable, therefore, to assume that these round-headed, rather Florentine windows date from then. The main facade of the palace is exceedingly skilfully divided into a rusticated basement storey

is

that the

four

which has pilasters at the angles and has three large squareheaded entrance doorways with smaller square-headed windows between them. Above this, on the piano nobile, there are four windows, similar in type to the doorways, flanked by pilasters and with strongly modelled straight entablatures acting as hood mouldings for the windows. Above this again, the architect must have planned at least one attic storey, but in the present state of the facade we cannot guess what it might have looked like. The very 84

PALACE DESIGN unusual disposition of the four main windows above three large

doorways, so that the rhythm

window

is

a

kind of zig-zag with the void of

above the rusticated bays and the void of the between the two windows, is an entirely different idea of a facade from that which would have been held bv anv Florentine architect of the mid-i5th centurv. At the same time, the actual shapes of the rectangular openings differ from those normal in Florence, and once more we must assume that the architect was Luciano Laurana and that the facade of the palace remained the

doorway

set

set

when he left Urbino. WT go through the last of the

incomplete If

three doorwavs,

we find

ourselves

Here again, although the elements are those of the Florentine palace tvpe and clearlv refer to such great examples as the Medici palace, vet these same elements are handled with skill and sophistication far in advance of that possessed by any native Florentine of the '6o's and 'yo's. A comin the courtyard of the palace [45].

parison of the court with that of the Medici palace [^4] shows that in both cases the ground floor consists of an open cloister with cross

45 Urbino, the Palace

46 Urbino,

vaults carried

on columns. Immediately above

windows corresponding

closed in and has

ground is

floor. It

is

is

it

the piano nohile

to the arches

is

on the

here that the superiority of the court at Urbino

manifested. In the

court

the Palace

first

place, the

weakness of the Medici palace

very largely due to the difficulty of turning the two arches

at right angles

on

to this difficulty

a single

column

in each of the corners.

had already been found,

as

Rome

we have

A solution

seen, in the

which was very probably inspired by Alberti and which must date from only a very few years earlier than the work at Urbino. Laurana has made courtyard of the Palazzo Venezia in

an L-shaped pier

at the angles,

each faced with a half-column

carrying the ground floor arches.

which meet

at the

[41],

The

pier

is

faced by pilasters

angle and which carry an entablature bearing

a Latin inscription praising the virtues of

Duke

Federigo. This

and entablature running above the arches is obviously inspired by Brunelleschi's Foundling Hospital, so that Laurana has adapted Brunelleschi's invention in a way which Brunelleschi's fellow-Florentines had not worked out for themselves. More important, the arrangement of the angles allows each of the

pilaster

86

PALACE DESIGN

windows on the piano

nohile to

be centred over the arches below

them without crowding together at the angles and with sufficient space round them to allow for a pilaster order corresponding to the columns on the ground

floor.

We now

have the two strong hori-

zontals of the upper and lower entablature with the bays of both storeys clearly defined

The

by

a consistent use of pilasters

actual proportion of the

window openings

and columns.

to the space be-

tween the framing pilasters is a partiailarlv good example of the extreme delicacv of perception of this architect; bv comparison Michelozzo's courtyard appears clumsv and insensitive. There can be little doubt that the architect of the court at Urbino was the same as the designer of the main facade, and equally there can be no doubt that he was not a Florentine, although he was ven' well informed on ail the most recent work in Florence. Rome, and Naples. Since we know that Laurana was Federigo's Architect-inChief in 1468, it must be assumed that he was the genius who left behind this one perfect work, which in turn was to inspire the greatest architect of the next generation, Bramante. One other architect of great abihrv" also worked on the palace at Urbino the Sienese painter and architect Francesco di Giorgio. It seems, however, most likelv that he was principally concerned with the decoration of some of the rooms since the one certain architectural work by him, the small church near Cortona [56] which dates from the end of the centurs", is by no means of the

—

same

quality as the palace at Urbino.

The design of the typical \'enetian different from that of all other Itahan

palace

is

fundamentally

palaces and the

srv'listic

development of \'enetian architecture is also' considerably slower. As we have seen, the normal type of palace represented by the Florentine examples was conditioned by a number of social, economic and cUmatic factors. The \'enetian tA'pe was subject to the same influences, but the factors were themselves different. In the first place, because of the shortage of land, almost ever\' major palace in \'enice is built to a large extent on piles driven into the water, which means that there is no point in having a central open 87

t^«

'aa'

^

T.

ai

47 Venice,

court.

Sri

^

'mm-

Hi

the Doges' Palace

The economic and political stability of Venice also made it less

necessary to fortify the palaces and there was thus no need for a central light well.

The Venetian

palace therefore tends to be a solid

block of masonry, and the style in which

profoundly modified by the

facts

it

was

was very During the

built

of Venetian trade.

Middle Ages the Venetians traded extensively in the Eastern Mediterranean and particularly with the Eastern Roman Empire as it existed until Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453. There was thus a profound influence from Byzantine art, which was a living force in Venice centuries after it had died in the rest of Italy. Trade with northern Europe also helped to introduce some northern Gothic ideas. The two great buildings symbolising the power and the wealth of the Republic were the Basilica gf St. Mark and the Doges' Palace [47]. The Basilica of St. Mark dates back to 829 but was rebuilt in 1063 and consecrated in 1094. A good deal of the facade dates

from the early 15th century. The Doges'

— PALACE DESIGN Palace was built in the 14th century but the side facing the piazza

—

to the facade of St. Mark's dates from about two buildings, and in particular the Doges' Palace, provide the permanent exemplars for Venetian architecture, as may be seen from an example like the Ca' d'Oro of 1427/36 [48] or the Palazzo Pisani of the middle of the 15th century. In these and in later examples of the same type of palace, the influence of the Doges' Palace is most evident in the shape and size of the windows on the first floor. In the Ca' d'Oro we see once more the strange but highly successful device of a double arcade with the wide openings on the ground floor and the narrow ones immediately above it, but the Ca' d'Oro, unlike the Doges' Palace, stands on and partly in the Grand Canal. Not only does this mean that the palace has no central court but it also means that the ground floor parallel, that

is,

1424-42. These

is

virtually uninhabitable.

The

typical Venetian palace, therefore,

has a large opening at water-level with a flight of

out of an entrance hall and a rest of the nohile

is

ground

thus even

number

floor just

of store

stairs

running

rooms occupying the

above the water-level. The piano in Venetian palaces than in any

more important

other Italian examples. This leads to a further characteristic of

Venetian palace design, namely the tendency to divide the facade into three vertical elements.

known

as the

Gran

The main room on the

Salone, occupies the

first floor,

whole of the centre of the

and the smaller rooms on either side of it are expressed externally by smaller windows [48]. This, in turn, means that the windows of the Gran Salone must be as large as possible since the great room inside can be lit only from the back and the front, there being no possibility of side lighting and no external court. Hence the most characteristic feature of all Venetian palaces, the great mass of window openings in the centre of the fa^de. Venetian conservatism was such that this basic type of design lasted virtually unchanged from the early 15th to the i8th century and the only important modifications, introduced gradually in the course of the 15th and i6th centuries, all lay in the direction of systematising the fagade into a symmetrical disposition with more or less regular openings. Most of the great 15th- and 16th-century palaces were designed by one or other of the Lombardi, facade,

89

48 Venice, Ca d'Oro 90

PALACE DESIGN

by

or

relation,

their

and Mauro their work may be seen Codussi,

in such palaces

Corner-Spinelli,

the

as

begun and the

about 1480

[49]

Palazzo

\'endramin-

begun

Calergi,

about

1500 and finished in 1509 [50].

In both cases the

central massing of the

windows has been retained, but the windows in the bays at either side

have

been

symmetriand are made the same size and

cally disposed

shape. In

the

Spinelh, the

ABBA latter

more

Corner-

rhythm

Ui

4^

is '•n

and in the \'endramin-Ci-r:g: example the classical elenieni

assurance and

skill, as f:r

^

are

ex^rr.r'c

:r.

:hr Arrin^c:

attached columns. Here, the rraaiiivonal aisr

:i::::" ::

:r.

by the faa that the side bays have a rii: a window, and another pair of columns, whrrc^s zr.t windows of the Gran Salcne are separated :"- r ir.:. r.arrrr. Nevertheless, when one considers wha: rest of Italy by 1309. the Palazzo \'endraniin-Cale:^-

is

rin

stressed

.if

regarded 1537 his

as essentially old

when Jacopo

fashioned

.

.ni

magnificent palace for the Comaro family. other architecrjra!

f:r:r.

—

re

r.:: u::::.

