Terminologie Et Traduction

ISSN 0256-7873

τ&τ TERMINOLOGIE ET TRADUCTION TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION TERMINOLOGIA Y TRADUCCIÓN TERMINOLOGI OG OVERSÆTTELSE TERMINOLOGIE UND ÜBERSETZUNG ΟΡΟΛΟΓΙΑ KAI ΜΕΤΑΦΡΑΣΗ TERMINOLOGIE EN VERTALING TERMINOLOGIA E TRADUZIONE TERMINOLOGIA E TRADUÇÃO TERMINOLOGI OCH ÖVERSÄTTNING TERMINOLOGIA JA KÄÄNTÄMINEN

2. 1999 la revue des services linguistiques des institutions européennes ajournai of the language services of the European institutions

Commission européenne

τ&τ TERMINOLOGIE ET TRADUCTION TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION TERMINOLOGIA Y TRADUCCIÓN TERMINOLOGI OG OVERSÆTTELSE TERMINOLOGIE UND ÜB ERSETZUNG ΟΡΟΛΟΓΙΑ KAI ΜΕΤΑΦΡΑΣΗ TERMINOLOGIE EN VERTALING TERMINOLOGIA E TRADUZIONE TERMINOLOGIA E TRADUÇÃO TERMINOLOGI OCH ÖVERSÄTTNING TERMINOLOGIA JA KÄÄNTÄMINEN la revue des services linguistiques des institutions européennes a journal of the language services of the European institutions

2.1999

Commission européenne

T&T 2.1999 Adressez toute correspondance à: / Send all mail to: Pollux Hernúñez Rédaction de Terminologie et Traduction Commission des Communautés européennes JECL2.158A 200, Rue de la Loi B-1040 Bruxelles [email protected]

Les opinions exprimées dans la présente revue n'engagent que leurs auteurs. Authors bear sole responsibility for the views expressed in this journal.

De nombreuses autres informations sur l'Union européenne sont disponibles sur Internet via le serveur Europa (http://europa.eu.int) Luxembourg Office des publications officielles des Communautés européennes, 1999 © Communautés européennes, 1999 Printed in Luxembourg

T&T2.1999

TERMINOLOGIE ET TRADUCTION

2.1999

SOMMAIRE

5

DELMIRA ASTORRI

21

DORIS O B R Z U T

27

SYLVIA B ALL

32

T O M M I B ERNITZ

37

CHRISTOS MORTZOS

40

OLAF PRIES

45

AILA ASIKAINEN

52

FRANCISCO PEYRÓ

76

HELEN TITCHEN B EETH

97

PAMELA FAB ER

Sul tema del multilinguismo Multilingualismus ­ Hindernis oder Brücke!1 Some reflections from a terminologist on possible topics to be discussed at a seminar Mulige emner til behandling på

seminaret Μερικές σκέψεις για τον πολιτικό λόγο της ΕΕ και την πολυγλωσσία Översättning och politik - några reflektioner kring översättningen av militär terminologi i Europaparlamentets texter Kansalaisten tietojensaannista ja Euroopan parlamentin monikielisyydestä Le "qui-dit-quoi?" de l'acquis communautaire The hidden life of translators

BILL FRASER

Conceptual analysis and knowledge acquisition in scientific translation

T&T2.1999

124

SANTOS D I A N A

138

SANTIAGO DEL PINO

156

BEGOÑA MONTERO

167

DORIS BISARO

186

WERNER V O I G T

258

MYRIAM N A H Ó N - G U I L L É N

282

TDCNET

285 286 287

T&T T&T T&T

Um olhar computacional sobre a tradução La introducción de las memorias de traducción en la Comisión Europea Lengua y tecnología: aspectos terminológicos L'ostricoltura: Analisi terminologica Zur Zukunft des Deutschen und anderer Sprachen in Europa La sai de las lenguas Conférence pour une infrastructure terminologique en Europe Avis aux lecteurs Avis aux auteurs Comité de rédaction

Τ&Τ2.1999 DELMIRA CECILIA ASTOR R I

Sul tema del multilinguismo'

Un séminaire sur le multilinguisme, auquel ont participé environ 300 personnes, a été organisé au PE en novembre 1998. La première partie du séminaire a été consacrée à la présentation de trois rapports. Le professeur JOHN TRIM a parlé de l'interpénétration des langues dans un milieu

multilingue,

M

RENATO DA COSTA

CORREIA du rôle de la traduction dans l'ordre juridique communautaire et dans les prises de position du PE, et le professeur ARTURO TOSI de la nécessité d'une nouvelle culture de la traduction aux fins d'un passage correct des messages politiques. La deuxième partie était constituée d'une table ronde, à laquelle ont participé les trois rapporteurs, Mme MALOU

LINDHOLM,

les directeurs

généraux

de la traduction du PE et de la Commission, les directeurs de la traduction et de l'interprétation du PE, ainsi que M CHRISTOPHER COOK, journaliste du BBC World Service. Dans l'après­midi, trois groupes de travail se sont réunis pour approfondir les thèmes traités dans les rapports TRIM, CORREIA et Tosi. A la fin, tous se sont retrouvés dans l'hémicycle Schuman pour la présentation des conclusions.

I

l 2 6 novembre 1 9 9 8 si è svolto n e l l ' e m i c i c l o Schuman a Lussemburgo un seminario, dal titolo " M u l t i l i n g u a l i s m : B arrier or B ridge?", organizzato dalla direzione generale della traduzione del Parlamento europeo nell'intento di offrire ai traduttori e agli interpreti delle istituzioni comunitarie l'occasione di riflettere, insieme alle personalità invitate, sui problemi e sulle sfide del m u l t i l i n g u i s m o .

Avec ce compte­rendu du séminaire organisé par le Parlement européen à Luxembourg en novembre 1998 et les contributions qui suivent (p 21/75), nous complétons la publication des travaux dudit séminaire, commencée dans le numéro précédent de T&T INdlr].

T&T 2.1999 1

Genesi del progetto

Nella primavera del 1 9 9 7 venne affidato al Collegio dei consiglieri linguistici del Parlamento europeo l'incarico d i sviluppare l'idea d i un grande seminario sul m u l t i l i n g u i s m o . U n gruppo di lavoro composto da H E L E N A R A U T A L A , M A I T E W E B E R e D E L M I R A A S T O R R I e l a b o r ò un progetto c h e

prevedeva la partecipazione attiva di u n o o p i ù parlamentari, di d u e esperti esterni e di un giornalista. Ottenuta l'autorizzazione del direttore generale della D G 7 BARRY W I L S O N , furono stabiliti contatti c o n il prof A R T U R O T O S I , direttore del dipartimento d'italiano al Royal H o l l o w a y College dell'Università di Londra, e con il prof JOHN T R I M dell'Università di Cambridge quali esperti esterni, nonché c o n CHRISTOPHER C O O K , giornalista del BBC W o r l d Service, in rappresentanza del m o n d o dei media. (Più difficili del previsto si rivelarono i contatti c o n i membri del PE, sempre impegnati a Bruxelles o a Strasburgo oppure in missioni.)

2

Struttura del seminario

Il programma dei lavori si è articolato in tre parti. La prima prevedeva la presentazione di tre relazioni, da parte rispettivamente del prof JOHN TRIM, di

RENATO

D A COSTA

CORREIA

della

divisione

portoghese

e del prof

A R T U R O T O S I ; la seconda era dedicata a una tavola rotonda c o n la partecipazione degli ospiti accanto ai tre relatori, mentre la terza era costituita da tre " l a b o r a t o r i " paralleli, aperti al p u b b l i c o , i c u i lavori si sono svolti nel pomeriggio.

3

I lavori preparatori

L'adozione della formula sopra indicata presupponeva un'accurata preparazione della terza parte, c h e avrebbe reso necessaria la mobilitazione di un gran numero di traduttori. Le undici divisioni linguistiche e la divisione del SILD furono invitate a designare una persona per ciascuno dei tre gruppi d i lavoro, il c u i incarico sarebbe consistito nel riflettere sui temi oggetto delle relazioni del mattino. Tutte le divisioni aderirono alla richiesta designando tre persone ciascuna. A l l ' i n i z i o del 1 9 9 8 o g n u n o dei tre gruppi in tal m o d o formati ha designato un portavoce e si è dato un programma di lavoro, avviando una serie di r i u n i o n i . Taluni membri hanno contribuito oralmente alla preparazione dei laboratori del 2 6 novembre pomeriggio e altri hanno

T&T 2.1999 scritto brevi saggi, parte dei quali è stata pubblicata nel N° 1.1999 di Terminologia e Traduzione e parte figura nel presente numero della rivista. Nel periodo preparatorio i tre gruppi si sono avvalsi della consulenza dei prof Tosi e TRIM e del sostegno costante di RENATO CORREIA.

4

Le lingue utilizzate

L'interpretazione nella giornata del seminario era assicurata in francese e in inglese, quindi i membri dei gruppi di lavoro sono stati invitati a utilizzare preferibilmente quelle due lingue. Le regole che il comitato di redazione di Terminologia e Traduzione ha stabilito per la nostra rivista impongono invece agli autori l'uso della lingua materna. Sono pertanto molto grata ai colleghi traduttori che ancora una volta hanno risposto all'appello e, benché oberati da una quantità notevole di lavoro, hanno accettato di riscrivere nella propria lingua i loro articoli. Affinchè il frutto di tale sforzo non vada perduto, e a beneficio dei lettori che non dovessero conoscere determinate lingue, i testi originariamente scritti in inglese o in francese da autori di lingua diversa sono stati inseriti in uno spazio informatico apposito (cf Intranet, PE, DG 7, Documents).

5

Le tre relazioni del mattino

Davanti a un pubblico costituito da traduttori e interpreti del Parlamento europeo e delle altre istituzioni dell'Unione e dopo aver dato il benvenuto alle personalità invitate, ha aperto i lavori BARRY WILSON, che ha poi assicurato la presidenza per l'intera giornata. Il primo relatore, il prof JOHN TRIM, ha esordito osservando come il multilinguismo, e il plurilinguismo quale risposta ad esso, siano condizione normale nella società odierna. La globalizzazione economica, politica, sociale e culturale fa ormai della conoscenza di più lingue un'esigenza di massa. L'inglese è divenuto il principale mezzo di comunicazione a livello mondiale, senza togliere vitalità alle lingue nazionali e regionali d'Europa. Le lingue non si limitano a coesistere, ma interagiscono e s'interpenetrano. Non sempre tuttavia una parola che passa da una lingua all'altra mantiene il suo significato originario e il traduttore o l'interprete, sotto pressione, può ricalcare un termine dall'originale sottraendosi allo sforzo di ricercare l'equivalente nella propria lingua. Con il tempo si può far l'abitudine a espressioni che all'inizio suonavano strane. L'interpenetrazione di lingue e di culture tra

T&T 2.1999 loro in contatto è un processo inevitabile che cambia ma arricchisce le lingue interessate, oppure costituisce una minaccia per la loro integrità, da tenere sotto controllo e cui opporsi se possibile? Il ruolo dei traduttori da questo punto di vista è fondamentale. Il secondo relatore, RENATO CORREIA della traduzione portoghese, ha parlato del ruolo della traduzione nell'ordinamento giuridico comunitario e nelle prese di posizione del Parlamento europeo. Egli ha osservato che il diritto comunitario, in quanto diritto plurilingue, poggia su una finzione giuridica particolare secondo cui sarebbe sempre possibile dare alla norma giuridica una formulazione identica in ciascuna delle lingue ufficiali. In realtà, è risaputo che non è possibile procedere a una redazione parallela in più lingue dei testi, giuridici o di altro tipo, ma si parte sempre da un testo redatto in una lingua per giungere, mediante il processo della traduzione, alle altre versioni linguistiche. Sul piano giuridico invece la traduzione non può essere considerata come una fase del processo legislativo se non si vuole rimettere in discussione l'unità e l'universalità della norma. Occorre assolutamente garantire l'uguaglianza di principio delle varie versioni linguistiche. Ci si viene pertanto a trovare in una situazione paradossale per cui se sul piano pratico il diritto comunitario non è concepibile senza traduzione, sul piano strettamente giuridico esso non è concepibile con traduzione. Tale paradosso si pone con la stessa forza per quanto concerne la formulazione dei messaggi politici, che sono l'argomento trattato dal terzo relatore, il prof ARTURO TOSI. In merito al problema della comunicazione in ambito plurilingue, egli ha osservato che mentre in passato i contatti tra lingue e culture diverse avvenivano nell'ambito delle relazioni internazionali tra élites culturali, o in corrispondenza dei flussi migratori, oggi il rapido sviluppo delle comunicazioni e delle tecnologie dell'informazione rende possibili i contatti tra lingue diverse anche senza un'interazione culturale. La prima preoccupazione deve essere quella di garantire un passaggio corretto delle informazioni e dei messaggi politici. Le moderne tecnologie consentono risparmi di tempo e d'energia nel processo di traduzione, ma l'intervento del traduttore resta fondamentale. Occorre che il cittadino europeo sia in grado di comprendere i documenti europei senza dover fare ricorso a una loro versione "semplificata". Bisogna pertanto sviluppare una nuova cultura della traduzione che consenta di eliminare le barriere poste dal multilinguismo e di migliorare la trasparenza dell'informazione.

T&T 2.1999 6

La tavola rotonda

Alla tavola rotonda, di cui è stato moderatore BARRY WILSON, hanno partecipato, oltre ai tre oratori del mattino, l'on M A L O U LINDHOLM, membro svedese del Parlamento europeo, COLETTE FLESCH, direttore generale del servizio di traduzione della Commissione europea, CHRISTOPHER COOK della BBC, OLGA COSMIDOU, direttore dell'interpretazione, e HELMUT SPINDLER, direttore della traduzione del Parlamento europeo. L'on LINDHOLM ha manifestato il suo apprezzamento per il lavoro dei traduttori, indispensabile perchè l'istituzione possa funzionare. CHRISTOPHER C O O K , quale giornalista della radiotelevisione oltre che della stampa, richiamandosi alla necessità menzionata dal prof Tosi di una comunicazione trasparente, ha parlato di una delle prime regole apprese all'inizio della professione: in ogni trasmissione una sedia vuota era idealmente occupata dal pubblico, e chi era al microfono doveva sempre tenerlo presente. Ai traduttori del Parlamento europeo incombe una responsabilità analoga. I cittadini europei devono poter comprendere pienamente ed esattamente il contenuto dei documenti dell'Unione europea. Per i giornalisti la chiarezza è essenziale al fine di evitare che il pubblico abbia una visione distorta delle questioni di cui si occupa il Parlamento europeo. Spesso tuttavia, spinti dalla fretta, essi non risalgono ai documenti originali per trarne informazioni, ma si limitano a riferire i commenti di altri, con il rischio di riprendere nel loro testo inesattezze o eventuali errori d'interpretazione. Sarebbe opportuno che essi potessero più facilmente accedere ai documenti del Parlamento. Alla trasparenza invocata dovrebbe accompagnarsi la chiarezza. Evitando costruzioni interminabili e complicate si toglierebbe alla stampa dominata da pregiudizi antieuropei il materiale per manipolazioni e attacchi feroci. Prendendo spunto dalla relazione del prof TRIM, CHRISTOPHER COOK ha affermato che i giornalisti non esitano ad attingere a tutta una varietà di linguaggi, del mondo politico e di quelli dello sport, delle varie classi sociali e delle diverse fasce d'età, facendo ampio ricorso ai prestiti da lingue straniere. A suo parere ciò è fonte di arricchimento linguistico anziché di pericoli. COLETTE FLESCH, direttore generale della traduzione e dell'informatica alla Commissione europea, a proposito di informazione efficace ha riferito che nel 1994 gli uffici d'informazione insediati nei vari paesi sono stati invitati dal servizio d'informazione della Commissione a preparare una serie di opuscoli informativi rispondenti alle esigenze del pubblico locale, diversi quindi non soltanto per lingua ma anche per contenuto e

JO

T&T 2.1999

impostazione; il messaggio infatti deve essere sostanzialmente identico ma adeguato alle realtà nazionali e regionali. Ha poi accennato al metodo di lavoro dei giuristi-linguisti del Consiglio, che si avvalgono della consulenza di esperti nazionali per le varie versioni linguistiche delle decisioni di quella istituzione. L'on L I N D H O L M ha parlato delle difficoltà incontrate nei primi tempi dai nuovi membri del Parlamento europeo per la scarsità di traduttori e di interpreti. Per poter svolgere efficacemente l'attività parlamentare, è necessario disporre con un certo anticipo dei documenti nella propria lingua, mentre a volte succede di non avere neppure il tempo di leggere gli emendamenti prima della votazione. Tale necessità è assoluta nel caso dei testi legislativi. Ha poi preso la parola O L G A C O S M I D O U , che ha espresso il suo compiacimento per l'occasione offerta dal seminario di riflettere sulla necessità di un cambiamento sul piano della comunicazione culturale. Con l'aumento del numero di lingue ufficiali, ci si è resi conto che la costruzione di un'Europa multilingue comporta costi non soltanto finanziari, ma anche di adattamento umano. Occorre intervenire presso gli Stati membri affinché adeguino alle nuove necessità la loro politica in materia d'istruzione. COLETTE FLESCH ha osservato che si sta già agendo in tal senso. Le

scuole e le università dei paesi dell'Unione sono state invitate a riflettere sulla necessità di rivedere i programmi d'insegnamento. Per quanto concerne i paesi candidati, attraverso il Taiex si sta già finanziando la traduzione de\\'acquis communautaire; si contribuirà inoltre alla preparazione del personale linguistico in vista dell'adesione. Il prof TRIM ha auspicato una sorta di rivoluzione nei vari sistemi d'istruzione in Europa, con la liberalizzazione della professione di insegnante e con l'uso di lingue diverse da quella nazionale per l'insegnamento di varie materie. Occorre incoraggiare in ogni modo possibile il plurilinguismo. In vista del 2000, che sarà probabilmente dichiarato "Anno europeo delle lingue", il Consiglio sta preparando una serie d'iniziative volte a familiarizzare fin da piccolo il cittadino europeo con il maggior numero possibile di lingue straniere. CHRISTOPHER C O O K ha poi ribadito che il traduttore ha il compito di vigilare affinché il patrimonio linguistico di ciascun paese, elemento fondamentale della sua cultura, sia preservato, e nel contempo deve contribuire all'obiettivo ideale indicato dal prof TRIM. Il prof TOSI ha concluso sottolineando la responsabilità che incombe ai mezzi di comunicazione di correggere la percezione che i cittadini europei, ma anche il mondo politico, hanno del ruolo del traduttore.

T&T 2.1999 7

1_¡_

I laboratori del pomeriggio

Il primo gruppo, presieduto da BARRY WILSON e assistito dal prof TRIM, era formato da HELEN SWALLOW, portavoce, ANDREA ANTONELLO, HELENI CONSTANDOPOULOS, EUSENDA FRANQUESA, PIERRE GOFFIN, ANNA MARIA GULL,

ÁNGELA

LLAMAS,

AUGUSTO

MURÍAS,

HELENA

RAUTALA,

LISBET

VERGNAUD e WERNER V O I G T . AUGUSTO MURÍAS è stato invitato dal presidente a parlare per primo. Egli ha osservato che il traduttore non partecipa al processo di creazione di un testo, quindi ignora il motivo della presenza in esso di parole straniere. Il prof T R I M ha affermato che i britannici sono aperti all'innovazione linguistica e che i prestiti comportano un arricchimento e non la corruzione della lingua. Se l'influenza avviene nei due sensi, tale punto di vista è condivisibile. Ma nel caso del portoghese ad esempio, lingua antica, comune all'intero paese (in Portogallo non esistono dialetti) la presenza di parole straniere si fa sentire. Le piccole comunità tendono ad accettare con troppa facilità l'influenza di altre lingue. L'eurolingua dovrebbe rimanere interna alle istituzioni. NIKOS SARANTAKOS ha osservato che il primo testo letterario di molte lingue è stato una traduzione, spesso dalla Bibbia. La traduzione non ha quindi svolto soltanto una funzione di mediazione, ma ha anche contribuito alla formazione della lingua. Le traduzioni in greco di testi comunitari influenzano il greco della madrepatria; lo stesso vale per le altre lingue ufficiali. I traduttori concorrono all'evoluzione della loro lingua nazionale. Chi lavora nelle istituzioni comunitarie tende forse ad essere più purista dei greci in Grecia, e perde in qualche misura i contatti con la lingua che nel proprio paese continua ad evolvere. Per tale motivo sarebbe utile un distacco per uno o più mesi dei traduttori delle istituzioni europee, e soprattutto di quelli provenienti dai paesi più lontani, presso un ministero o un quotidiano nazionale. Il presidente ha osservato in proposito che alla Commissione esiste un programma, detto di ressourcement, che prevede per gli interpreti la possibilità di tornare a lavorare per un certo periodo nel proprio paese. E' poi stata presentata una serie di esempi volti a illustrare l'influenza del linguaggio comunitario, ma soprattutto dell'inglese e del francese, sulle altre lingue ufficiali. FRANCO URZÌ ha sottolineato gli inconvenienti che possono sorgere allorché testi altamente specializzati sono tradotti da persone prive di una conoscenza approfondita della materia in essi trattata. Per HELENI CONSTANDOPOULOS è sempre possibile trovare una soluzione ai problemi di traduzione, ricorrendo se necessario a parole

U

T&T 2.1999

nuove. E' lecito creare neologismi, purché si tratti di una creazione responsabile. E' tuttavia preferibile evitare neologismi stranieri, perché si è più disposti a sforzarsi di comprendere una parola nuova nella propria lingua. Riferendosi a un'affermazione fatta da un precedente oratore, secondo cui i traduttori sarebbero i "custodi" della lingua, ha affermato che la parola "custode" le suggerisce un atteggiamento di chiusura, mentre personalmente è disposta ad accettare il nuovo. I neologismi sono "sangue fresco" per le nostre lingue; bisogna tuttavia accertarsi che non si tratti di sangue contaminato. Per THOMAS MORAITIS, la contaminazione delle lingue è connessa alla specializzazione dell'istruzione oggi impartita nelle scuole. Gli scienziati e le persone colte in genere ricevevano in passato un'educazione umanistica che li metteva in grado di comprendere e di formulare concetti nuovi. Oggi invece scienziati ed esperti di ogni settore hanno una comune cultura scientifica che consente loro di comprendere i concetti nuovi, ma per pigrizia mentale o per snobismo adottano facilmente, per esprimerli, neologismi stranieri, in particolare angloamericani. ÁNGELA LLAMAS ha richiamato l'attenzione sulle lacune osservabili in Euterpe, la base di dati terminologici del Parlamento europeo, in corrispondenza di determinate abbreviazioni o di termini ripresi dalla stampa. In merito ai problemi posti dalle abbreviazioni, PIERRE GOFFIN ha citato l'esempio dell'acronimo "ALARA" la cui spiegazione (As Low As Reasonably Achieved) è riportata soltanto verso la fine del documento in cui figura; spesso poi non si riesce neppure a risalire al significato primo di un acronimo. HELENI CONSTANDOPOULOS ha osservato che l'uso di una lingua franca da parte di più autori può agevolare il compito del traduttore, mentre chi si ostina a usare ad esempio l'inglese invece della propria lingua lo mette nei guai. WERNER VOIGT ha avanzato la proposta di contrassegnare con una sigla i testi i cui autori non hanno utilizzato la propria lingua. Per ELISENDA FRANQUESA, i traduttori sono talmente abituati ai testi redatti male da non farci più caso. E' vero che il traduttore non partecipa al processo redazionale, ma ha la possibilità di segnalare all'autore o al responsabile i punti incomprensibili o gli errori e in tal modo può concorrere alla buona qualità dei documenti. Quanto alla maggiore o minore affidabilità delle basi di dati, si deve sempre tener presente che uno stesso termine in contesti diversi può assumere significati diversi. Secondo HANS DRANGSFELDT, l'uso della propria lingua non basta da solo a garantire la buona qualità di un testo. Per i traduttori di paesi

T&T 2.1999

13_

geograficamente periferici, che non possono mantenere stretti contatti con la vita e la cultura del proprio paese, è più difficile mantenere un giusto equilibrio tra innovazione e conservazione. Prima di adottare un termine straniero, occorrerebbe aspettare qualche tempo per verificare se è in grado di sopravvivere nella vita quotidiana quale è riflessa dai media. In merito al richiamo di PIERRE GOFFIN alla responsabilità che gli autori hanno di redigere testi chiari e comprensibili, il presidente osserva che i testi tradotti sono accurati, ma alcuni originali sono diffusi senza che intervengano i traduttori e in tal caso la qualità non è garantita. Se ve ne fosse il tempo, l'ideale sarebbe di inviare ogni testo al servizio di traduzione per un controllo linguistico. Per JOANNES V A N VEEN, gli autori dovrebbero tener presente che il loro testo sarà tradotto ed evitare espressioni ambigue e imprecisioni, altrimenti le varie versioni linguistiche potranno divergere in maniera pericolosa. Egli ha poi soggiunto che ogni traduttore dà un suo apporto al testo; ed è questa la parte creativa della sua attività. LISBET VERGNAUD ha espresso preoccupazione per la presenza eccessiva di parole inglesi nei documenti. Se si usa un termine straniero che ha un equivalente nella propria lingua si impoverisce quest'ultima e quindi anche la propria cultura. Occorrerebbe prendere esempio dall'Islanda, paese di piccole dimensioni che tutela accuratamente il proprio patrimonio linguistico. Il presidente, dopo aver osservato che il Québec vigila con altrettanta cura sulla sua lingua, ha a quel punto lanciato la domanda: "Chi ha paura dell'inglese?" FRANCO URZÌ, rispondendo per primo, ha affermato di non avere questa paura. Un termine inglese usato in un giornale italiano di economia e finanza, ad esempio, ha una connotazione specifica che andrebbe persa se si usasse un termine italiano; il lettore non specializzato ne sarebbe facilmente fuorviato. NIKOS SARANTAKOS ha rievocato l'evoluzione linguistica nel suo paese dopo l'indipendenza. Nel secolo scorso il greco abbondava di parole turche e italiane, di cui si dovette trovare l'equivalente in greco. I vecchi termini sono sopravvissuti accanto ai nuovi, e la lingua greca ne è risultata arricchita. Occorre dire tuttavia che il greco trova una difesa naturale nel proprio alfabeto. Impegnati a convertire le lettere, si è disposti a uno sforzo supplementare per tradurre la parola straniera in greco. O L G A C O S M I D O U ha invitato a riflettere sui motivi di una forte presenza di termini inglesi nelle altre lingue. E' superficiale parlare di prestiti linguistici; va invece riconosciuto che si tratta di un'influenza culturale. Se una cultura interessa i giovani, che sono la parte più viva di

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un paese, se offre loro proposte attraenti, la lingua in c u i tale cultura si esprime influenza inevitabilmente il loro linguaggio. WERNER V O I G T ha detto di non temere il multilinguismo e di ritenere anzi che la conoscenza delle lingue straniere non sia abbastanza diffusa. Gran parte della popolazione è esclusa dal dialogo tra popoli proprio perché n o n conosce le lingue. Egli teme invece il p r e d o m i n i o di una cultura, d i una lingua. A suo parere, lo snobismo di una parte ristretta della popolazione sembra voler escludere la massa da un m o n d o in cui l'inglese predomina. Infine, il prof T R I M ha sottolineato che comprendere è p i ù importante del deplorare. Nella storia, varie lingue hanno svolto il ruolo che ha oggi l'inglese: il greco, il latino e m o l t o tempo d o p o il francese. Chi potrebbe ragionevolmente desiderare che n o n esista il francese, nato dal latino, lingua per lunghi secoli egemone in Europa? Del secondo gruppo, presieduto da H E L M U T SPINDLER, facevano parte RENATO D A COSTA CORREIA, coordinatore,

MARIA

BALI,

NICOLE

BUCHIN,

G U D R U N HALLER, ERIKA L A N D I , F R A N C I S C O PEYRÓ, S A N D R O P I C C I N I N I , O L A F PRIES, E D W A R D S E Y M O U R , BJARNE SØRENSEN, A N T O N I N O T I L O T T A e ISABEL

VALE-MAJERUS.

