Teori Organisasi Dan Kepemimpinan

AFA B WLIEFH\@\FI

F) @FUFQ AL@FNFIC

]|kalq efrf kfi|}bf klq|wfnfi nokwoili |ufkf }|fu| oqcfib}f}b rfic klijfeb   wlqlimfif efi wl`fn| fnubd ef`fk }lubfw fnubtbuf} oqcfib}f}b) Klqlnf klkw|irfb  wbnbqfi, wlqf}ffi, nlbicbifi, }ufu|} efi `fufq al`fnfic wliebebnfi, |}bf, jlib} nl`fkbi rfic hlulqocli rfic ebafsf nlef`fk }|fu| oqcfib}f}b }lhbiccf ubefn }lwlqub kl}bi, |fic efi kfulqbf`, rfic }bdfuirf wf}bd efi efwfu ebn|f}fb efi ebfu|q }lwli|hirf ef`fk klie|n|ic ulqmfwfbirf u|j|fi oqcfib}f}b) ]|kalq efrf kfi|}bf afbn rfic klie|e|nb  wo}b}b wbkwbifi kf|w|i ficcouf klq|wfnfi dfnuoq ulqwliubic ef`fk }lubfw oqcfib}f}b fuf| bi}ufi}b afbn wlklqbiufh kf|w|i }sf}uf) Hf` bib nfqlif alqhf}b` ubefnirf }|fu| oqcfib}f}b fuf| bi}ufi}b }lafcbfi al}fq ebwlicfq|hb o`lh dfnuoq kfi|}bf }l`fn|  wl`fn}fif wlnlqjffi) ]f`fh }fu| hf` rfic hfq|} ebwlqhfubnfi ef`fk wl`fn}fiffi wlnlqjffi rfbu| ulqs|j|eirf ldlnubtbuf} nlqjf rfic wo}bubd, fef afirfn mfqf |iu|n kls|j|enfiirf) Alalqfwf ebfiufqfirf elicfi klilqfwnfi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi rfic afbn elicfi ebafqlicb wlkaliu|nfi }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b rfic jl`f}) Nlwlkbkwbifi }lqbic ebeldbib}bnfi }lafcfb wqo}l} klka|fu oqfic `fbi u lqbi}wbqf}b |iu|n alnlqjf alnlqjf nlqf} ef`fk ef`f k klirl`liccfqfnfi klirl`liccfqfnfi u|cf}+u|cf} u|cf}+u|cf} wliubic wliubic (]mhlqklqhoqi, (]mhlqklqhoqi, 6222") 6222") Ulufwb

wliclqubfi wliclqubfi

ulq}la|u }lqbic ebnfbunfi elicfi ef}fq+ef}fq afcb nlwlkbkwbifi rfic ldlnubd, rfnib klief}fqnfiirf wfef mfqf }loqfic wlkbkwbi fuf| kfifjlq klicc|ifnfi woslq  klicc|ifnfi woslq |iu|n  |iu|n  klkwlicfq|hb

wlqb`fn|

oqfic

`fbi)  Woslq 

klq|wfnfi

nlkfkw|fi

|iu|n 

klkwlicfq|hb oqfic+oqfic `fbi kl`fn|nfi }l}|fu| }lwlqub rfic ebbicbinfi o`lh }l}loqfic

rfic

klichliefnbirf

(Nfiulq,

6232")

Nfqlif

bu|`fh

}lqbicnf`b

nlwlkbkwbifi fuf| `lfelq}hbw ebeldbib}nfi }lafcfb nlkfkw|fi |iu|n klkwlicfq|hb nl`okwon |iu|n klimfwfb u|j|fi+u|j|fi ulquliu| (Qoaabi}, 6228") Ef`fk u|`b}fi bib nlwlkbkwbifi `labh ebdon|}nfi wfef nlwlkbkwbifi kfifjlqbf` ef`fk oqcf ib}f}b) Cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi efwfu ebeldbib}bnfi }lafcfb wo`f ubicnfh `fn| rfic ebqfimfic |iu|n klicbiulcqf}bnfi u|j|fi oqcfib}f}b elicfi u|j|fi biebtbe| |iu|n klimfwfb }|fu| u|j|fi ulquliu| (Hlbejqfmhkfi efi ]|fe H|}ifi, 1771:115") 1771:115") ]uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b afirfn  afirf n  }lnf`b kfmfkirf, k|`fb efqb rfic alq}bdfu uqfeb}boif` }fkwfb koelqi) Wlilqfwfiirf 6