Sansovino, a Florencirxc rciu^rr :n

forms can be said to have arrived

One

"as

::

:r.a: -:z:-

.\r:u:

rr^an miissance

rr.^Jr --

in \'enice.

recaliar ro X'emce should be

mentioned in passing rhc :y^c or cha:::ab:e ! cundarion known as a Scuola. These were religious con::a:c:r:::c5, usually of men d: uuuer rhe ra:::r.age engaged in the same occupation, of a particular saint, banded themselves rc^erher ro car-/ out 91

PALACE DESIGN

50 Venice, Pala^^o Vendramin-Calergi charitable and educational work. The buildings in which they met were thus sometimes partly hospitals or schools, but at the same time they served as a meeting-place for the members. The most famous architecturally are probably the Scuola di San Marco and the Scuola di San Rocco, which was not built until 1517-60 but nevertheless shows the extreme conservatism of Venetian architects coupled with the permanent influence of St. Mark's on all ecclesiastical

The

buildings in Venice.

influence of

St.

Mark's conditioned almost

all

churches in

Venice and Venetian territory for many years to come. It can be seen in such buildings as Sta Maria de' MiracoH or San Zaccaria, both of which date from the second half of the 15th century and are once

more

the works of

Mauro Codussi and

the

Lombardi

family. Only two Venetian churches of this period call for special

mention; the church of San Michele in Codussi's

first

work

in Venice,

begun 92

which was and completed about

Isola [51],

in 1469

PALACE DESIGN

and the much later church of San Salvatore. It is tempting to San Michele in Isola is Codussi's finest work simply because it shows less of the Venetian passion for decoration than any other of his buildings. It was built on the small island which serves as the cemetery of Venice and is therefore a mortuary 1479,

assert that

chapel rather than a parish church. Perhaps for this reason the

more akin to the work of Alberti than to later 15th-century Venetian architecture. The similarities between San Michele and Alberti's Tempio Malatestiano can hardly be coincidental and must be the architecture has a simplicity and severity far early

source of the classic impulse in Venice at that date.

The second 1534 and

is

church, San Salvatore, was built between 1507 and

principally of interest for the

51

way

in

Venice, S. Michele in Isola

93

which it evolves the

52 Venice,

Salvatore

S.

new form derived directly from made up of three interof which is a large dome surrounded by

Latin cross type of church into a

Mark's since

St.

it

consists of a

locked central plans, each four smaller

domes

—thus combining the type of

that evolved in Milan is

long nave

by

Filarete

St.

Mark's with

and Leonardo. The Latin ^

obtained by the addition of transepts and apses.

cross

The plan

[52]

seems to be due to Giorgio Spavento but the work on the church was carried out by one of the Lombardi and even by Jacopo Sansovino.

The north of Italy provides several examples of the mixed style which resulted from an application of the classical principles of Tuscan architects to the decorative traditions common in the north. One of the most important of these buildings is the Colleone Chapel at Bergamo by the famous and much-employed Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, who was later to collaborate with Bramante in Milan. The Colleone Chapel was built in the first half of the 1470's and shows very close similarities to Filarete's work in that it has a high, octagonal drum with a dome and lantern which derive ultimately from Florence Cathedral. Nevertheless, the facade as a whole [53] shows that the decorative elements could always triumph over the mathematical principles of the Tuscan architects, even though Amadeo probably thought of himself as a classical architect. A very much more successful, though much later, building is Como Cathedral, dating from the end of the century. Less successful, though more famous, is the great Carthusian monastery, the I

See pp. 102-5.

94

PALACE DESIGN Certosa at Pavia which was designed about 1481 but took nearly 150 years to complete.

Amadeo probably had

a share in the design,

but most of the major Milanese architects, painters and sculptors

were emploved on it. Much ot the sculpture on the facade is extremely fine as sculpture, but the general effect is best described as clutter. In fact, the main lines of the design are fine and simple but they are so oyerlaid with coloured incrustations and decoratiye sculpture that the total effect

is

one of half-digested

The only other important churches

classicism.

built in Italy in the last years

of the i5th.centur)' were by Tuscan architects deyeloping the

down bv

were the churches of by GiuHano da Sangallo, and Sta Maria del Calcinaio, near Cortona. by Francesco di Giorgio. Both these resemble the experiments with centrally planned churches being carried out m Milan by Leonardo and Bramante, and we know that Francesco di Giorgio was personally acquainprinciples laid Sta

Maria delle Careen,

Brunelleschi. These at Prato,

ted with Leonardo and wrote a

on architecture. Giuhano da Sangallo was the eldest of the three major architects in the family. He \\ as born probably in 1443 and died m treatise

1

His

5 16.

brother,

known

as

Antonio the Elder, was born in 1435 and their nephew, Antonio the Younger, was born in 1483. Giuliano began life as a woodworker and was brought up in the tradition established by Brunelleschi (who died when Giuliano was a child of about three His most important works are the church at Prato. the Gondi Palace in Florence, and the Sacrisrv' which he added .

to Brunelleschi's

church of Sto

33

95

Ber;r^n:c,

Cappella

C cLLccne

56 Cortona, Sta Maria del Calcinaio Spirito. His career culminated in his official appointment to succeed Bramante as the Head of the Works at St. Peter's, but he was by then (1514-15) obviously incapable of so enormous an undertaking and he retired to Florence, where he died in 15 16. His two ecclesiastical works show very clearly his attachment to the

Brunelleschian tradition, since the Sacristy at Sto Spirito resembles the Baptistry of Florence with the detailing entirely in Brunel-

manner. The church of Sta Maria delle Carceri [54, jj-] left in its present incomplete state in 1506. It is a pure Greek cross and derives, therefore, from the Brunelleschian tradition of centrally planned churches but also, and more immediately, from Alberti's S. Sebastiano at Mantua, a quarter of a century earlier. The interior shows a ribbed dome supported on pendentives, exactly like Brunelleschi's Pazzi chapel, but the exterior, where there was no immediate Brunelleschian prototype to borrow from, is much weaker with a very awkwardly proportioned double order. Nevertheless, both in Giuhano's church and in Francesco di Giorgio's very similar and contemporary Sta Maria del Calcinaio [56], we see the culmination of the early Renaissance ideals of classical lightness and purity. The next stage was to be reached by Bramante.

leschi's

at

Prato was begun in 1485 and was

97

Filarete,

Leonardo

THE SECOND HALF of the 15th ccntury saw very important developments in Milan. The Sforza family dominated the political scene from 1450, when Francesco Sforza was made Duke of Milan, until 1499, when Lodovico lost the city to Louis XII of France and ended his life in prison. The Sforzas, particularly Lodovico, were great patrons of the arts and the two greatest artists in the world, Leonardo da Vinci and Bramante, both worked for him for nearly 20 years. At the time of Francesco Sforza's accession to the dukedom, the Florentines were still supreme in all the arts and a strong Tuscan influence was soon overlaid on the native tradition, largely because Francesco Sforza

the Florence of Cosimo de' Medici.

Lombard

was poUtically aUied

A number

to

of Florentine

worked in Milan for varying periods, but the three most important were Michelozzo, Filarete and Leonardo da Vinci. So far as we know, Michelozzo Michelozzi designed two important buildings in Milan; a palace belonging to the Medici family, and a large chapel built by the Florentine family of Portinari. The Portinari Chapel [57] is part of artists,

including Brunelleschi

himself,

the Basilica of Sant' Eustorgio but can almost rank as a separate building;

it

is

it is by no means was executed by the

attributed to Michelozzo, but

certain that the design

is

entirely his or that

98

it

MILAN: riLARETE. LEONARDO. BRANLANTE

Milanese cisely as

craftsmen

pre-

he intended. The

Milanese tradition, with

its

love of colour and decoration,

was obviously opposed

the simpler and

to

more

austere forms which Michel-

had

ozzo

learned

from

Brunelleschi and the historv ;

of a good deal of Milanese architecture of the late 15th

and earlv i6th centuries the

historv of a

between a and the

compromises pure

is

of

series

classical stvle

traditions

and preferences

of local patrons and crafts-

3- Milan.

5. Eiistorgio.

men. The Portinan Chapel is

the Pcrtinari

Chapel

basicallv a Brunelleschian

type of design, square in plan, with pendentives, but

also has

it

a

dome

curiouslv hke minarets, which are tvpical of ideas. This tvpe of centrallv

corners was to

Lombard seen in

become

interest

a far

m

more

over

it

supported on

four small towers at each corner

Lombard

decorative

planned building with towers

characteristic

of the

the central plan, and the

at

the

late

i5th-centur\-

same

ideas can be

highlv developed form in the earlv projects

for the rebuilding of

St.

Peter's

m Rome.

The palace which Michelozzo

is

supposed

headquarters of the Medici bank in Milan

is

to

have built

now known

as the

to us

only

from the main doorway, preserved in the Castello Sforzesco in Milan, and from a drawing of the whole facade in Filarete's Treatise on Architecture. Both the drawing and the existing doorwav show the same combination of Florentine, or Brunelleschian. forms, with Gothic decorative elements such as the pointed windows recorded in Filarete's drawing. Both these buildings date from the early 1460's and are the most important examples of the introduction of Florentine ideas into Milan about the middle of the centurv.