R E N A T O CORREIA ha aperto i lavori del gruppo osservando c o m e la traduzione, lungi dall'essere un'operazione meccanica, sia parte del processo di redazione dei testi p l u r i l i n g u i . FRANCISCO PEYRÓ ha osservato che l'espressione acquis communautaire, presente in molte versioni linguistiche di d o c u m e n t i c o m u n i t a r i , risulta incomprensibile al di fuori d e l l ' a m b i t o delle istituzioni europee e andrebbe usata con cautela. Per ERIKA L A N D I , il Corpus Juris in materia penale, che è stato tradotto all'esterno, andrebbe sottoposto ad attenta revisione. A l c u n i dei termini che vi figurano sono già in uso nell'ordinamento giuridico dei singoli Stati, mentre altri introducono concetti n u o v i . Un'attenta ricerca delle corrispondenze plurilingui servirebbe ad eliminare le ambiguità presenti in alcune versioni linguistiche. A N T O N I N O T I L O T T A ha osservato che il diritto penale rappresenta una sfida nuova per il Parlamento europeo. Il suo gruppo ha selezionato alcuni esempi di problemi linguistici sollevati da questa impresa di a m p i o respiro, c o m e la ricerca d i termini equivalenti al francese accusé. BJARNE SØRENSEN ha sintetizzato i contributi dei membri di un sottogruppo che ha preso in esame la procedura d i codecisione e ha posto a confronto le traduzioni nelle varie lingue di espressioni quali designs and models, sustainable development e universal and public service. Egli ha ipotizzato un p r i n c i p i o di "sussidiarietà linguistica" per cui il termine

T&T 2.1999

]5_

usato in ambito nazionale prevarrebbe su quello impiegato a livello comunitario. Ha poi sostenuto che i vantaggi pratici del cambiamento della "lingua originale" lungo l'iter di un documento sono superiori agli svantaggi che tale cambiamento comporta. A suo parere si potranno compiere progressi promuovendo la cooperazione tra i servizi linguistici delle varie istituzioni, prevedendo il distacco di traduttori presso le commissioni e instaurando contatti più stretti con il servizio del processo verbale. EDWARD SEYMOUR ha tra l'altro fatto presente che la solennità biblica dell'espressione democratic accountability ha scoraggiato qualsiasi tentativo di formulare tale concetto con parole più facili da tradurre. OLAF PRIES ha osservato che le difficoltà incontrate dal traduttore sono spesso dovute, come nel caso dei documenti sulle mine antipersona, a differenze ideologiche. GUDRUN HALLER ha sostenuto, a proposito della parola Mitbestimmung, che la mancanza di termini equivalenti in altre lingue potrebbe renderne impossibile la traduzione. Il termine più vicino all'originale, ad esempio il francese participation, ha spesso un significato diverso. MARIA BALI ha citato l'esempio di una parola politicamente sensibile, "Macedonia", per la quale è impossibile trovare una traduzione omogenea in tutte le lingue. ISABEL VALE MAJERUS, nel suo documento sulle implicazioni politiche delle scelte terminologiche, ha ricercato il punto d'equilibrio tra uso politico e significato giuridico, al riparo dalle influenze ideologiche e prescindendo dalla "correttezza politica". La parola è poi passata al pubblico. Si è sostenuta l'utilità del linguaggio comunitario ai fini della traduzione, citando come esempio proprio l'espressione acquis communautaire, che in due parole sintetizza un concetto complesso. E' stata auspicata una maggiore vigilanza nella tutela delle lingue dei paesi di minori dimensioni di fronte ai neologismi comunitari. Si è poi accennato alle norme interistituzionali sulla qualità dei testi. La commissione giuridica sta riflettendo sulla creazione di "unità redazionali" cui affidare il compito di vigilare affinchè i testi siano redatti in modo da renderne agevole la traduzione. E' stato osservato che gli autori, in particolare di testi giuridici, fornirebbero al traduttore indicazioni più particolareggiate se riconoscessero una sua responsabilità nel processo redazionale. Si è ricordato che ai traduttori operanti in un contesto multinazionale incombe la responsabilità non soltanto di conciliare in un linguaggio comune le

J_6

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divergenze linguistiche fra paesi, ma anche di scoraggiare i neologismi ¡spirati dalle lingue " d o m i n a n t i " . Si è suggerito d i sottolineare nelle conclusioni la necessità di un migliore c o o r d i n a m e n t o c o n gli autori e di un maggior c o i n v o l g i m e n t o dei traduttori nel processo redazionale, il problema delle scelte lessicali imposte da altri autori o da altre istituzioni, l'utilità di una p i ù chiara definizione del ruolo dei traduttori e di quelli dei giuristi-linguisti, del servizio del processo verbale e del servizio giuridico. E' stato espresso il parere che una maggiore "visibilità" dei traduttori consentirebbe di opporre una resistenza maggiore ai tentativi di imporre loro una terminologia inadatta. Ci si aspettava c h e i nuovi strumenti di ausilio alla traduzione consentissero al traduttore di dedicare un t e m p o maggiore alla riflessione e di migliorare q u i n d i la leggibilità dei testi, ma sembra piuttosto c h e al risparmio di t e m p o abbia fatto riscontro un'accelerazione del ritmo di lavoro. Ci si è anche chiesti perchè, se i giuristi-linguisti fanno un cosi eccellente lavoro c o m e si è sostenuto nel corso della tavola rotonda, la Corte debba continuamente occuparsi di casi sorti a seguito di discrepanze tra le varie versioni linguistiche. R E N A T O CORREIA, prendendo lo spunto dal problema della qualità dei testi sollevato nel corso della discussione, ha richiamato l'attenzione sul fatto c h e nell'ambito delle recenti iniziative in materia n o n si è presa in considerazione la traduzione come elemento del processo di ottimizzazione della qualità. Il terzo gruppo, presieduto da J O H N L O Y D A L L , capo della divisione inglese della traduzione, e assistito dal prof TOSI, era composto da FABIENNE PONDEVILLE, portavoce, M A R I N A A H L S K O G , SYLVIA BALL, DE

CORTE,

MoRTzos, OBRZUT,

TUULA JOSÉ

CHRIS

HUOTELIN-MEYER,

PAULO

NASCIMENTO

ROLLASON

e

BARBARA

MALENE e

SILVA,

TOSI.

Era

MIKKELSEN, JUAN

NAVARRO,

presente

ai

FREDDY

CHRISTOS DORIS

lavori

del

gruppo anche CHRISTOPHER COOK. J O H N L O Y D A L L ha dato la parola a JOSÉ N A S C I M E N T O E SILVA, il q u a l e ha

ricordato c o m e la c o m u n i c a z i o n e debba essere chiara, trasparente e precisa, in m o d o che ogni cittadino europeo, dal docente universitario al p o l i t i c o al c o m u n e cittadino, possa comprendere senza difficoltà i testi c o m u n i t a r i . M a i traduttori delle istituzioni europee non hanno un rapporto diretto c o n i cittadini dei paesi m e m b r i ; ogni messaggio è mediato dalla stampa. I giornalisti devono informare in maniera chiara ¡ cittadini e, quando i testi comunitari presentano ambiguità, sono loro a interpretarli. Che cosa si potrebbe fare perchè i nostri testi giungano senza mediazioni ai cittadini dei nostri paesi? C o m e ricevono questi ultimi le

T&T 2.1999

]7_

informazioni provenienti dalle istituzioni comunitarie? Egli ha fatto l'esempio delle petizioni: spesso le attese dei cittadini che si rivolgono al Parlamento europeo restano insoddisfatte perché essi non hanno le ¡dee chiare sui diritti individuali loro riconosciuti in quanto cittadini dell'Unione. Si è poi posto una serie di domande sui problemi della contaminazione linguistica e di un linguaggio comunitario indipendente dalle lingue nazionali. Stiamo dando forma a un linguaggio nuovo meno comprensibile di come lo vorremmo, che tende a imporsi alle lingue esistenti? I testi comunitari sono collegati alle diverse realtà nazionali, oppure occorrerebbe fare traduzioni più rispettose di quelle diverse realtà e culture? Secondo CHRISTOPHER C O O K , in un mondo ideale i mezzi di comunicazione dovrebbero fungere da intermediari tra le ¡stanze politiche e il pubblico, che in definitiva è il corpo elettorale. Si tratta di una delle loro principali funzioni. Occorre ammettere che i mezzi di comunicazione operano in contesti diversi nei vari paesi. Il cittadino britannico percepisce le istituzioni europee come qualcosa di strano, di lontano, e non già come parti del processo democratico. I mezzi di comunicazione hanno quindi il compito di rendere il pubblico britannico consapevole che nel cuore dell'Europa esistono istituzioni democratiche ispirate a principi democratici. Ne deriva la necessità che al cittadino britannico i documenti comunitari, e i messaggi che gli giungono attraverso la radio e la televisione, appaiano altrettanto chiari quanto quelli del suo paese. Ai giornalisti occorrerebbe la piena disponibilità di un resoconto giornaliero delle attività del Parlamento europeo analogo allo Hansard britannico. CHRIS ROLLASON ha fatto presente che esiste per il Parlamento europeo un canale d'informazione analogo allo Hansard: è il resoconto stenografico delle discussioni, cui vanno aggiunti i processi verbali delle sedute. Sono inoltre a disposizione del pubblico in tutte le versioni linguistiche tutte le relazioni da votare in aula. CHRISTOPHER C O O K ha replicato che il nocciolo del problema sta nella leggibilità di quei documenti. CHRIS ROLLASON ha richiamato l'attenzione sul fatto che i traduttori del Parlamento europeo devono riprendere la terminologia usata per i documenti della Commissione, su cui il Parlamento è chiamato a esprimersi; e la terminologia comunitaria è molto specifica. Spesso vengono introdotte per necessità espressioni nuove come "reti transeuropee"; ci si potrà quindi sforzare di familiarizzare il lettore europeo con queste novità, ma il traduttore ha in ampia misura le mani legate.

T&T 2.1999 Il prof TOSI si è detto scettico sul ruolo di una stampa dominata dai grandi gruppi industriali, anche se esistono lodevoli eccezioni di giornalisti di grande qualità; ma in genere il mondo dei media ha una percezione antiquata del multilinguismo e del ruolo del traduttore. Spesso i quotidiani ospitano commenti sul deterioramento della lingua nazionale, mentre sarebbe compito della stampa informare i lettori del Ile esigenze poste dal contesto multilingue in cui vengono discussi i problemi europei. I mezzi di comunicazione hanno la responsabilità di spiegare in maniera costruttiva al pubblico qual è il ruolo del traduttore in tale nuovo contesto. CHRISTOS MORTZOS ha detto di concordare con il giornalista COOK sulla necessità di formulare i messaggi in maniera concreta e trasparente affinché essi possano essere correttamente percepiti. Gli autori per primi dovrebbero inviare ai traduttori testi ben redatti. Per FREDDY DE CORTE non spetta al traduttore riscrivere un testo per renderlo comprensibile ai cittadini europei. Suo compito è quello di tradurre fedelmente i testi tecnici, ma spetta al giornalista renderli accessibili al grande pubblico. SYLVIA BALL ha espresso la convinzione che la terminologia comunitaria sia una fonte d'arricchimento per le lingue nazionali. Stiamo contribuendo a dar vita a una nuova realtà, e dobbiamo fare in modo che i nuovi colleghi svedesi e finlandesi si familiarizzino con essa. Anche per LEONOR DlAS non è compito del traduttore riscrivere i testi per renderli più accessibili al grande pubblico. Del resto, anche in molti paesi dell'Unione è nettamente percepibile la distanza tra politici e semplici cittadini; non si può affermare che le leggi nazionali siano sempre chiare e comprensibili. MARINA AHLSKOG ha riferito che in Svezia è stata condotta una campagna per consentire a ogni cittadino di poter leggere e comprendere la legislazione nazionale. E' stato anche lanciato un programma d'azione volto a ottenere una modifica delle norme per la redazione dei testi comunitari al fine di garantire la democraticità dell'informazione. AILA ASIKAINEN ha a sua volta riferito che in Finlandia il governo ha preparato una guida per coloro che devono trasporre nella legislazione nazionale le direttive comunitarie. BARBARA TOSI ha sottolineato le differenze culturali per cui certi problemi linguistici che angosciano i colleghi nordici non costituiscono affatto motivo di turbamento ad esempio per i suoi connazionali, i quali accettano con entusiasmo nuovi apporti da altre lingue anche se esistono termini italiani con lo stesso significato. PHILIPPE GRAAS ha segnalato che non soltanto è già possibile trovare su Internet tutte le relazioni e la maggior parte dei documenti del

T&T 2.1999

1_9_

Parlamento europeo, ma che presto la d o c u m e n t a z i o n e disponibile sarà ancora più ampia. A N T O N I O A L M E I D A ha osservato che, c o m e i prodotti informatici sono predisposti per un mercato ormai mondiale, anche per i testi parlamentari da tradurre vi è la stessa esigenza: gli autori dovrebbero redigerli in m o d o da facilitarne la traduzione. Il prof TOSI ha concluso affermando che non si può parlare di limiti del traduttore, ma si deve parlare dei limiti delle lingue europee, che si sono andate f o r m a n d o in un determinato contesto culturale e non sono pronte per un contesto europeo c o m u n e . Nei paesi anglofoni e francofoni ci si può porre il problema dell'integrità linguistica; negli altri paesi invece v'è un problema di comprensione, di corretta c o m u n i c a z i o n e .

8

Eco presso la stampa e opinioni dei partecipanti

Del seminario del 26 novembre hanno riferito il Luxemburger Wort e il Républicain Lorrain. I partecipanti da parte loro hanno espresso in genere valutazioni molto positive sull'iniziativa. Varie persone avrebbero preferito che fosse dato più a m p i o spazio alla tavola rotonda, con interventi del p u b b l i c o , mentre l'ampio c o i n v o l g i m e n t o dei traduttori nei lavori del pomeriggio è stato m o l t o apprezzato, c o m e risulta dai seguenti c o m m e n t i , tratti dalle schede di valutazione compilate. Je pense que c'était la première fois qu'on organisait ici une telle action de formation. Il faut prendre en considération que les traducteurs on dû faire face à une charge importante de travail aussi pendant la semaine où cette action s'est déroulée. Cela a été une très bonne idée d'associer la présentation théorique à un débat publique animé par de hauts responsables ayant un rapport différent à l'égard de l'activité de traduction et d'ouvrir ce débat l'après-midi à toute personne intéressée. Too little time for the round table. Indiquer à l'avance aux participants les thèmes traités dans les ateliers. Excellente organisation. Invités de qualité pour la coordination travail. Un effort qui ne doit pas rester sans suite.

des groupes de

J'ai apprécié ce cours parce qu'il a donné de la "visibilité" à la traduction. Malheureusement nous n'avons pas le temps de réfléchir à notre travail...

20

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Vu le franc succès de cette première expérience, et l'intérêt éveillé parmi nous, il serait intéressant de répéter l'activité, voire de lui conférer un caractère régulier. ...ringraziare per l'iniziativa e per tutta l'organizzazione del seminario, che per me personalmente, e non solo per me, è stato sotto tutti gli aspetti positivo, stimolante e un momento di riflessione sugli sviluppi, professionali, personali e del nostro servizio.

9

Considerazioni finali

Le riunioni preparatorie dei tre gruppi di lavoro, i laboratori del pomeriggio e i contatti con esponenti del mondo accademico e dei mezzi di comunicazione sono stati un'eccellente palestra nella quale singole persone partite spesso da posizioni ¡spirate a pregiudizi si sono abituate a lavorare insieme in maniera costruttiva, con arricchimento reciproco. I contatti, che spesso mancano al traduttore nella sua attività quotidiana, hanno consentito di mettere in luce potenzialità nascoste e di imparare ad apprezzare colleghi di provenienza e di mentalità diverse, in uno spirito autenticamente europeo. Per tutti questi motivi sarebbe auspicabile dare un seguito al seminario del 26 novembre 1998. E' infine importante sottolineare che è stato uno sforzo collettivo a consentire il successo del seminario. Oltre alle personalità intervenute e al direttore HELMUT SPINDLER, ispiratore del progetto, vi hanno concorso tanti colleghi, e in particolare RENATO CORREIA e JOHN LOYDALL, NICOLE BUCHIN e SYLVIA BALL che si sono sobbarcate un impegno supplementare per la rilettura dei testi scritti in francese e in inglese dagli autori di lingua diversa, le segretarie francesi e inglesi incaricate delle trascrizioni, gli interpreti, i tecnici, tutti gli amici dei gruppi di lavoro, il servizio della formazione professionale, CHRISTIANE PETERSOHN, tirocinante particolarmente volenterosa ed efficiente, i circa trecento partecipanti e, soprattutto, il direttore generale della DG 7 BARRY WILSON, senza il cui pieno e costante appoggio non sarebbe stato possibile mobilitare tutte le forze che hanno concorso al buon esito di questo primo grande seminario del servizio di traduzione del Parlamento europeo.

DELMIRA CECILIA ASTORRI

DG7 Parlamento Europeo

T&T 2.1999

21_ DORIS OBRZUT

Multilingualismus ­ Hindernis oder B rücke? It is not only other languages that exert an influence on German, but also the terminology used in the EU. A natural selection process takes place that determines which terms are taken over into the general vocabulary and which terms are dropped. In the specific case of Austria a third factor can be observed, that is the influence of the G erman used in the Federal Republic of Germany on "Austrian German". The translations we produce in the German Translation Division, however, are only targeted to the "market" of the Federal Republic, although the texts are also read in Austria.

"■ber die allgemeine Arbeitsweise der Übersetzungsdienste des EP, über und mögliche Lösungen wurde bereits viel geschrieben und gesagt. Ich möchte daher nicht auf allgemeine Fragestellungen eingehen, sondern mich bei der B ehandlung der fünf im Seminar vorgegebenen Fragestellungen auf meine persönlichen Erfahrungen in der deutschen Abteilung konzentrieren.

USchwierigkeiten

1

Qualität - Konsistenz - Hauseigener Stil

Meiner Ansicht nach läßt die Qualität der Übersetzungen aus unserer Abteilung nicht zu wünschen übrig. Die Arbeit von neuen Übersetzern wird mehrere Jahre lang von sogenannten "Revisoren" überprüft, die alle Ausdrücke, B egriffe und stilistischen Wendungen, die nicht dem hauseigenen Stil entsprechen, verbessern. Dadurch wird die Konsistenz der Übersetzungen gewährleistet. Nach einigen Jahren übernimmt der neue Übersetzer dann automatisch den Stil und die Terminologie, die in der Abteilung gewünscht werden. Auf einen Punkt muß hier jedoch hingewiesen werden: Als Österreicherin bin ich nicht nur gehalten, die Terminologie und den Stil des EP zu übernehmen, sondern muß auch "B RD­Deutsch" (im Gegensatz zum "österreichischen Deutsch") verwenden. Wir sind nur 4 Österreicherinnen unter etwa 50 Übersetzern in der deutschen Abteilung. Natürlich führt dies dazu, daß wir uns anpassen und längerfristig unsere

22

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spezifisch österreichischen Ausdrücke und Termini aufgeben. Auf diesen Punkt möchte ich aber später noch näher eingehen. Ein weiteres Mittel, um die Konsistenz der Texte sicherzustellen, ¡st die interinstitutionelle Terminologiegruppe, die offensichtlich recht gut funktioniert. Wir erhalten regelmäßig Informationen über e-mail (sog Terminology Newsletters), in denen Probleme aufgegriffen und Empfehlungen für Übersetzungen gemacht werden. Ich meine daher, daß die Qualität der Übersetzungen nicht unter fehlender Konsistenz und Einheitlichkeit leidet, sondern daß eher der zeitliche Druck und die knappen Fristen zu einer Beeinträchtigung der Qualität führen.

2

Aus- und Weiterbildung

Abgesehen von den Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten, die meine Kolleginnen bereits erwähnt haben (Sprachkurse, Seminare, durch die Hintergrundwissen über die EU, ihre Organe und Arbeitsweisen vermittelt werden, usw) und abgesehen von dem Revisionssystem, durch das Fehler bzw stilistische Unterschiede von einem Revisor aufgezeigt werden, besteht seit kurzem ein weiteres System zur Ausbildung neuer Mitarbeiter in unserer Abteilung, das sogenannte "Mentor-System". Ein Übersetzer, der der Abteilung bereits längere Zeit angehört, wird einem neuen Übersetzer zugeteilt, um alle Fragen zu beantworten und Hilfestellungen zu bieten. Dieses System basiert völlig auf persönlichen Kontakten und mag zwar für den Ersteinstieg und das gegenseitige Kennenlernen hilfreich sein, meiner Ansicht nach wäre aber ein besser strukturierter Ansatz effizienter (beispielsweise eine formalisierte allgemeine Einführung gleich zu Beginn über die Arbeitsmethoden und -ablaufe in der Abteilung, über die Möglichkeiten, die der Computer beim Auffinden von Dokumenten bietet, über Textarten und Verfahren).

3

Spezifische Übersetzungsprobleme - Standardisierung

Deutsch ist eine sehr stark standardisierte Sprache. Es werden die gleichen Termini verwendet, wenn es sich um den gleichen Kontext handelt. Bei Übersetzungen aus dem Englischen oder Französischen, die ebenfalls einen hohen Grad an Standardisierung aufweisen, treten daher keine allzu großen Probleme auf. Auf der anderen Seite ist beispielsweise die italienische Sprache keine standardisierte Sprache. Viele Ausdrücke

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23.

werden unter Anführungszeichen und viele verschiedene Begriffe werden synonym im gleichen Zusammenhang verwendet. Dies erschwert die Arbeit des Übersetzers, zumal unsere "Kunden" in Deutschland und Österreich an Konsistenz und Klarheit gewöhnt sind. Eine weitere Schwierigkeit betrifft die Übersetzung von Texten, deren Verfasser nicht in ihrer Muttersprache schreiben. Meiner Ansicht nach werden nicht nur die "kleinen" Sprachen durch die Verwendung von Arbeitssprachen (Englisch, Französisch) in Mitleidenschaft gezogen, da sich ihr Wortschatz nicht weiterentwickeln und sogar verarmen kann. Oft verlieren Texte dadurch, daß sie nicht in der Muttersprache des Autors verfaßt werden, an Klarheit und Ausdrucksstärke, sie werden weniger nuancenreich und in manchen Fällen geradezu unverständlich. Es ist natürlich sehr praktisch, in ein oder zwei Sprachen miteinander zu kommunizieren, das Ergebnis ¡st jedoch häufig wenig zufriedenstellend. Vor kurzem traf ich auf folgendes Beispiel: einen englischen Text mit dem Begriff proposal for resolution (anstatt motion for a resolution). Der Autor war vielleicht ein Italiener, Franzose oder Portugiese, der diesen Ausdruck auf der Grundlage von proposta di risoluzione neu bildete. In diesem Fall war es einfach, den richtigen Ausdruck zu erraten, manchmal sind die Wortschöpfungen oder speziellen Formulierungen aber viel weniger leicht zu durchschauen, und dies führt - nicht nur zum Leidwesen der Übersetzer- zu ernsthaften Schwierigkeiten. Im Englischen, Französischen und auch in den anderen Sprachen gibt es zahlreiche Begriffe, die schwer ins Deutsche zu übersetzen sind, wie folgende Beispiele: approach, challenge, constraints, commitment, regulatory, bottom-up approach, top-down approach, cercle vertueux (im Gegensatz zu cercle vicieux), best practice, good government, mainstreaming, gender issues, etc. Bei der Übersetzung solcher Schlagworte kommt es zu einer ganz natürlichen Selektion. Ausdrücke werden - oft durch die Medien - geprägt, manche werden modern und in den allgemeinen Wortschatz übernommen, andere vergißt man wieder. Abgesehen von der Erfindung neuer Wörter, um neuen Anforderungen und neuen Situationen gerecht zu werden, gibt es aber auch Beispiele für andere Einflüsse, denen das Deutsche unterworfen ist. Ein Beispiel ist die Übersetzung des englischen Begriffs policies. Im Deutschen gab es in der Vergangenheit keinen Plural zu Politik, heutzutage finden wir überall Politiken. Ein weiteres Beispiel ist der englische Begriff networks, der in der Übersetzung Netzwerke in den Wortschatz Eingang gefunden hat.

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Eine weitere Schwierigkeit betrifft geschlechtsneutrale Bezeichnungen (Kolleginnen oder Kollege/innen). Es gibt keine allgemeinen Regeln, wie diese zu handhaben sind. Natürlich sollte das Ziel jedes Übersetzers darin bestehen, eine "cultural translation", also eine auf die spezifische Idiomatik und Ausdrucksweise seiner Muttersprache ausgerichtete Übersetzung anzufertigen. Angesichts der Art der Texte, mit denen wir es im EP zu tun haben (vgl Kommissionstexte, deren Formulierungen man folgen muß) ist dieses Ziel nur schwer zu erreichen. Eine Ausnahme bilden allerdings Länderberichte, Reden oder ähnliche Texte.

4

Freiberufliche Übersetzungen - Maschinenübersetzungen

Ich bin relativ skeptisch, was Maschinenübersetzungen angeht. Wenn man bedenkt, über wie lange Zeit wir hier im EP immer weiter geschult und geformt werden, ¡st es kaum vorstellbar, daß eine gleiche Qualität der Arbeit durch freiberufliche Übersetzer sichergestellt werden kann. Wenn allerdings die Qualität nicht länger die oberste Priorität ist, dann könnten bestimmte Texte auch nach außen vergeben werden. Aber das müssen unsere Vorgesetzten entscheiden. Bisher waren die Möglichkeiten für die Anwendung von maschinellen Übersetzungen noch ziemlich beschränkt. Die wenigen Beispiele, über die ich gestolpert bin, konnten mich nicht wirklich überzeugen. Im Intranet fand ich einen "Reiseplan". Es handelt sich um eine reine Maschinenübersetzung, die noch nicht überprüft wurde. Ein Satz daraus soll als Beispiel genügen: Wenn der Beginn oder das Ende der Aufgabe im Flugzeug in einer anderen Stadt liegen als in Luxemburg, wird sie als 2 Stunden vor der offiziellen Stunde des Starts des Flugzeugs beginnend angesehen und wie, die 2 Stunden nach der wirksamen Landungsstunde zu Ende gehen. Der Text ¡st völlig unverständlich. Der Zeitaufwand für die Überprüfung und Verbesserung des Textes ¡st wahrscheinlich genauso groß wie eine völlig neue Übersetzung. Im Zusammenhang mit der Übersetzung von Protokollen und Tagesordnungen können Maschinenübersetzungen meiner Ansicht nach jedoch nützlich sein und die gestreßten Übersetzer ein wenig entlasten.

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Beeinflussung der Sprache durch andere Sprachen und durch die EUTerminologie

Die deutsche Sprache war immer schon dem Einfluß durch andere Sprachen ausgesetzt. Ich teile die Auffassung meiner Kolleginnen, daß dies keine neue Entwicklung darstellt. Andererseits hat sich dieser Trend - so meine ich - in den letzten Jahren beschleunigt, und dabei spielt die Europäische Union eine entscheidende Rolle. Ein Beispiel: Es ist bemerkenswert, wie rasch sich die Stadt Wien in den Jahren seit Österreichs Beitritt zur EU gewandelt hat. Die Stadt wurde internationaler und weltoffener und rückte von ihrer Randlage weiter in Richtung Westeuropa. Dies schlägt sich natürlich auch in der Sprache nieder. Die Haltung der Österreicher gegenüber der EU ¡st generell positiv. Es fällt auf, daß österreichische Politiker ihre International ¡tat gerne unter Beweis stellen, indem sie die neue EU-Sprache mit ihrem nur für Eingeweihte verständlichen Fachvokabular ganz demonstrativ gebrauchen. Ich möchte an dieser Stelle ein Beispiel aus einer österreichischen Tageszeitung (Der Standard 1. Juli 1998) anführen: In einem Interview verwendete der österreichische Außenminister Wolfgang Schüssel wiederholt den Begriff Acquis-Screening (ohne ihn näher zu erklären). Er benutzte weiters das englische Wort approach. Einerseits ist es heute sehr modern, sich der speziellen EU-Sprache zu bedienen, andererseits kann dies auch ein Zeichen dafür sein, daß der Sprecher / Verfasser selbst nicht mehr weiß, wie der entsprechende Ausdruck in seiner Muttersprache lautet. Der Durchschnittsbürger weiß dabei aber kaum noch, worüber die Politiker reden. Leider. Ein weiteres Problem, das ich in Punkt 1 bereits kurz erwähnte, betrifft die Unterschiede zwischen der deutschen Sprache, wie sie in der BRD verwendet wird, und dem österreichischen Deutsch. Die Texte, die wir hier in der deutschen Übersetzungsabteilung erstellen, sind auch für den österreichischen "Markt" bestimmt, sie werden auch in Österreich gelesen. Dennoch produzieren wir nur Übersetzungen, die auf den "Markt" der BRD ausgerichtet sind. In diesem Fall dürfen wir unsere Fragestellung also nicht nur darauf beschränken, ob Fremdsprachen und die EU-Terminologie die Sprache in den Einzelstaaten beeinflussen (was sicherlich der Fall ist), sondern wir müssen uns auch der Einflüsse innerhalb der deutschen Sprache selbst bewußt sein. Es besteht zwar eine Liste mit etwa 50 österreichischen Begriffen, va Lebensmittel, die die MdP verwenden dürfen, darüber hinaus gibt es aber noch zahllose Beispiele für Begriffe, Formulierungen und Ausdrucksweisen, die in Österreich gängig und richtig sind, in

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Übersetzungen von EU-Texten jedoch nicht verwendet werden dürfen (viele Deutsche würden sie auch nicht verstehen). Es muß darauf hingewiesen werden, daß es sich dabei nicht um Formen des Dialekts handelt, sondern um Begriffe, die in Wörterbüchern stehen und in den Medien tagtäglich verwendet werden, beispielsweise: weiters (- ferner), Jänner (-Januar), Budget (-Haushalt), Pension (-Ruhestand), unter Bedachtnahme auf (-unter Berücksichtigung von), mit 1. Februar (-ab 1. Februar), etc.

DORIS OBRZUT

Deutsche Übersetzungsabteilung Europäisches Parlament

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27_ SYLVIA BALL

Some reflections from a terminologist on possible topics to be discussed at a seminar 1

Translation standards

This is a topic which has been much discussed in recent years, both within the EU institutions and at conferences such as the annual ASLIB' Conference on Translating and the Computer held in London. One notion which has gained wide currency elsewhere but may appear unacceptable to translators at institutions such as the EP, where high quality translation is the rule for all documents, is that of fitness for purpose: if all that is required is a "gist" translation for a specialist in the field whose only handicap is not understanding the source language of a text, is minimally post-edited machine translation really unacceptable? 1.1 Adequacy of training for translators As so often, it depends on what you mean. Initial translator training is certainly of a generally high standard throughout the EU. As someone who helps provide practical terminology training for recent translation graduates I see this all the time. However, my trainees, whom I have consulted on this point, are of the opinion that their training is not always practical enough or oriented towards the type of text they will eventually translate from. One suggested that a period of work experience should be compulsory, perhaps in the final year of a translator's course, or at least regarded as an equally valid option to the usual personal translation dissertation. Moreover, in most translation divisions at the EP many translators did not train specifically in the field and some, probably to their own and the institution's benefit, have a university-level education in subjects not specifically related to the languages from which they translate. Initial training is complemented by the EP Professional Training Service's The UK Association for Information Management; cf in particular the Proceedings of Translating and the Computer 14, 1992, passim.

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courses, primarily in foreign languages, which are not confined to translators. There is also a recent trend towards in-house training in certain areas. One other point which should be borne in mind is division-specific training for new translators (mentoring, "parrainage"), which promotes the use of uniform terminology and house style - something which I perhaps notice more than translators within a translation division (who understandably view themselves and their colleagues as individuals rather than as a collective). There is a uniformity of EP house style which, like it or not, for certain types of text is a sine qua non. 1.2 Communication

of translators' problems

This has traditionally been a matter of individual initiative as and when problems occur, which may appear time-wasting where translation requesters receive a number of requests for clarification from different translation divisions, but may be beneficial in the long run if it encourages them to provide the clarification from the outset on future occasions. 2

Multilingualism versus working languages

This is mainly a problem for the European Commission, which relies heavily on discussion of proposals in a small number of working languages followed by translation into the others at a later date, rather than the EP, where - except for certain internal documents - the policy has been one of creation of documents in any of the 11 EU languages with translation into the other 10. The Commission's policy has always raised difficulties for terminologists since, except in rare cases, their experts simply reply that since all discussion on a particular topic was in English, say, or French, they do not know the technical term in the rather rarer language you are interested in (presumably their own!). However, internally at the EP and in contacts with, eg applicants for membership of the Union, there is undoubtedly an element of impoverishment of debate (discussion / discourse in general) where working languages are relied on too extensively. In recent months this has mainly affected English, the major language of communication with the applicant countries of Central and Eastern Europe, but not so long ago French was the principal language concerned. It should be borne in mind that the process is at least a two-way one, producing "pseudo-originals"

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which may not only be difficult to translate but also mistaken by their readers for poor translations! My trainees also mentioned a further problem with reliance on a limited number of working languages. Since language reflects a social and cultural reality, discussing issues in a limited number of languages polarises the discussion towards the reality of the countries whose languages are being used. 2.1 The role of communicative

translation

EU legislation in the broadest sense clearly does not lend itself to the type of communicative translation which would be appreciated by the nonspecialist reader. But this type of text, when drafted in a majority of the languages of the EU for "home consumption", is just as alien to most of any country's citizens. In most cases there are excellent reasons (the need to be comprehensive, to avoid ambiguity, to follow custom and precedent - though I'm not sure how.excellent the last reason is). Nonetheless, there has been a massive effort in favour of localisation and communicative translation of texts describing the working of the institutions of the EU and their impact on the citizen, as well as the impact of EU legislation. If these are not the texts which are most widely commented on in the media of EU member states, we should perhaps be drawing them to the media's attention or asking questions about their motives rather than blaming ourselves or our colleagues in the other institutions. 2.2 Faulty translations or faulty source texts I think on the whole that discussing the problem of translation or text drafting in terms of apportioning blame is unhelpful. It would be of more use to look at the pressures on both sides which have at least been perceived as becoming greater over the years: shortening and tightening deadlines, an increasing workload due to constraints on the establishment plan, the increasing complexity and responsibility of the EP's role.