}liebqb efwfu alqalef+alef efi afirfn dfnuoq rfic kliliu|nfi, fiufqf `fbi: al}fq  nlmb`irf wlq|}fhffi, `|f} }lkwbuirf jfqbicfi |}fhf, j|k`fh nfqrfsfi, u|j|fi   wlq|}fhffi

efi

}lafcfbirf)

Alqfcfkirf

}b}ulk

}uq|nu|q

oqcfib}f}b

ulq}la|u

ebk|icnbinfi afhsf }|fu| wlq|}fhffi F momon klicc|ifnfi }b}ulk }uq|nu|q  oqcfib}f}b A, ulufwb wlq|}fhffi M fuf| rfic `fbi al`|k uliu| momon klicc|ifnfi }b}ulk }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b oqcfib}f}b A) ]|fu| wlq|}fhffi ef`fk ef`fk qficnf klimfwfb u|j|fiirf }l`f`| klicc|ifnfi }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b }lafcfb sfefh }lcf`f nlcbfufiirf, ulufwb |iu|n    wlilqfwfi }b}ulk }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}birf ulqcfiu|ic efqb noieb}b wlq|}fhffi rfic   alq}ficn|ufi) Hf` bib klq|wfnfi }|fu| kf}f`fh afcb }lubfw wlq|}fhffi ef`fk klilqfwnfi }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b kfif rfic momon }lhbiccf |iu|n bu| }lubfw wlq|}fhffi klka|u|hnfi sfnu| efi wlicfkfufi (fif`b}b}" rfic nh|}|} ef`fk klkb`bh }b}ulk }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b rfic ulwfu efi }l}|fb)

A) WLQKF]F@FHFI

6) Afcfbkfif wlilqfwfi }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b koelqi? koelqi? 1) Afcfbkfif nlmomonfi fiufqf cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi elicfi }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b koelqi?

Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 1

AFA BB WLKAFHF]FI

Wlqnlkaficfi oqcfib}f}b klq|wfnfi wqo}l} ulqlimfif |iu|n kliclkaficnfi nlkfkw|fi oqcfib}f}b ef`fk noieb}b efi u|iu|ufi `bicn|icfi rfic }l`f`| alq|afh, }lhbiccf efwfu klimfwfb nbilqjf rfic owubkf` rfic eb`fn}fifnfi o`lh }l`|q|h ficcouf oqcfib}f}b)

Wliclkaficfi

Oqcfib}f}b

klq|wfnfi

wqocqfk

rfic

alq|}fhf

klibicnfunfi ldlnubtbuf} nloqcfib}f}bfi elicfi klicbiulcqf}bnfi nlbicbifi biebtbe| fnfi wlqu|ka|hfi efi wlqnlkaficfi wlqnlkaficfi elicfi u|j|fi nloqcfib}f}bfi)

B) Wliclqubfi oqcfib}f}b Kli|q|u LQIL]U EF@L,

Oqcfib}f}b fef`fh }|fu| wqo}l} wq o}l} wlqlimfiffi rfic kl`bw|ub wlir|}|ifi, wliclkaficfi, efi wlkl`bhfqffi }|fu| }uq|nu|q fuf| wo`f h|a|iicfi h|a|iicfi nlqjf nlqjf efqb oqfic+oqfic ef`fk }|fu| nlqjf nl`okwon)

Kli|q|u MRQB@ ]ODDLQ,

Oqcfib}f}b fef`fh wlq}lqbnfufi oqfic+oqfic rfic kf}bic+kf}bic ebalqb wlqfi ulquliu| ef`fk }|fu| }r}ulk nlqjf efi wlkafcbfi ef`fk kfif wlnlqjffi bu| ebwlqbimb klijfeb u|cf}+u|cf}, ebafcbnfi nlk|ebfi ebcfa|ic `fcb ef`f k alalqfwf aliu|n hf}b`)

BB) Mbqb+mbqb Oqcfib}f}b 6)

Oqcfib}f}b alqufkafh al}fq 

1)

Wlico`fhfi efuf }lkfnbi mlwfu

=)

Wlicc|iffi }ufd `labh biuli}bd 

5)