99

MILAN: FILARETE, LEONARDO, BRAMANTE

The next wave of

name

Florentine influence

He was

of Filarete.

is

associated with the

whose

a Florentine sculptor

real

name

was Antonio Avedino, but who, typically, called himself Filarete, that being approximately Greek for 'lover of virtue'. He was born probably about 1400 and died about 1469 and his earhest surviving major work is the great bronze doors of Old St. Peter's, finished in 1445. These doors are among the very few surviving objects transferred to the present Basilica and they clearly show that Filarete hoped to rival the great bronze doors made by Ghiberti for the Baptistry in Florence.

They

are not, however, very success-

and about two or three years later Filarete left Rome rather hurriedly and apparently under a cloud. Soon after this he arrived in Lombardy where, in 1456, he began the building of the great Milanese hospital which, very greatly altered and rebuilt, survived ful;

as

the principal one in Milan until very recent years. Before

beginning

it

he

visited the hospitals in Florence

and Siena which

own were then the two building was intended to bring together on one site all the very numerous charitable foundations which were then scattered about in Milan, and it is of architectural importance because the whole vast building was planned as a cross in a square, with the hospital great examples of hospital planning. His

church standing in the very centre of the design, the arms of the cross, and in

itself a centrally

at the junction

of

planned building.

This church, like Michelozzo's Portinari Chapel, also had towers at the angles.

Some

surviving parts of the building

like Michelozzo,

attempted to impose

Gothic-minded craftsmen and, again

show

classical

that Filarete,

forms on the

like Michelozzo, failed to

achieve his object.

More important than his few surviving buildings was the Treatise which he wrote, probably between 1461 and 1464. Soon after he completed it he fell out of favour in Milan, and there is a version of the Treatise dedicated to Piero de' Medici and dated 1465, which has very numerous illustrations. The Treatise itself is an impassioned plea for a return to the antique style and for the complete abandonment of the 'barbarous modern style' by which he meant the Gothic style, still almost unchallenged in North Italy. The work consists of 25 books divided in the most

—

100

58 Filaretes design for the City ofSforiiinda

extraordinary

manner

into separate threads of ideas.

straightforward

perfectly

theories of Alberti, but very

The second imaginary

architectural

treatise

The

based

is

part of the treatise

is

an elaborate

city called Sforzinda [58]

very important

as

on the

muddled and incoherent in expression. fairy-tale

about an

named

after his

obviously

Milanese patrons. There are long descriptions of the

which

first is a

city itself,

an early example of the star-shaped

and there are also long descriptions of the individual buildings, together with the most minute descriptions of the decorations in the major buildings. It may be recalled that Pienza, though far less ambitious in its planning than Sforzinda, was actually being built in the early '6o's. Some of the books contain city plan,

the most extraordinary farrago of the astrological calculations necessary to secure

harmony within

the projected

city,

followed

by common-sense remarks about the desirable relationship between architect and patron, or the building of fortifications. Book XI contains a description of the hospital he hoped to build in Milan together with some drawings. In the fourteenth book, the fairy-tale atmosphere is intensified by a description of the Golden lOI

Milan: filarete, Leonardo, br am ante

Book, found while digging the foundations of Sforzinda, and which

came from the tomb of someone called King Zogaha. The Golden Book is found to contain descriptions of antique buildings and it is obvious that, for Filarete at any rate, the remains of antiquity had a

semi-magical quality by which they deserved to triumph over

the barbarous Gothic. ridiculous

A

later generation

and indeed Vasari, writing

found Filarete

faintly

middle of the i6th

in the

century, describes the Treatise rather acidly: 'Although there

some good

to be

found in

it,

it

is

nevertheless

most

is

ridiculous,

and perhaps the most stupid book that was ever written'. This was more rationalistic and more pedantic generation, but there can be httle doubt that Filarete's enthusiasm and, above all, his passionate advocacy of the centrally planned form, were of the greatest importance in the development of architectural theory in Milan. Since both Leonardo and Bramante were much occupied with the theory of centrally planned buildings in the 1480's and 1490's, the consequences for Europe as a whole can hardly be the viewpoint of a

over-estimated. •

•

-f

Leonardo da Vinci arrived in Milan most probably in 1482, and he remained there until 1499. During these 17 years he was occupied in

making

a clay

model

Monument, in anatomy At the same time,

for the great Sforza

painting the Last Supper, and in profound researches into

and

a

number

of other scientific pursuits.

and of series of centrally planned architectural drawings. It is possible that Leonardo's knowledge of anatomy, which was then incomparably greater than that possessed by anyone else, was what attracted him to the study of architectural drawing. We know that he projected and began to write an elaborate Treatise on Anatomy in which the whole structure of the human body was explained by means of diagrams based on sections and on drawings of the different stages of dis-

under the influence of Bramante, he began to work out a probably

section,

Filarete's

Treatise

arranged so that the functions of the different parts of the

body were

time the professional anatomy consisted almost exclusively of a few diagrams, which symbolised rather than represented the parts of the clearly manifested. Before this

teaching of

102

'

"^ Z'

'

'«V1'- —

,--•?--

^ :>4

.-

'I

Vv

I'-v

-iUi

59 Leo7iardo da Vinci, architectural drawing from Ms. B

MILAN: FILARETE, LEONARDO, BRAMANTE

body, and by the occasional instruction of medical practitioners by means of a dissection which was not carried out in order to explore the structure of the

means of

human body

as a

ratifying the existing diagrams. Leonardo's scientific

approach to anatomy drawings of

is

reflected in the

this period, particularly those

known

script

but was thought of rather

as

Ms. B,

now

numerous

architectural

contained in the

manu-

in Paris. In this draft of a Treatise

on

Architecture Leonardo takes a number of centrally planned forms and evolves more and more complex forms from the first simple shape. Many of these could hardly have been built and are quite obviously exercises in architectural theory, but the great importance of these drawings

the fact that they are conscious

lies in

which Leonardo evolved a new technique of representation. Most of these drawings [59, 60] present a complex plan and then show the same building in a bird's-eye view (and occasionally in section as well), so that, as with his anatomical drawings, we are given a complete picture of the three-dimensional forms. So far as we know, Leonardo never actually built anything, but there cannot be any doubt that his drawings and speculations were profoundly influential on Bramante and, through him, aff"ected the whole current of architectural thought in the i6th century. There is even reason to beheve that Bramante's early design for St. Peter's was much influenced by Leonardo's drawings of centrally planned structures; both men were impressed by the oldest buildings in Milan, above theoretical speculations for

by the great Early Christian Basilica of San Lorenzo. Bramante, who was to become the greatest architect of his generation, was in Milan from at least 1481 until the fall of the city in 1499. His early career is obscure. He was probably born in 1444, not far from Urbino, but nothing whatever is known about all,

him

until 1477,

which

a

when he

few fragments

still

painted

frescoes in

It

ing datable in 148 1 and inscribed 'in Milan'. This

evidence of his interest in architecture, but buildings in the highly decorated

would seem

Bergamo of

seems certain that he was a than this, since there is an engrav-

survive.

painter until considerably later

some

it

is

the earliest

contains ruined

Lombard Gothic

style

and

it

to betray the imagination of a painter rather than an

104

^ ,A-.,

4i

-^.^"""l? -

.'%^-iI-^^

'1

t \y

^_:J..-

\ V

"'*^

60 Leonardo da Vinci, architectural drawing from Ms. B

Milan: filarete, Leonardo, bramante architect.

He was presumably brought up

in

Urbino and

we have

very good reason to beheve that he was the pupil of Piero della Francesca and of Mantegna, so that the formative influences on

him should have been the noble simplicity of the Palace at the harmony of the paintings of Piero, and the passionate

Urbino, interest

Mantegna. Almost nothing of this can be seen in the engraving of 1481, but within the next 20 years Bramante was to invent the architectural equivalents of those principles and to express them in a classical vocabulary which was in classical antiquity of

become the norm

to

Bramante's

for all architecture for centuries to

earliest

known

come.

building was the reconstruction of

the church of Sta Maria presso

S.

Satiro,

He probably began

a small 9th-century

work there in the 1470's, although there is no documentary mention of him until i486. Two things make this small church important for the future. The building in Milan.

first is

the fact that the east end

illusion [61, 62],

by

is

to

constructed as a perspective

showing that Bramante was still deeply influenced and above all by the architectural ideals

his training as a painter

of Piero della Francesca. This feeling for architectural space as a series of planes series

and

voids, like those in a painting, rather than as a

of three-dimensional solids, like sculpture, distinguishes

Bramante from Brunelleschi and from most of the Florentine architects of his own generation. In fact, the east end of S. Satiro could not be built in the normal manner since there is a narrow street running across the end of the building and in order to maintain the ideal spatial eff'ect of choir, nave, and transepts as a unity, Bramante was forced to evolve this ingenious illusion. The decorative character of the coff'ered vaulting and the forms of the pilasters derive from Piero della Francesca and also from the study Bramante was then making of the surviving Early Christian buildings in Milan itself. By far the most important of these was the great 5th-century Basilica of San Lorenzo. Unfortunately, San

much altered in the i6th century and most of the numerous. Early Christian churches in Milan have either disappeared or been profoundly modified. Nevertheless, these 5th- and 6th-century buildings were, for Bramante, the principal evidence of good architectural style and they were undoubtedly Lorenzo was other, once

T06

6 1 Milan, Sta Maria pre s so

107

S.