3

The role of machine(-aided) translation

Nowadays it is generally accepted in translation circles that Fully Automatic High-Quality Translation (FAHQT), the Nirvana of the early 1960s, is probably never going to happen. Le Monde's recent gleeful account of the Altavista Systran version of the Starr Report, including the

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role of one Vernon Jord anie2, shows the limitations of straight MT systems all too well, some 32 years after the publication of the ALPAC3 report. Nonetheless, other translation methods such as machine-aided human translation (MAH T), with systems like the Trados Workbench used at the EP, admittedly on a relatively small scale, have proved their worth for repetitive texts or those which undergo successive revisions. 3.1 The role of freelance translation This again depends on what you mean. Clearly it can be worthwhile if you have a pool of reliable freelances to draw on but, all too often, it means using an agency and not knowing the freelance who will actually do your translation, with the risk of incurring additional revision work for hardpressed translation divisions. At the EP, at least, it has not proved a useful aid for terminology work.

4

Multilingualism: political bridge but technical barrier?

I would say that multilingualism is in fact the only option for the Europe of the 21st century, whether on the technical or the political level. Political debate gets nowhere if it does not include clear communication, whether in one language, at the national level, in 11 as currently at the EU level, or in more in the future. My trainees also reminded me that we have to bear in mind the whole continuum, past as well as present and future. For example, you cannot understand the divisions between the regions and communities in Belgium unless you look at the past and at how the current situation has developed.

5

The problem of divergence between political and ordinary language

I am sceptical about whether there really is a greater gap now than earlier or even a growing gap between EU and "national communication",

In Le Mond e oí 19 September 1998, ρ 18. President CLINTON'S aide is actually, of course, VERNON JORDAN. MT systems' propensity for translating proper names has always been one of their most entertaining features. The US Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee; cf Terminologies nouvelles June 1996 and J SLOCUM "A Survey of Machine Translation" in Computational Linguistics Vol 11, No 1, 1985, ρ 1/17.

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whatever that means. What evidence would anybody be willing to provide, apart from alarmist press reports? However, my trainees, who have more recent experience of their own national reality than I do of mine, do see this problem as significant. If Swedish issues are discussed in EU circles in terms which, are not those used in Sweden, what chance is there that communication can be effective? SYLVIA BALL

European Parliament

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T&T 2.1999 TOMMI

BERNITZ

Mulige emner til behandling på seminaret Three working groups were set up in connection with the Seminar on Multilingualism and Translation held at the European Parliament in November 1998. This article concerns some of the topics that Working Group No 3 (Political Discourse and International Communication) found were relevant to the work of a translator in a multilingual environment such as the European Parliament. The article describes multilingualism and translation from the practical point of view of a translator and covers some aspects of working as a translator at the European Parliament, such as training. The positive and negative effects of a multilingual environment, e.g. the European Parliament, on the work of a translator are discussed in terms of the influence of working languages on target languages, the quality of translations, freelance translations, the political aspects of multilingualism as a bridge or barrier, and the gap between national communication and EU language. The topics should be seen as possible subjects for discussion and as a basis for the work of Working Group No 3. Some of the topics or related topics were considered at the Working Group's session during the seminar.

Indledning

D

isse punkter skal ses som svar på nogle mulige emner, som kunne blive behandlet på seminaret. Ved begyndelsen af arbejdet i arbejdsgruppen besvarede hvert medlem i gruppen nedennævnte spørgsmål. Disse svar blev brugt som grundlag for gruppens arbejde til seminaret. 1

Opfylder oversættelserne kravene til en god oversættelse?

Dette spørgsmål bør primært stilles til brugerne af oversættelserne. Mener brugerne, at en oversættelse er god, eller at den opfylder deres forventninger? Efter min mening forsøger enhver oversætter at gøre sit arbejde så godt som muligt, men eksterne faktorer såsom frister, kildetekstens kvalitet,

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baggrundsdokumentationens kvalitet og tilgængelighed samt eventuelle edbproblemer skaber problemer for oversætterne. Modtager oversætterne tilstrækkelig uddannelse? Såfremt der ved uddannelse forstås "faglig uddannelse inden for EUinstitutionerne" er der primært tale om sprogkurser. Disse kurser må under ingen omstændigheder ses som noget, der kan erstatte f eks universitetsstudier af flere års varighed. Dette bør understreges, når nogle af de "nye" lande forventes at tiltræde EU. Sprogkurserne gør det som regel muligt for en oversætter at udarbejde en "rimelig" oversættelse, men det kræver samtidig, at oversætteren aktivt og konstant forbedrer sine evner ved hjælp af selvstudier. Der findes også edbkurser, som skal gøre det muligt for oversætteren at anvende sine "arbejdsredskaber" således, at produktiviteten og kvaliteten af oversættelserne kan øges. Kurserne er relevante, men det forudsætter, at de er tilpasset oversætternes behov, hvilket ikke altid har været tilfældet. I stedet for den hyppige anvendelse af eksterne undervisere bør der anvendes flere ressourcer (tid / medarbejdere) inden for institutionerne til at tilpasse kursernes indhold til oversætternes behov og problemer. Så vidt det er muligt, bør edb-undervisningen gennemføres i de enkelte oversættelsesafdelinger således, at den enkelte afdelings og oversætters særlige behov kan imødekommes. En anden form for uddannelse er den såkaldte "background training" (undervisning i de emneområder, som oversættelserne ofte behandler f eks politiske forhold, retsvæsen, økonomi). Dette er på det seneste blevet forbedret. Der er dog visse begrænsninger ved denne form for undervisning - det kan ikke forventes, at en oversætter er i stand til at erhverve sig indgående viden om alverdens ting. Forelæsninger om EUspørgsmål eller særlige områder i et (hjem)land kan være nyttige, men det kan dog ikke erstatte den enkelte oversætters "selvstudier". Oversætternes deltagelse i f eks EP-udvalgsmøder og udvalgenes arbejde øger også motivationen, og denne form for uddannelse bør efter min mening udvides. Forelæsninger om eller kurser i emneområder bliver stadig vigtigere i betragtning af det stigende antal af emneområder, som EP beskæftiger sig med. Fortsat uddannelse er af stor betydning, da vi lever i en omskiftelig verden. Evnen til at levere gode oversættelser afhænger ofte meget af ajourført viden på det generelle plan og på det sproglige område både med hensyn til kildesprog og målsprog.

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Hvordan kan de problemer, som oversætterne stilles over for, formidles til institutionerne? Dette kan ske via den eksisterende struktur for de repræsentative organer, f eks den valgte Oversætterdelegation i EP. Det kan også gøres gennem seminarer som denne, men problemer i det daglige arbejde bør behandles ved en dialog mellem de repræsentative organer og institutionerne. 2

Kan målsprogene blive påvirket drøftelser på arbejdssprogene?

Dette spørgsmål berører ikke Parlamentet. Jeg vil hellere stille spørgsmålet: Kan målsprogene blive påvirket af personer, der anvender arbejdssprog? F eks et dansk eller finsk medlem af Europa-Parlamentet kan ikke forvente, at hans/hendes dokument bliver skrevet på medlemmets modersmål. Dermed vil et dokument, selvom det er skrevet på et fuldendt engelsk eller fransk, ikke fuldstændigt afspejle medlemmets tanker. I disse situationer vil det endelige dokument blive påvirket af arbejdssprogene. Dette gælder hovedsageligt for de små sprog og er et spørgsmål om ressourcer. Et andet eksempel på dette kunne være, at et udkast til et dokument f eks på finsk i den endelige version udkommer på fransk, hvilket kan påvirke det endelige dokument. Hvad mener almindelige borgere, der ikke lever i et flersproget miljø, om de oversatte EU-dokumenter? Dette er et meget interessant spørgsmål og kunne drøftes på seminaret, men det er meget vanskeligt at se, hvordan vi, der lever i et flersproget miljø, kan svare på dette. Det er muligt, at folk i medlemsstaterne til tider føler, at de oversatte EU-tekster nærmest er uforståelige og langt væk fra deres dagligdag. EUtekster om meget tekniske spørgsmål anvendes ofte som eksempler på nærmest uforståelig kommunikation. Nogle gange kan anvendelsen af EUtermer også skabe en følelse af fremmedgørelse blandt borgerne. Det politiske klima og holdningen til EU i en medlemsstat spiller også en rolle, men jeg mener ikke, at vi som oversættere i vidt omfang kan tage højde for dette i vores arbejde. Nogle gange er oversættelser ... ikke tilfredsstillende. oversætterne eller forfatterne?

Skyldes dette

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Det er vanskeligt at besvare dette spørgsmål, da mange faktorer har indflydelse på oversættelsen af en tekst. En øget dialog og et større samarbejde mellem oversættere og forfattere kunne bidrage til at løse nogle af disse problemer. EP's Oversætterdelegation har foreslået en adfærdskodeks, som EP-udvalgene kunne følge, når de sender tekster til oversættelse. Dette er skridt i den rigtige retning, men frister og andre faktorer går ofte forud for reglerne i denne adfærdskodeks. I forbindelse med oversættelser, hvor der indgår f eks dokumenter fra Kommissionen, er det ofte meget vanskeligt at afvige fra Kommissionens terminologi navnlig ved Parlamentets ændringsforslag til et forslag fra Kommissionen. 3 Kan maskinoversættelser være af god kvalitet? Kan de være et nyttigt værktøj? Maskiner kan anvendes til oversættelser, når teksterne er standardiserede såsom udbud, tekniske beskrivelser, osv. Men i EP er de fleste tekster ikke af en sådan karakter, og derfor er maskinoversættelser ikke særlig anvendelige. Oversættelse adskiller sig fra andre såkaldte tekniske videnskaber ved, at en tekst kan oversættes på mange måder og stadig være lige korrekt. Efter min mening er den menneskelige hjerne stadig det bedste værktøj, når den rigtige løsning skal vælges. Kan freelance-oversættelser være nyttige? Hvad er virkningerne? Dette er et politisk spørgsmål. Hvis antallet af oversatte tekster og anvendte midler er de eneste parametre for oversatte tekster - da burde EU kun anvende freelance-oversættelser. Jeg mener, at kvaliteten af oversættelserne vil lide under dette, da oversætterne i EU-institutionerne har en indgående viden om terminologi og en erfaring, som oversættere udefra ikke kan forventes at have. Der findes naturligvis gode freelance-oversættere, men tidspresset fra bureauernes side bevirker, at de ikke altid kan producere gode oversættelser. Den tid og de ressourcer, der anvendes til at rette freelanceoversættelser, kan også være betydelig og dermed opvejes de økonomiske fordele ved at anvende freelance-oversættelser.

36 4

T&T 2.1999 Er flersprogethed politisk set en bro og teknisk set en hindring?

Flersprogethed er en politisk nødvendighed i et fællesskab, såfremt alle medlemmer skal behandles ens. Det er velkendt, at en person udtrykker sig bedst på sit modersmål. Hvis jeg havde skrevet denne tekst på f eks engelsk - ville budskabet sikkert være kommet frem, men ikke alle nuancerne. I nogle medlemsstater findes der en følelse af, at hvis det ikke er et muligt at anvende sit modersmål i EU, da vil det demokratiske underskud øges, og alt vil blive bestemt fra Bruxelles på fransk. Flersprogethed er teknisk set en hindring, men jeg mener stadig, at der bør anvendes ressourcer for at mindske denne hindring. Det er nogle gange svært for folk at forstå, at der anvendes så mange ressourcer på oversættelse, men jeg mener stadig, at det er det værd, for at der kan opnås en politisk accept af Fællesskabet i medlemsstaterne. Jeg har tidligere omtalt problemerne med et eller flere arbejdssprog i forbindelse med oversættelse, der kan skabe problemer for oversættelsen eller kvaliteten af teksterne. 5 Der bliver stadig større afstand mellem kommunikationen nationalt plan og sproget i EU.

på

Set ud fra en generel synsvinkel mener jeg ikke, at dette er tilfældet. Der findes stadig eksempler på uforståelige eller "tunge" EU-tekster, men jeg mener, at EÜ-termer kommer ind i den politiske debat i medlemsstaterne, og at disse udtryk nogen tid efter anvendes på normal vis i medlemsstaterne. Nye termer på andre områder skaber også somme tider problemer for forståelsen, f eks i dansk findes der en stor påvirkning fra andre sprog navnlig engelsk inden for økonomi, hvor den oprindelige engelske term ofte bliver anvendt. T O M M I

BERNITZ

Danske Oversættelsesat'deling Europa-Parlamentet

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37_ CHRISTOS MORTZOS

Μερικές σκέψεις για τον πολιτικό λόγο της ΕΕ και την πολυγλωσσία Cette note propose certaines réflexions sur les facteurs susceptibles de constituer un obstacle à la réception d u d iscours politique d e l'UE; il est à souligner que l'ad aptation à une réalité linguistique et à l'environnement terminologique d es sciences et d es technologies nouvelles, d ominées d e plus en plus par l'usage d e l'anglais, ne va assurément pas d e soi et présente d es d ifficultés variables selon les langues. De même, l'utilisation continue et, qui plus est, "institutionnalisée", d e certaines langues d e travail fait courir le risque d 'une érosion lexicale et structurale d es autres langues.

A

Σ

Διαμόρφωση και πρόσληψη του πολιτικού λόγου της ΕΕ

το πλαίσιο του παρόντος σεμιναρίου πρέπει να μας απασχολήσει κυρίως το επίπεδο μεταγραφής-μετάφρασης του πολιτικού λόγου της EE. Η προσέγγιση του θέματος αυτού, η οποία απαιτεί μια σοβαρή και αδιανόητη χωρίς τη συμμετοχή εκπροσώπων των μέσων ενημέρωσης και των πολιτών κάθε κράτους μέλους εργασία, πρέπει, κατά την άποψη μου, να επιχειρηθεί με ιδιαίτερη προσοχή. Πρέπει όμως να καταστεί σαφές το γεγονός ότι διαπιστώνεται και επισημαίνεται συχνά η δημιουργία κάποιου χάσματος μεταξύ κοινοτικής γλώσσας και εθνικών γλωσσών, χάσμα το οποίο δυσχεραίνει σε πολλές περιπτώσεις την κατανόηση του πολιτικού λόγου της ΕΕ και το οποίο δεν συμβιβάζεται με το στόχο (κυρίως από πλευράς του ΕΚ) μιας δημοκρατικής και διαφανούς επικοινωνίας με τους πολίτες. Εκτός από τους αμέσους αποδέκτες των μεταφράσεων μας (βουλευτές κάθε κράτους μέλους), ο ουσιαστικός πελάτης μας είναι οι ευρωπαίοι πολίτες, οι οποίοι έχουν το δικαίωμα να μπορούν να κατανοούν αυτόν τον πολιτικό λόγο, ακόμη και στις νομοθετικές του διαστάσεις. Θα μπορούσαμε να υποθέσουμε ότι το χάσμα αυτό δημιουργείται εξαιτίας ορισμένων παραγόντων, όπως πχ: η δημιουργία ενός γραφειοκρατικού-τεχνοκρατικού ιδιώματος, περιττών νεολογισμών, καθώς και η χρησιμοποίηση μιας ενίοτε άκρως

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εξειδικευμένης ή νεωτερίζουσας ορολογίας, διαμορφωμένης εντός ενός πολύ συγκεκριμένου γλωσσικού, επιστημονικού ή κοινωνικού χώρου (πχ όροι ή έννοιες όπως mainstreamingr) sustainabiΙ/fy). οι επιρροές της συχνά αδούλευτης, απλουστευτικής ή δημαγωγικής γλώσσας των μέσων ενημέρωσης ή και ορισμένων ιδεολογικών λεξιλογίων (πχ υπερβολική χρησιμοποίηση εννοιών της γλώσσας του νεοφιλελευ­ θερισμού, όπως flexibility, mobility, κλπ). Όσον αφορά ειδικότερα την Υπηρεσία της Μετάφρασης: Εκτός από ορισμένα μείζονος σημασίας θέματα, τα οποία έχουν συζητηθεί επανειλημμένως και αφορούν μιαν αποτελεσματικότερη οργάνωση της εργασίας (έλεγχος-ισορροπία του φόρτου εργασίας, ορθολογιστική οργάνωση και έλεγχος της ροής των κειμένων και των προθεσμιών, αυστηρή επιλογή των κειμένων που ενδύκνειται να μεταφρασθούν σε κάθε γλώσσα, κώδικας συμπεριφοράς για τους συντάκτες των κειμένων, μετάφραση free-lance κλπ), θα μπορούσαν να συμπεριληφθούν στη συζήτηση και τα ακόλουθα θέματα: Στενή συνεργασία μεταξύ συντακτών και γλωσσολόγων-μεταφραστών ήδη στο επίπεδο σύνταξης των κειμένων. Λιγότερο τεχνοκρατική προσέγγιση της μετάφρασης. Με τη μηχανογράφηση δόθηκε, κατά την άποψη μου, υπερβολική έμφαση στην παραγωγικότητα, εις βάρος της ουσιαστικής ποιότητας των περιεχομένων. Αναγνώριση των αυξημένων προβλημάτων που εκ των πραγμάτων αντιμετωπίζουν ορισμένες γλώσσες, συγκεκριμένα οι μη ανήκουσες στην ίδια οικογένεια, στον τομέα της ορολογίας. Στις γλώσσες αυτές, για τη μετάφραση ενός όρου ή ενός νεολογισμού δεν αρκεί απλώς η ηχητική μεταγραφή ή αλλαγή της κατάληξης, αλλά απαιτείται γλωσσική έρευνα, χρόνος ή και απόκτηση γνώσεων σε ένα συγκεκριμένο τομέα (βλ κυρίως ορολογία των νέων επιστημών και τεχνολογιών). Β

Πολυγλωσσία

Στον τομέα της κοινωνικής γλωσσολογίας επικρατούν σήμερα δύο τάσεις: μία η οποία πιστεύει ότι η συνύπαρξη περισσοτέρων γλωσσών στον ίδιο τόπο ή σε έναν κοινοτικό χώρο δεν μπορεί ποτέ να είναι ισότιμη και ότι υπάρχει πάντοτε ανταγωνισμός μεταξύ των διαφόρων γλωσσών, και μία άλλη η οποία θεωρεί ότι από τη συνύπαρξη αυτή ευνοούνται τα διαπολιτισμικά ανοίγματα. Η πολυγλωσσία στην ΕΕ, η οποία αποτελεί κατά γενική ομολογία ένα από τα βασικά θεμέλια της δημοκρατίας και του σεβασμού των

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πολιτισμικών ταυτοτήτων, εμφανίζεται σήμερα, λόγω των μελλοντικών διευρύνσεων, όλο και πιο αναποτελεσματική, όλο και πιο ανέφικτη. Για τεχνικούς ή λειτουργικούς λόγους, η χρησιμοποίηση ή ακόμη και η θεσμοθέτηση γλωσσών εργασίας κρίνεται απαραίτητη. Το ερώτημα του εάν μια γλώσσα-στόχος επηρεάζεται, εντός της μεταφραστικής διαδικασίας, από τη διαρκή χρησιμοποίηση συγκεκριμένων γλωσσών εργασίας είναι πολυπλοκότατο. Τί συμβαίνει ακριβώς όταν ένας μεταφραστής διστάζει μεταξύ μιας απόδοσης υπερβολικά προσκολλημένης στο πρωτότυπο και μιας απόδοσης πιο ελεύθερης ώστε να γίνεται κατανοητή σε ένα συγκεκριμένο πολιτισμικό πλαίσιο; Πώς μπορούν να ερμηνευθούν παραδείγματα υπερβολικά προσκολλημένης στο πρωτότυπο μετάφρασης όπου το προϊόν στη γλώσσα-στόχο απέχει ακόμη και από τις λογικές και συντακτικές δομές της τελευταίας; Πρόκειται απλώς και μόνον για παραδείγματα κακής μετάφρασης ή πρόκειται και για ένα πλέγμα ασυνειδήτων μηχανισμών επιβολής κανόνων ή νοητικών σχημάτων μιας συχνότατα χρησιμοποιούμενης γλώσσας-αφετηρίας ή εργασίας; Η δημιουργία ιεραρχιών μεταξύ των γλωσσών εγκυμονεί τον κίνδυνο, όπως συμβαίνει εξάλλου με τις ιεραρχίες σε όλα τα κοινωνικά φαινόμενα, και της δημιουργίας σχέσεων εξουσίας και ανισότητας; ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ ΜΟΡΤΖΟΣ Ευρωπαϊκό Κινοβούλιο

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PRIES

Översättning och politik - några reflektioner kring översättningen av militär terminologi i Europaparlamentets texter This paper is a case study of how political purposes behind new coined terminology can become the cause of difficulties for translators. Some questions on a more general level concerning military terminology are also raised. Another issue which is adressed, if only very briefly, is the reaction in the member states to EU-translations, where the readers tend to assume that everything that doesn't seem "quite right" must be a mistranslation of the correct usage from the original, or source text. Assumptions of this kind are of course always wrong when it comes to new coinages such as anti-people mine. The discussion of this term and it's translation into Swedish is the central issue of the text.

R

elationerna mellan olika nivåer och aspekter när det gäller mänsklig verksamhet såsom idéer, politik och språk är en komplicerad materia, av närmast filosofisk karaktär. Syftet med denna text är endast att visa på några exempel där politiska idéer eller strategier får betydelse för översättningen. Är det tänkbart att en översättning kan vara felfri ur ett rent lingvistiskt perspektiv, men ändå inte vara politiskt korrekt? Det vill säga en översättning som inte förmedlar det politiska budskap som var textförfattarens ursprungliga avsikt. I den mån man i språket kan särskilja olika uttrycksnivåer som faktiskt innehåll, emotionellt innehåll etc - skulle jag vilja besvara denna fråga jakande. Starkt förenklat uttryckt säljer politiker idéer. Oavsett vilket slutligt mål de strävar mot; världsfred, full sysselsättning eller rent av ett klasslöst samhälle - om man är riktigt ambitiös - är det en lång väg till målet och många lagar, förordningar och åtgärder som behöver antas på vägen dit. Försäljningsaspekten - att ge budskapet en attraktiv förpackning - är alltid viktig och dess betydelse stegras naturligtvis ytterligare då ett val är i antågande. Naturligtvis är inte alla politiska frågor lika emotionellt laddade. Jag blev nyligen konsulterad av en kollega som ville diskutera den svenska

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översättningen av en text (PE 227.720) i vilken den franska terminologin som var helt entydig och konsekvent hade översatts så att två skenbart motsatta begrepp användes synonymt. Det franska ordet armements hade översatts dels med krigsmateriel, dels med försvarsmateriel. Det är intressant att se hur dessa båda ord fungerar som synonymer i nusvenskan, trots att de två primära sammansättningsleden krig och försvar ju ligger väldigt lång ifrån varandra både när det gäller betydelse och referens. Samtidigt kan man konstatera att endast ordet krigsmateriel återfinns i någon av våra tre mest använda ordböcker, och då endast i SAOL. Att dessa båda sammansatta ord används synonymt innebär alltså att de har samma referens, exempelvis kanoner, stridsvagnar, bombplan, missiler, minor etc. Det faktum att ord med nästintill motsatt betydelse och emotionellt innehåll ändå kan ingå i sammansättningar som används synonymt tycks visa på ett språkligt problem som skulle kunna utgöra en utgångspunkt för en intressant analys. En internationell politisk fråga som under senare tid även behandlats av Europaparlamentet är problemet med vad som på engelska kallas antipersonnel landmines. En kampanj i syfte att förbjuda användningen av detta slags minor engagerade flera kända personer och tilldelades slutligen även Nobels fredspris. Då denna fråga togs upp i parlamentet introducerades ungefär samtidigt termen anti-people mines. Om denna term ursprungligen lanserades från politikerhåll eller av någon tjänsteman är inte alldeles klart. I varje fall cirkulerade man även ett meddelande till parlamentets olika översättningsavdelningar innehållande förslag till översättningar av ordet till övriga officiella språk. Det förefaller klart att det låg en politisk avsikt bakom detta försök att förändra teminologin. Sannolikt var syftet att understryka det faktum att dylika minor dödar och sårar utan urskiljning och att de därigenom utgör ett lika stort eller rent av större hot mot den civila befolkningen som för den militära personalen. Den korrekta svenska översättningen av anti-personnel mine är naturligtvis truppmina, en term som anger att minan är avsedd att användas mot militär trupp eller personal. Med hänsyn till vad som sagts ovan kan ordet truppmina alltså knappast betraktas som en god översättning av anti-people mine. Tyvärr minns jag inte exakt vilken översättning till svenska som föreslogs i det ovannämnda meddelandet, utöver att den var försedd med prefixet anti; det är inte osannolikt att det var anti-personella minor; en term som förekommer med tämligen hög frekvens i såväl parlamentets som övriga institutioners texter. Man kan ange flera skäl för att undvika en sådan översättning. För det första förekommer detta prefix (anti) överhuvudtaget inte när det gäller de officiella benämningarna på olika minor i Sverige. Till exempel kallas en

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mina avsedd för bekämpning av stridsvagnar helt enkelt stridsvagnsmina och liknar språkligt alltså inte alls engelskans anti-tank mine. Man får förmoda att man i Sverige inte känt behov av något prefix för att understryka att minor faktiskt generellt snarare är anti- än pro-. Ett annat skäl att underkänna denna översättning är det rent lingvistiska påpekandet att det svenska ordet personell i motsats till det engelska substantivet personnel är ett adjektiv som enligt Nordstedts stora svenska ordbok betyder "som avser personal"1. Med utgångspunkt från denna betydelse blir innebörden av "anti-personella minor" tämligen absurd och närmast "en fråga för facket". Detta slag av olämplig eller mindre lämplig direktöversättning är något som är väldigt vanligt förekommande i svenska medier. Naturligtvis kan tidsbrist i viss mån utgöra en förklaring till att man exempelvis ofta stöter på detta fenomen i radiointervjuer gjorda av SR:s utrikesreportrar där inklippta smakprov på originalintervjun suppleras med längre inslag av referat på svenska av vad den intervjuade personen haft att säga. Det kan även vara av intresse att notera att våra kollegor inom den engelska översättningsavdelningen inte visade någon större entusiasm för nybildningen anti-people mine och att deras chef av språkliga skäl ville avskaffa termen fullständigt. Då jag ungefär samtidigt som meddelandet med de olika förslagen till översättning sändes ut var i färd med att översätta en text innehållande termen anti-people mines tog jag kontakt med meddelandets avsändare och framhöll att förslaget till svensk översättning var mindre lämpligt. Mitt förslag till alternativ översättning (personmina) var säkerligen mindre iögonfallande och provokativt än den engelska termen anti-people mine, men inrymmer ändå tanken på att dessa minor, även om detta inte är deras ursprungliga syfte, både kan användas och används mot civila mål, och inte endast mot militär personal. I en del avseenden motsvarar denna översättning inte helt det engelska originalet; den svenska termen är mera lågmäld och fångar inte på samma sätt uppmärksamheten. Den förmedlar dock det viktigaste betydelseelementet, nämligen att detta är en mina som används mot personer och inte enbart mot militär trupp! Att använda en mera direkt översättning av engelskans people medför också svårigheter eftersom ordet folk här lätt skulle bli vilseledande och föra tanken till något slags "allemansmina", medan ett annat alternativ, ordet människa, nog skulle kännas främmande och kanske otympligt i en sammansättning med -mina. En marginell bibetydelse anges också "någon gång även som avser personer".

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Varken det engelska ordet anti-people mine eller den av mig föreslagna svenska översättningen personmina har jag lyckats återfinna i någon ordbok. En kortare tid trodde jag rent av att jag kanske skapat den svenska termen själv med utgångspunkt i tyskans Antipersonenmine2. Senare upptäckte jag emellertid att författaren H E N N I N G MANKELL, som under lång tid vistats sydöstra Afrika där denna typ av minor vållat stor förödelse bland civilbefolkningen, använder ordet i en roman utgiven 1995 dvs innan jag själv ställts inför problemet ifråga. När det gäller vårt bruk av terminologi ¡nom detta område (minor) fick vi ¡nom Europaparlamentets svenska översättningsavdelning en påstötning av myndigheterna i Sverige som i enlighet med vad som sagts ovan påpekade att den korrekta svenska termen för anti-personnel mine är truppmina. Man kan naturligtvis fråga sig om man där överhuvudtaget hade noterat att det inte var detta engelska ord utan ett annat som vi hade återgett med personmina på svenska. Naturligtvis kan det här även varit fråga om en berättigad reaktion på den mindre lämpade översättningen anti-personell mina. Eftersom ett internationellt avtal som syftar till ett allmänt förbud mot detta slags minor nu slutits har den politiskt motiverade termen anti-people mine förmodligen spelat ut sin roll. När det gäller genomförandet av konventionen är det förmodligen mera ändamålsenligt att utnyttja den vedertagna militära terminologin. Frågan om detta provokativa uttryck, vilket uppenbarligen orsakat en del irritation bland såväl översättare som övriga tjänstemän, på något vis har bidragit till att ett problem har erhållit en politisk lösning är svårare att besvara. Trots detta bör termen genom att lyfta fram problemets kärna ha varit tankeväckande och samtidigt kanske även påverkat några av de politiska aktörernas handlande. En motsvarande teknik att provocera genom att utnyttja olika slags språkliga uttryck är mycket vanlig i reklambranschen (Jmfr den nyligen aktuella TCOkampanjen), och använd på rätt sätt brukar en dylik teknik vara mycket effektiv när det gäller att påverka attityder. För författaren till dessa korta och bristfälliga ref lektioner gjorda med anledning av ett litet problem som framkommit i samband med arbetet som översättare i Luxemburg skulle det naturligtvis varit ännu mera stimulerande om tiden hade tillåtit ett mera vetenskapligt arbetssätt: En empirisk studie av olika översättningar av de ovan redovisade termerna där översättningen sv-en bara bildat utgångspunkten. Samtal med kollegor från

anti-people mine översattes till tyska med Antimenschenmine.