Satiro

yfe

y..,^l.,/,

d//^

'/-^tf.^'



the

'

Libro

; i

gentleman desiring to build could, by consulting his mason with a copy of Serho. act as his own architect, for m Book III he could find fairlv accurate representations of the better-known antiquities; from Book I\' he could learn how to set out the orders: and from Book \' he could learn about centrally planned churches, while from the other books he could obtain a whole grammar ot ornament, Serlio's influence on both French and Enghsh architecture was in some wavs disastrous, since master-masons tended to seize upon the more flambovantlv Mannerist features and to superimpose them on a fundamentally Gothic structure so that in England, at anv rate, the classical phase came after and not betore

m

with Inigo Jones the early i-th century. Jones himself derived most of his knowledge of good Itahan building from Serlio.

another

treatise, that

by Palladio. 199

SERLIO,

The

third of the great treatise writers

Vignola, old

VIGNOLA AND THE LATE i6tH CENTURY

who was born

in 1507

and died

was Giacomo Barozzi da in 1573. He was 57 years

when Michelangelo

died, but his career illustrates the apparent Mannerist art in the second half of the i6th century; for people felt that Michelangelo, though himself incontestably

rigidity of

many

was responsible for a great deal of fantasy and and Vignola's successful career demonstrates the import-

a great architect,

licence,

ance of correctness in the architecture of the third quarter of the 1 6th century. He was principally important as the designer of two

new

moment

types of church at the

of the most active expansion

of church building following the Counter-Reformation. In particular, Vignola's design of the Gesu,

of the Society of Jesus,

meant

carried all over the earth architectural ideas

which

is

the

mother church design were

that copies of his

by Jesuit missionaries, and Vignola's be found from Birmingham to Hong

may now

Kong. Vignola was born in the small town of that name near Modena and began his career by drawing the antiquities in Rome in the mid-1530's; thus he did not arrive in Rome until the last years of Peruzzi's life, although his sober classicism derives through Peruzzi from Bramante.

He went

to France for 18 months in 1541-3 where he met his fellow-Bolognese, Serlio, and it was not until his return to Italy that he began to build on his own account. The first of his major works was the villa near Rome built for Pope Julius III from 1550, which is, in effect,

the Belvedere of Julius

III

Bramante's Belvedere for JuHus II. The Villa GiuHa and as against

the vast palace for the Farnese

family at Caprarola were Vig-

major works in secular must be deferred another chapter, where they

nola's

% 131 Rome,

architecture and S.

Andrea

Flaminia

in

Via

to

can be seen along with other 200

SERLIO, VIGNOLA

132 Rome,

villas

and

palaces. His

mission for the

little

AND THE LATE i6tH CENTURY

S.

Ayidrea in Via Flaminia

work

for Julius

III

secured

church of Sant' Andrea in

\'ia

him

the

com-

Flaminia. This

was completed in 1554 and is the earliest of the three important churches built bv \'ignola. The small church [131, 132, 133], which is now rapidly falling into ruin, is the earliest example of a church with an oval dome, a type that was to become immensely popular during the 17th centur}'. This derives from Roman tombs, of which the most famous example is that of Cecilia Metella; what \'ignola has done is to take a square plan with a circular dome over it and to extend it along one axis, thus obtaining something which may be called an extended central plan. The interior of the church, with its ver\' simple and austere panelling, shows quite clearly how 201

SERLIO,

VIGNOLA AND THE LATE i6tH CENTURY

133 Rome,

S.

Andrea

in Via Flaminia

the plan began as a square

and finished

circle

as a

with an oval dome over step

is

it.

was done

Vignola's

(now

rectangle

The next

obviously to extend the oval

shape to the ground plan this

and

life

at the

itself,

and

very end of

in the small

church

inaccessible) of Santa Anna dei

The church was begun in 1572/3 and was completed by Vignola's son. As may be seen from the plan, the facade was still flat although the oval dome was expressed internally on plan. Several later 16th-century and early Palafrenieri [134].

17th-century 134 Rome, Sta

Anna

Palafrenieri

dei

Roman

scend directly from oval church.

202

churches dethis

earliest

SERLIO. VIGNOLA

AND THE i6TH CENTURY

Far and away the most of

influential

churches was the Gesu,

though

it

Jest

al-

architecturally

is

adventurous. The

less

Society of Jesus in

.'M'M.'.rJi

'«;.i;# .*V.«.»/'^

\'ignola's

by

1540

Loyola,

was founded Ignatius

St.

who was

a friend of

The

Michelangelo.

plans of 1554 were

original

made bv

Michelangelo himself but

begun

the church was not until 1368;

it

was then de-

signed to seat a large congregation,

whom

of

all

would be able to hear the sermons that were so important

a feature in Counter-

Reformation religious life. A letter from Cardinal Farnese to

Mgnola

stresses

the importance of preach-

began commission knowing that he would have to provide a building with a wide nave and a barrel vault for

ing, so that \'ignola

the

acoustic reasons. itself,

with

its

135 Rome,

il

Gesu

The plan

side chapels instead of aisles, [15;]

is

obviouslv

derived from the type estabhshed by Alberti in Sant' Andrea

at

Mantua

[^0]; but the Gesu has a much wider and shorter nave as well as very shallow transepts. The shape of the nave is for audibihty, while the design of the east end with the great dome over

the crossing allows a flood of light to

fall

on the High Altar and on

the altars in each of the transepts, dedicated to

and

St.

Society.

Francis Xavier, the

The

interior [137]

is

many

St.

Ignatius himself

produced bv the almost entirelv of the i-th and 19th

first

of

'•c^

saints

136 Rome, Vignolas original fagade for the

centuries and gives a completely

Gesii,

i^yo

wrong impression of the

original

which was austere in the extreme. Vignola died in 1573, had been reached, and the facade has also been altered fairly considerably from that which he originally intended [136]. The present facade [138], by Giacomo della Porta, is rather less satisfactory than Vignola's two-storey design with its emphasis on the vertical central element. This type of two-storey design with scrolls at the sides, like the plan of the Gesu, derives from Alberti, in this case from Alberti's Sta Maria Novella in Florence. The influence of Vignola's Gesu has been such that it became almost the standard type of church plan and church facade. design,

when

cornice level

In 1562 Vignola published his

Cinque Ordini treatise

is

far

d' Architettura in

more

treatise entitled Regola delli

scholarly than SerHo's and has

engravings on the other hand, :

classical

own

obvious imitation of Serlio. Vignola's

it

much

better

deals only with the details of the

orders and does not cover anything like the ground

covered by

Serlio. Nevertheless,

architectural students,

it

was the standard textbook

for

particularly in France, for about three

centuries and something like 200 editions of it are

204

known. Towards

13" Rome,

205

il

Gesu

138 Rome,

the end of his

life

il

Gesii

Vignola built an impressive entrance gateway for

Rome and this gives a very good idea of the which he handled the classical orders [139]- The gateway was demolished in 1880 but the stones were preserved and it has recently been re-erected in Rome. The later i6th century saw a great wave of church building in Rome itself, and a few examples may be quoted to show how the Farnese gardens in

precision with

important Vignola's designs were. In the early part of the century there was a brief

moment when

the

more

fantastic aspect of

might be continued in della Porta. Giacomo Giacomo and del Duca two men, Giacomo della Porta soon came under the influence of Vignola and evolved

Michelangelo's style seemed as though

it

a rather dry classical style, lacking the imagination of the Michel-

angelesque and the precision of the Vignolesque. Giacomo del 206

1

SERUO, VIGNOLA AND THE LATE i6tH CENTURY

Duca

is

a mysterious figure

was born about at

some date

been done

in

1520,

who seems

to

have been a

probably in Messina, and died

Sicilian.

He

at a great age,

Most of his work seems to have and around Messina and was thus destroyed in the

after 1601, in Sicily.

great earthquakes.

The small church

of Sta Maria di Loreto in

Rome gives an idea of his highly personal style [140]. It was originally begun by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and was taken over by Giacomo del Duca about 1577. He broke into the pediment of the Sangallo church and inserted an enormous window with a drum and dome above it so that the whole upper part is disproportionately large. The details show very clearly the derivation of his forms from Michelangelo, and, in some ways such as the huge ribs and the projection of the columns outside the ring at the top of the dome it may be argued that Giacomo was even more licentious than Michelangelo himself. This type of Mannerism did not prove popular for churches and the more typical forms are those

—

—

derived from or close to Vignola's.

The church

of Sto Spirito in

by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger in the 1530's, has two-storey facade which is probably the starting point for

Sassia, built

a

Vignola's Gesu, as

it is

certainly the starting point for the facade of

Santa Catarina dei Funari which, rather unusually,

is

signed and

dated by the obscure architect Guidetti in 1564. This precedes Vignola's design for the facade of the Gesu but it is clear that the

two have much in common^

[136

and

141].