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andra språkavdelningar har antytt att motsvarande eller parallella problem även förekommit beträffande deras språk. OLAF

PRIES

Europaparlamentet

T&T 2.1999

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Kansalaisten tietojensaannista ja Euroopan parlamentin monikielisyydestä If we want ordinary citizens to feel involved in the construction of Europe instead of simply observing it from a distance we must strive to ensure that the use of languages in the European Parliament is marked by clarity and respect for cultural difference. The use of Finnish, one of the two newcomer languages, is beset by persisting problems in the texts and terminology. Despite the official principle of multilingualism, practical difficulties prevent the Finnish language from evolving naturally in the European context. For the minor languages the role of the translation service in developing common European terminology is particularly important as members of the European Parliament conduct much of their work in a language other than their own mother tongue.

1

Y

Johdanto

hteistä eurooppalaista kulttuuria ei voida luoda ilman kansalaisten mukanaoloa ja osallistumista, ei ainakaan, jos halutaan saada aikaan legitiimiksi koettu kulttuuri. Jotta kansalaiset voisivat olla mukana rakentamassa yhteistä Eurooppaa, kadunmiehen on voitava tietää ja ymmärtää, mitä rakennustyömaalla tapahtuu. Näin ajatellaan ainakin joissakin jäsenvaltioissa. Koska eurooppalaisilla ei ole käytettävissään yhtä yhteistä äidinkieltä, on meneillään olevasta kehityksestä kerrottava ja keskusteltava monilla kielillä. Sanomat on istutettava kansalaisten tuntemiin käsite- ja kommunikointijärjestelmiin. Jos uskotaan, että kukin kieli on jossain mielessä oma maailmansa, on yhden kielen edustamassa maailmassa syntyneet ajatukset on siirrettävä toiseen, sellaiseen jonka puhujille lähtökielen maailma on varsin vieras. Kielen määräämä kulttuuritausta on väistämättä läsnä tällä hetkellä ja vielä pitkään tulevaisuudessa, ja 'sen

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ylittämiseksi tarvitaan välittäjiä, jotka kykenevät tulkitsemaan sanomat yleisölle. 2

Tiedonlähteet

Mistä lähteistä kansalaiset saavat tietoa seuratakseen Euroopan unioniin ja Euroopan yhdentymiseen liittyvää poliittisia tapahtumia ja lainsäädännön kehitystä? Suomessa on perinteisesti painotettu yleisön oikeutta saada tietoja viranomaisten laatimista tai hallussaan pitämistä asiakirjoista. Tätä asiakirjajulkisuutta on Suomessa muiden Pohjoismaiden tapaan pidetty kansalaisen perusoikeutena. Keskusteltaessa liittymisestä Euroopan unioniin monet suhtautuivat jäsenyyteen epäillen muun muassa siksi, että EU:n katsottiin harjoittavan asiakirjojen salailua. Jäsenyyden vastustajat käyttivät hyväkseen tällaisia epäilyjä pyrkiessään vakuuttamaan suomalaiset siitä, että EU-jäsenyys olisi syytä hylätä. Sitä, että päätöksenteon pohjana olevat tiedot ja asiakirjat ovat saatavilla, pidetään yleisesti tärkeänä tekijänä arvioitaessa poliittisen järjestelmän toimivuutta. On kuitenkin selvää, että kadunmiehen tiedot ovat vain harvoin peräisin suoraan viranomaisten laatimista asiakirjoista. Yleisö saa useimmiten esimerkiksi EU:ta koskevat tiedot erilaisten välittäjien kautta. Tätä tehtävää hoitavat usein sanomalehdet, ja tämän vuoksi toimittajilla onkin tärkeä osa EU-tiedon välittäjinä. Mainittakoon tässä yhteydessä sekin, että yleisön luettaviksi tulevista käännöksistä valtaosan on mitä ilmeisimmin laatinut toimittaja, jonka kirjoitus perustuu kansainvälisistä uutistoimistojen, viranomaisten valmisteluasiakirjojen tai lehdistötiedotteiden vieraskielisiin teksteihin. Nopeasti tehdyt yhteenvedot vieraskielisistä asiakirjoista muodostavat epäilemättä yhden tien, jota EU:n työkielten, englannin ja ranskan, vaikutus kulkeutuu suomeen ja aiheuttaa sanaston häilyvyyttä. Toimittaja ei aina tule valinneeksi samaa suomennosta kuin EU:n käännösyksiköt. 3

EU-tekstit tiedonlähteinä

EU:n tuottamat tekstit voidaan jakaa kahteen ryhmään sen mukaan, onko ne laadittu käytettäväksi yleisölle suunnatussa tiedotuksessa vai muussa tarkoituksessa, esimerkiksi päätöksenteon pohjaksi. On kuitenkin syytä huomata, että myös jälkimmäiseen ryhmään kuuluvat tekstit toimivat yleisön tiedonlähteinä.

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3.1 Yleisölle laaditut tekstit EU:ssa laaditaan runsaasti tekstimateriaalia yleisöä varten. Tällaisilla teksteillä annetaan yleensä perustietoa Euroopan unionista ja yhteisöistä toimielimineen. Aina ei tyydytä pelkästään puolueettomaan tiedottamiseen vaan Euroopan yhdentymisen puolesta saatetaan ottaa kantaa hyvinkin selvästi, kuten kehotettaessa rakentamaan yhteistä Eurooppaa. Kohderyhmään vetoaminen on vaikeaa yli kulttuurirajojen. Menestys edellyttää kulttuurin tuntemusta ja sanoman mukauttamista vastaanottajakunnan makuun ja mieltymyksiin. Muuten tuloksena voi myönteisen mielenkiinnon sijaan syntyä vastenmielisyys tai tunne siitä, että viesti on yksinkertaisesti naurettava. Vaikutelma on valitettavan usein juuri tällainen, kun lukee suomennettua tekstiä, joka on selvästikin laadittu alunperin aivan erilaiseen viestintäkulttuuriin kuuluvalla kielellä. Minkälaisia mielleyhtymiä tulee suomenkieliselle vieraalle hänen astuessaan näyttelysaliin, jossa on esillä kuvia ja niiden yllä teksti "EUROOPAN PARLAMENTTI 1999 - UUTEEN DEMOKRATIAN VUOSISATAAN"? Ovatko mielleyhtymät samanlaisia kuin ranskankielisen vieraan hänen nähdessään otsikon "LE PARLEMENT EUROPEEN 1999 VERS UN NOUVEAU SIECLE DE LA DEMOCRATIE"? Edellisen vastakohtana, erilaisena esimerkkinä yleisölle tarkoitetusta viestinnästä olkoon Euroopan parlamentin tiedotuslehti, jonka nimenä on suomeksi Euroopan ääni, ranskaksi La tribune de l'Europe, italiaksi Europa oggi jne. Vaikka julkaisun kuvamateriaali näyttää olevan enimmäkseen yhteistä ja kirjoituksistakin suuri osa on sisällöltään samansuuntaisia, lehti on kokonaisuudessaan selvästi mukautettu kunkin kielialueen vaatimuksiin. Ainakin suomenkielisen painoksen tyylivalinnat ovat uutiskirjoituksissa sellaisia, että ne saattaisivat olla peräisin mistä tahansa (hyvästä) Suomessa ilmestyvästä lehdestä. Kansallista tuntua Euroopan ääneen tuovat kirjoitukset parlamentin suomalaisjäsenistä ja aiheista, jotka kiinnostavat nimenomaan suomalaisia. 3.2 Suppeammalle vastaanottajakunnalle laaditut tekstit Toiseen EU-viestinnän ryhmään kuuluvat edellä tehdyn jaottelun mukaan tekstit, jotka on alunperin laadittu laajaa yleisöä suppeammalle vastaanottajakunnalle, kuten jäsenvaltion hallitukselle, parlamentille (EP:n päätöslauselmat) tai kansallisille virkamiehille (lainsäädännön valmisteluun liittyvät asiakirjat). Lainsäädäntötekstitkin voidaan lukea tähän ryhmään kuuluviksi.

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Huolimatta siitä, että vain kansalaisista vain harvat joutuvat suoraan kosketukseen näiden tekstien kanssa, niiden vaikutusta kielen kehitykseen ei sovi vähätellä. Niistä on peräisin joukko uusia käsitteitä, joista heijastuu kehittymässä olevan yhteisen eurooppalaisen kulttuurin sisältö. Nämä tekstit toimitetaan vastaanottajilleen suomennoksina, jolloin vastaanottajilla on mahdollisuus poimia käännöksistä uutta sanastoa ja omaksua se käyttöönsä. Uutta sanastoa saattavat käyttää paitsi virkamiehet omassa kansalaisiin suunnatussa viestinnässään myös toimittajat joukkoviestimissä. Toimittajilla on usein tapana haastatella suomalaisia virkamiehiä laatiessaan artikkelia suunnitteilla olevasta EU-lainsäädännöstä tai voimassa olevan lainsäädännön vaikutuksista Suomessa. EU-lainsäädäntöön valitut suomennokset päätyvät joskus yleisön käyttöön myös kotimaan lainsäädännön kautta, kun sanastoa otetaan sellaisenaan Suomessa annettaviin täytäntöönpanosäädöksiin. Näin kävi saatettaessa eräitä tietoliikennettä koskevien direktiivien säännökset Suomen lainsäädäntöön. Englannin sana operator omaksuttiin suomennoksena operaattori, jolle direktiiveissä oli määritelty täsmällinen sisältö. Sana näyttää juurtuneen tässä muodossa tietoliikenneasioita käsittelevien viranomaisten käyttöön. Päinvastaisen esimerkin tarjoaa sähkömarkkinoita vapautettaessa syntynyt sanatarkka EU-suomennos verkko-operaattori englannin network operafor-käsitteelle. Tämä suomennos näyttää jääneen vaille alan yleistä hyväksyntää, ja sen sijaan käytetään kotimaisia vastineita verkonhaltija tai verkkoyhtiö.

4

EU-käsitteet

Suomalaiset ovat joutuneet omaksumaan melkoisen joukon uusia käsitteitä EU:n jäsenyytemme myötä. Erityiseksi ongelmaksi uusien käsitteiden välittämisessä on koettu se, että suomella ei ole yhteistä perussanastoa Euroopan suurten kielten kanssa. Käännösongelmia aiheutuu lisäksi kielten rakenteellisista eroista. Suomennettaessa uusia käsitteitä on pidetty tarpeellisena turvautua pääasiassa suomen omiin sanavaroihin ja välttää runsasta uusien lainasanojen käyttöä. Niinpä on johdettu uusia suomenkielisiä termejä ¡Imaisemaan mm. EU:n myötä yleisön tietoisuuteen tulleita käsitteitä. Joissakin yhteyksissä sama käsite on tullut tunnetuksi useamman sanan, oma- ja vierasperäisen kautta. Tämä on luonnollisesti ollut omiaan lisäämään yleisön uusia käsitteitä kohdatessaan tuntemaa hämmennystä. Ennen pitkää päädyttäneen käyttämään jompaakumpaa muotoa, mutta EU-jäsenyyden alkuvaiheen kieliongelmia se ei tietenkään ratkaise.

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Esimerkkinä oudoista sanoista olkoon tässä subsidiarity, joka olisi voitu suomentaa lainasanalla subsidiariteetti. Sen sisältö olisi tullut ymmärretyksi erillisen selvityksen avulla, sillä sellaisenaan subsidiariteetti ei suomenkieliselle merkitse yhtään mitään. EY:n perustamissopimukseen valittu suomennos toissijaisuusperiaate saa aikaan kysymyksen, mikä on toissijaista ja mikä sitten ensisijaista. Ilman lisäselvitystä ei tämä omaperäinenkään termi avaudu. Kun joku keksi ottaa käyttöön sanan läheisyysperiaate ja kun toiset kaikesta huolimatta tahtovat puhua subsidiariteetista, on meillä kolme samansisältöistä periaatetta. Toinen esimerkki on salailevan byrokraattiselta kuulostava komitologia, joka sanana ei tuo mieleen yhtään mitään, jollei jälkiosa sitten johda ajatuksia jonkin tieteestä tunnetun -logian suuntaan. Sen tilalle tuntuu nyt kuitenkin olevan vakiintumassa komiteamenettely. Näiden ohella on olemassa melkoinen joukko EU-asioiden keskeistä sanastoa, jonka suomennokset aiheuttavat päänsärkyä kääntäjän lisäksi tekstien lukijakunnalle. Osa ei sellaisenaan liity nimenomaan EU:hun mutta esiintyy hyvin usein nimenomaan EU-yhteyksissä ja tulee siten suomenkielisen yleisön tietoisuuteen. Miten suomentaa horizontal effects, vertical integration tai mainstreamingì Niiden esiintymistiheys puoltaisi yhdyssanan tai kiinteän sanaliiton käyttöä, mutta miten käy ymmärrettävyyden? Civil society on kansalaisyhteiskunta, tämän tietää jokainen kääntäjä, mutta kuinka moni meistä on pohtinut tämän uuskäsitteen sisältöä? Toisinaan käsite on sisällöltään ennestään tunnettu, mutta siitä huolimatta ollaan taipuvaisia luomaan uusi sanatarkka suomennos. Näin esimerkiksi positive discrimination on positiivista syrjintää, kun meillä on perinteisesti ainakin puhuttu jommankumman sukupuolen suosimisesta, ja ehkä sitä on monilla aloilla harjoitettukin.

5

Euroopan parlamentin monikielisyydestä

Tarvitaanko Euroopan parlamentissa monikielisyyttä, on kysymys, johon ei tässä puututa. Missä kulkevat Euroopan parlamentin monikielisyyden rajat vähemmistökielen käyttäjien näkökulmasta? Tähän kysymykseen tarjotaan seuraavassa muutamia näkökohtia. Julkilausutun periaatteen mukaan Euroopan parlamentti toimii yhdellätoista virallisella työkielellä, joita käytetään työskentelyn eri vaiheissa. Todellinen tilanne on kuitenkin hieman toinen. Jokapäiväisinä työkielinä voidaan pitää pikemminkin kahta kuin yhtätoista kieltä, vaikka parlamentin hyväksymät lopulliset tekstit käännetäänkin kaikille virallisille

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kielille. Vähemmistökielten asema heikkenee jatkuvasti, kun vähemmistökieliä äidinkielenään puhuvat ryhtyvät käyttämään valtakieliä niin parlamentin jäsenistössä kuin virkamieskunnassakin. Käytännön syyt ratkaisevat usein kielivalinnan valtakielen hyväksi: työn kaikissa vaiheissa on voitava keskustella toisten edustajien tai avustavan virkamiehen kanssa tekstin sisällöstä tarvitsematta turvautua käännöksiin, joiden saaminen veisi liikaa aikaa. Monet suomalaiset edustajat ilmoittavat pyrkivänsä käyttämään äidinkieltään tekstiensä laadinnassa, mutta tunnustavat tämän hyvin usein mahdottomaksi käytännössä. Vieraan kielen käyttö tosin hidastaa tekstin laatimista ja saattaa vaikeuttaa yhteydenpitoa oman maan sidosryhmiin, joille Euroopan valtakielet ovat monissa tapauksissa vielä vieraampia kuin parlamentin jäsenelle. Valtaosa suomenkielisten parlamentin jäsenten teksteistä laaditaan ilmeisesti muulla kielellä kuin suomeksi. Mutta käyttipä suomenkielinen edustaja parlamentissa äidinkieltään tai vierasta kieltä, hänen käyttämänsä käsitteet ovat joka tapauksessa suurelta osin valtakielten käsitteistön määräämiä, Tekstit, joihin hän ottaa kantaa, on lähes poikkeuksetta laadittu englanniksi tai ranskaksi. Seuraavat luvut antavat viitteen tämän vaikutuksen voimallisuudesta: Euroopan parlamentissa käännetään vuodessa noin 45000 sivua tekstiä, josta englannin osuus lähtökielenä on noin kolmannes samoin kuin ranskan. Näistä kielistä käännetään siis yhteensä noin 30000 sivua. Suomenkielisen tekstin osuus on vajaa prosentti vuodessa, noin 300 sivua. Muiden vähemmistökielten (kreikka, ruotsi ja hollanti) tilanne on pääpiirteiltään sama. Kun vielä otetaan huomioon se, että suomenkielisessä tekstissä oteaan useimmiten kantaa muuhun tekstiin, esimerkiksi komission asiakirjaan, voidaan vakuuttua kieltenvälisten vaikutusten yksisuuntaisuudesta.

6

Päätelmät

Jos tahdotaan huolehtia siitä, että tavallinen kansalainen voi osallistua meneillään olevaan "Euroopan rakentamiseen" eikä vain seurata sitä sivusta, myös Euroopan parlamentissa on syytä ryhtyä määrätietoiseen työhön selkeän, kulttuurierot huomioon ottavan kielenkäytön puolesta. Uusina virallisina kielinä mukaan tulleiden suomen ja ruotsin osalta on vielä paljon lopullista ratkaisua vailla olevia kysymyksiä, varsinkin kun näiden kielten vähäinen käyttö on omiaan hidastamaan kielen kehittymistä käytön myötä. Kun vähemmistökieliä äidinkielenään puhuvat parlamentin jäsenet joutuvat yhä useammin käytännön pakosta työskentelemään

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vieraalla kielellä, on Euroopan yhteisöjen toimielimissä harjoitettavalla käännöstoiminnalla hyvin tärkeä tehtävänsä sanaston kehittäjänä ja yhdenmukaistajana. AILA ASIKAINEN Euroopan Parlamentti

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Le "qui­dit­quoi?" de l'acquis communautaire Avant-propos

U

n petit divertissement linguistique à la recherche du plus grand nombre de versions différentes pour la "traduction" de l'expression acquis communautaire dans les dix autres langues officielles. En particulier, selon la formule utilisée par RENATO CORREIA dans le cadre de la préparation du séminaire organisé par le Parlement européen "Multilinguisme: barrière ou pont?"', la "non­traduction" de cette expression comme stratégie de traduction 2 , stratégie utilisée plus ou moins fréquemment dans trois langues: EN­IT­NL, mais que l'on a retrouvée sporadiquement aussi dans d'autres langues comme DA, DE, FI et SV. De plus, il est intéressant de se pencher sur la solution adoptée par les langues dans lesquelles l'expression se traduit effectivement, c'est­à­dire sur le sens propre de cette expression dans chaque langue, et de se demander si elle est compréhensible pour le grand public. C'est une question importante étant donné qu'avec les articles Β et C du Traite sur l'Union européenne3, l'expression acquis communautaire est entrée dans... l'acquis communautaire!

Introduction Nous tenterons dans les pages suivantes d'analyser, d'une part, la ou les formules utilisées dans les onze langues officielles des Communautés européennes*1 pour exprimer l'idée d'acquis communautaire. Pour ce faire, ι

Parlement européen, Luxembourg 26 novembre 1998. A notre avis, il ne s'agit pas vraiment d'un emprunt. Cette "stratégie" se retrouve aussi, en particulier, dans les différentes versions linguistiques des documents de la Cour de Justice, des Communautés européennes, lorsqu'il est fait référence à des organes judiciaires des Etats membres. Articles 2 et 3 du Traité sur l'Union européenne, suite à l'entrée en vigueur du traité d'Amsterdam. Danois (DA) ­ allemand (DE) ­ anglais (EN) ­ espagnol (ES) ­ finnois (FI) ­ français (FR) ­ italien (IT) ­ néerlandais (NL) ­ portugais (PT) ­ suédois (SV). Dans le cadre de la Cour de Justice et du Tribunal de Première Instance des Communautés européennes, l'irlandais est également considéré comme

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nous comparerons les diverses versions linguistiques d'une douzaine de documents différents. D'autre part, nous essaierons d'apprécier jusqu'à quel point l'expression utilisée dans toutes ces langues est intelligible pour le grand public, puisque nous l'avons trouvée dans divers documents de divulgation, qui lui étaient donc spécifiquement destinés. Mais avant tout, il convient d'établir certaines précisions. Même si, du point de vue méthodologique, il a fallu partir du terme acquis ou de l'expression acquis communautaire pour en rechercher l'équivalent utilisé dans les autres versions linguistiques, il est important de tenir compte du fait qu'il ne s'agit pas, ici, d'analyser comment l'expression acquis communautaire aurait été traduite dans les 10 autres langues, étant donné que: sauf exception (cf ρ ex notre source CELEX 6), la question de savoir quelle était la version "originale" ­c'est­à­dire la langue dans laquelle le texte avait été rédigé­ n'a pas été prise en considération; partant du règlement du Conseil n° 1 portant fixation du régime linguistique de la Communauté économique européenne, du 15 avril 1958, toutes les versions linguistiques ont été considérées comme équivalentes, raison pour laquelle, bien que nous ayons utilisé au premier paragraphe le terme "traduction", nous ne l'utiliserons plus dans le reste du texte, même si, bien évidemment, un travail de "traduction" a été nécessaire pour parvenir à ces "versions linguistiques". Le règlement n° 1 cité n'utilise d'ailleurs à aucun moment le terme "traduction" 5 ; l'expression acquis de Schengen n'a pas été traitée, et ce, délibérément, du fait que l'on retrouve la technique utilisée pour

"langue de procédure" (art 29 para 1 du Règlement de procédure de la Cour de Justice des Communautés européennes du 19 juin 1991 (/OL 176 4.7.1991, ρ 7/32), rectificatif publié au JO L 103 19.4.1997, ρ 1/2; et art 35, para 1 du règlement de procédure du Tribunal de Première Instance des Communautés européennes du 2 mai 1991 (JO L 136 30.5.1991, ρ 1/23) rectificatif publié au VOL 103 19.4.1997, ρ 6/7). Dans la jurisprudence de la Cour de Justice des Communautés européennes et du Tribunal de Première Instance, on trouve églement de nombreuses références aux "diverses versions linguistiques" ou "différentes versions linguistiques" des textes ou des actes communautaires, cf les arrets du 12.11.1969, Erich Stauder contre Ville d'Ulm ­ Sozialamt, Ree ρ 419; 27.10.1977, Regina contre Pierre B ouchereau, Ree ρ 1999; 12.7.1979, Marianne Koschniske, épouse Wörsdorfer, contre Raad van Arbeid, Ree ρ 2717; 16.10.1980, Klaus Mecke & Co contre Hauptzollamt B remen­Ost, Ree ρ 3029; 28.3.1985, Commission des Communautés européennes contre Royaume­Uni de Grande­B retagne et d'Irlande du Nord, Ree ρ 1169; 7.7.1988 Alexander Moksel Import und Export CmgH & Co Handels­KG contre B undesanstalt für landwirtschaftliche Marktordnung, Ree ρ 3845; 7.12.1995 Rockfon A/S contre Specialarbejderforbundet i Danmark, Ree ρ 1­4291; 24.10.1996, Aannemersbedrijf PK Kraaijeveld B V ea contre Gedeputeerde Staten van Zuid­Holland, Ree ρ 1­5403; 17.7.1997, Ferriere Nord SpA contre Commission des Communautés européennes, Ree ρ 1­4411; 2.4.1998,The Queen contre Commissioners of Customs and Excise, ex parte EMU Tabac SARL, The man in black Ltd, John Cunningham, Ree ρ 1­1605; 4.7.1990, Parlement européen contre Wolfdieter Graf Yorck von Wartenburg, Ree ρ ΙΙ­299; 6.4.1995, Ferriere Nord SpA contre Commission des Communautés européennes, Ree ρ 11­917.

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l'expression acquis communautaire, c'est­à­dire que, mutatis mutandis, pratiquement les mêmes commentaires sont applicables; enfin, et pour mieux comprendre la portée non seulement linguistique mais aussi j u r i d i q u e d u sujet traité, il convient de signaler que les tribunaux des Etats membres ont également eu l'occasion de se prononcer sur des problèmes de divergences entre les différentes versions linguistiques de certaines normes communautaires 6 . Pour commencer, voici un tableau général qui nous permet de comparer les différentes versions linguistiques de l'expression acquis communautaire q u i ont pu être trouvées, toutes sources confondues 7 : D A gældende fællesskabsret; gaeldende fællesskabsbestemmelser; etablerede fællesskabspolitik; gældende EF­bestemmelser; de allerede opnåede EU­rettigheder DE gemeinschaftlicher B esitzstand; B esitzstand; acquis communautaire; acquis communautaires; Gemeinschafts­ regelung; B esitzstand auf rechtlichem Gebiet EL κοινοτικό κεκτημένο; κεκτημένο της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης; νομοθετικά επιτεύγματα "κεκτημένα" EN acquis communautaire; acquis communautaires; Community patrimony; body of EU law; legal framework; [established] EU law [and practice]; [body of] EU rules; existing Community rules; Community legislation ES acervo comunitario; "acervo comunitario"; realizaciones en el ámbito jurídico (acervo); los avances comunitarios Fl yhteisön säännöstö; acquis communautaire; unionia koskevat säännöstöt FR acquis communautaire; acquis communautaires; acquis législatifs

C'est le cas, notamment, de la STSJ Comunidad Valenciana de 10 de octubre de 1998 (JT 1998, 1651): pour cet arrêt, la Cour espagnole a été contrainte d'utiliser les versions française et anglaise du Règlement (CEE) n 4258/88 du Conseil, du 19 décembre 1988, portant application de préférences tarifaires généralisées pour l'année 1989 à certains produits agricoles originaires de pays en voie de développement. De plus, dans son arrêt, la Cour a signalé que Este error en la transcripción española, puesto de manifiesto, ha sido certificado por la Dirrección Cenerai IB de la Comisión Europea, cuyo servicio observa que "...las versiones lingüísticas del Reglamento del Consejo (CEE) n 4258/88, con excepción, en particular, de la versión española por un error material, incluyen en el marco del esquema comunitario SPC (Sistema de Preferencias Generalizadas) los caracoles de mar (Código ex 1605.90.10)". Ci également le commentaire y relatif in Jurisprudencia Tributaria (Revista juridico-fiscal) n 20, Febrero 1999. O n trouvera à la fin du document, un tableau à double entrée où l'on compare une par une, les différentes versions linguistiques des documents de référence utilisés.

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IT

acquis comunitario; acquis comunitario; acquis communautaire; acquis; conquiste comunitarie; vantaggi acquisiti nella Comunità; risultati giuridici o "acquis"; gli acquis comunitari NL acquis communautaire; communautaire verworvenheden; communautaire wetgeving; bestaande regeling in de gemeenschap; wettelijke verworvenheden of acquis; dat wat tot dusver is opgebouwd PT acervo comunitario; progressos no domínio jurídico SV gemenskapens regelverk; acquis. Et avant de partir "à la recherche de l'acquis communautaire perdu...", il convient de citer les sources utilisées, puisque nous y ferons référence tout au long de notre promenade: A B C) D)

EUTERPE: B ase de données terminologiques du Parlement européen Traité sur l'Union européenne, articles B et C du TITRE I (Dispositions communes) Vocabularium du Traité sur l'Union européenne fr­en­de­it­nl­da­ es­pt­el­fi­no­sv (1994) CELEX8: nous utiliserons nos propres références, CELEX 1 à CELEX 6, à la place des références originales ­et cabalistiques­ de CELEX, afin de faciliter la localisation des textes cités.

D981E1896 Question écrite n° 1896/81 de M COSTANZO à la Commission: mesures concernant la modification de l'acquis communautaire pour le secteur de

l'huile d'olive. Journal officiel C 129 du 19.5.82, ρ 19. 2)185l/AFI/DCL/06 Actes relatifs a l'adhésion du Royaume d'Espagne et de la République portugaise aux Communautés européennes. Acte final, déclaration

Etant donné que, d'après la base de données CELEX, il existe 2 347 documents dont le titre ou le texte contiennent l'expression acquis communautaire (parmi 3 519 documents qui contiennent le mot acquis), et puisqu'il fallait, d'une façon ou une autre, faire une sélection (de toute façon arbitraire) seuls les documents qui contiennent le mot acquis dans leur titre ont été pris en considération. Il s'agit, pour la plupart, de documents, déjà publiés au Journal officiel des communautés europeennes. D'autre part, comme nous l'avons vu, les références à Yacquis de Schengen n'ont pas été retenues.

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c o m m u n e concernant l'ajustement de l'acquis communautaire dans le secteur des matières grasses végétales. Journal o fficiel L 302 d u 15.11.1985, ρ 4 8 1 . 3) 991E3219 Question écrite η 3 2 1 9 / 9 1 de M C A R L O S ROBLES P I QUER à la C o m m i s s i o n .

Strict respect de l'acquis communautaire d'adhésion. Journal o fficiel C 2 0 9 d u 15.8.92, ρ 3 8 .

lors des futurs

pourparlers

4)997E3810 Question écrite η 3 8 1 0 / 9 7 de M M E L U C I A N A CASTELLI NA à la Commission. Obligations des États baltes en matière d'acquis communautaire dans le secteur audiovisuel. Journal o fficiel C 1 74 du 8.6.1998, ρ 133.

5)498X0429 Action c o m m u n e d u 2 9 j u i n 1998 adoptée par le Conseil sur la base de l'article Κ 3 d u traité sur l ' U n i o n européenne, instituant un mécanisme d'évaluation collective de l'adoption, de l'application et de la mise en oeuvre effective par les pays candidats de l'acquis de l ' U n i o n européenne dans le d o m a i n e de la justice et des affaires intérieures. Journal o fficiel L 191 d u 7.7.1998, ρ 8/9.

6) 998H0233 Question η 95 ( H - 0 2 3 3 / 9 8 , FdR 3 4 7 4 2 7 Q H ) de M HADAR CARS à la Commission. Différences éventuelles quant à l'évaluation de l'intégration de l'acquis communautaires (sic) 9 par les différents pays candidats. Débats d u PE non encore publiés. E) InfCur o , η 9, ρ 1 , "Trois questions à Y V E S - T HI B A U L T DE SILGUY sur l'Euro o n z e " . http://europa.eu.int/euro/ F) o P litique os ciale eur o péenne, Opti o ns o p ur (Commission européenne) 1 9 9 4 , ρ 9 (COM(93)551).

l'Uni o n,

Livre

Cependant, cette faute de frappe ne se retrouve pas dans la base de données D O C M A N .

vert

T&T 2.1999 G) Glossaire: La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 (http://www.europarl.ep.ec/glossary/fr/g4000a.htm#Acquis).

57_ définitions

H) English Style Cuide. (http://europa.eu.int/comm/sdt/en/stygd/index.htm) Euterpe: FR acquis communautaire Pour commencer, il convient de se pencher sur le sens de l'expression acquis communautaire dans sa langue originale, puisque, par la suite, nous utiliserons cette définition comme référence, afin de fixer le sens donné par le terme ou l'expression équivalente, ce que nous pourrions appeler l'équivalent fonctionnel utilisé dans les langues qui n'adoptent pas l'expression française. Petit Robert. ACQUIS n m ­ 1595; ρ ρ subst de acquérir 1 vieilli ou littér. Savoir acquis, expérience acquise constituant une espèce de capital. Avoir de l'acquis. // 2 Ν m pi (v 1960) LES ACQUIS: les avantages sociaux qui ont été acquis. Le gouvernement a promis aux syndicats de maintenir les acquis.

Nous voyons donc que la dernière édition en date du Petit Robert (achevée d'imprimer en mai 1998) ne fait pas référence à l'expression acquis communautaire et que le terme acquis au singulier est considéré comme étant "vieilli" ou "littéraire". Par contre, son pluriel s'utilise couramment, dans un sens qui a peut­être été le point de départ de l'expression communautaire, même si on a préféré l'utiliser au singulier. Pourtant, on trouve parfois l'expression les acquis communautaires (cf ρ ex notre référence "E" à Infëuro Ν 9). On peut d'ailleurs se demander s'il n'aurait pas été préférable d'utiliser l'expression au pluriel, comme le fait M YVES­THIB AULT DE SILGUY, membre de la Commision. De cette façon, et par analogie avec l'expression acquis sociaux, la notion d'acquis communautaires aurait probablement été bien plus intelligible pour le grand public. D'ailleurs, comme nous le verrons, l'équivalent d'acquis dans le sens d'acquis sociaux a été utilisé pour plusieurs versions linguistiques cf ρ ex infra DE: Besitzstand, GR: κοινοτικό κεκτημένο. On relève d'ailleurs une certaine confusion entre les acquis sociaux et \'acquis communautaire dans notre document de référence "F": Politique sociale européenne, Options pour l'Union, Livre vert (Commission européenne) 1994, ρ 9 (COM(93)551). En effet, le premier chapitre s'intitule "La dimension sociale de la Communauté: les acquis" (souligné par nous). Puisque le document traite de la question de la politique

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sociale, on serait amené à penser qu'il s'agit des acquis sociaux. Pourtant, le paragraphe A de ce chapitre a pour titre "Les acquis législatifs", ce qui semble bien être un équivalent d'acquis communautaire et nous fait douter sérieusement du bien­fondé de notre première interprétation concernant le titre du chapitre. Fait­il référence, en réalité, à l'acquis communautaire? Nous verrons que l'on trouve des solutions tout à fait divergentes dans les différentes versions linguistiques. Par exemple, la version IT penche pour les acquis sociaux, tandis que la version ES considère qu'il s'agit de Y acquis communautairel En tout cas, il faut bien avouer qu'acquis législatifs communautaires serait une expression bien plus transparente qu'acquis communautaire. Voyons à présent ce qu'il en est dans les trois langues qui, comme nous l'avons dit au début, utilisent très fréquemment l'expression acquis communautaire, devrait­on dire, "en français dans le texte". Nous commencerons notre périple outre­Manche. Euterpe: EN "acquis communautaire" Comme nous le voyons, Euterpe recommande effectivement de ne pas traduire cette expression et d'y ajouter simplement des guillemets. C'est la formule suivie dans la plupart des sources consultées (citées supra) et consacrée par les articles Β et C du TITRE I (Dispositions communes) du Traité sur l'Union européenne lui­même. On assiste néanmoins à une évolution historique intéressante, même si l'on pourrait considérer que cela n'a qu'un caractère anecdotique: si nous classons nos six documents CELEX par ordre chronologique, nous observons l'évolution suivante: 1982: Community legislation (CELEX 1 ) 1985: "Acquis communautaire" (CELEX 2) 1992: "Acquis communautaire" (CELEX 3) 1998: acquis communautaire (CELEX 4) 1998: acquis of the European Union (CELEX 5) (version française: acquis de l'Union européenne) 1998: acquis (CELEX 6). Nous voyons donc qu'au début de notre petite chronologie, on utilise une expression anglaise, puis on commence à utiliser le terme français avec des guillemets, guillemets qui, si j'ose dire, "s'atténuent" avec le temps jusqu'à disparaître. Finalement, on supprime même l'épithète communautaire. On pourrait en déduire que, finalement, le terme acquis

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5J9_

est entré dans la langue anglaise, ou du moins dans le jargon communautaire EN10. Néanmoins, les instructions données aux traducteurs en ce qui concerne la traduction de l'expression acquis communautaire semblent aller dans une tout autre direction. Nous allons ainsi voir deux exemples, cités in extenso: 1

2

10

Acquis communautaire. Except when specifically referring to Treaty articles using "acquis communautaire" in the English version, "Community patrimony" is to be preferred as more comprehensible to an English­speaking reader. (Vocabularium du Traité sur l'Union européenne ­ Maastricht fr­en­de­it­nl­da­es­pt­ el­fi­no­sv) Acquis communautaire. The problem of finding a translation for this term is not confined to English or to the Commission: the French term is used in Article Β of the Dutch and Italian versions of the Maastricht Treaty as well as the English version. The expression is also used in a wide variety of Commission documents, sometimes conveying slightly differing ideas. It is unrealistic to try to arrive at an "agreed translation" for all occasions. Leave the term in French when quoting directly from Treaty articles and legislative provisions, and in narrowly legal texts stemming therefrom. It is also acceptable as in­house jargon in communications not intended for outside circulation. For outside audiences, however, avoid using the term in French where possible, or at least add an explanation or definition. "Community patrimony" and "legal framework" have been used, neither to unanimous acclaim. A recommended expression is "established EU law and practice". The words "and practice" could often be omitted, as could the word "established", which conveys something of the idea of "achievement" inherent in the French acquis. Other acceptable renderings for general audiences include "the body of EU law", "the body of EU rules" or just "EU rules", and "existing Community rules". (English Style G uide: http://europa.eu.int/comm/sdt/en/stygd/index.htm)

Si l'on me permet cette boutade, les défenseurs invétérés de la francophonie et les puristes de la langue française menant une croisade contre les anglicismes ont de quoi pavoiser.

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Ces règles sont-elles bien suivies? Le dernier numéro de la Lettre d'information de la Commission européenne InfSuro (le numéro 9) ne semble pas le confirmer: on retrouve à la première page un entretien avec 11 YVES-THIBAULT DE SILGUY, OÙ l'on a traduit "mise en cause des acquis communautaires" par "challenge to the acquis communautaires" (l'italique apparaît dans le texte EN, souligné par nous). Or InfSuro est très clairement une publication de divulgation. D'autre part, dans le document COM(93)551 (notre référence F), nous lisons legal attainments or "acquis" (les guillemets apparaissent dans le texte original). Même s'il ne s'agit pas de l'une des expressions recommandées aux traducteurs dans les publications que nous avons vues précédemment, c'est effectivement une bonne solution pour clarifier le terme "acquis" dans ce document (Livre vert Politique sociale européenne), dont le but était de susciter un débat auquel devaient prendre part les partenaires sociaux. Il est en tout cas spécialement appréciable que les auteurs des deux ouvrages cités se soient interrogés au sujet de l'intelligibilité, pour le grand public, de l'expression utilisée. Comme nous le verrons, ce n'est pas toujours le cas dans les autres langues communautaires, dans lesquelles le terme ou l'expression utilisée n'est pas forcément compréhensible d'une façon générale. Nous trouvons d'ailleurs un bon exemple d'explication de l'expression acquis communautaire dans le glossaire La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 définitions, disponible sur le site Intranet du Parlement européen (notre source G): Acquis communautaire The acquis communautaire or Community patrimony is the body of common rights and obligations which bind all the Member States together within the European Union. It is founded principally on the Treaty of Rome and the instruments that supplement it (the Single European Act, the Treaty on European Union etc.), plus the wide range of secondary legislation enacted under them. The acquis communautaire relates mainly to the single market and the four freedoms inherent in it (freedom of movement for goods, persons, capital and services), the common policies which underpin it II

Je me permets d'utiliser ici le verbe "traduire" car je présume que l'entretien a dû se dérouler en FR.

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(agriculture, trade, competition, transport and others) and measures to support the least-favoured regions and categories of the population. The Union has committed itself to maintaining the acquis communautaire in its entirety and developing it further. Exemptions and derogations from the legal framework constituted by the acquis communautaire are granted only in exceptional circumstances and are limited in scope. See: Pillars of the European Union, Single institutional framework, Differentiated integration (http://www.europarl.ep.ec/glossary/en/g4000a.htm#Acquis). Nous constatons donc que même si la définition était suffisante pour expliquer le concept, le traducteur a préféré ajouter, à mon avis à bon escient, un équivalent intelligible pour le grand public: Community patrimony. Poursuivons notre parcours linguistique en passant de l'autre côté des Alpes. Euterpe: IT acquis comunitario Au premier abord, le mot acquis semble être également entré dans la langue transalpine: même pas besoin de guillemets. Et pourtant, cette expression n'a été retrouvée avec cette formulation exacte que dans un seul des textes de référence: il s'agit du glossaire La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 définitions (notre source G), même si, de temps en temps, on met entre guillemets le mot "acquis", qui est d'ailleurs profusément utilisé sans le qualificatif comunitario. Dans le Traité sur l'Union européenne, on avait d'ailleurs déjà ajouté des guillemets au mot français: "acquis" comunitario et préféré, comme le fait Euterpe, la version IT de l'épithète: comunitario plutôt que communautaire. On ne retrouve pourtant cette solution dans aucune de nos références CELEX, bien que l'on puisse voir ici aussi une petite chronologie, qui n'est pas dépourvue d'intérêt: 1982: vantaggi acquisiti nella Comunità (CELEX 1) 1985: "acquis communautaire" (CELEX 2) 1992: conquiste comunitarie (CELEX 3) 1998: acquis communautaire (CELEX 4) 1998: acquis dell'Unione europea (CELEX 5) (version française: acquis de l'Union européenne)

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1998:

acquis (CELEX 6) (version française: acquis). Nous constatons donc que malgré une légère hésitation en 1992, la version IT de l'expression acquis communautaire a suivi une évolution semblable à celle de l'anglais. Pourtant, la version IT du Livre vert Politique sociale européenne, Options pour l'Union (notre source F) fait référence aux risultati giuridici o «acquis» (guillemets dans la version IT, souligné par nous). Une nouvelle expression (risultati giuridici) a ainsi été introduite, probablement dans le but, très louable, de rendre plus compréhensible pour le grand public l'expression acquis, qui est obscure. Les Pays-Bas et la Flandre seront notre prochaine destination. NL Même si Euterpe ne contient aucune version NL de l'expression acquis communautaire, il semble, d'après les collègues de langue NL consultés, que la meilleure expression soit communautaire verworvenheden. Et pourtant, cette expression, qui exprime une idée d'accomplissement, de conquête, très proche de celle du terme français acquis ne se retrouve pas souvent; c'est le moins que l'on puisse dire en parlant de l'ensemble des textes consultés, où elle n'est pas apparue du tout. Le Traité sur l'Union européenne conserve l'expression française acquis communautaire, sans même utiliser de guillemets. En revanche, le Vocabularium du Traité sur l'Union européenne - Maastricht fr-en-de-it-nlda-es-pt-el-fi-no-sv offre le choix entre "acquis communautaire" (avec les guillemets) ou communautaire verworvenheden. Quant à nos six documents de référence tirés de CELEX, on peut y trouver les solutions suivantes: 1982: bestaande regeling in de gemeenschap (CELEX 1 ) 1985: "Acquis communautaire" (CELEX 2) 1992: "Acquis communautaire" (CELEX 3) 1998: communautaire wetgewing (CELEX 4) 1998: acquis van de Europese Unie (CELEX 5) (version française: acquis de l'Union européenne) 1998: "acquis" (CELEX 6)

(version française: acquis) Il apparaît donc que la solution n'est pas définitivement trouvée en néerlandais, puisque, en 1998, on utilise encore diverses expressions. En tout cas, toujours d'après les collègues de langue NL consultés, l'expression française est difficilement compréhensible pour le grand

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public! Dans le domaine communautaire et académique, l'expression FR acquis communautaire est largement utilisée. Pour preuve, s'il en faut, à l'occasion de la Conférence interparlementaire sur la protection des intérêts financiers du citoyen européen (Bruxelles, 9-10 novembre 1998, Parlement européen), le Prof J O H N VERVAELE, du Center for Enforcement of European Law d'Utrecht a utilisé, pendant son allocution prononcée en NL, l'expression FR acquis communautaire. Heureusement, il se trouvait devant un auditoire averti (?)! Nous avons maintenant fait le tour des trois langues où l'expression FR acquis communautaire est utilisée à profusion. Mais, comme nous l'avions annoncé au début, on retrouve aussi cette expression en DE, FI et SV. Continuons donc notre promenade outre-Rhin. Euterpe: DE gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand Nous partirons cette fois de la définition du mot Besitzstand: Duden

der: Stand dessen, was jemand, besonders ein Lohnabhängiger, im Hinblick auf die Höhe des Gehalts, der sozialen Leistungen o. Ä. erreicht hat: den Besitzstand wahren.

L'expression allemande semble être tout à fait claire, et très proche d'ailleurs, d'après la définition du Duden, du sens du français acquis dans sa seconde acception (cf supra la définition du Petit Robert), même si, ici non plus, on ne trouve aucune référence au gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand. En tout cas, le traité sur l'Union européenne, tous les documents CELEX consultés, Euterpe, etc, utilisent l'expression gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand12. Et pourtant! Revenons à notre dernier numéro de la Lettre d'information de la Commission européenne lnf€uro (le numéro 9): nous retrouvons toujours à la première page l'entretien avec YVES-THIBAULT D E SILGUY, OÙ l'on a rendu cette fois [les] acquis communautaires par die "acquis communautaires" (les guillemets apparaissent dans le texte DE, souligné par nous). Or il n'est plus nécessaire de rappeler qu'InfSuro est une publication qui s'adresse au grand public, pas toujours versé dans le jargon communautaire, qui semble souvent réservé aux seuls initiés. Le traducteur a-t-il voulu faire la différence entre le singulier et le pluriel de l'expression acquis communautaire! C'est bien possible; or dans plusieurs 12

Sauf notre référence CELEX 1, où nous lisons Cerneinschaftsregelung.

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langues communautaires, l'expression utilisée pour l'acquis communautaire n'a pas de pluriel! Et c'est justement le cas pour gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand. D'autre part, on retrouve également l'expression française acquis communautaire dans le glossaire La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 définitions (notre source G): l'auteur du glossaire (ou, le cas échéant, le traducteur, puisque, une fois de plus, la langue originale importe peu) a en effet préféré éclaircir (?) l'expression gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand en ajoutant entre parenthèses la version française acquis communautaire. C'était sans doute la meilleure solution pour ce glossaire, versé sur le site Intranet du Parlament européen, et, donc, destiné aussi bien à un public néophyte qu'à un auditoire plus averti en matière de jargon communautaire. Passons à présent en Scandinavie. Euterpe: SV gemenskapens regelverk Le terme regelverk semble bien clair: "ensemble de normes, ordre juridique", et il est utilisé dans presque toutes les sources consultées. Toutes? Un député (au moins) résiste encore: il s'agit de notre source CELEX 6, FdR 347427 Q H (question orale H-0233/98): le député suédois a choisi d'utiliser le terme français, ce qui prouve bien que même dans une langue où l'on pourrait penser que le problème n'existe pas, la pratique impose un jargon incompréhensible en dehors du domaine communautaire. Et ce n'est même pas le seul cas: dans le glossaire La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 définitions (notre source G), nous lisons gemenskapens regelverk eller "l'acquis communautaire", ce qui prouve bien que, comme dans le cas de l'allemand, il convenait de citer les deux expressions, afin que chacun y trouve celle qui lui est la plus familière. Traversons maintenant le Golfe de Botnie. Euterpe: FI yhteisön säännöstö En finnois, l'expression est également claire (pour les Finlandais de langue finnoise!): ensemble de (-stö) dispositions (säännö) de la Communauté ou communautaires (yhteisön). On retrouve cette expression dans tous les textes consultés ou presque: si nous revenons à la question de notre député suédois (notre source CELEX 6), la traduction FI utilise, tout comme

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l'original SV, le terme acquis, qui, pour une fois, est devenu acquis communitaire (sic). Il s'agit évidemment d'une faute de frappe. Ce qui est clair, c'est que le traducteur a choisi, en toute logique, de conserver le terme dans la langue étrangère utilisée par l'auteur de la question. D'autre part, on retrouve une fois de plus deux possibilités dans le glossaire La réforme de l'Union européenne en 150 définitions (notre source G), où nous lisons acquis communautaire eli yhteisön säännöstö. Il est ainsi intéressant de constater tout d'abord que, dans le glossaire, l'entrée correspond à l'expression française acquis communautaire, et non pas à l'expression finnoise yhteisön säännöstö. D'autre part, ladite expression française est répétée quatre fois dans cette entrée du glossaire, à la place de l'expression finnoise, comme s'il était plus normal et intelligible d'utiliser acquis communautaire au lieu de yhteisön säännöstö. Pourtant, d'après les collègues de langue finnoise consultés, il semble que le terme säännöstö soit facilement compréhensible pour le grand public, puisqu'il est fréquemment utilisé pour faire référence à n'importe quel ensemble de dispositions de l'ordre juridique interne. Le problème serait plutôt le terme yhteisön (de la Communauté): ces collègues considèrent qu'il serait beaucoup plus intelligible d'utiliser, dans des documents de divulgation, Euroopan (d'Europe) plutôt que yhteisön (de la Communauté). Restons encore brièvement au Nord de l'Europe. Euterpe: DA gældende fællesskabsret L'expression danoise est également des plus claires: on pourrait la traduire par ordre juridique communitaire en vigueur, normes communitaires en vigueur ou droit communitaire en vigueur. De plus, d'après les collègues de langue DA consultés, il s'agit d'une expression tout à fait compréhensible pour le grand public. Pourtant, nous avons trouvé bien plus d'expressions différentes dans les documents consultés que nous ne l'aurions pensé: gældende fællesskabsbestemmelser (dispositions communautaires en vigueur - CELEX 1), etablerede fællesskabspolitik (politique communautaire établie - CELEX 3) ou encore gældende EFbestemmelser (dispositions de la CE en vigueur - CELEX 4). Mais ce n'est pas tout! Nous avons également rencontré notre bon vieil acquis dans le document de référence F (COM(93)551), où nous lisons lovgivningsmæssige resultater eller "acquis" (les guillemets apparaissent dans le texte original, souligné par nous), c'est-à-dire résultats dans le domaine juridique ou "acquis".

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Nous arrivons ainsi au terme de notre expédition sur les traces de l'acquis communautaire. Dans les trois autres langues officielles, nous n'avons pas trouvé de cas où l'expression française soit utilisée. Néanmoins, il convient de se pencher, comme nous l'avons déjà fait pour plusieurs des langues traitées, sur l'intelligibilité de l'expression utilisée dans chacune de ces langues. Revenons donc maintenant dans le sud de l'Europe, et, plus précisément, outre­Pyrénées. Euterpe: ES acervo comunitario Tout d'abord, que signifie acervoi DRAE:

M Moliner:

7 Montón de cosas menudas, como trigo, cebada, legumbres, etc // 2 Haber que pertenece en común a varias personas, sean socios, coherederos, acreedores, etc // 3 fig Conjunto de bienes morales o culturales acumulados por tradición o herencia, //pío. Der. Conjunto de valores entregados al diocesano para redimir de cargas piadosas las fincas de particulares. 7 Montón de cosas menudas, como simientes o legumbres. // 2 Conjunto de bienes poseídos en común por una colectividad o por varias personas: "El acervo familiar". // 3 (fig) "Caudal. Patrimonio". Conjunto de bienes no materiales: "Forma parte de nuestro acervo espiritual".

Comme on le voit, aucun des dictionnaires consultés ne fait référence, sous la rubrique acervo, à l'expression acervo comunitario. Même pas les dictionnaires juridiques comme, ρ ex le Diccionario Jurídico Espasa. Dans les ouvrages de droit communautaire, on trouve néanmoins évidemment des définitions, comme celle du Dictionnaire juridique de l'Union européenne de FÉLIX DE LA FUENTE accessible par Internet depuis www.users.skynet.be/sfie/): Conjunto de disposiciones y normas legislativas, reglamentarias y jurisprudenciales (derecho primario, derecho derivado o secundario, jurisprudencia y acuerdos internacionales) que están vigentes en la CE, constituyen un logro irrenunciable en el camino hacia la Unión Europea y no pueden ser puestas en duda por ningún Estado miembro o Estado aspirante a la Unión. Este acervo se ha ido desarrollando a medida que se ha ido precisando la integración europea y ha ido tomando forma el mercado interior. [...] Cuando un nuevo Estado miembro se adhiere a la

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Unión, anteriormente a la Comunidad, la recepción de este acervo comunitario se produce automáticamente por el acto mismo de la adhesión. Ce qui est clair, c'est que le terme acervo semble bien avoir fait l'unanimité, et il apparaît effectivement dans toutes les sources consultées pour le présent travail 13 . Cet état de fait mérite néanmoins quelques commentaires: Le terme acervo s'utilise surtout au sens figuré (cf supra Dictionnaire M Moliner, troisième acception), dans l'expression acervo cultural. Le terme acervo a bel et bien un sens dans le domaine du lexique juridique, pourtant bien éloigné de l'acquis communautaire, puisqu'il s'utilisait en droit canonique historique pour désigner les biens remis aux autorités ecclésiastiques en guise de paiement de certains impôts dévolus à l'Eglise, aujourd'hui bien évidemment abrogés! Une autre acception du terme acervo à la limite entre les termes juridiques et le langage courant fait référence à un ensemble de biens ­ ρ ex l'ensemble des biens qui composent un héritage. Pourtant, dans le domaine juridique, à la place du terme acervo, on préfère utiliser le terme as, c'est­à­dire que l'on parle d'as hereditario. De toute façon, à mon avis, les expressions acervo hereditario et as hereditario sont presque aussi obscures pour les non juristes. Si nous revenons une fois de plus à notre document de référence F (COM(93)551), nous trouverons un équivalent pour l'acervo: realizaciones en el ámbito jurídico. Or, étant donné qu'il s'agit d'un Livre vert, document destiné par sa propre nature à un large public, je pense qu'il s'agit effectivement d'une bonne solution. Restons dans la péninsule ibérique, mais "un peu plus à l'Ouest". Euterpe: PT acervo comunitário D'emblée, on se rend compte que PT et ES utilisent la même expression. Et on retrouve dans presque tous les documents consultés14 l'expression

Il a même déjà été utilisé, quoique entre guilemets, avant l'adhésion de l'Espagne (cf notre document de référence CELEX 2). Une exception toutefois: dans un document datant de décembre 1985 (quelques semaines avant l'adhésion du Portugal), on peut lire adquirido comunitário (notre source CELEX 2).

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recommandée dictionnaires: Lello: Aurélio:

par

Euterpe.

Mais

consultons

¡ci

aussi

quelques

s.m. (lat. acervu). Montão, cúmulo. Abundância: um acervo de disparates. (é ou ê). [Do lat. acervu.j S. m. 7. Montão, cúmulo. // 2. V. quantidade (3): Formávamos juntos um acervo de trastes, valíamos tanto como as bagagens trazidas lá de baixo e as mercadorias a que nos misturávamos. " (G raciliano Ramos, Memórias do Cárcere. Ι, ρ 7 94) // 3. Conjunto de bens que integram um patrimônio; cabedal: "E, perguntando­lhe eu que lhe parecia do plano de vender em leilão o acervo da companhia vi­o .... soltar um suspiro tão grande, que pareceu trazer­lhe as entranhas para fora." (Machado de Assis, A semana, II, ρ 88.) // 4. O conjunto das obras de uma biblioteca, de um museu, etc.; fundo. // 5. Patrimônio, riqueza, cabedal: acervo artístico; acervo moral. [Dim. irreg.: acérvulo.j

Comme on peut le constater, il n'y a de nouveau aucune référence à l'expression acervo comunitário. De plus, tous les collègues de langue PT consultés sont d'avis que cette expression n'est comprise que par les personnes vraiment versées dans les affaires communautaires. En revanche, le terme acervo s'utilise tout à fait couramment pour désigner les collections réunies dans un musée ou l'ensemble des livres d'une bibliothèque (la quatrième acception de la définition du dictionnaire Aurélio). B ref, tout ce qui a été... acquis par ce type d'institutions. Il est, d'autre part, intéressant de noter l'expression utilisée dans notre document de référence F (COM(93)551) comme équivalent d'acquis: progressos no domínio jurídico, beaucoup plus claire pour le grand public. Évidemment, pour terminer cette odyssée, nous ne pouvions pas faire meilleur choix que de passer par les Colonnes d'Hercule pour rentrer à Ithaque.

Euterpe: EL κοινοτικό κεκτημένο L'expression grecque est, cette fois d'après les collègues de langue GR consultés, assez compréhensible pour le grand public, pour autant qu'il s'agisse d'un public relativement averti en matière communautaire. En tout cas, le terme κοινοτικό κεκτημένο n'offre pas de difficultés particulières puisqu'il s'utilise également, comme en français, pour faire référence aux acquis sociaux. Pourtant, dans notre document de référence F (COM(93)551), on a choisi d'utiliser κοινοτικό κεκτημένο comme équivalent de κοινοτικό

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κεκτημένο De cette façon, on éclaire encore mieux le sens de cette expression dans ce document de divulgation. Conclusions La première conclusion que l'on peut tirer de ce parcours à travers les diverses expressions et termes utilisés pour faire référence à l'acquis communautaire dans les dix autres langues oficielles de l'UE, c'est que dans plusieurs langues, il n'existe pas encore d'"unanimité" en ce qui concerne le terme ou l'expression à utiliser. C'est le cas, notamment, du NL. Dans certaines langues, ρ ex en EN, on recommande aux traducteurs d'utiliser des expressions différentes en fonction de la situation, c'est­à­dire en fonction des destinataires du texte, de telle façon que cette expression soit compréhensible pour le grand public lorsqu'il s'agit de textes qui lui sont destinés et de réserver les expressions plus techniques, ρ ex la "non­ traduction" du terme acquis communautaire lorsqu'il s'agit de citer le traité sur l'UE ou des dispositions dont la version EN contient cette expression. Précisément, ce manque d'intelligibilité pour le grand public de l'expression utilisée dans la plupart des langues (que ce soit la "non­ traduction" de l'expression FR ou un terme ou expression de la langue "cible") est le principal problème qui subsiste dans la plupart des langues communautaires, malgré l'existence d'expressions équivalentes, comme celles que nous avons vues dans le Livre vert Politique sociale européenne, Options pour l'Union (COM(93)551), malheureusement trop peu utilisées. Cela contribue largement à octroyer au jargon communautaire un caractère sciemment ésotérique: même les juristes (pourtant bien soucieux de préserver leur gagne­pain et d'éviter l'intrusion professionnelle) se plaignent du caractère rébarbatif du droit communautaire, et le langage utilisé est, probablement, en grande partie responsable de cette impression!

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Alors, si la traduction doit avoir un rôle dans l'ordre juridique communautaire(?), ne pourrait-ce pas être de le rendre plus intelligible, plus compréhensible, plus -pour utiliser un terme à la mode- convivial^ pour le grand public... et même pour les juristes eux-mêmes? FRANCISCO PEYRÓ Parlement européen FPeyro @'europa rl.eu.int

Remerciements À tous les collègues du groupe de travail n 2: "Le rôle de la traduction dans l'ordre juridique communautaire et dans les prises de position du Parlement européen" du séminaire "Multilinguisme: barrière ou pont?", qui ont apporté des exemples, des documents ou des commentaires utiles pour ce travail et tout spécialement, à MME NICOLE B U C H I N , qui s'est chargée de la révision du texte.

J'ai failli écrire user friendly..

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ANNEXE

Tableau comparatif des différentes versions linguistiques des documents de référence utilisés A DA EN FR PT

Β

Euterpe EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

ES

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand acervo comunitario

Fl

yhteisön säännöstö

IT

acquis comunitario

NL

SV

gemenskapens regelverk

DE

EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

ES

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand acervo comunitario

Fl

yhteisön säännöstö

IT

acquis comunitario

NL

acquis communautaire

SV

gemenskapens regelverk

gældende fællesskabsret acquis communautaire; Community patrimony acquis communautaire

DE

EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

ES

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand acervo comunitario

Fl

yhteisön säännöstö

IT

acquis comunitario

NL

acquis communautaire; communautaire verworvenheden

acervo comunitário

SV

gemenskapens regelverk

gældende fællesskabsret acquis communautaire acquis communautaire acervo comunitário

TUE art Β - C

PT

gældende fællesskabsret acquis communautaire acquis communautaire acervo comunitário

C

Vocabularium TUE

DA EN FR

DA EN

FR

PT

DE

72 D DA

EN FR

T&T 2.1999 CELEX 1 gældende fællesskabsbest emmelser Community legislation acquis communautaire

DA EN FR PT

D DA EN FR PT

D DA EN FR PT

Gemeinschafts­ regelung

Fl

ES IT

EL

vantaggi acquisiti nella Comunità

NL

bestaande regeling in de gemeenschap

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand "acervo comunitario"

EL

"κοινοτικό κεκτημένο"

acquis taire

NL

acquis communautaire

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand acervo comunitario

EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

conquiste comunitarie

NL

acquis communautaire

gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand acervo comunitario

EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

Fl

yhteisön säännöstö

NL

communautaire wetgewing

SV

PT

D

DE

CELEX 2 gældende fællesskabsret acquis communautaire acquis communautaire adquirido comunitário

DE ES IT

communau­

FI

SV

CELEX 3 etablerede fællesskabs­politik acquis communautaire acquis communautaire acervo comunitario

DE ES IT

FI

SV

CELEX 4 gældende EF­ bestemmelser acquis communautaire acquis communautaire acervo comunitário

DE ES IT SV

acquis communau­ taire gemenskapens regelverk

73

T&T 2.1999 D DA EN FR PT

D DA EN FR

CELEX 5 gældende ret i Den Europaeiske Union acquis of the European Union acquis de l'Union européenne acervo da União Europeia

EL

DE

Besitzstand

EL

ES

acervo comunitario

FI

acquis

NL

(sic16) acquis

EL

τα κοινοτικά κεκτημένα

Fl

unionia koskevat säännöstöt dat wat tot dusver is opgebouwd

ES IT SV

Fl NL

CELEX 6 gældende fællesskabsret acquis acquis .