After the death of Vignola in 1573 and before the rise of the great architects of the early Baroque, the architectural scene in

Rome was dominated by Giacomo della Porta, who was the official Architect to the Roman People, and by Domenico Fontana, the favourite architect of Sixtus V. As

we have already seen,

the two

men collaborated on the completion of the dome of St. Peter's. Neither was an architect of the first rank, but Fontana was the most skilful engineer of his generation and Giacomo della Porta was probably the most employed architect in Rome, with a hand in almost every major undertaking. His style can be seen very clearly I Ultimately, all these derive from the Novella, Florence, about 1450 [26].

208

form invented by Alberti at

Sta

Maria

I4C Rcrne. Std

Mirui

209

di Lcretc

141 Rome, Sta Caterina del Funari

in such

from

works

as the facade of the

Gesu, as it actually exists

[138],

and

church of the Greeks in Rome, which is important in that the towers

a building such as the national

Sant' Atanasio dei Greci [142]

closing the facade look forward to the types developed in the 17th

century, as for

example

mately, Wren's

St. Paul's.

in Borromini's Sant'

Agnese and,

ulti-

Both della Porta and Fontana were employed by Pope Sixtus V and Fontana and Sixtus between them determined the layout of Rome for centuries to come. Rome, as it existed until the 1950's, was very largely a 17th-century city built on the layout which Sixtus imposed on it in the five years of his reign [143]. Sixtus V was one of the most remarkable popes of the i6th century. He was a son of a gardener and began life as a shepherd and watchman. He became a Franciscan and his enormous energy and powers (1585-90)

210

SERLIO, VIGNOLA

AND THE LATE i6tH CENTURY

made him General of his Order and finally Pope. Domenico Fontana he found a similar type of practical man and between them thev set about transforming Rome. In 1585 Fontana

of administration In

made

his

classical

name by

times

at

transporting the obelisk which had stood since

one side of

St.

Peter's to

its

present position in

enormous granite obelisk was raised verticallv, lowered on to rollers, pulled round to the piazza and re-erected there; a feat of engineering which amazed his contemporaries. He was ennobled on the spot and wrote a book about it. After this he put up several other obeHsks for Sixtus V, who liked to erect them at the junctions of the great streets which he planned right across Rome [143]. Between them they brought extra water the Acqua Felice named after the Pope to Rome, front of the church. This

—

—

fAClXS tXTEJlXA TEMPLI S.VSCTI ATHASiASn aCKECOKICH. XOT

Povr OPI

Max O-R.^coam Satiosi

142 Royne,

S.

211

Atanasio

T

_

143 Rome, Sixtus V's town-planning

212

SERLIO, VIGNOLA

which led

AND THE LATE i6TH CENTURY

to the possibility of building

wHole new quarters,

as the provision of those fountains so typical of

had some

less sensible ideas,

as

well

Rome. They

also

such as the plan (fortunately never

put into execution) to transform the Colosseum into a wool factory.

Most of the Vatican Palace as it exists today, and also most of the Lateran Palace, are by Fontana but neither is architecturally significant. After the death of his great patron Fontana went to Naples, where he died in 1607. He was the uncle of Carlo Maderno and was, therefore, the founder of one of the great dynasties of Baroque architects. I

^

The Lateran

is

a

weak

derivative

from the Farnese

213

Palace.

12 Florentine Mannerists

Valladio THE GREATEST architcct activc outside Rome in the later i6th century was Andrea Palladio, but many other able men were then Amannati, Buontalenti, and at work in Italy and three of them Vasari must be noticed briefly. They represent Mannerist architecture in Florence and, as might be expected, they show the profound influence of Michelangelo, although the most important, Amannati, was much influenced by the more classical styles of Vignola and Sansovino. He was born near Florence in 151 1 and died there in 1592. As a boy he saw Michelangelo's New Sacristy being built, but he soon went to Venice and worked under Sansovino; Hke Sansovino, he practised both as a sculptor and as an architect. In 1550 he was in Rome where he began to work on the Villa GiuHa with Vignola and Vasari, so that for the five years (1550-5) of Julius Ill's reign he was influenced by the architectural ideas of Vignola. On his return to Florence in 1555 he began to work for the Medici Duke, later the Grand-Duke Cosimo I, often in collaboration with Vasari. His most famous work is the extension and alteration of the Pitti Palace from about 1558-70. Cosimo bought the Pitti Palace in 1549 with his wife's dowry, and from 1550 he planned to extend it and to lay out the splendid gardens \_i44\ in a manner befitting his new rank. Most of the

—

—

original street front

but Amannati

is

is

now

included in the 17th-century additions,

usually credited with the vast wings at the back,

and the extension of the whole rusticated form.

The

in an

overwhelmingly grandiose and the effect of

rusticated order in the court

214

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO

144 Florence,

Pitti

Palace from the Gardens

from the gardens

[144] are perhaps the most striking and it can clearly be seen that his bold handling of rustication owes much to Sansovino's Mint in Venice [127]. His best known building is probably the bridge over the Arno, the Ponte Sta Trinita, which had been destroyed by a flood and was rebuilt by Amannati in 1566-9 with the famous and very graceful flat arches. The bridge was wantonly destroyed in 1944 but has since been reconstructed. Amannati built some palaces in Florence and he also worked for the Florentine State outside the city, as for example at Lucca, where he probably built most of the Palazzo

texture seen

aspects of Amannati's style

della Signoria.

there

is

It is

a letter

known

from him

having trouble with

that his design to the

Town

and

was accepted

in 1577,

but

Council explaining that he

likely that towards the end and less. In 1582 he wrote the celebrated letter to the Academy which is one of the documents of the eff'ect of Counter-Reformation ideas on aesthetics. This letter (which reads very like a sermon) is probably due to the fact that in his later years he had strong connections with the Jesuits. He claims, for example, that nude figures can be occasions of sin and he says that he wishes that some of his own works could be destroyed; he specifically mentions the very beautiful Neptune Fountain [146] which he made for the Piazza della Signoria between 1563 and 1575. He claims that draped figures can show off" the sculptor's skill just as well and he instances Michelangelo's Moses as his finest work: this is particularly revealing of the Mannerist

is

of his

life

his eyes

he was able to work

less

215

it is

:

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO

tendenqr to exalt virtuosity above passage in the letter

is

accept what they get rather than 'Yet

we

all

know

all

other qualities. Another

interesting in that he says that lay

that the majority

most patrons

down strict rules for the artist of people who order works of

do not set any subject but leave it to our judgment, simply saying "here I want a garden, a fountain, a pool", and expressions art

of that sort'.

Giorgio Vasari was born in the

and died

in 1574.

Lives of the

pubhshed

Most

He

is,

same year

as

Amannati

(151 1)

of course, immortal on account of his

Illustrious Painters, Sculptors

and

Architects first

and re-published with extensive alterations and additions in 1568. In his own day he was also famous as a painter, architect, and general artistic impresario. As a painter he was more expeditious than skilful, but as an architect he left at least three notable works. In 1550 he helped to collaborate with Vignola and Amannati on the design of the Villa Giulia, but it is likely that his activity was almost entirely administrative. In 1554, however, he built the church of Sta Maria Nuova near Cortona and from 1560 until his death in 1574 he worked on the Palace of the Uffizi in 1550

145 Florence, the

216

Uffii^i

146 S\'mphfro7n A^nannati's Fountain, Florence, PuvzZ'i della Signoria

217

147 Florence, the Uffii^ifrom the river

Cosimo I in Florence. This building [145, 147], which is now the famous picture-gallery, was designed as the government offices (Uffizi) for the Tuscan State. The most outstanding thing about the design of the Uffizi is the way in which the long tunnel-like shape is accepted and used for its dramatic effect. The actual details of the work are not very exciting, with one or two exceptions which are by Buontalenti after Vasari's death. Bernardo Buontalenti was born about 1536 and died in 1608. He was the major architect of the last years of the i6th century in Florence but he was also active as a painter, sculptor, and fireworks expert and his whole career was spent in the service of the Medici. for

For

them he

built the splendid Villa Pratolino near Florence,

now

destroyed, and in 1574 he succeeded Vasari at the Uffizi [148],

began the church of Sto Stefano and also began the Casino Mediceo near San Marco, which shows his style quite adequately. The influence of Michelangelo was thus continued until at least the end of the century.

218

148 Florence, UffizU Porta delle Suppliche

219

: FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO century was Andrea in and died born in 1580. Almost all his 1508 Palladio, who was life was spent in the small city of Vicenza and almost all his works are in the city or the surrounding countryside. He was to become one of the great formative influences on English architecture and his influence was exercised partly through his publications, of which the most important was his treatise I Quattro Libri dell Architettura. This was first published in 1570 and contains illustra-

Perhaps the

finest architect of the late i6th

tions of the classical orders, a series of selected antique buildings,

and

most of

illustrations of

own

Palladio's

works.

learned and precise than SerUo's treatise and has a

range than Vignola's. Inigo Jones studied

him

Palladio's ideas

came

it

It is

more

far

much

greater

deeply and through

to be the mainspring of English 18th-

century architecture. There

is

a large

collection of Palladio's

drawings in the Royal Institute of British Architects and these

fL.^s..j-

¥

^,1

.;l-.