PT

κεκτημένο της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης Euroopan unionin säännöstö acquis van de Europese Unie

Besitzstand der Europaeischen Union acervo de la Unión Europea acquis dell'Unione europea Europeiska unionens regelverk

DE

IT

acquis

SV

acquis

DE

die acquis communautaires los avances comunitarios gli acquis comunitari

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο communi-taire

17

communautaire acervo comunitário

InfC uro DA EN FR PT

16

de allerede opnåede EU­rettigheder the acquis communautaires [les] acquis communautaires acervo comunitário

ES IT SV

NL

gemenskapens regelverk

Faute de frappe pour acquis communautaire. D'après DOCMAN: CELEX indiquait acquis communautaires, ce qui n'était évidemment qu'une faute de frappe.

74 F

T&T 2.1999 C O M (93) 5 5 1

DA

lovgivnings­mæssige resultater eller acquis

DE

der B esitzstand auf rechtlichem Gebiet

EL

EN

legal attainments or acquis

ES

Fl

FR

les acquis législatifs

IT

realizaciones en el ámbito jurídico (acervo) risultati giuridici o acquis

PT

G

progressos no domínio jurídico

Glossaire réforme UE gemeinschaftlicher Besitzstand (acquis communautaire) acervo comunitario

EL

κοινοτικό κεκτημένο

FI

acquis communautaire; yhteisön säännöstö

IT

acquis comunitario; acquis comunitario

NL

acquis communautaire; acquis communautaire; communautaire verworveheden

SV

gemenskapens regelverk; l'acquis communautaire

gældende fællesskabsret

DE

EN

acquis communautaire; acquis communautaire; Community patrimony acquis communautaire

ES

acervo comunitário

PT

wettelijke verworvenheden acquis

SV

DA

FR

NL

νομοθετικά επιτεύγματα "κεκτημένα"

of

T&T 2.1999 H DA EN

FR PT

75

English Style Guide acquis communautaire; Community patrimony; body of EU law; legal framework; [established] EU law [and pratice]; [body of] EU rules; existing Community rules; Community legislation

DE ES

EL Fl

IT SV

NL

76

T&T 2.1999 HELEN TITCHEN BEETH BILL FRASER

The hidden life of translators The material contained in this article has been collected and developed from a series of workshops for translators which we have been conducting at the European Commission. Our main purpose has been to explore the translating process from the angle of internal observation and experiencing rather than external observation and measurement. That is to say, we have asked professional translators how they work and how they react to descriptions of working processes that are given by other translators. Our descriptions are as clear as we can make them on the basis of inner self-observation. It is perhaps worth stressing that we have avoided "think aloud" protocols because we believe these are still likely to be structured and censored by unconscious presuppositions. The hope is that other professional translators will recognise the processes described and - by virtue of having them described in words - be able more easily to access their own internal processes and so improve or change them if they wish. Part 1 is concerned with how our perceived identity as translators influences our performance. Part 2 looks at meta-processes from other, more abstract mental levels which provide a framework for the specific act of translating. Part 3 deals with those microprocesses which - generally labelled 'strategies' - make up the bulk of the recent literature about translating, and which we will relate to the wider contexts discussed in the first two parts.

Part 1 : The translator as professional and craftsman Knowing where you are

T

ranslating cannot be seen in isolation. The translator's role is embedded in the broader context of a c o m m u n i c a t i o n process whose purpose w i l l be different in each instance and w h e r e the number and identity of the interlocutors w i l l also vary. Indeed, the very same text can

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sometimes be made to serve different purposes on different occasions and can therefore require a different translation each time. To do full justice to any text, we have to think and feel ourselves into the relevant context. The more thoroughly we can steep ourselves in the background, the more effortlessly and naturally we will be able to produce the quality of work which is required for each occasion. There is more, however: the ultimate success of the communication process depends on understanding not only the content oí the message but also, wherever possible, the identity of the sender and receiver and the relationship between them, as experienced on both sides. Knowing who you are As translators, our position in the communication process is unusual. We are "in the middle". Being neither the sender of the message nor its receiver, the translator is not so much an interlocutor in the communication process as part of the process itself. In this capacity, we are supposed to be invisible. The translator rarely comes face-to-face with either the sender or the receiver of the message. Our investment in the process is to ensure that the message from the sender is relayed as faithfully as possible to the receiver. Sometimes, the receiver need not be taxed with the knowledge that the message originated in a different organisation, a different language or a different culture. At other times, the receiver wants to understand the circumstances in which the message originated. As translators, our role in the process is also more complex than that of either the sender or the receiver. Part of our role must be 'chameleon'. For if we are to be sure of faithfully and effectively transmitting the message, we will need to spend time in other people's shoes. We have all been senders and receivers of written messages ourselves, so we know what it means, as an author, to ask ourselves "How can I make sure my audience understands what I am trying to say?" and, as a reader, "I wonder what the author was trying to tell me when she wrote these words?" Since we often have no access to the actual reader or author, in order to answer these questions we instinctively project ourselves into the position of the other in the communication loop, as the only place where we can glean the information we need. As translators we must cover double the territory, being required to 'inhabit' first the author, to check we have understood his intent and the context from which he is formulating his message, and then the reader, to check that the message is pitched at a level she will readily understand.

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And for the actual act of translating, of course, we must fully inhabit our own selves if we are to have all our resources at our command as - for a while - we become the original author of a new text. We need to be more consciously aware of these special features in the translator's role in the communication process. Always being an intermediary, aspiring to invisibility or at least window-like transparency while having to spend so much time inhabiting other people's identities can be recipes for rapid burn-out unless we are soundly anchored in our own role in the process. Conversely, if we remain in touch with our sense of vocation as we translate we will find that playing the chameleon gives a deep authenticity to our work which is the hallmark of the truly inspired translator. Knowing what you do The translator's art is made up of hundreds of different internal strategies and substrategies. Very little is known about this phenomenon - only exceptionally perceptive translators ever even become aware of them'. Scientific study of such internal, subjective experience would be so complex that it has not really been started. Moreover, such strategies are rarely, if ever, taught in translating courses, which tend to concentrate on the more straightforward external, empirical observables such as the finished product and the original text. But whether we consciously know what we are doing or not, we already use most of these subconscious language routines as a matter of course; we just do not understand from the inside how they work (like we don't know how we understand language itself). Individual translators spend their professional lives developing and refining their personal strategies, but rarely do they share or discuss them with colleagues. Often the strategies never even break through into awareness. The present authors would like to see this state of affairs redressed, because you can't solve a problem if you don't understand how you got into it. You can't improve your performance if you don't know what it is you're doing (or not doing) af this moment, unless it is by accident. One of our tools as professional translators must therefore be the ability to observe our own performance in as much detail as possible and steadily refine it

In a recent book, DOUGLAS HOFSTADTER discusses some of the background processes which run semi-consciously like subroutines in the translator's mind: he mentions the 'syntactic regrouper', the 'semantic substitutor' and the 'phonetic substitutor'.

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over time. This takes practice and self-discipline. You don't wake up one morning competent in conscious self-observation: it is a capacity you develop gradually. However, it is worth the effort because it is something you can practice in every area of your life and the benefits are by no means restricted to your professional activities. Because this area of strategies is so crucial, yet so complex, we prefer to concentrate here and in our subsequent articles on "enabling strategies" that can help translators to bring into awareness and develop the routines they use unconsciously already, in ways that will help them to access them more easily and at will. State control You need only listen to a sports commentary for five minutes to know that what makes a golf champion or a world-class sprinter is not so much their technical competence (highly competent sportsmen and women are remarkably common) as their ability to consistently control their internal state. The winner of the Wimbledon tennis final, for example, must sustain a state of acute but relaxed concentration under extreme pressure (also created by the mind - after all, no-one's survival is at stake) - and a touch of joy and humour will win them the crowd into the bargain. This applies equally well to translators. We all know what it is like to have to function under pressure. Keeping that deadline is more important for some documents than for others. Extremely high quality is more important for some documents than others. General presuppositions among translators include the belief that speed and quality cannot go together. This generalisation might be too simplistic, however. One key to professionalism in translation is the ability to control one's internal state so as to be able consistently to produce top style and accuracy, even under time pressure. Examples of internal states (and components of states) which translators can learn to access at will: * Immersion (translating state) * Critical distance * Naivete (seeing with fresh eyes) * Concentration * Relaxation * Focusing on the big picture * Focusing on small details

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Continuous learning Translating is one of the most demanding and difficult intellectual pursuits that exists. Over and above the level of linguistic competence, general knowledge of the world and mental flexibility that is required, translators must also be almost entirely self-motivated if they are to stay in the business long enough to gain worthwhile experience, self-critical if they are to maintain high standards and continue to improve the quality of their work, and, on top of all that, able to self-train. The translating world has probably changed more in the last ten years than it had since the beginning of written texts (the advent of printing was a mere blip). The introduction of PCs has created an intense learning situation for almost everybody in the profession. Translators who wish to stay on top of the market are having to learn new methods at a rate and volume they may never have experienced before in their professional lives. Yet while there is constant change in the tools and media which translators are required to master in order to work satisfactorily with the full range of clients, the actual act of language transfer seems to remain stubbornly and eternally the same. It is a task which must (we believe) be carried out by the human mind in the way it always has been, since biblical times and before. Seen in this light, it is tempting to restrict our learning to mastering the new tools. It is hard to go on working at basic skills which have already been mastered to the best of one's ability and it is easiest to continue applying our native creativity to translating itself (the content of our translations), and not to improving how w e translate (the process of translating). This is because w e may never have acquired the habit of observing our working selves. Many of us live with an assumption that what w e do is not observable and cannot be brought into conscious awareness without it slipping dream-like through our fingers. And yet, by the end of every translation w e have added new knowledge to our repertoire - knowledge about the world, the subject matter treated by the text, document structure in general, new tips about manipulating computer software, new sources of reference material or terminology, etc. By consciously inventorising and integrating these learnings as w e end one job, w e effectively deepen the experience and competence which w e can bring to bear as w e start out on the next.

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Last thoughts: professionalism and craftsmanship No one writing seriously about translation these days would claim that it is a scientific activity; it remains essentially a craft. But what is it that makes a good craftsman? One element is certainly knowing the materials and tools and what effects can be obtained with them. But because most of the key tools of translating are invisible, ¡e mental processes, discussion of professionalism is often inconclusive. And because our relationship to language and thinking is so intimate, most of the areas that fall within translating professionalism are extremely private and sensitive, and therefore not willingly discussed by translators themselves. In Part 2 we will be describing some of the meta-strategies that provide a 'substrate' for the more detailed strategies of the translating process. Once you can master these strategies consciously, you can powerfully augment the effects of any adjustments you might make to the micro-strategies (dealt with in Part 3).

Part 2: Dwelling in the glass house

As we also saw in the first part, a key skill for translators who wish to continue developing throughout their working lives is self-observation. It is this skill that the authors have been encouraging translators to exercise through the Workshops for Translators2. This experience has highlighted just how many of us live with an assumption that what we do as translators is not observable and cannot be brought into conscious awareness without it slipping dream-like through our fingers. It has also demonstrated, however, that such self-observation is possible and can be taken very deep, and to excellent effect. But getting started with the habit is not so easy: after all, it is difficult to see something you can't see. In this article we would like to offer some guidelines in embarking on this demanding path. To begin with, let us look at some general unconscious patterns that recur constantly during the translating process.

2

For readers in the Commission Translation http://www.cc.cec/SDT/workshop/files/index.htm

Service,

see

our

intranet

website

at

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• It is important to be aware of the frames of reference we use in our thinking. We often limit our resourcefulness by operating on unconscious presuppositions that are not always well anchored in reality. • Our internal state is a central factor at all stages of the translating process. Yet it is widely perceived to be mostly dependent on external / environmental factors and beyond the individual's control. In fact, a translator's performance consists of a set of discrete skills that can be developed. The further the translator develops across the full range of these skills, ¡e the greater his / her competence, the greater will be his or her confidence. And two of the most vital components of a resourceful translating state are trust (in our resources) and confidence (in ourselves). • Although translating is often seen as a solitary task, relationship factors and the need for effective communication must not be underestimated. • Possibly the most vital skill in the translator's repertoire (presupposing, of course, linguistic competence) is the ability to ask relevant / effective questions. Frames of Reference Frames of reference are filters through which we look at the world. However, our choice of which frame we use is more often than not unconscious. Indeed, we are seldom even aware that there is a filter separating us from the 'reality' we observe. Applying this concept to translating, there are a number of very basic filters which, if used judiciously, can radically alter the product of our labour. The filters we have singled out as being most influential all turn out to belong in pairs, like coins with two sides. This suggests that when you are operating through any one of these frames of reference, there is an either / or choice of how to look at things. If this does not suit you, you can free yourself by becoming aware of the filter and electing to set it aside. The most important frames of reference we have identified so far are: • task / relationship • nearness / distance • inclusion / exclusion •

form / content

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foreground / background freedom / responsibility Task/ rela tionsh iρ

Any activity will look different depending on whether your focus is on the task to be carried out or the relationship with the other people involved. The activity of translating is no exception. It is easy to think of translating as a solitary task in which the translator is alone with the text: the job is to get to a satisfactory end-result. Translators accordingly tend to approach their work primarily through the task frame. However, the translator is always also part of a team, whether actual or virtual: not only are we working for a client or a requesting department and using dictionaries compiled by armies of specialists, we are also a link in the chain between a writer and his audience, a government and the governed. This is true even of the solitary freelance translator, let alone staff translators working in the Translation Service at the Commission, for example, who are hard put to count the number of different teams they belong to depending on the aspect of their work under consideration: terminology, technology, teamwork with peers of the same language, of the other Community languages, the role within the hierarchy, the virtual team which changes for every document and so on. Like it or not, all its complexity. while we engage choices as to how Β

we are players in the game of human communication in Remaining aware of the relationship aspect of our work in the task of translating is bound to affect both our we set about the task and the result of our labour.

Nearness / distance

Some of the time we are immersed in the text, completely steeped in the world of the document to the exclusion of all else. At other times we take critical distance from our work, stepping back mentally from what we are creating to get a better perspective on it. Taken one stage further, this is also one of the keys to mastering the art of self-observation. There are moments when we are immersed in our work, but we reach a more empowered stage when we can also sit back and observe ourselves as we toil away. So it is also with the translating process - only how often do we take sufficient distance from ourselves to really take stock of how we operate? How often, when translating a text, do we feel that we are wading waistdeep through thick mud without realising that much of the resistance we

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are encountering comes from wavering concentration? That we are not managing to immerse ourselves sufficiently in this text? How often do we stop and ask ourselves what we can do to make things easier? Similarly, how often do we realise, when utterly immersed in the flow of translating, that we are losing all objectivity and straying too far from the necessary register? How often do we consciously disentangle ourselves from our text and take some distance before continuing, just to make sure we are producing what is really needed by the client? The process of translating a document from beginning to end is an evolutive one of approaching a text, discovering its context, style and purpose; becoming one with it as we uncover its message and transfer it into our language; differentiating our critical mind from it so as to see it in its larger context and judge its quality, appropriateness and adequacy. The final read-through completes the process, the translator has integrated the text into his or her world experience and releases it to a separate existence. C

Inclusion

/exclusion

One prime example of inclusion and exclusion in action is the distinction translators often make between terminological resources which they can access from inside their workplace and those they have to leave their workplace to consult. Superficially, this appears to relate to convenience and ease of access. For some, "workplace" means just their own desk, for others it may include the colleague in the office next door or a fellow translator working for the same agency. It is likely that our dividing line between inside and outside, near and far, varies depending on the situation. Using a resource in my workplace can mean not interrupting my concentration, while paying a visit to the library can be a 'welcome break' which allows me to distance myself from the text. At a deeper level, however, this frame of reference also has much to do with the question of relationship: who we mentally include in our team. Here we are talking about 'my' resources versus 'outside' resources (self / other - Us / Them). The dividing line between self and other varies from one individual to another and from one context to another. It can also depend on other frames of reference being used. Implicitly, however, there is always the question of frusf: the sources which a translator considers as "internal" have been validated to that translator's satisfaction and can therefore be used with confidence.

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Form / content

Often as we translate we are so taken up with the content or the story that we neglect to attend to the form in which the story is told. This can make for a finished product which hangs together rather uncomfortably. Every sentence contains clues and pointers to form in its cohesive devices, which we often overlook because they do not seem to contribute to the content of the story, yet without which the reader would undoubtedly lose the thread! As translators it is part of our job to pay attention to the cohesion, and hence the 'comprehensibility index', of the message. E

Foreground / background

If the text we are translating is in the foreground, the context in which it was written is in the background. If the words of the text express certain ideas explicitly, other ideas remain implicitly present in the background, without which the text cannot be understood. Every communication, written or verbal, contains some given information (whether implicit or explicit) and imparts something new. At another level, translators are often taken up with the task of rendering a text in another language (foreground). However, on days where we have less inspiration, this task can be heavy going. The problem here does not lie in the task, but in our relationship with the task, which determines the internal state in which we tackle it. This relational aspect is usually left in the background, but can usefully be brought to the foreground if there is a problem of motivation to be solved. F

Freedom / responsibility

Herein lies a basic paradox. The tram runs on rails, and bemoans the fact that it has so little freedom of movement, never able to depart from the route laid out for it. The bus is free to run wherever it chooses, but sometimes wishes it were restricted to rails, because of the weight of responsibility it carries for having to choose where it will travel. Without freedom there is no responsibility. And yet, without responsibility there can be no real freedom. It is said of translating that there is no creativity to the task, since the translator is not free to express his or her own ideas, only to render those of others. However, 90% of the content of practical translation textbooks seems to revolve around how to develop judgement on when to depart from the tramlines. The way the present authors see it, it is our

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responsibility as translators to render the message of the original both accurately and in the manner most appropriate to its intended purpose. Within that remit, we are free to use all the resources at our disposal, indeed it is our duty to do so.

Presuppositions By 'presupposition' we mean not the conventions we make with ourselves or others about reality ("assuming X is true, let us explore doing Y") but the hidden assumptions we make at work or in life which we mistake for solid fact. As in the case of exploiting frames of reference, the emphasis is on awareness of what we are doing. It is important to make the latter type of presuppositions explicit when they emerge so that they can be questioned. Otherwise, they have a habit of closing doors to options. Often when problems seem insoluble it is because our presuppositions about reality make us blind to the options available. Examples of unquestioned presuppositions we have encountered about translating include "You cannot translate fast and well" (yet we would not say that it is impossible to translate slowly and badly!) and "A difficult piece of research takes a long time" (perhaps it is just a matter of the right first step). By the same token, research that takes a long time may not be difficult at all. At an organisational level, we again see pervasive presuppositions underlying the professional principles which have been sacrosanct for years: a b c

Translators should translate only into their mother tongue. Translators should restrict themselves to translating the words on the page, Staff translators and freelance translators fulfil the same function.

We believe that these principles (by no means universally held) no longer remain workable in their current form and must therefore be called into question3.

3

See our paper on Enlargement, the Language Regime and the Translation Service, annexed to the report on tne 7th Workshop for Translators (Teamwork and Training Design) - available from the authors on request (and at http://www.cc.cec/SDT/workshop/files/ws7/anl.ntm).

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Clearly, when such presuppositions are brought into the light of day and challenged, they often appear ridiculous. But when left to lurk in the shadows, entire edifices can and often are constructed upon them without anyone stopping to wonder whether the foundations are secure. We have lost the habit of critically examining our thinking. Prerequisites for a resourceful internal state We have already mentioned the important role which our internal state plays in our performance. We have all experienced a state of concentration in which the translating process flows smoothly, efficiently and with optimal results. Although each of us will experience this optimal state differently, it seems to have certain common components. Certain conditions must be met in order for all the necessary components to be present so that we can access this state while working. One of these components is confidence. Confidence and competence Translating is a continual decision-making process. It starts off with major decisions about context, message, register, treatment, processing. During the actual process, scores of micro-decisions are taken every minute (yes I understand, no I don't understand, choice of word, turn of phrase, time to research, time to rephrase or restructure, time for a break, time to go home). Without confidence, indecision rules. The necessary decision-making process is paralysed. Translating without confidence is therefore highly stressful and leads to a mediocre or poor product. So it is worth spending the time it takes to gain the confidence we need to make competent decisions. Confidence is not an absolute. Our confidence levels fluctuate according to multiple factors which interact to form a fairly complex moving picture. Some examples of the factors which influence a translator's confidence are: comprehension (how well you understand the message and context of the document you are translating) ability to formulate (how well you can transfer the message, in its context, into the target language) knowledge of the subject matter

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disposal). Obviously, you cannot be confident unless you are, to some degree, competent. However, performance is undoubtedly impaired if confidence is lacking, no matter how competent you are. So there is no easily reversible causal relationship between confidence and competence. None the less, like many mind-body phenomena, this is a double-sided coin which we can exploit to our advantage. By adding more competence we can increase our confidence, while increased confidence can in turn improve the application of modest competence beyond recognition; our performance so often depends more on our beliefs about what we are able to do than it does on our objective skill level. An example: very few translators are as confident when translating from their fourth language as from their first. It is harder to take the decision to depart from a literal (and stilted) rendition of the original for fear of having not understood, or of having misunderstood, the meaning. However, while it is not helpful to have false confidence in one's ability, nor it is useful to be crippled in a task which one is going to have to carry out anyway! At such moments it can be useful to 'map across' a feeling of confidence from your experience with your first or second language, which can help you to make bolder decisions. It is still possible to retain a critical attitude ensuring you make no silly mistakes. False confidence, when you think you know enough and don't question your understanding, is surely just as common. True confidence enables us to call ourselves into question continually and to forgive our errors. It enables us to take responsibility for our mistakes and "do it differently next time".

The importance of questions Questions are a key part in any intellectual process. We might not be aware that we are continually asking ourselves questions, but whatever stage we examine in any of life's processes, questions are presupposed without which the whole process would disintegrate. The following simplified description of the mental steps involved in translating any document demonstrate just how crucial questions are.

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•

The process commences with a test. Do I have a clear goal? What is iti > Example of a typical goal: "Produce a perfect translation by lunchtime".

•

Without some idea of our goal we don't know what operations are needed to attain it: What do I need to do first? > Answer: "Make a first rough draft". Once we have completed the operation, we need another fesf: Did what I did bring me closer to my goal? > Answer: "Yes, I have my rough draft in front of me".

•

On the basis of this test, we decide what we need to do next in order to proceed: What do I need to do next? > Answer: "I need to solve a terminological problem" .

•

Here we repeat the loop at a finer level of detail: > Q: What is my goal? > A: "To find the correct translation of a certain term". > Q: What do I need to do first? > A: "Check in my technical dictionaries and databases". > Q: Did that bring me closer to my goal? > A: "No, I couldn't find the term anywhere". > What do I need to do next? > "Call the requester..." The requester solves the problem in a way clients often do: "Oh, we don't need that degree of perfection, the experts will be able to understand the technical terms, we just need a rough version for the meeting on Friday." It is important to have an ongoing re-evaluation, after every major operation: Is my goal still validi > In our fictitious example, the initial goal of "a perfect translation" can be adjusted in the light of the additional information gleaned (by accident) from the requester. There are often times when one might have to decide, for example, to skimp on a goal because of the circumstances. This suggests that there must be a "meta-goal" in the background, which is more important than the immediate goal we have for the current translation. Flexibility

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All the tests and decisions required to perform the act of translating are based on questions. Ask the wrong question and the test is irrelevant and the decision inappropriate. Clearly, these questions are being mysteriously and magically asked and answered inside us, whether we are paying attention to them or not. However, the ability to ask questions consciously is particularly useful at points in the process where we get stuck and don't know what to do next. At such moments it can be useful to start by examining our entire mental approach by calling into question the points mentioned above (including our goal): •

What frame of reference am I using in trying to understand this text? Is it the most appropriate one? • What are the presuppositions underlying my reasoning? • Am I in the best internal state for tackling the job at hand? If not, what state would be better? • Am I at the appropriate distance for the task at hand? • What is in the background/ foregrounds • and so on.

Part 3: Getting dirt under your fingernails Engaging We have all known tourists who spend their holiday looking through the viewfinder of their camera, obsessed with the idea of capturing every last experience on film to take home and show their family and friends. They end up not experiencing the holiday itself! A similar trap awaits translators, who may manage to translate their texts at arm's length, paying so much attention to words and syntax that meaning and purpose pass by unnoticed. If we choose this approach, there is a real danger that we can live an entire professional life without being touched by all the acts of communication that have gone through our hands (but not through our hearts). This is the translator functioning as a catalyst, effecting the transformation of a text from one language into the other while remaining unchanged by the end of the interaction.

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In contrast, the translating process being described here does not allow the translator to remain a mere catalyst, but rather requires us to commit fully to the process of translating each document, to bring its world of meaning within us rather than keeping it at arm's length, and to allow ourselves to be changed by what we translate. When we work in this way, we do not translate by transposing words or sentences from one language into another. We read and understand a passage, allow it to sink into us until we understand its structure, its raiso n d'être and its message, and then, holding the intention of the text in our minds, we repro duce the message in our mother tongue. In order to generate the kind of motivation needed to commit to our work in this way, it can be helpful to start any new text by embarking on an inner search to find some way, however slight or seemingly trivial, in which the subject of the document touches on our own lives. Clearly, this is easier when our document concerns dioxins in poultry and eggs than micro-components in a nuclear power plant. Nevertheless, how many times a day do we switch on a light? Much of the 'engaging' phase takes place before we even start translating our document 4 . Examples of micro-strategies that operate in this phase are: •

The translating brief, it is surprising how often translators are expected to "just translate" a document without knowing what it is for, who is to read it, where it came from, in what form it is to be delivered, etc. Clearly, having this information will make a great difference not only to our confidence as we start work but also to the actual words, phrases, presentation and register we decide to adopt. Even if a useful brief cannot be obtained from the client, it is still important to have some idea in our mind about the purpose of our work before we embark on it. I ndeed, research by JANET FRASER of the University of Westminster has shown that professional translators will always tend to inventa brief for themselves where one is lacking or inadequate5.

•

Thinking / reading aro und the co ntext: while it is tempting under time pressure to launch straight into translating a document as soon as it

W e have covered this area in some depth already in the report on our fourth Workshop, entitled "The translating state" - see T&Τ 1.1997. JANET FRASER 1996 "The Translator I nvestigated" 65/79 The Translato r!, 1. Ms FRASER was also a guest speaker at a recent seminar organised for translators at the European Commission as part of a series entitled "Theory meets Practice".

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•

T&T 2.1999 lands on our desk, it is helpful (and often time-saving in the end) to spend some minutes reading the text itself and any background material relevant to its subject matter. This activity can contribute to filling in an inadequate brief, although most professional translators are wisely reluctant to spend too much time hunting in vain for elusive reference documents. However, we often have a 'hunch' that there might be more useful background material than what we have been given again, it is often a felt-sense in the body that lets us know we have a hunch in the first place. The art of not starting too soon (and not stopping too late): we have already mentioned the importance of body sensations as information from our unconscious mind about when things are going well and when things are going wrong. Knowing when we are ready to start translating and at what point to declare a job finished are both cases when this sensitivity to our intuition is a key. Our feeling-sense can be used as an excellent indicator that we are "ready to go". Translators who consistently make an initial examination of the document for translation report that there is often a powerful surge of energy when the context becomes clear and missing pieces of the meaning fall into place. If we were to wait more often until receiving this signal from our subconscious creative minds before launching into a translation, how much better the results would be. We suggest you try this and see for yourself: try holding back until you are bursting with inspiration, with choice words and elegant phrases oozing from your fingertips. The actual translation goes much faster and more effortlessly and the quality of the final result is usually in another league.

Integrating Every document we translate contains some information that is familiar to us (given) and some that is new. As we engage with a text and bring the new information it contains inside our inner world, that new information will penetrate our existing body of knowledge and understanding of the world, filling in gaps but also subtly (or even radically) and irreversibly adjusting what was already there in order to effect a seamless integration into a new and coherent whole.

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Part of the process of internalising a text as we translate it involves what KARLA DÉJEAN LE FÉAL calls deverbalising6. This is stripping away the words of the original document until we are left with only the representation of what the words describe. This process takes some time, particularly in the beginning, but it is a failsafe way of ensuring that we really do internalise our work, rather than just skimming along on the surface and playing word games with the lexis and syntax. In an ideal world, we should not begin generating words in the target language until the meaning of the text is completely free from the original carrier medium of the source language. One of the dangers of many of the new translating tools like the Translator's Workbench (TWB) is that they provide the translator with ready-made segments of text in the target language (lifted from earlier documents), making it much easier to stay on the surface of a document. And yet in our hearts we know that what was an adequate translation for the document from which the segment originated is unlikely to be as adequate for the document we have before us now. So many translators cry "but how can we be sure that the segments we are offered by the TWB have been properly validated"7. The answer is "No previous translation can ever be assumed to be valid for the document you are working on now: it is our job as translators to revalidate every word or phrase we use". And how does this re-validation happen? Often enough, it is our bodies that tell us whether we can safely re-validate a term or a phrase, or when we have adjusted it satisfactorily to the present context and purpose. But our bodies can only give us this information if we have made the extra effort to internalise our translating process, brought it down out of our heads and into our hearts and guts. So much of the process described here takes place unconsciously that it is important to stop and take stock, before we finish, of what has changed in our inner world. What do we know now that we did not know before? In what way does the world seem different to us now than when we started translating this document? What will I do differently in future as a result of what I have learned here today?

See Section 5 of "Pédagogie raisonnée de la traduction" by KARLA DÉJEAN LE FÉAL in T&T 18/19, 3.1994.

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Releasing The cut-off point, the moment when we finally decide that enough is enough and we can let our translation go out the door will probably depend on a number of criteria which might themselves vary from job to job. •

• •

Context is as usual a key factor (What is this translation wanted for? How important is absolute perfection? What will happen if it is not ready on time?). Time is another (there is not always the option of "I've started so I'll finish" when the buzzer goes at time-out!). The additional effort required to make the translation that much better can be another factor. Is it really worth the effort in terms of the difference in result? This will often depend on context and time factors.