-.f

V ^i^i

iL

,

Jfe

.

.Yi'l

J*'

^

•

f

^^U^^.^_^^j_^,,.. i^'i^isiu,, 4^ ^ !^

i

-A_ -

..

^a^^

mm

^--

^\

s

-

-4

-M

..

149 Vicen'^a, Pala^io Porto-Colleoni. Drawing by Palladio {London, R.I.B.A.)

220

\

Jl.

—

A^.*..^

~-

—

^-

.^'•

Hi:_._^^.

MM

T----«

i

.:Ay SS^^^SmJw ^^-TXj^^;^^^-.^^^^^^

-7^^ -fic-It^-c^

Rome

150 Palladia, reconstruction of the Baths of Titus,

drawings

[149, i)C] together

with the treatise give us

idea of the bases of his stvle. which

R.I.B.A.)

a

verv good

and Bramantesque. although influenced like that of everv other artist in the i6th century by the works of Michelangelo. The is

essentially classical

—

—

classical

of the

elements in

monuments

his stvle derive

in

from

Rome, which he

a close

visited

studv

at first

hand

on several occasions. came under the

xAlthough he was the son of a carpenter he soon notice of the tion,

Humanist

Trissino,

who

gave him

a classical educa-

took him to Rome, and bestowed on him the

derived from Pallas. The

name

Palladio,

Roman monuments were drawn by him

and reconstructed with rather more sense of gran[lyo], but it is clear from the tendenc}' of his mind that Bramante and Mgnola would be the modern architects who appealed most strongly to him. Such Mannerist elements as

in great detail

deur than of actuahty

there are in Palladio"s

work seem

buildings of the 1540's and later; but

predisposed in

monuments

this direction

from Michelangelo's hkely also that he was

to derive it is

by the study of some of the richer

of classical antiquity. Palladio also provided a series 221

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO

151 Palladio's reconstruction of a

Roman

Theatre,

from

'

Barharo's

'

Vitruvius

of illustrations for the best of the

numerous 16th-century

editions

of Vitruvius, that by Bishop Barbaro of 1556 [151].

The

first

building which

old Basilica, or

town

made

hall, in

his

name was

Vicenza 222

the recasing of the

itself [152]. Palladio's

model

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO

was accepted by the

Town

Council in 1549.

model submitted bv Giuho Romano.

It is

when

they rejected the

evident that Palladio's

was genuine; for his solution problem of supporting the old Basihca was to buttress it

praise of Sansovino's Library in \'enice to the

externally by a double loggia ver\' similar in type to the forms

used by Sansovino and similar also to a drawing published in Serlio's

treatise.

The elements used

Basihca are very simple. Since

connected

in Palladio's

it

in the construction of the

was

mind with the

a basilica

(and therefore

classical idea of a

grand public

building) his basic solution was necessarilv conditioned by the use

of the orders; Doric on the ground floor and Ionic on the upper.

The great piers with attached columns provide the support and the spaces between these points of support can then be filled with the large arches and smaller columns which are parts of the so-called Palladian motive. The architectural effect is thus dependent on the play of light and shade in the arches themselves, opposed to the

sohd masses of masonry; but

due also to the great subtlety of the actual shapes of the openings and the architectural elements. Unhke Sansovino, Palladio breaks the entablature forward over each of his columns, emphasising the projections rather than the

152

it is

Vicen-:^d, the Basilica

223

153 Vicen^a, Pala^^o Porto

224

FLORENTLNE horizontal quality which

The proportions

is

NLAJNNERISTS.

so

marked

PALLADIO a feature of the

Lib^an^

of the arched openings, the smaller rectangular

circular openings above them have all been most carefully considered, and there is a final touch in the way in which the motives at the angles have narrower side openings so that the effect of the doubled columns at each end is greatly increased and the angles of the building appear solid and hea\y. The evolution of Palladio's style can be seen in the palaces which he built in \'icenza itself, and a few of them, of different dates, will show the general trend of his ideas. One of the earliest, the Palazzo Porto of 1552 [i)3], is clearly derived from Bramante's House of Raphael design with the addition of some rather Michelangelesque sculpture over the windows of the centre and end bays. side spaces,

and the

I

154 Vicen^a, Pala-^^o Porto

225

i

1

">

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO

The general

effect

is

therefore very similar indeed to Sanmicheli's

The

plan, however, [1^4] reveals a different shows a reconstruction of the Roman type of house with symmetrically disposed blocks on either side of a great square courtyard with a Giant Order of columns all round it,

palaces in

Verona

[118].

aspect of Palladio since

it

obviously intended as a reconstruction of the classical atrium.

Another point about the plan is of even greater importance since it shows the passion for absolute symmetry and also the sequence of room shapes, each proportioned to the one next to it, which were to become the basic principles of Palladio's villas. Thus the rooms at the left of the plan begin with the central hall 30 feet square leading into a room 30 by 20 which in turn leads into one 20 feet square. This combination of classical forms, mathematical harmonies, and symmetrical disposition is what makes Palladio's architecture perennially fascinating and what caused the architects of the i8th century to irnitate

him

so closely.

Much

of this

is,

of

founded on the study of Vitruvius as well as on actual Roman buildings, and it is evident that the atrium in the Palazzo Porto, or the description of the Basilica given by Vitruvius, were much in his mind in the 1550's when he was preparing the illuscourse,

trations for Barbaro's edition.

A

similar classical reminiscence

155 Vicefn^a, Pala:i:io Chiericati

226

FLORENTINE MANNERISTS. PALLADIO is

to be

found

in the

odd, but

verv beautiful, Palazzo Chieri-

which was begun

cati

1550's

as

of

part

a

the

in

projected

forum, so that the present open colonnades were intended to be

>'•'>-ELLESCHL Filippo: 6i. 72,

4, ", 22, 23flf.,

98

Anon.

Life of: 42 Florence, Cathedral: 26-31; 12-14 S. Croce, Pazzi Chapel: 39-41

MTRUVR'S

basilica: 118

ROME. \'atican

CoUeone Chapel:

and

130. 182, 184,

63

Francesco: 12; 2

See

Satiro: 106-9;

House of Raphael:

19. 21, 22. 24.

59

berg-Amo,

S.

etto\ 114. 116-20: 69-71

Arti maggiori, minori: 58

BELVEDERE

i04ff.

Cloisters: 112-13,

149, 181,225,

see

197,

68

216, 238, 239; 144, 146

BARBARO

18",

179.

Maria delle Grazie: I0'^i2:

New

Malatestiano:

48-31,93:25 AMADEO, Giovanni: 94 AMANNATi, Bartolommeo

Assisi, S.

138,

61-3 Roman works:

;

di

80, 83, 94.

64-6

80; 35

ARNOLFO

3, 4. 7,

116: 67

Pal. Rucellai: 48, 68-71, 75, 77,

S.

131,

Milanese works:

204, 208; 26

Rimini,

:

200, 221, 243

Rucellai Chapel: 31

Mantua,

Donato

9-. 98. 102, 104-26, 131, I34»

61, 83, 136, 236

20-1

94, 95; S.

53

263

Lorenzo: 33-9,

43, 163;

16-19

:

::

INDEX Florence, cont. S.

Maria degli Angeli: 41-2, 109; 22

FLORENCE,

42-4 23-4 Foundling Hospital S.

Spirito

:

structure

poHtical

of:

58ff'.

;

Innocenti):

degli

HESOLE, Badia: 44 hlarete: 94, 98, 100-2, 108; 58

(Spedale 31-3,

86,

Guilds (Am): 58 Cathedral:

18, 19, 21-4,

26-31, 94;

10-14

112; 15 Pal. Medici, ascribed to 62, 72 BUONTALENTi, Bcmardo: 214, 218; :

Arnolfo's share in: 21, 22, 24

dome:

Brunelleschi's

148

26-31;

12-14 Brunelleschi's design for lan-

near

CAPRAROLA,

Farnese:

Viterbo,

200,

Villa

240-3;

237,

171-3 CARREGi, Villa Medici: 243 CASAMARi, Cistercian Abbey:

tern: 30-1

Giotto's

Badia: 13,

16

S.

Order,

influence

S.

87,

:

Michelangelo's

St.,

Order

S.

of: 26,

167;

Old

Sacristy:

New Sacristy

167-71

;

107-9

Maria degli Angeli: 41-2, 109; 22

28

of: 10, 16

DONATELLO, sculpture in S. Lorenzo: 35, 36 DossERET (a block above a capital)

S.

Maria Novella:

S.

204,208; 5,8,26 Miniato: 11; i

S.