Some translators seem to have more difficulty than others with putting the finishing touches to their translations, thereby suffering the agonies of perfectionism. We find ourselves holding onto our 'baby' until the last possible moment and actually relinquishing it into the hands of the client or a reviser can be a stressful moment. Most examples of this phenomenon can be reduced to two underlying causes: a 'perfectionism': "With a little more time I could make this even better". Such perfectionism is often accompanied by a fear of criticism for any unspotted mistakes or infelicities, an over-identification with our handiwork which prevents us from letting go even though this particular job might not call for the level of perfection that we are comfortable with. (This phenomenon arises from the prevailing paradigm that quality takes time (see Section 1 ); b 'under-confidence': "I'm not happy with the results of my research so far, there are still some points I need to clear up"; sometimes we need our solutions to be confirmed by others we consider to be more expert before we feel confident enough to let a job go. As we have seen throughout this article, it is important to make a distinction between the translation as a product and translating as the process whereby the product is arrived at. When we 'release' a document we have finished translating, we will find ourselves looking at it in a different way: we will have moved on from the translating process to be able to view the finished translation as a product destined for our client.

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In order to be able to produce a document from our own depths in the way we are describing, we need full access to all our internal resources and knowledge. When we act as a mere 'translator as catalyst', it is easy to keep an arsenal of notes, cards, documents, books, dictionaries to help us in our work of transposition. When we come across a new word, we make a card, or a MultiTerm entry, we file the finished product for future reference. However, all these resources are outside us. When we have worked intimately and internally with a document, the process of recording our learnings is rather different, as described above. How can we be sure we have truly integrated what we have learned? One sure test (sure because the answer comes from our bodies, not our wishful thinking) is the degree of comfort with which we are able to loosen our grasp on the document and everything connected with it when the time comes to release it into the world. If we find ourselves clutching onto external forms like a copy of the translation to file for future reference, terminology cards, etc, etc, this is an indication that the integration process is not yet complete. It is feedback that we did not absorb this document quite so completely as we might have done 7 . Often we can be pretty sure that the text we have just finished will return in a fresh reincarnation some time in the future. How will we recognise, when the time comes, that we have seen all this before? The final step in the process of releasing a translated document into the world is to review the communication process that it is part of, and to take stock of our own contribution to that process. This is particularly important for translators, since if we don't recognise our own contribution, it is unlikely that anyone else will. Tentative conclusions By writing this article, we have been continuing the process of digesting our workshops to date, seeing yet more underlying connections and homing in on what we believe to be the really fundamental issues. We summarise these issues below by way of a conclusion. •

7

Although quality of the finished product is created in the process of translating, there is no direct relation between quality and time spent. What generally distinguishes a good translation from a mediocre or

Obviously, we are not suggesting that translators should dispense with collecting 'external' translating aids in this way, we are simply using the degree of attachment to them as a gauge of how fully we have integrated what we have learned.

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T&T 2.1999 poor one is not the length of time taken but the attention and commitment invested by the translator in the process of translating it.

•

Professionalism in the field of translation has to do with taking the broadest possible view of the communication context in which our work is situated. Only when we do this can we be sure of providing our clients with what they really need.

•

Enormous benefits can be reaped from cultivating meta-contexts within which the translating activity being aware of the modes of thinking and habitually use, knowing which other modes are available, and understanding which are the most appropriate in context.

-

•

our awareness of the unfolds. This means: presuppositions we

any given translation

The three-part model of engaging / internalising / releasing described in Part 3 is a first step towards formulating a method that can systematically help us to bring these insights to bear in practice and put the production of quality within our grasp, tangibly and on a practical, day-to-day basis. HELEN TITCHEN BEETH BILL FRASER

Translation Service European Commission

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Conceptual analysis and knowledge acquisition in scientific translation The relation of translation and terminology is analyzed from the perspective of the translator's comprehension of the source text. In specialized translation, this comprehension process necessarily implies a special type terminology management, which can be described as ad hoc as opposed to the systematic variety carried out by terminologists. As is well known, knowledge is encoded in terminology, and the terms within a text are indicative of the specialized knowledge that the translator must acquire in order to understand the message being transmitted. Such knowledge acquisition is necessary in order for the translator to put herself at the same level as the receiver in the source language. The knowledge encoded in terms is both actual (In vivoj and potential (in vitroj. Both contexts must be understood for there to be an adequate comprehension of knowledge structures. 1

I

Terminology management and the translator

t can be said that all translators, whether they are aware of it or not, are to some extent, terminologists, and in this sense, are a bit like MOLlÈRE's bourgeois gentilhomme, who made the surprising discovery that he had been speaking in prose all of his life. The specialized terms in a translator's mental lexicon and the conceptual relations that constitute the storage network encode his / her knowledge of that particular domain. The elaboration of the target text is invariably a reconstruction of meaning. However, what is somewhat less studied is the fact that the comprehension process of the translator is also a reconstruction as well, though of conceptual systems and communicative context. As such, the translator has a double role to fulfill as both text-receiver and textproducer. Though it is evidently much easier to study translation as a product, rather than as a process, part of what is known as translation competence undoubtedly lies in the translator's capacity to understand the source text in the same way as the text-receivers in the source language.

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In specialized translation, this comprehension process is rather like the reconstruction of the entire skeleton of a brontosaurus on the basis of only a few bones. Starting from the most explicit elements of the text (in a specialized text, this would be its terminology), the translators begin their detective work, first by situating the terms of the text within conceptual systems, and secondly, by expanding their knowledge base to the necessary levels so that these terms will be integrated within previous cognitive structures. More specifically, one of the necessary objectives in specialized translation is the rapid acquisition of expert knowledge and a viable way of achieving this objective is through translation-oriented terminology management. W R I G H T / W R I G H T (1997:147) underline the difference between systematic terminology management, which is subject-field-driven as opposed to the more ad hoc descriptive terminology management, which is text-driven. They represent the most important differences between the two in the following table: 1 Ad Hoc Terminology Management

Systematic Terminology Management

• • • • •

Collect terms and concepts from global field Construct a concept system or systems Craft well-structured definitions Create term entries

•

Identify terms occurring in isolated texts

•

Create starter term entries

• •

Link entries to conceptual structure, reflecting the concept system(s)

•

Document available contexts Research greater context, within time restrictions If time and opportunity allow it, reconstruct the concept system based on available fragments.

(WRIGHT and WRIGHT 1997:50)

According to these authors, in order to systematically document terminology in a specialized domain, the terminologisi collects the relevant terms by extracting them from a corpus of related texts. These terms designate the concepts within the subdomain. In the construction of concept systems, the terminologist is naturally aided by consultation with experts, as well as a familiarity with larger knowledge structures and the application of previous contexts. A case in point is the subdomain of Lung Cancer (within the field of Medical Oncology), which basically has the same framework as the more general category of disease. Its terminology

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thus falls into the following configuration of conceptual categories, which can be applied to virtually all of the subdomains: 1 2 3 4 5

symptoms surgical procedures drugs side effects risk factors

6 7 8 9 10

diagnostic tests body parts tumors treatments medical instruments

The terms belonging to each of the above categories are related by conceptual relationships (ISA, HASA, PARTOF). This type of structure can be represented in different ways (tree structure, flowchart, or alphanumencally), but the underlying idea is the same in that the concepts are all represented in hierarchical configurations, which begin at more general levels and taper off into more specific ones. Such a representation should also be enhanced and enriched by other types of non-hierarchical relations in order to offer a multidimensional view of the concept (KAGEURA 1997, BOWKER 1997, WRIGHT 1997). In contrast to systematic terminology management, ad hoc terminology management carried out by the translator is somewhat different. The translator's objective is not to describe the terminology of an entire domain, but just enough of a domain or domains to acquire the specialized knowledge to translate the text at hand. He / she does not start from a corpus of texts, but from one text. The translator takes the text as a model of the world, and uses it to elaborate a partial reconstruction of the underlying conceptual systems within the text. He / she thus extracts the relevant terms from this text, and creates starter entries. Through the documentation of available contexts, he / she makes an effort to locate the term/s in the appropriate conceptual field, and tries to extend contexts as much as possible. In this process, it is not only necessary to consult experts in the field. A good definition can also be extremely useful in order to foment awareness of conceptual relations. Both the hierarchical and nonhierarchical conceptual relations should be present in a well-structured definition. BEJOINT (1997:20/21) underlines the importance of terminological definitions as indicators of such domain interconnections. Nevertheless, when definitions are analyzed in an effort to derive clear pointers to conceptual relations, the results are often disappointing since the definitions extracted from texts and specialized dictionaries are often lacking in clarity and coherence.

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If time permits, the translator may try to reconstruct the concept system. If he / she is going to translate many related texts within the same field, then this type of reconstruction is well worth doing. The elaboration of terminographic entries which systematize related concepts can only facilitate the translation process. In this article, I am going to examine the relation of translation and terminology from the perspective of the translator's comprehension of the source text. The two sample texts used for exemplification belong to an inventory of texts on CancerNet (www.cancernet.nci.nih.gov), a website which provides information in English and Spanish for doctors as well as patients about different types of cancer, symptoms, causes, treatments and possibilities of survival Due to considerations of space, only a fragment of this textual inventory has been included in the appendix as an example. Appendix 1 gives the English source texts for patients and doctors respectively, and Appendix 2 is the Spanish translation of these texts, offered at the same website. When references are made to other texts, which are not included in the appendix, the relevant fragment is offered in the example. In the appendix, texts 1A/2A are directed to patients and their families, and texts 1B/2B to health professionals. Obviously on Internet, the text for patients and the text for doctors are not in parallel text format as they appear in the appendix. They are formatted in this way solely to facilitate comparison. Although both texts are descriptions of small-cell lung cancer, they represent different levels of specialization, as evidenced in their respective terminology because each message is adapted to the needs, knowledge, and expectations of the receivers. The most obvious difference between the two can thus be seen in the knowledge projected onto the potential receivers. This is most evident in the presence / absence of terms in the text, as well as terms that embody different degrees of specialization. 1.1 Communicative context in specialized

communication

In a model of scientific communication, the text sender and the receiver are specialists, who are working in the same field. Both form part of a communicative context in which the text sender wishes to transmit a certain message in order to modify the knowledge base of the projected receiver in some way. The frame for scientific communication is represented in the following diagram elaborated by SAGER (1990: 100):

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2 knowledge linguistic form SFIMDFR

>

λ

\ > ,

\/

X'

intentions expectations

text -»RECEIVER purpose

The motivation of the text sender is translated into an intention, which in some way becomes an explicit or implicit part of the meaning of the text. In any act of scientific communication, the global intention is to inform. The effect of the message can be limited to modifying, adding to, or confirming what the receiver already knows. Alternatively, its objective may be to evoke linguistic or extralinguistic reactions, such as approval, confirmation, rejection, or other types of modifications in the receiver's behavior. Based on his / her expectations of the receivers' knowledge and feelings, the text sender selects the elements for the message that will best achieve her goal: more specifically, he / she selects the best level of language, configures the linguistic expressions chosen for the text, and finally transmits the message to the receiver. In informative speech acts, the text sender generally has more knowledge about the topic of discourse than the receiver because otherwise, there would be no effective transfer of information. In order for this transfer to be successful, the receiver must at the same time recognize that the text sender has sufficient authority in the knowledge domain. The selection of content and the way it is encoded depends, at least in part, on the power relation and recognition of expertise existing between the participants in the speech act. If this model is applied to the parallel texts on lung cancer, the following points of contrast become clear:

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knowledge 1 = sender 2 < sender

linguistic form 1 impersonal, technical, 2 personal, basic

SENDER 1 health 2 health

>

text

professional professional

purpose

-> RECEIVER 1 doctor 2 patient

intentions 1 2 informative expectations 1 receiver = doctor, not directly affected by the illness 2 receiver = person directly affected by the illness

In the text for doctors (appendix 1B/2B), the sender and receiver are both health professionals, who possess the same level of knowledge. This is evident in the extensive use of specialized medical terms, the absence of definitions, and even of any explicative contexts. In the text for patients (appendix 1A/2A) there is obviously not the same equality, since the sender is a health professional and the receiver, a patient. Consequently, in this text, there are no terminology problems because the text sender takes into account the receiver's lack of expert knowledge. The difference in receiver is also evident in the fact that everything is much more personal from the use of the second person to the detailed description of concepts, such as body parts and diagnostic tests. Throughout the text for patients, there is a very optimistic orientation, and the virtually non-existent possibilities of long-term survival are never mentioned. The author of the text even goes so far as to triumphantly announce the existence of treatments.

a b

There are treatments for all patients with small-cell lung cancer, Existen tratamientos para todos los pacientes con cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas.

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This optimistic perspective is reinforced by the description of the functions of different treatments:

• •

•

Surgery (taking out the cancer) I cirugía (extracción del cáncer) radiation therapy (using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays fo kill cancer cells) I radioterapia (uso de rayos X de alta energía u otros rayos de alta energía para eliminar células cancerosas) chemotherapy (using drugs fo kill cancer cells) I quimioterapia (uso de medicamentos para eliminar las células cancerosas).

The use of predicates such as take out / extracción and kill / eliminar makes one think, at least subliminally, that the three types of treatment are effective and really do what they are supposed to. For example, something bad which is taken out, normally is not put back in again. In the same way, common sense tells us that something that is killed disappears more or less definitively. In this sense, the use of eliminar in the Spanish text is less forceful because it is a verb primarily used in conjunction with inanimate entities, whereas this is obviously not the case with kill. In neither text, is there any further specification or indication of how successful such actions are, and if the implicit result is definitive or not. This is in direct contrast with the text for doctors in which the truth is stated very baldly: 6 a b

7 a b

Without treatment, small cell carcinoma of the lung has the most aggressive clinical course of any type of pulmonary tumor, with median survival from diagnosis of only 2-4 months, Sin tratamiento, el carcinoma de pulmón de células pequeñas tiene el curso clínico más agresivo de todos los tipos de tumor pulmonar, con una supervivencia media desde el diagnóstico de sólo 2-4 meses.

In small cell lung cancer, the majority of patients die of their tumor despite state-of-the-art treatment, En cáncer del pulmón de células pequeñas, la mayoría de los pacientes muere de su tumor a pesar de recibir los tratamientos más adelantados.

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In the text for doctors, the patient is mentioned very generally as an anonymous collectivity. The patients are present, not as people that can experience pain, but strictly in function with their possibilities of survival, percentage-wise. 8 a

b

Furthermore, about 10% of the total population of patients remain free of disease over two years from the start of therapy, the time period during which most relapses occur. However, even these patients are at risk of dying from lung cancer (both small and non-small cell types). The overall survival at 5 years is less than 5%. Además, cerca del 10% de la población total de pacientes continúa estando Ubre de enfermedad después de dos años del comienzo de la terapia, el período durante el cual ocurren la mayoría de las recidivas. Sin embargo, aun estos pacientes tienen el riesgo de morir de cáncer de pulmón (tanto del tipo de células pequeñas como del tipo de células no pequeñas). La supervivencia general a 5 años es menos del 5%.

In contrast, in the text for patients, the text sender not only takes into account the receiver's level of knowledge, but also his / her position in the medical event, both in the configuration and structure of the text. For example, instead of describing the subtypes and recent research results, the text inventory for patients focuses on symptoms, diagnostic tests, and treatment options, all of which directly affect the patient. In the text inventory for doctors, this type of information is naturally superfluous because the health professional is familiar with these tests and knows what they consist of. The fact that such tests are more or less uncomfortable for the patient is not relevant to the specialist, who is logically more concerned with the effectiveness of the results. For example, the description of a bronchoscopy is the following: 9 If you have symptoms, your doctor may want to look into the bronchi through a special instrument, called a bronchoscope, that slides down the throat and into the bronchi. This test, called bronchoscopy, is usually done in the hospital. Before the test, you will be given a local anesthetic (a drug that makes you lose feeling for a short period of time) in the back of your throat. You may feel some pressure, but you usually do not feel pain. The fact that the patient in his role of affected entity is the main focus in the text is evident in the predicates throughout the text and the

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prepositional information they encode, which points to the patient as possessor. 10

SYMPTOMS

patient [HASAJ

cough chest pain wheezing shortness of breath coughing up blood hoarseness swelling in face and neck

bronchi [BODY_PART] throat [BODY_PART] bronchial examination [DlAGNOSTlC_TEST]

doctor [CAUSER) patient [HASA]

onchoscopy DIAGNOSTIC_TESTj

<

"

[INSTRj [LOC]

t

bronchoscope hospital

local anesthetic [DRUGI pressure Φ pain IRESULTI

When this information is structured in the form of a conceptual network like 10, the transfer of meaning from one language to another is fairly straightforward through the substitution of conceptual designations in one language to those of another. Even at this very basic level, it also permits us to see which conceptual systems have been activated within the text.

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11 tos dolor en el tórax silbido en la respiración falta de aliento tos con sangre ronquera hinchazón en la cara y el cuello paciente [H ASAJ bronquios [BODY_PARTl garganta [BODY_PART] examen de los bronquios [DiAGNOSTIC_TEST] médico [CAUSER] paciente [H ASA]

^

IlNSTR] [LOC]

broncoscopia [DIAGNOSTIC_TEST]

-^> broncoscopio * hospital

anestésico local [DRUG] sensación de presión Φ dolor

In CancerNet, the following Spanish translation is given: 12 Si usted tiene síntomas, el médico puede hacer un examen de los bronquios por medio de un instrumento especial llamado broncoscopio, el cual se desliza por la garganta hasta los bronquios. Esta prueba, llamada broncoscopia, generalmente se lleva a cabo en un hospital. Antes de este examen, se administra un anestésico local (un medicamento que le adormece el área por un período corto) en la parte posterior de la garganta. Durante este examen, Ud puede sentir presión, pero generalmente no sentirá dolor. In the text for doctors, this type of basic information is not necessary. However, in the case of the patient, it responds to the needs of the receiver, who connects to CancerNet to get information, and thus modify his / her knowledge, adding this information to that which he / she already has. This means a modification of conceptual structures at different levels. 1.2 Conceptual structures in specialized

translation

In specialized translation, the translator has to define the domains / subdomains within the text, as well as the conceptual systems activated within its content. The degree of specialization in a text is defined by its terminology. Effectively, the terms of a text are what determine the text's domain, and also what gives it its technical content.

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]07_

As is well known, terms represent concepts. Concepts are organized in a given domain in a structured network or conceptual system, which reflects the perceived reality of a specialized discipline or area of professional activity. Correspondingly, each conceptual system is a structure with various subclasses of concepts, only some of which appear in the text. In order to understand what a term means, it is also necessary to understand the conceptual system it belongs to and its place within the system in relation to other concepts at the corresponding levels of specialization. This is important because terms can only be accurately used in a discourse, if the text sender has the term and its configuration in his / her knowledge base / memory. To employ a frequently used metaphor, our memory is like a library, and stored knowledge can be compared to the books on its shelves. Everything that we learn is filed away, and nothing is ever lost. Knowing something means being able to efficiently retrieve data related to it, and being able to apply it in the appropriate context. The person with the best memory simply has the most efficient filing system or system of links. That means that intelligence is a matter of being able to accurately establish connections and embed the concept in question within a network of other more established ones. The trick of knowing / remembering is more a question of relational efficiency than of quantity of data. Everyone's knowledge base is structured with the same sort of links. In a conceptual system, there are two categories of conceptual relations, hierarchical and non-hierarchical (MEYER, ECK and SKUCE 1997:103). Hierarchical relations are the following: •

•

The relation between a generic term and more specific ones. For example, in the sample texts in the appendix, the most important of the various hierarchical concepts activated is that of MALIGNANT TUMOR. Meronymic or part-whole relations. The superordinate concept is the whole and the subordinate concepts are its parts. An example of this type of hierarchy is that of the H U M A N BODY.

Although hierarchical relations have been studied in depth, nonhierarchical relations certainly have not (SAGER 1990:35). This type of relations are of great importance in dynamic knowledge representations because they enhance conceptual structure by enriching networks and codifying the multiple and various relations one concept can have with others. Examples of such relations are the following:

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13 Relation cause-effect

Example smoking—malignant tumor

activity-place

treatment—hospital

object-form

cancer cell—oat cell

process-method

diagnostic test—bronchoscopy

method-instrument

bronchoscopy—bronchoscope

Notwithstanding, specialized texts never reflect entire systems of concepts, and this is a problem that the translator must inevitably deal with. Such texts are generally written for receivers with expert knowledge, and thus use concepts at more specific levels of the domain without explicitly referring to those at more general levels. Only a fragment of the conceptual system is mentioned in the text, but the translator must reconstruct an important part in order to obtain a comprehension of the content similar to that of the ideal receiver, in this case, a doctor with expert knowledge. The text sender selects textual content in accordance with his expectations about the ideal receiver. In the text for doctors, the presupposed knowledge is implicit in the extensive use of medical terms without definitions. In the case of specialized communication, the existence of a nomenclature (terms and standardized expressions which the sender knows that the receiver will recognize and understand) is useful to assure shared knowledge. In the text for doctors, there are various examples of this, such as the enumeration of treatment options (chemotherapy, surgical resection, radiotherapy) and the combinations of drugs in chemotherapy (cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, doxorubicin, vincristine, etoposide, etc) as well as diagnostic tests and body parts. In 14, the difference of knowledge levels is evident in the description of chemotherapy as a treatment option. The terms are in boldcase, and evidently, there is more specialized knowledge in the text for doctors. Whereas in the text for patients, chemotherapy is described at a very general functional level, the text for doctors is more specific as it describes one type of chemotherapy (combination chemotherapy) as well as the drugs, which the different treatments consist of.

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14 Treatment options: Patients

Treatment options: Doctors

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment for

Combination chemotherapy with one of the

all stages of small cell lung cancer.

following regimens and chest irradiation (with or

Chemotherapy may be taken by pill, or it may be

without PCI given to patients with complete

put into the body by a needle in the vein or

responses): The following regimens produce

muscle. Chemotherapy is called a systemic

similar survival outcomes: EP or EC: etoposide +

treatment because the drug enters the

cisplatin or carboplatin [17,181 CAV:

bloodstream, travels through the body, and can

cyclophosphamide + doxorubicin + vincristine

kill cancer cells outside the lungs, including

[19[ CAE: cyclophosphamide + doxorubicin +

cancer cells that have spread to the brain

etoposide [20] ICE: ifosfamide + carboplatin + etoposide [211

However, TREATMENT is not the only conceptual category which is more highly specialized in the texts. Another relevant example can be found in the category of the HUMAN BODY. The text for doctors frequently uses very specialized anatomical terms without any sort of explicative context (eg hemithorax, mediastinum, supraclavicular lymph nodes), whereas the text for patients even includes explanations of very basic terms such as lung. 15 a The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped organs that take up much of the room inside the chest. The lungs bring oxygen into the body and take out carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of the body's cells. Tubes called bronchi make up the inside of the lungs. Los pulmones dan oxígeno al cuerpo y expulsan el dióxido de carbono, un desecho producido por las células del cuerpo. Los bronquios son unos tubos que forman parte del interior de los pulmones. Each term can be said to signal its membership in a particular domain, and refers either implicitly or explicitly to other related terms, as well as to the whole structural configuration of the domain. In both sets of texts, the terms in them activate the following conceptual categories at the appropriate levels.

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16 Systems activated: texts for patients 1 (pat) Types of cancer {cancer, small cell lun g cancer) 2(pat) Body parts: general level (lung, brain, lymph nod es)

Systems activated: text for doctors

2 (doc)

Types of cancer (carcinoma, small cell lung cancer) Body parts: specific level (hemithorax, mediastinum, supraclavicular lymph nodes)

3 (pat) Symptoms (cough, chest pain)

3(doc)

0

4(pat) Diagnostic test

4(doc) 5(doc)

0 Types de tumor

6(doc) 7(doc)

Tumor as a process Treatment (surgical resection, radiotherapy, chemotherapy): negative side effects (toxicity)

(bronchoscopy)

S(pat) 0 6(pat) Disease as a process 7(pat) Treatment (surgery, rad iation therapy,chemotherapyso\uúon (taking out cancer, killing cancer cells)

1 (doc)

The systems activated in both inventories are not exactly the same. Even when the systems have the same label, they are different insofar as the level of knowledge encoded. For example, in the text for doctors, system 1 (doc) is activated by the term carcinoma, and refers to the different types of cancer according to their body location. Further on in the text, this hierarchy expands to more specific levels: it takes the classification of malignant tumors in general as a starting point and works down to those in the lungs. The following diagram shows the section of the hierarchy activated in the text for doctors: 17

bones, muscles, tissue

Ψ sarcoma

cells forming the epidermis on the skin, throat, lungs, and certain organs

Ψ

blood, bone, bone, marrow, spleen

Ψ leukemia

carcinoma

lymphatic system

Ψ lymphoma

text

However, the comprehension of the information necessarily means the reconstruction of the rest of the system in order to situate carcinoma in the context of other related concepts. In contrast, in the text for patients, the reference to the illness inevitably remains at the more general level of

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1_Π_

the hierarchy, followed by the name of the affected organ, in this case, the lung: 18 cancer

ι

ι

liver

stomach

ι

ι

breast

1

1

1

lung

ι

prostate

'

non-small cell

1 brain

1 small cell

text

The knowledge necessary for the comprehension of the text for patients is very basic since the receiver is not an expert. However, in both texts, the process of comprehension is similar because both activate knowledge structures through the use of terms.

2

Terminology and context

It is necessary to distinguish between the term as part of a specialized text and the term as a terminographic entry. DUBUC and LAURISTON (1997: 80) call this the distinction between the term in vitro and in vivo. A term is the designation of an object belonging to a specialized field of knowledge, and thus refers to knowledge described by a sublanguage. Many times the boundary between general and specialized language is far from clear, and more than a question of black and white, is more accurately conceived as shades of gray. As the texts show, terms can belong to different degrees of specialization, something that can be seen even at the level of its definition (term en vitro). 2.1 Definitions and knowledge

representation

It is a little-known fact, but nonetheless true, that a definition is a kind of knowledge representation (FABER / MAIRAL 1999). The patterns underlying the codification of meaning are reflected in lexical-conceptual structure. In this respect, a definition can be regarded as a translation of our perceptions of reality. A definition is an essential part of concept designation because in such a definition, conceptual relations are made explicit. A definition represents a term in vitro (as meaning potential) as opposed to a term in vivo (as it occurs in an actual text).

112 2.1.1

T&T 2.1999 The term in vitro

A definition signals membership in a specific knowledge domain and is the expression of the set of characteristics of a concept. A terminographic definition should provide the link between the concept and term because through the elaboration of the definition, its reference is fixed, while at the same time, its relations with other concepts are made explicit within the knowledge structure. Whereas a general or encyclopedic definition describes a concept giving all of its functions in the different domains it can conceivably belong to, a terminographic definition provides the identification of a concept within a specialized domain. For example, cancer is a concept that can be considered part of general language, as well as part of general medical terminology, and as such, has two kinds of definitions, one lexicographic and the other, terminographic. 19 Cancer: general language d efinition 19a Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture can-cer n. (a serious medical condition caused by) a diseased growth in the body, which may cause death. Cancer is a common cause of death in Western countries and is a disease that people are very frightened of getting: lung cancer. 19b Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary cancer. 1. Cancer or a cancer is a serious disease in which cells in a part of a person's body increase in number rapidly in an uncontrolled way, producing abnormal growths. Nicholas was dying of lung cancer... These rays falling on unprotected fair skin can produce cancer. 2. A cancer is a situation which you consider to be evil and unpleasant and which is becoming rapidly more common and widespread; a formal use. eg. What was happening was a sickness, a cancer in society that could not be helped. 19C Oxford Ad vanced Learner's Dictionary can-cer n. 1. (a) diseased growth in the body, often causing death; malignant tumour: Doctors found a cancer on her breast, (b) disease in which such growths form: lung cancer □ cancer of the liver. 2. (fig.) evil or dangerous thing that spreads quickly: Violence is a cancer in our society.

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19d DRAE cáncer m. Paf. Tumor maligno, duro o ulceroso, que invade y destruye los tejidos orgánicos animales y es casi siempre incurable. | 2. n. p. m. Astron. Cuarto signo del Zodíaco, de 30° de amplitud, que el Sol recorre aparentemente al comenzar el verano. | 3. Astron. Constelación zodiacal que en otro tiempo debió de coincidir con el signo de este nombre, pero que actualmente, por resultado del movimiento retrógrado de los puntos equinocciales, se halla delante del mismo signo y un poco hacia el Oriente. | 4. adj. Referido a personas, las nacidas bajo este signo del Zodíaco. 19e Vox cáncer 1 m. Masa de tejido anormal que se forma en determinadas partes del organismo y que se puede extender a otras partes del cuerpo hasta causar la muerte. 2. fig. Vicio o elemento que destruye una sociedad. As can be observed in 20, the lexicographic definitions in 19 all have basically the same genus or nuclear term. 20 Dictionary

Genus

Differentiating information

LDEC

medical condition diseased growth

in the body

CCELD

disease

rapid, uncontrolled growth of cells; production of abnormal growth common, widespread

OALD

DRAE

VOX

evil and unpleasant situation diseased growth, malignant tumor disease evil / dangerous thing tumor maligno

production of abnormal growth quickly spreading duro.ulceroso; invade tejidos

signo del Zodíaco

cuarto [signo], 30° de amplitud

constelación zodiacal personas masa de tejido anormal

situada delante de Cáncer, hacia el Oriente nacidas bajo Cáncer formada en determinadas partes del organismo

vicio o elemento

destruye la sociedad

Pragmatic information common cause of death; causes fear in people

formal use

casi siempre incurable recorrido por el Sol al comenzar el verano antes coincidía con el signo puede extenderse a otras partes del cuerpo hasta causar la muerte uso figurado

Cancer is conceptualized both as a growth and the disease caused by this growth. The general language definition also shows a figurative use in

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which cancer has been metaphorically extended to designate a evil situation / destructive social element. The differentiating information is indicative of non-hierarchical conceptual relations, such as LOCATION (in the body / organism), result (abnormal growth), and manner (rapid, uncontrolled). The Spanish general language definitions 19de dramatically exemplify the fact that different lexicographers may have rather different visions of the meaning of a word. The definitions in the Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española [DRAE] 19d indicate the authors' vivid interest in Astronomy and Astrology, as well as the fact that definitional information should be updated periodically. The evaluation of cáncer as "casi siempre incurable" [almost always incurable] may have been true at one time in the past, but now is not an accurate reflection of present medical advances. This divergence of definitional criteria is unacceptable in terminography in which definitions are judged by standards of efficient scientific communication: accuracy, precision, and economy. Nonetheless, it should be pointed out that definitions in specialized dictionaries are far from perfect, and are not always models to follow. The information which they contain is often chaotically presented. 21 Cancer: specialized language definition 21 a Black's Medical Dictionary CANCER is the general term used to refer to a malignant tumour, irrespective of the tissue of origin. "Malignancy" indicates that (i) the tumour is capable of progressive growth, unrestrained by the capsule of the parent organ and/or (ii) capable of distant spread via lymphatics or the blood stream resulting in development of secondary deposits of tumour known as 'metastases'. Microscopically, cancer cells appear different from the equivalent normal cells in the affected tissue. In particular they may show a lesser degree of differentiation (i.e. they are more 'primitive'), features indicative of a faster proliferative rate and disorganized alignment in relationship to other cells or blood vessels. The diagnosis of cancer usually depends upon the observation of these microscopic features in biopsies, i.e. tissue removed surgically for such examination. Cancers are classified according to the type of cell from which they are derived as well as the organ of origin. Hence cancers arising within the bronchi, often collectively referred to as 'lung cancer', include both adenocarcinomas (derived from glandular epithelium) and squamous carcinomas (derived from squamous epithelium). Sarcomas are cancers of

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1__ l 5_

connective tissue, including bone and cartilage. The behaviour of cancers and their response to therapy vary widely depending on numerous other factors such as growth rate, differentiation in cell and characteristics and size at the time of presentation. It is entirely wrong to see cancer as a single disease entity with a universally poor prognosis. 21b DTCM (Diccionario terminológico de ciencias médicas) cáncer Tumor maligno en general y especialmente el formado por células epiteliales. La característica básica de la malignidad es una anormalidad de las células, transmitida a las células hijas, que se manifiesta por la reducción de control del crecimiento y la función celular, conduciendo a una serie de fenómenos adversos en el huésped, a través de un crecimiento masivo, invasión de tejidos vecinos y metástasis. La proliferación celular en los tumores malignos no es totalmente autónoma; además de la dependencia del cáncer respecto del huésped para su irrigación sanguínea, su crecimiento se afecta por las hormonas, los fármacos y los mecanismos inmunológicos del paciente. Los cánceres se dividen en dos grandes categorías de CARCINOMA y SARCOMA. The definitions in 21 are more or less successful representations of the set of basic characteristics, parameters, and knowledge relations. The genus in both medical dictionaries is malignant tumor / tumor maligno. This type of entry logically includes more characteristics (composition, process, result, types) because the knowledge base of the receiver is greater. For example, both the English and Spanish specialized definitions refer to the process of uncontrolled cellular growth, as well as the conceptual structure of types of cancer that includes carcinoma and sarcoma. These definitions also presuppose a knowledge of the distinction between malignant and benign tumor. Though the information in these entries is not very well organized, it indicates the following characteristics as major parameters of differentiation between benign and malignant tumors.