Spirito: 42-4, 95, 97;

16, 18, 51-2,

23-4

SS. Trinita: 19

32

Secular Buildings; Bargello: 59, 65, 66

DUCA, Giacomo del: 206, 208; 140

ENTABLATURE (horizontal member above columns, divided into frieze, and cormodular proportion

architrave, nice), in

43,

34, 35-7, 165, 171

75

DE FABRis, Emilio: 22 DOMES, Construction

33-39,

Brunelleschi's

35, 165,

DOMINIC,

34

16-19, 106-9

CRicoLi, Villa Trissino: 245-6; 176-7 II

Lorenzo:

S.

Maria del Calcinaio:

95,97:56 Maria Nuova: 216

CRONACA,

18, 19-21, 22-3, 33,

Pazzi Chapel: 39-41, 97; 2021

coMO Cathedral: 94 S.

44

38; 6, 9

Mauro: 91-2

coRTONA,

Croce:

on

design: 11 coDussi,

SS. Apostoli: 32, 38,

19, 21

Baptistry: 11-12, 23-4, 97; 12

CHiGi, Agostino: 132, 152

CISTERCIAN

Campanile: 22

Churches;

Foundling Hospital: 31-3, Laurenziana Library: 3;

Trinita: 215

S.

Uffizi: 216-18; 145,

Pal.

Vecchio

noria)

82ff'.

264

165, 171-

IIO-II

Ponte FANCELLi, Luca: 71 FEDERiGO, Duke of Urbino:

41,

66, 83, 112; 15

:

59,

65

(Pal.

147-8 della

Sig-

7

S

INDEX Palaces; Pal. Davanzati: 60, 64; 31 Pal.

Gondi:

72, 75. 95;

38

Pal. Medici: 62-8, 72, 74. 83-4;

32-4 Pal. Pandolfini:

137:84

Pal. Pazzi-Quaratesi 71, 72-3 37 :

:

Pal. Pitti: 71-2, 160, 214; 36. 144 Pal. Rucellai: 48,

Domenico:

130, 173, 208,

210-13; 80, 143 FOSS.\NOVA,

Cisterdan Abbey:

15-16, 17;

FRANCESCO

di

13.

MADERNA. Carlo 128, 1-3, 213 M.AiANo, G. and D. da: 73, 75 MALCONTENTA, \'illa: 247-8; 180-I mannerism; 132. 134-6, 146-50. 154, :

3'

GioFgio

:

83,

8^,

170, 186, 208

95,

Ni.iNTEGNA,

152; 56 FiL\Ncis. Sr.,

LOMBARDi family: 89, 92, 94 LONEDO, \'illa Godi: 24:-; 178-9 LUCCA, Pal. della Signoria; 215

68-71:35

Pal. Strozzi: 71, 73, 74-5; 39

FONT.\>'A,

LAURANA. Luciano: 82ff. LEO X. Pope; Memorandum on Ancient Rome; 3 LEONARDO da \'ind: 94. 98, 102-4, 108, 126; 59, 60

Order

of: 10, 19

FRASCATT. \'illa Aldobrandini

:

254;

GHiBELLiNES and Guclfs 57-8 GHiBERTi, Lorenzo: 2-

Andrea:

S.

30 Sebastiano: 52-3. 9-; 27-8

GL\NT ORDER, defined; 176, 226,

see

GIOTTO 22

193.

;

13S-50.

Te: 135. 13S. 141-9. 170,

236:88-93

Mdrt\rui7n:

11

MASER, Mlla: 254: 184

179, 223

Manrua,

own

house: 149-30;

MEDICI family

Pal. del Te: 135, 141-9, I'o, 182.

MEMOR.\NDUM

his

29-

94 Pal. del

115. 154

4, 134. 135.

52. 53-5, 123. 203;

Ducal Palace: 149 Giuho Romano's House: 149-50;

:

Romano:

36, 106. 14:*

S.

186

GFLLio

Andrea:

NLANTUA. Cathedral: 149

33, ^3, 6iff.. 168, i-i,

:

94

Rome:

184; 88-93

Roman GOLDEN

works:

138, 140, 144

SECTION,

irrational

pro-

METOPE, defined; 190 MICHEL.ANGELO I23. :

portion; 81, 123

Florence;

:

203

JESUS, Societ)- of; 55, 165, 200, 203

m, Pope:

I5S,

I59.

S.

Lorenzo and Media

IIO-II

3:

Pal.

Media: 64

Rome:

JULIUS n, Pope; ii4ff., 165, 200, 238

JULIUS

I35.

Chapel; 165-71, 178; 106-9 Laurenziana Librar}*; 165, 171-

GUILDS in Florence: 58 St.: 165,

Ancient

214, 221, 238

Guido 2o8

IGNATRS Loyola,

on

161, 162, 164, 165-78, 203, 206,

GUELFS and Ghibellines: 57-8 GLTDETTI,

I5I9, 3

St.

Peter's:

12--30,

1-3:

79-80

200, 201, 214, 23-,

Capitol: 174-", 22-, 239: 112-15

238, 239

Porta Pia: 1-4, 177-8; 116 Pal. Farnese: 1^3; 102-3

LASTiL\ a Signa ^Florence"); 31

26s

;

.

INDEX MiCHELOZZi, Michelozzo; works in Florence: 31, 62-8, 69; 32-4

Milanese works: 98-9, 100, loi,

MILAN

:

Ambrogio,

S.

Eustorgio,

S.

S.

^S.

Matteo

:

1

12-13; 67

Portinari

Chapel:

cloisters:

Hospital: 100

125,

134-5,

Rome;

15 1-3,

95-7 Pal. Massimi: 153-8, 160; 98100 Piano Nobile,

floor of ItaHan

first

palace: 61

piccoLOMEMi

n

see PIUS

pienza: 75-7, 80, 83, loi 40 piERO della Francesca: 83, 106 ;

Pope

PIUS n.

:

75fT.

PLINY the Younger, on Villas: 137, 236, 241, 247

:

NAPLES, Alfonso's

Farnesina:

Villa

182;

piSANO, Nicola and Giovanni: 19

Medici Bank: 99 MODULE, defined: i MONTEHASCONE, Cathedral: 179 MONTEPULCiANO, S. Biagio 126

Triumphal Arch:

poGGio on Ancient Rome: 4-5 poGGio a Caiano, Villa Medici 243

45, 47, 78, 123

174 PONTECASALE, Villa Garzone: 244;

83 V,

Baldassare:

151-8, 163, 196, 197, 200, 240

98-9, 100, 109; 57 Lorenzo: 104, 106, 112, 115 Maria delle Grazie: 109-12, 124; 64-6 Maria presso S. Satiro: 106-9, 118; 61-3

NICHOLAS

de': 50, 51, 52

PA VIA, Certosa 95 PENDENTIVES: 36 PERUzzi,

108; 57 94, 98ff

S.

PASTi,

Pope:

:

175

Opus reticulatum 69-70

Giacomo

PORTA,

:

ORviETo: 179 ostia: 61, 121

PADUA, Villa Molin: 250 PALLADiAN MOTIVE, defined: 144, 192, 223 PALLADio, Andrea: 220-35, 244, 245-

S.

RAPHAEL:

Venice, works in;

S.

Francesco

Giorgio Maggiore:

7,

Madama:

138,

141,

189,

Raphael'

of 'House BRAMANTE

232,

Pal. Vidoni-Caffarelli: 132; 192,

RIMINI,

222-31; 152-62

178-85

Eligio degli Orefici: 126,

144,

146; 85-7

235:163 Redentore: 232-5; 164-6

Villas: 245ff.;

S.

Branconio: 132-4, i55: 83

Villa

della Vigna: 231

in:

137;

131-2; 81 Pal.

works

Pandolfini:

Pal.

84

Rome; 73, 149, 150,

95,

83, 119, 122, 123, I25, 126,

Florence;

220, 247, 249

II

Maria delle Carceri;

I3I-7, 138, 140

6, 119, 136, 196, 199,

Drawings by: 220;

Vicenza,

173,

97:54-5

9,252

S.

130,

80, 138, 142, 186

PRATO,

Iquattro Libri:

della:

175-6, 204, 206, 208-10, 254;

Tempio

266

82

Malatestiano: 48-

51:25

ROMANO, Giulio

see

see

giulio

;

INDEX ROME, Ancient: 3-5.

Monuments;

Tomb

Pal. della Cancelleria

25, 30. 36

Cecilia

Metella,

of: 201

Colosseum:

69,

Pal. 78,

71,

Pal. Farnese: 158-62, 173, 190;

54,

Farnese Gardens: 206; 139 MllaFarnesina: 151-3, 247; 95-7

of:

115 Diocletian, Baths of: 54

Theatre

of:

Pal.

of:

Pal.

New

Belvedere: 122, 130; 74

Peter's: 99, 104, 108,

75-80

Pal.

42,

Bemardo: 75, 77, 80 RUSTICATION (rough stonework), on Pal.

Gesu: 200, 203-4, 208; 135-8 .\ndrea in via Flaminia: 201-

s.\>-

S.

S.

S.

S.

S.