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22 Black's Medical

Dictionary

DCTM

anaplasia

unrestrained by the capsule of the parent organ more 'primitive'

mitosis invasive

faster proliferative rate distant spread

metastasis

secondary deposits of tumour known as 'metastases' progressive growth, faster proliferative rate lesser degree of differentiation, disorganized alignment

encapsulation

growth (-control) differentiation

anormalidad, reducción de función celular crecimiento masivo invasión de tejidos vecinos; dependencia respecto del huésped para su irrigación sanguínea; fenómenos adversos en el huésped metástasis la reducción de control crecimiento, proliferación celular anormalidad de las células

del

The difference between malignant and benign tumors can thus be represented in terms of binary distinctions. 23 MALIGNANT TUMOR encapsulation anaplasia mitosis invasive metastasis growth (-control) differentiation

BENIGN TUMOR

-

+

--

+

+ + + + +

-----

Curiously enough, the pragmatic information in Black's Medical Dictionary contradicts that in the DRAE because it underlines the fact that it is a mistake to think that cancer always ends in death. ("It is entirely wrong to see cancer as a single disease entity with a universally poor prognosis"). 2.1.2

The term in vivo

Within the text, terminological contexts are important because in the same way that terms are members of concept systems implicit in the text, they also are also related to other units made explicit in the text:

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24 Because of the frequent presence of occult metastatic chemotherapy is the

DISEASE

cornerstone of TREATMENT for limited stage small cell lung cancer.

Regarding the relations of elements within the same sentence, treatment is the generic term for chemotherapy, which at the same time presupposes the implicit presence of treatments which are also possible choices. 25 TREATMENTS

liver stomach

breast

lung

prostate

ι—

bladder

I

I

I

non-small cell

chemotherapy

brain

small cell

1 radiotherapy

1— surgery

clinical trials

In the same way that disease is the generic term for small cell lung cancer, its specification occult metastatic implies another type of nonhierarchical conceptual relation, that of process and result. 26 Cancer as a process Cancer = change in the DNA of a cell [cell growth (- control)]

pre-cancerous stage (up to 30 years) benign (non-cancerous)

tumor malignant (cancerous) I

^.

metastasis (secondary tumor)

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Even in the structure of the text, systematic representations are important for the transmission of the message. Example 27 compares the sections in both texts regarding treatments (see appendix). In the text for patients (appendix 1A/2A), this section is clearly explicative. Its structure is in direct contrast to the corresponding section in the text for doctors (appendix 1B/2B). 27 Patients: treatment options 1 Treatments 1.1 chemotherapy 1.2 radiotherapy 1.3 surgery

Doctors: treatment options 1 Clinical trials 1.1 Evaluation areas 1.1.1 new drug regimens 1.1.2 variation of drug doses 1.1.3 chemotherapy combined with surgical resection of primary tumor / radiotherapy Results of recent research

Textual configuration also reflects communicative context. In the text for patients (1A/2A), there are four paragraphs. The first introduces the topics of the other sections of the text. First it starts with new information (¡e the existence of treatments), which then becomes given information, or the topic, of the following paragraph where the focus is on the description of each treatment option. Evidently the text for doctors (1B/2B) does not begin with the same type of presupposition because it would not be informative as doctors are already aware of the existence of these treatments. The new information, which constitutes the starting point of the message, is the existence of clinical texts that consist in the administration / use of experimental drugs, new doses of standard ones and/or combinations of drugs already in use, and finally, the combination of more than one treatment in order to improve the patient's possibility of survival. As a result, the text for doctors begins where the text for patients ends because in the text for patients, there is scarcely any mention of clinical tests, which are more advanced variations of the basic treatments described. In the same way, the configuration of the specialist text reflects the fact that there is no need to signal the change of topic so clearly. In the translation, such cognitive structures of knowledge are important. A good translator is capable of going beyond syntactic structures, which are specific of each language, and of acquiring a multidimensional version of the text. This implies the capacity to process textual information from various perspectives due to the double role that the translator plays in the act of communication.

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119

The medical event

The concept of frame is also fundamental in explaining the comprehension process. A frame is a complex data structure that represents a stereotyped situation. This type of representation facilitates the comprehension of many events in our life because we project frames onto situations we find ourselves in so that we can understand them better. The concept of frame can also be applied to textual structure because the structure of a text is more rapidly recognized if a translator has in his mental closet a wide inventory of textual skeletons. These text frames can be of varying length, from a single definition to an entire scientific treatise. Obviously, in scientific, and especially medical, translation, there is more than one type of text, and the terminology and textual configuration vary accordingly. For example, medical translation covers a wide range of text types from articles for the general public to textbooks, instructions for the use of medicines, and specialized articles in medical and scientific journals. Logically, the translator should be familiar with these different text frames. The subsections of the texts in CancerNet are configured in such a way as to best transmit the global message to their projected receivers: 28 PATIENTS Kpat) Description 2(pat) 3(pat) Stage explanation 4(pat) Treatment option overview 5(pat) Limited stage small cell lung cancer 6(pat) Extensive stage small cell lung cancer 7(pat) Recurrent small cell lung cancer

DOCTORS 1 (doc) Prognosis 2(doc) Cellular classification 3(doc) Stage information 4(doc) Treatment option overview 5(doc) Limited stage small cell lung cancer 6(doc) Extensive stage small cell lung cancer 7(doc) Recurrent small cell lung cancer

Both inventories of texts have similar superstructures, though with evident differences in sections 1, 2 and 3. In the text for patients, there is no section which corresponds to cellular classification. It is also significant that in section 1, the title has been changed to description instead of prognosis, given that the content of this section is too depressing to be included. In section 3, the knowledge of the receivers is taken into account, and explanation has been substituted for information. The basic differences between the two texts are due to the difference in the ¡deal reader. Although in both cases, the basic function is to inform (explaining signifies informing, but at a more elementary level), this function is always in consonance with two distinct communicative contexts.

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The terms in each text provide the key for understanding its content and perspective. The codification of medical terminology activates various types of representational schemas, all of which can be derived from the description of the same micro-cosmos.

4

Conclusion

The comprehension process of the translator is an essential factor in translation. In specialized translation, this comprehension process necessarily implies a special type terminology management, which can be described as ad hoc as opposed to the systematic variety carried out by terminologists. As mentioned throughout the article, knowledge is encoded in terminology, and the terms within a text are indicative of the specialized knowledge that the translator must acquire in order to understand the message being transmitted. Such knowledge acquisition is necessary in order for the translator to put him / herself at the same level as the receiver in the source language. The knowledge encoded in terms is both actual (in vivo) and potential {in vitro). Both contexts must be understood for there to be an adequate comprehension of knowledge structures. In the understanding of potential meaning, the terminographic definition plays an important role. In both types of context, larger configurations must also be taken into account such as the speech act involved, cognitive frame and textual superstructure. Information concerning the text sender and potential receiver, as well as the organization of the contextual systems activated within the text is essential in the production of a target text that accurately encodes the content of the source text. P A M E L A FABER

University of Granada

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121 APPENDIX 1 : English source text

[1A] TREATMENT OPTION OVERVIEW [PATIENTS]

[1B] TREATMENT OPTION OVERVIEW [DOCTORS]

How small cell lung cancer is treated. There are treatments for all patients with small cell lung cancer. Three kinds of treatment are used: (i) surgery (taking out the cancer) (ii) radiation therapy (using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays to kill cancer cells) (iii) chemotherapy (using drugs to kill cancer cells).

In small cell lung cancer, the majority of patients die of their tumor despite state-ofthe-art treatment. Most of the improvements in survival in small cell lung cancer are attributable to clinical trials which have attempted to improve upon the best available, accepted therapy. Patient entry into such studies is highly desirable.

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment for all stages of small cell lung cancer. Chemotherapy may be taken by pill, or it may be put into the body by a needle in the vein or muscle. Chemotherapy is called a systemic treatment because the drug enters the bloodstream, travels through the body, and can kill cancer cells outside the lungs, including cancer cells that have spread to the brain. Radiation therapy uses x-rays or other high-energy rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation therapy for small cell lung cancer usually comes from a machine outside the body (external beam radiation therapy). It may be used to kill cancer cells in the lungs or in other parts of the body where the cancer has spread. Radiation therapy may also be used to prevent the cancer from growing in the brain. This is called prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI). Because PCI may affect your brain functions, your doctor will help you decide whether to have this kind of radiation therapy. Radiation therapy can be used alone or in addition to surgery and/or chemotherapy. Surgery may be used if the cancer is found only in one lung and in nearby lymph nodes. Because this type of lung cancer is usually not found in only one lung, surgery alone is not often used. Occasionally, surgery may be used to help determine exactly which type of lung cancer you have. If you do have surgery, your doctor may take out the cancer in one of the following operations: Wedge resection removes only a small part of the lung. Lobectomy removes an entire section (lobe) of the lung. Pneumonectomy removes the entire lung. During surgery, your doctor will also take out lymph nodes to see if they contain cancer.

Areas of active clinical evaluation in small cell lung cancer include new drug regimens composed of standard and new agents, variation of drug doses in current regimens, and study of the possible benefits of adding surgical resection of the primary tumor or radiotherapy to the chest and other sites to combination chemotherapy. Controversy exists over the issue of whether increasing the dose rate of commonly used front-line regimens above levels that produce modest toxicity will produce improved survival. Retrospective studies are plagued by methodologie difficulties and show inconsistent results. [1] The issue is best settled by randomized trials. A prospective randomized study in extensive stage disease does not suggest any advantage to increasing the standard doses of etoposide plus cisplatin. [2J Even chemotherapy of the intensity used in autologous bone marrow transplant regimens has not clearly been shown to improve survival in patients with small cell lung cancer. [3,4]

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122 A P P E N D I X 2: Spanish target text [2A] ASPECTOS DE LAS O P C I O N E S DEL T R A T A M I E N T O [PACIENTES]

[2B] ASPECTOS DE LAS O P C I O N E S DE TRATAMIENTO [MÉDICOS]

Existen tratamientos para todos los pacientes con cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas. Se emplean tres clases de tratamiento: (i) cirugía (extracción del cáncer) (ii) radioterapia (uso de rayos X de alta energía u otros rayos de alta energía para eliminar células cancerosas) (iii) quimioterapia (uso de medicamentos para eliminar las células cancerosas). La quimioterapia es el tratamiento más común para todas las etapas de cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas. La quimioterapia puede tomarse en forma oral o puede administrarse en el cuerpo con un aguja en una vena o músculo. La quimioterapia se considera un tratamiento sistémico ya que el medicamento se introduce al torrente sanguíneo, viaja a través del cuerpo y puede eliminar las células cancerosas fuera de los pulmones, incluyendo las células cancerosas que se han diseminado en el cerebro. La radioterapia consiste en el uso de rayos X de alta energía u otros rayos de alta energía para eliminar células cancerosas y reducir tumores. La radioterapia para el cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas por lo general proviene de una máquina fuera del cuerpo (radioterapia de haz externo). Puede emplearse para eliminar las células cancerosas en los pulmones o en otras partes del cuerpo donde el cáncer se haya diseminado. La radioterapia también se puede emplear para prevenir el crecimiento de cáncer en el cerebro. Este procedimiento se llama radioterapia craneal profiláctica (PCI). Debido a que la PCI puede afectar las funciones del cerebro, el médico le ayudará a decidir sobre esta clase de radioterapia. La radioterapia puede emplearse sola o con cirugía y/o quimioterapia. Puede emplearse cirugía si el cáncer se encuentra solamente en un pulmón y en los ganglios linfáticos cercanos. Debido a que este tipo de cáncer de pulmón generalmente no se encuentra en un pulmón solamente, la cirugía sola no se usa a menudo. Ocasionalmente, la cirugía puede usarse para ayudar a determinar exactamente el tipo de cáncer de pulmón. Si en definitiva el paciente se somete a una cirugía, el médico puede extraer el cáncer usando alguna de las siguientes operaciones: Resección por cuña en la que se extrae sólo una parte pequeña del pulmón. Lobectomía en la que se extrae una sección completa (lóbulo) del pulmón. Neumonectomía en la que se extrae todo el pulmón. Durante la cirugía, el médico también extraerá ganglios linfáticos para determinar la presencia de células cancerosas.

En cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas, la mayoría de los pacientes muere de su tumor a pesar de recibir los tratamientos más adelantados. La mayoría de las mejoras en supervivencia en cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas se atribuye a las pruebas clínicas que han intentado perfeccionar la mejor terapia disponible y aceptada. El ingreso de estos pacientes en dichos estudios es sumamente deseable. Las áreas de evaluación clínica activa en cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas incluyen nuevos regímenes de fármacos compuestos de agentes estándar y nuevos, variación de las dosis de los fármacos en los regímenes actuales y el estudio de los posibles beneficios que se pueden lograr agregando a quimioterapia de combinación la resección quirúrgica del tumor primario o radioterapia al tórax y a otros sitios. Existe controversia en cuanto a si el aumentar las tasas de dosificación de los regímenes de vanguardia comúnmente usados arriba de los niveles que producen una modesta cantidad de toxicidad producirá una mejor supervivencia. Los estudios retrospectivos están llenos de dificultades metodológicas y muestran resultados inconsistentes. |1] Esta situación se establece mejor en pruebas clínicas aleatorias. Un estudio aleatorio prospectivo de la enfermedad en etapa extensa no sugiere ninguna ventaja en aumentar las dosis estándar de etopósido más cisplatino. |2] Ni se ha mostrado claramente que la quimioterapia con la intensidad empleada en regímenes de trasplante autólogo de médula ósea mejore la supervivencia en pacientes con cáncer de pulmón de células pequeñas. 13,4]

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References BEJOINT HENRI 1997 "Regards sur la définition en terminologie" 19/26 Cahiers de Lexicologie 70 BowKER LYNNE 1997 "Multidimensional classification of concepts and terms" 133/146 in WRIGHT / BUDIN D U B U C ROBERT / LAURISTON A N D Y 1997 "Terms and contexts" 80/88 in W R I G H T /

BUDIN FABER

PAMELA / RICARDO MAIRAL USÓN 1999 Constructing

a Lexicon of English

Verbs Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin KAGEURA KYO 1997 "Multifaceted / Multidimensional concept systems" 119/132 in W R I G H T / B U D I N

MEYER INGRID / KAREN ECK / DOUGLAS SKUCE 1997 "Systematic concept analysis

within a knowledge-based approach to terminology" 98/118 in WRIGHT / BUDIN

SAGER JUAN 1990 A Practical

Course in Terminology

Processing Benjamins,

Amsterdam / Philadelphia W R I G H T SUE ELLEN 1997 "Representation of concept systems" 89/97 in W R I G H T / BUDIN

W R I G H T SUE ELLEN / GERHARD B U D I N 1997 Handbook of Terminology

Management

Benjamins, Amsterdam / Philadelphia W R I G H T SUE ELLEN / LELAND W R I G H T 1997 "Terminology management for technical translation" 147/159 in W R I G H T / B U D I N

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Um olhar computacional sobre a tradução In this paper I discuss, from a computational point of view, some misconceptions about machine translation and translation in general. I start by making the following three claims: (i) one should concentrate on the differences between the languages in question (not on their similarities) and base translation on contrastive studies; (ii) one must pay due attention to the language systems as a whole, and not presuppose equivalence at any level; and (Hi) there is no essential difference between machine and human translation: they share several problems and the same misconceptions apply to both. I present then briefly the architecture of a particular machine translation system, a set of simple contrastive pairs illustrating several issues, and a descriptive model of translation (the translation network). I also provide some considerations on false friends and translationese, and point to the new trend in computer-assisted translation of making use of previous human translations, concluding by criticizing the low status of translation, both human and automatic.

A

pós dez anos de trabalho em áreas relacionadas com a tradução e com o tratamento computacional da língua portuguesa, cada vez mais vejo que a tradução é uma das mais complexas actividades realizadas na sociedade humana. O que não quer dizer que tal seja reconhecido e, muito menos, que a actividade seja sempre bem exercida'. Não admira, pois, quea humanidade tenha conseguido construir máquinas que mandam homens à Lua e não seja capaz de fazer uma máquina que traduza um livro infantil de inglês para francês de forma minimamente aceitável, como apontam KAY et ai (1994). Se reflectirmos um pouco, contudo, vemos que a comparação não é lícita: o homem não construiu uma máquina capaz de mandar seres humanos a qualquer satélite ou planeta. O problema não é fazer uma

Muito pelo contrário, quanto mais difícil é uma tarefa mais difícil é atingir a excelência.

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máquina que traduza, por exemplo, O Principezinho para inglês. O problema é fazer uma máquina (por máquina, está claro, entendemos um sistema automático, neste caso um programa de computador) que traduza qualquer texto (mesmo que o género literário seja restrito). E, claro, que traduza de forma a satisfazer um leitor. Neste artigo, pretendo expor três opiniões em relação à tradução, assim c o m o ¡lustrar, a esse propósito, o meu trabalho na área. Em traços largos, afirmarei que: 1 A multiplicidade e complexidade das diferenças entre as duas línguas envolvidas são os factores mais importantes a considerar na tradução. Embora isto pareça uma simples questão de bom senso, a maior parte das teorias linguísticas em voga, ao privilegiar o estudo do que é comum a todas as línguas, tornam-se de facto inadequadas para descrever e explicar precisamente aquilo que é diferente. Para traduzir, a descrição deve ser feita em termos contrastivos. Para poder investigar, sistematizar, compreender e transmitir esse conhecimento a novos executantes (pessoas ou máquinas), o nosso objectivo terá de ser uma descrição pormenorizada das diferenças e a sua explicação. 2 Para compreender, criar um modelo e analisar a tradução em geral é preciso entrar em conta com a complexidade dos sistemas das línguas em presença, pondo de lado pontos de partida simplistas q u e pressuponham equivalência de significado ou de uso. Não adianta chegar a afirmações tão gerais que sejam aplicáveis a qualquer língua, mas que não correspondam a algo de palpável (e falsificável) nas línguas em questão. Nesta linha, apresento um modelo que intitulei "rede de tradução" e que permite captar sistematicamente algumas características da tradução. 3 Não há, à partida, diferença entre tradução automática e tradução humana, mas sim entre boa e má tradução. Em particular, um dos estigmas geralmente associados à tradução automática é a de que não compreende o texto e se deixa levar. por semelhanças formais. Mostrarei, contudo, que tal fenómeno é, de facto, extremamente frequente na tradução humana. Além disso, a própria questão da compreensão do texto é problemática: a tradução pressupõe sempre uma interpretação subjectiva, c o m o STEINER (1975) mostrou no seu After Babel. Ao contrário da opinião corrente, tal não se aplica apenas ao texto literário, mas a qualquer texto: Aquilo que um tradutor, como leitor, interpreta como implicações, pressuposições ou conhecimento implícito associado ao texto e que, por conseguinte, toma em consideração para efectuar a tradução, carece de especificação objectiva. É uma escolha entre muitas, e não é possível ignorar a

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importância do papel que cada texto traduzido vai ter no sistema da lingua de destino (TOURY, 1995). Convém talvez indicar, em relação ao tipo de texto, que subscrevo uma aproximação integrada aos estudos de tradução - como a proposta por SNELL-HORNBY (1995) - não aceitando, pois, uma dicotomia tradução literária (ramo da literatura comparada) e ciência da tradução (ramo da linguística aplicada). Além disso, reconheço a justeza da observação de DOHERTY (1997) de que a tradução de um texto científico pode revelar-se mais complexa do que a de um texto de autor, visto que o tradutor está menos condicionado pela formulação original.

1

A primazia do contraste

A profundidade da análise da língua de origem, para efeitos de tradução, deve ser determinada pela língua de destino, ou seja, para traduzir é preciso centrarmo-nos nas diferenças entre as línguas. Por exemplo, não é preciso preocuparmo-nos, na análise de Three men carried a table, sobre se os três carregadores levaram a mesa juntos ou um de cada vez, visto que temos a mesma indefinição (a que chamarei vagueza) na tradução portuguesa mais plausível. Da mesma forma, não é preciso resolver a difícil questão da definição de expressão idiomática, visto que podemos redefinir expressão idiomática, para efeitos de tradução, simplesmente como "expressão que não tem uma tradução literal na língua de destino", como propus em SANTOS (1990). Se estes comentários podem parecer triviais na óptica de um tradutor humano, note-se, porém, que a sua relevância é consideravelmente maior no caso da tradução automática, em que é preciso dotar o sistema de conhecimento das duas línguas de forma a poder traduzir - em princípio qualquer texto de uma língua para outra. Nessa perspectiva, é importante lembrar que nos estamos a referir à cobertura de um léxico inteiro, e não apenas a três ou quatro exemplos, e que a escolha do conhecimento a incorporar, e de como dele fazer uso, é fulcral para o desempenho do sistema. Privilegiar o contraste, dando ao mesmo tempo a possibilidade de a língua de destino se realizar segundo a sua própria estrutura, é a essência da proposta de uma arquitectura original de tradução automática, ilustrada na Figura 1 e descrita em SANTOS (1993).

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Figura 1

analisador da língua de destino

/especificação d e X regularidades de \ / tradução arbitrariamente \ complexas /

analisador da língua de origem

módulo de transferência

gerador da língua de destino

Sou, no entanto, obrigada a remeter para as referências acima citadas para uma explicação cabal do sistema e das suas vantagens, dado que a maioria dos leitores não será familiar com a área da tradução automática.

2

Respeito pelas duas línguas

Não pense contudo o leitor incauto que a abordagem descrita acima, privilegiando o contraste, torna a tradução mais fácil. A tradução é uma tarefa complexa, e se um bom desenho do sistema é importante, continua a haver um sem-número de problemas a resolver em cada caso. Analisar a língua de origem em relação à língua de destino pode ser, de facto, muito mais complexo do que analisá-la em relação a alguns parâmetros que façam sentido na língua original. O que não deixa, no entanto, de ser necessário se de facto de tradução se trata. Note-se que esta consideração (desenvolvida na minha tese de doutoramento, SANTOS (1996), aplicada aos sistemas de tempo e aspecto do português e do inglês) não é de índole organizativa ou informática; pelo contrário, baseia-se em considerações linguísticas. Tendo analisado em pormenor várias centenas de pares original-tradução de inglês para português e vice-versa, e reforçado a minha convicção de que não existe melhor forma de proceder a estudos contrastivos que mostrem as

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diferenças entre o "espírito" das línguas2, fui, por outro lado, obrigada a reconhecer a extrema complexidade das relações de significado entre os dois membros do par original / tradução (a todos os níveis). Com efeito, além das possíveis implicações e explicitação de pressuposições, reconhecidas pelo menos desde NlDA (1959), muitas outras considerações influenciam a forma e o conteúdo da tradução: Por um lado, é frequente não ser possível extrair do texto original toda a informação para construir um texto traduzido, ou seja, o tradutor tem de entrar com o seu conhecimento, intuição e arte das duas línguas e do assunto ou situação descrito para efectuar a tradução. Por outro lado, não é raro acontecer que não seja possível exprimir toda a informação do texto inicial. Na maioria dos casos, em cada bocado de texto traduzido haverá elementos omitidos, e elementos adicionados, em relação ao texto original 3 . O que indica que é igualmente necessário "respeitar" tanto a língua de origem como a língua de destino. Para reiterar que não é só em tradução literária (nem especialmente, aliás) que estes problemas se fazem sentir, apresento exemplos de vários tipos de texto, cuja compreensão na língua original não constitui qualquer problema 4 : 1 He was trapped as his people were always trapped Estava peado, como todos os da sua raça sempre tinham estado 2 fazias logo os versos que te pediam. you could quickly write whatever verses were asked of you. 3 The EXEC is held in a I...} O EXEC encontrase em [...] ou O EXEC deve ser guardado em [...] 4 Não necessita de frigorífico antes de abrir Una vez abierto el envase, consérvese en el frigorífico A tradução dos dois primeiros exemplos5 obriga a escolher, no caso 1, entre uma formulação passada ou presente; no caso 2, entre possibilidade e realidade; enquanto as frases originais exprimem ambos os sentidos.

Diferenças que VINAY/ DARBELNET (1977) tão bem ¡lustraram entre o francês e o inglês. Se o objectivo da tradução fosse transmitir exactamente e apenas a informação / conteúdo expresso no texto original, esta seria impossível na maior parte (senão na totalidade) dos casos. O leitor é convidado, no que se refere ao par português - inglês, a ler os estudos pormenorizados em SANTOS (1995b, 1996, 1997a, 1998b e 1999a). Extraídos respectivamente de The Pearl, por JOHN STEINBECK, Bantam Books, 1975 (1 a edição, 1945), traduzido por MÁRIO DIONÍSIO para A pérola Publicações Europa-América, 1977, e de JORGE DE SENA Antigas e Novas Andanças do Demónio Edições 70, 5a edição, 1984 ( I a edição,

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O exemplo 3, discutido em SANTOS (1988), também obriga a uma escolha: Conforme o leitor seja um mero utilizador (interessado pois em saber onde está o EXEC)6 ou um programador que deverá criar tal tipo de programas, a tradução apropriada é diferente, enquanto que o texto original é neutro (vago) em relação a tal distinção, sendo igualmente aceitável para utilizadores e programadores. O exemplo 4, impresso nos pacotes de leite "Mimosa" vendidos em Lisboa, é um caso exemplar em que considerações culturais (muito provavelmente, associadas às expectativas dos falantes dos dois países) tiveram prioridade em relação ao conteúdo da própria mensagem7. Os exemplos não têm fim. Os poucos que escolhi pretendem apenas aguçar o interesse dos leitores não familiarizados com a prática ou análise da tradução, e, ao mesmo tempo, preparar o terreno para a apresentação do modelo da rede de tradução.

3

A rede de tradução

Uma rede é uma metáfora em voga (e/ou um conceito altamente polissémico). Na acepção em que a emprego aqui (SANTOS 1999b) quero sublinhar a existência de vários pontos ligados entre si, de forma não rígida, o que quer dizer que "puxar" por um laço tem implicações noutros nós. De facto, usei este nome simplesmente porque o ponto de partida foi a ligação de duas redes aspectuais (aspectual networks), sendo o conceito, modelo e terminologia destas últimas devido a M O E N S (1987).

1978), traduzido por DAPHNE PATAI para By the Rivers of Babylon and other Stories, edited and with a Preface by DAPHNE PATAI, Rutgers University Press, 1989. Para aqueles leitores não familiarizados com a terminologia informático do sistema operativo VM/SP, urn EXEC é um ficheiro de comandos (executáveis, pois), ou seja, a especificação de um pequeno programa a executar pelo computador. Note-se que a mensagem portuguesa é acerca do tratamento do pacote antes da abertura; enquanto a espanhola apenas se refere à conservação depois da abertura. Espera-se, contudo, que as duas levem as respectivas populações consumidoras de leite a mudar o lugar do pacote (de fora para dentro do frigorífico) depois de o abrir.

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130 Figura 2

A figura 2 ¡lustra uma rede de tradução fictícia: no lado esquerdo temos o modelo da língua de partida, no lado direito o da língua de destino. A rede de tradução não é mais do que o acoplamento das duas redes, através de um pôr em correspondência das categorias (representado por setas na figura) e de eventuais distorções do modelo da língua de origem, provocadas por o tradutor a estar a ver com os "óculos" da língua de destino. Para obter uma rede de tradução é preciso observar os dados empíricos (traduções existentes) e avaliar a potencial "tradutibilidade" que eles implicam. O resultado permite sistematizar (uma parte de) o processo de tradução, naquilo que a tradução tem de linguístico, ou seja, que releva principalmente das diferenças entre os sistemas das línguas em presença. Exemplifiquemos: Enquanto a distinção entre estados permanentes e temporários (ou, melhor dizendo, entre qualidades e estados) ocupa um papel preponderante na língua portuguesa, não é muito relevante em inglês, onde raras vezes é marcada linguisticamente. Para traduzir um texto inglês para português, é pois frequente que o tradutor tenha de "induzir" essa distinção (sobre a qual o texto inglês é vago) na rede aspectual do inglês. É esta situação que é ilustrada pela rede de tradução da Figura 3.

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131 Figura 3 i estado \temporáriq Imperfeiti •^f

estado yr" ""v Wrmanent^^»