.Antonio

Antonio n da:

I

da: 93,

126,

95,

125-7, i58ff.,

208, 240

Rome,

St Peter's: 125-7

Pal. Farnese: 158-62; 101-5

Giuliano da: 73, 75, 95-7, 158, 187,

243:54-5 Michele: 179-86, 244

s.\-NNncHELi,

s.A2sso\TNO, .Andrea: 186

Jacopo: 91, 94, 179, 184, 186-95,

69-71

214, 215, 244 Venice, Library-:

Secular Buildings; Capitol: 4-5, 174-7; 11 2-1 5

223;

other buildings: 192-5; 126-8

\'illas;

Pal. Baldassini: 158

188-92,

123-5

Porta Pia: 174, 177-8; 116 Palaces and

16,

Pal. Baldassini: 158

Giuhano e Celso: 126 Maria diLoreto: 208; 140 Maria della Pace: 114, 116; 68 Maria del Popolo: 132 Pietro in Montorio (Tempi-

etto): 114, 116-20;

Cisterdan Abbev:

138, 158

SS.

S.

G.\LG.\NO,

s.\NG.\LLO,

dei Palafrenieri: 202;

134 Atanasio: 210; 142 Caterina dei Funari: 208; 141 EUgio degli Orefid: 126, 131, 132; 81

S.

Media: 64

i-;4

2; 131-3

Anna

Mdoni-Caffarelli: 132; 82

ROSSELLENO,

213

S.

120-1,

Pal. \'enezia: -8, 83: 41

Lateran Basilica and Palace:

S.

Raphael':

\'atican Palace: 122, 213

Churches;

120, 122, 123-30, 131;

II

of

132-4, 149, 181, 182; 72-3

Peter's: 78, 123

St.

144,

Massimi: 153-8, 160; 98-

'House

119

for: 78

St.

141,

85-7

100

ROME, Modern; Nicholas \"s plans

Old

138,

146, 151, 236, 238;

Nero, Golden House of: 138 Pantheon: 28, 115. 116, 186

&

;

Madama:

\'illa

of: 36, 41

Basilicas

167-70 Maccarani: 140

241

'Minen-a Medica', Temple

Temple

Giulia: 200, 214, 237-40,

\'illa

78,

116, 158, 162, 192

\'espasian,

Cicdapord: 140

122,

101-5

158, 162, 213 Constantine, Basilica

Marcellus,

78, 80-1

:

42-3

scAMOZzi, \'incenzo: 189, 231, 24950,251

Pal. Branconio: 132-4, 155; 83

267

;

INDEX SCOTT, Geoffrey: 3 SERLio, Sebastiano:

5,

Loggetta: 192; 126 Mint (La Zecca): 192, 193; 127 Procuratie Nuove 250

116, 136, 151,

156, 179, 193, 196-9, 200, 204,

:

Ca'd'Oro:89;48 Pal. Corner della Ca' Grande:

220,223,247; 129-30 SFORZA family 98, 114 :

192, 193-5; 128

SFORZiNDA, Filarete's ideal city: loi

Pal.

58

Corner-SpineUi: 91 49 89 ;

Pal. Pisani

sixTUS V, Pope: 208, 210-13; 143 SPAVENTO, Giorgio: 94

:

Vendramin-Calergi

Pal.

91,

:

194; 50

VERONA,

TALENTi, Francesco: 22, 24

ROME, Montorio

TEMPiETTO TivoLi,

S.

see

Temple

Pal. Bevilacqua: 184-6; 121

Porta de' Borsari: 186 Pal. Canossa: 182-4; 119-20

PietFo in

Porta Nuova: 180, 186

of Vesta: 119

Porta Palio: 180, 186; 117

Villa d'Este: 254

TODi, church at: 126

Cappella Pellegrini:

TRiGLYPH, defined

Pal.

:

190

184, 186; 122

181; 118

viCENZA, Basilica: 189, 222-3, 225;

TRissiNO, Giangiorgio: 221, 245, 247

Villa Trissino at CricoH: 245-6;

152 Pal. Chiericati: 227; 155

176-7 at: 68, 81-7, 112;

44-6

VASARi, Giorgio; as architect:

173,

URBiNO, Palace

Pompei:

Teatro Olimpico: 160-2

230-1;

228,

Pal. Porto: 225-6;

153-4 Porto-Breganze 228; 158 Villa Rotonda: 249; 182-3 Pal. Thiene: 227; 156, 159 Pal. Valmarana: 227; 157

Pal.

214, 216, 218, 238; 145, 147

quoted on Giulio

his Lives: 216;

Romano: angelo:

148-9;

166-7;

on Michelon Sanmi-

viGNOLA, Giacomo da:

cheli: 180

VENICE, Churches

;

St.

Mark's: 88,92,

Redentore 232-5 164-6

S.

Francesco della Vigna: 231 Giorgio Maggiore: 7, 232,

:

S.

S.

;

136,

200,

171-3

Rome, U Gesu:

200, 203-4, 208;

135-8 S.

Maria de' Miracoli: 92 Michele in Isola: 92-3 51

Andrea

in via Flaminia: 201-

2; 131-3 S.

;

Salvatore: 93-4; 52 Zaccaria: 92

Anna

dei Palafrenieri

:

202;

134 Villa GiuUa: 214, 216, 237-40,

Secular buildings; Scuole: 91, 92 Palace design: 87ff.

Doges' Palace: 88-9,

Farnese:

Villa

237, 240-3

;

235; 163

S.

55,

237ff.

Caprarola,

II

S.

4,

196, 200-7, 2.14, 216, 220, 221,

94, 190

S.

:

188,

190;

viTRUVius:

47' 124

Library: 188-92, 250; 123-5

241 167-70 suburhana: 141, 152, 236, 249 ;

Villa

5-6,

47,

112,

190,

222, 226, 230, 247; 151

voussom: 268

64, 65, 74

196,

Sourcebooks

Negro History

in

The Last Year of Malcolm X SB 198 DarkwaterSB212 Dusk of Dawn SB 170 The Philadelphia Negro SB 160

BREITMaN, GEORGE DU BOIS, W. E. B.

DU

BOIS.

W. W. DU BOIS. W.

E. B.

DL' BOIS.

E. B.

FRAZIER, GOSSETT,

FRANKLIN

E. B.

E.

THOMAS

F

MILLER, KELLY NEARING, SCOTT NEVINSON. HENRY W. OVINGTON, MARY WHITE History

Suppression of the African Slave-Trade SB226 in .America SB 35 Race Histor> of an Idea in .America SB 106 Radicals and Conservatives SB 199 Black America SB: 13

The Negro Church

1

—

A Modern Half

Slaver>

SB201

aManSB227

Political Science

>tance

Bolivar

SB 17

SB:40

Strategy and Conscience SB238 Democracv in .America. 2 vols. SB 13

14

Theoretical Anthropology SB 157 Social Organization SB22 Culture and Experience SBl 55

The PevoteCult SB::8 They Shall Take up Serpents 56229 The Young Pretenders SB 188 Class & American Sociology SB239 .Anti-Semite and Jev, SB 102 Children of the Kibbutz SB93 Kibbutz Venture in l.iopisof Av-e SBIOO The Story of Judaism SB77 Tales of the Hasidim. 2 vols. SBl 2 The Passover Haggadah SB204 Jews and .Arabs SB83 The Spirit of the Ghetto SBl 28 Jewish Music in its Historical Development SB 165 Guide for the Jewish Homemaker SB87 History of the Jews SB9 The Jewish Wedding Book SB 186 Guide to Jewish Holy Da>s SB26 On the Kabbalah and Its S\mbo!ism SB235

At your bookstore. For a complete catalog

SCHOCKEN BOOKS

67 Park .Avenue

of oxer

New

250

titles

York,

write

NY.

to.

10016

Architecture/ Art

PETER

MURRAY

•-cnsi-

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE With 186

Illustrations

"Mr. Murray has produced a book that couples ness with a highly readable literary style."

sound-Library Journal

intellectual

"Mr. Murray .traces the course of the Italian Renaissance in a The eight pages of Giulio Rothoughtful and fascinating way. mano's Palazzo del Te in Mantua are alone worth the price of the .

.

.

—Architectural

book."

Forum

"Until the appearance of this volume, no single, comprehensive available dealing with the development of the art

book has been

of building in Italy during the fifteenth

book Peter

...

is

Murray guides

Roman

and sixteenth

centuries. This

-Interior Design

a delight to own."

from the earliest revivals of the and Vignola. Tracing the inarchitects who worked for ambitious and

the reader

style to the villas of Palladio

novations of the brilliant

demanding patrons, he explains, for example, how Brunelleschi— solving a century-old problem— raised the great dome over the cathedral of Florence.

What

Brunelleschi began, Alberti, Bramante,

Raphael, Romano, Michelangelo, Sansovino, and others continued: an eloquent composing of space by order and proportion. "They took space," said Berenson, "as the musician takes sound." Dr. Peter Murray of the Renaissance

is

the author of

many books, among them Art

and Dictionary of Art and

SCHOCKEN BOOKS

67 Park Avenue

Cover design by Janet Halverson

Artists.

^^^

$

lew York City 10016