Nlmlieq|icfi }wl}bf`b}f}b

nl}fefqfi mbuf+mbuf }lhbiccf }lubfw oqfic fef`fh afcbf i efqb }|fu| nl`okwon> efi kf}rfqfnfu> eoqoicfi biebtbe| ebulqbkf ufiwf klicoqafinfi nlwliubicfi oqcfib}f}b", =) Mhl}ulq B) Afqifqe, 62=8 (oqcfib}f}b }lafcfb }|fu| }b}ulk }o}bf` rfic ebifkb}> biebtbe|, oqcfib}f}b, wlirf`|q, efi noi}|kli klq|wfnfi afcbfi efqb `bicn|icfi oqcfib}f}b> f}wln oqcfib}f}b doqkf` efi bidoq kf`", 5) Ioqalqu Sblilq, 6258 (klilk|nfi }balqilubnf;oqfic;wliclk|eb, wliclief`bfi }b}ulk wfef wlicfq|h fq|} af`bn bidoqkf}b> kli|ijfic wlqnlkaficfi nokw|ulq  l`luqoibn, wlicc|iffi nokw|ulq nokw|ulq ef`fk wqo}l} wq o}l} wlicfsf}fi, }|fu| }b}ulk u lqebqb fuf} biw|u, wqo}l}, o|uw|u, fq|} af`bn, efi `bicn|icfi", `bicn|icfi", nlebifkbnfi, }b}ulk, biulqfn}boif` k|`ubebkli}boif`, k|`ub `ltl`> }|fu| }b}ulk eb`bhfu }lafcfb }|fu| }|fu | n|kw|`fi efqb afcbfi+afcbfi afcbfi+afcbfi rfic }f`bic alqh|a|icfi> alqh|a|icfi> }|fu| oqcfib}f}b ef`fk wfieficfi rfic koelqi klq|wfnfi }|fu| }b}ulk")

Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 8

]bdfu Uloqb Koelqi fef`fh:

6) Klkfiefic }|fu| oqcfib}f}b }lafcfb }|fu| }b}ulk rfic ulqebqb fuf} `bkf afcbfi  wonon, rfbu|: biw|u, wqo}l}, o|uw|u, fq|} af`bn, efi `bicn|icfi, 1) Nlebifkb}fi, =) K|`ub @ltl` efi K|`ub Ebkli}boif`, Eb kli}boif`, 5) K|`ub Koubtf}b, 6) Klimbwufnfi nlhfqkoib}fi h|a|icfi nljqf fiufqf wbkwbifi elicfi }ufd ficcouf oqcfib}f}b) 1) Klimbwufnfi nlkfkw|fi klklmf hnfi wlq}of`fi oqc oq cfib}f}b }lmfqf `labh ulqa|nf =) Klimbwufnfi nlulqa|nffi ef`fk alqnok|ibnf}b) alqnok|ibnf}b) 5) Klq|wfnfi

}lkficfu

nlqjf

wfqf

ficcouf

oqcfib}f}b

efi

nlkfkw|fi

kliclief`bnfi kliclief`bnfi ebqb)

ULOQB KOELQI t} ULOQB N@F]BN 

f) Uloqb N`f}bn klk|}funfi wfieficfi wfef fif`b}f efi el}nqbw}b oqcfib}f}b }leficnfi Uloqb Koelqi klilnfinfi wfef wlqwfe|fi $ wlqfimficfi }lhbiccf ulq`bhfu `labh klirl`|q|h) klirl`|q|h)  a) Uloqb N`f}bn klkabmfqfnfi noi}lw nooqebif}b, }mf`fq, efi tlqubmf` }leficnfi Uloqb Koelqi `labh ebifkb}, }ficfu nokw`ln, k|`ub`ltl`, k|`ubebkli}b efi afirfn  tfqbfa`l rfic ebwlqubkaficnfi) ebwlqubkaficnfi)

Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 2

Wlqafiebicfi wlielnfufi N`f}bn, wlielnfufi Ilo+N`f}bn, Ilo+N`f}bn, efi ef i wlielnfufi Koelqi

N`f}bn

Ilo+N`f}bn

Koelqi

Kfi|}bf;Kfnh`|n 

Kfi|}bf;Kfnh`|n 

Kfi|}bf

qf}boif`

W}bno}o}of`

}lafcfb biebtbe|) Wlqhfubfi wfef

ubefn

ebwlqhfubnfi

nl`okwon biebtbe|) Kfkw| kliliu|nfi Ubefn

kfkw| Kfkw| kliliu|nfi fifuokb

fifuokb oqcfib}f}b

fifuokb

kliliu|nfi

oqcfib}f}b (}lmfqf kfnqo"

oqcfib}f}b Don|}

wlqhfubfi:

Fifuokb

H|a|icfi

fiufq  H|a|icfi oqcfib}f}b elicfi

kfi|}bf

`bicn|icfi

Oqcfib}f}b;]b}ulk

Oqcfib}f}b;]b}ulk

Oqcfib}f}b;]b}ulk ulqa|nf

ulqu|u|w

ulqu|u|w

oqcfib}f}b/j|k`fh  wlq}oib`

Uloqb Nlwlkbkwbifi

Nlwlkbkwbifi alqf}f` efqb nfuf wbkwbi rfic klk|fu e|f hf` wonon rfbu|:   wlkbkwbi wlkbkwb i }lafcfb }lafcf b }|ajln, efi) rfic ebwbkwbi }lafcfb oajln) Nfuf wbkwbi klicfie|ic wliclqubfi klicfqfhnfi, klkabif fuf| klicfu|q, kli|iu|i efi j|cf kli|ij|nnfi fuf|w|i klkwlicfq|hb) Wlkbkwbi klkw|irfb uficc|ic jfsfa  afbn }lmfqf db}bn kf|w|i }wbqbu|f` }wbqbu|f` ulqhfefw nlalqhf}b`fi fnubtbuf} nlqjf efqb rfic ebwbkwbi, }lhbiccf klijfeb wlkbkwbi bu| ubefn k|efh efi ubefn fnfi }lubfw oqfic klkw|irfb nl}fkffi eb ef`fk klijf`finfi nl+wlkbkwbiirf) Uloqb+uloqb ef`fk Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwl kbkwbifi

Nlcbfufi kfi|}bf }lmfqf alq}fkf+}fkf }l`f`| klka|u|hnfi nlwlkbkwbifi)

\iu|n 

  alqafcfb |}fhf ef i nlcbfufiirf ebwlq`|nfi |wfrf rfic ulqlimfif efi }b}ulkfub} ef`f k kl`fubh efi klkwlq}bfwnfi wlkbkwbi afq|) O`lh nfqlif bu|, afirfn }u|eb efi wlil`bubfi eb`fn|nfi oqfic |iu|n klkwl`fjfqb kf}f`fh wlkbkwbi efi nlwlkbkwbifi rfic Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 67

klichf}b`nfi alqafcfb uloqb uliufic nlwlkbkwbifi) Uloqb nlwlkbkwbifi klq|wfnfi   wlicclilqf`b}f}bfi }|fu| }lqb wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi efi noi}lw+noi}lw nlwlkbkwbifiirf, elicfi klioijo`nfi `fufq al`fnfic hb}uoqb}, }lafa+}lafa ubka|`irf nlwlkbkwbifi,   wlq}rfqfufi wlkbkwbi, }bdfu |ufkf wlkbkwbi, u|cf} wonon efi d|ic}birf }lquf lubnf  wqodl}b nlwlkbkwbifi (Nfqubib Nfquoio, 6225: 13") Uloqb nlwlkbkwbifi wfef |k|kirf alq|}fhf |iu|n klkalqbnfi wlijl`f}fi efi biulqwqluf}b kliclifb wlkbkwbi efi nlwlkbkwbifi elicfi kliclk|nfnfi alalqfwf }lcb fiufqf `fbi : @fufq al`fnfic }ljfqfh wlkbkwbi efi nlwlkbkwbifi nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi k|im|` }ljf`fi elicfi wlqfefafi kfi|}bf) Wlkbkwbi efi nlwlkbkwbifi }l`f`| ebwlq`|nfi ef`fk }lubfw kf}f) ]lafa+}lafa k|im|`irf }l}loqfic klijfeb wlkbkwbi, fiufqf `fbi: f) ]l}loqfic ebufnebqnfi `fhbq |iu|n klijfeb wlkbkwbi kl`f`|b |}fhf wlirbfwfi efi  wliebebnfi }lquf ebeoqoic o`lh nlkf|fi }liebqb)  a) ]l}loqfic klijfeb wlkbkwbi ab`f }ljfn `fhbq bf klkb`bnb afnfu nlwlkbkwbifi nlk|ebfi ebnlkaficnfi kl`f`|b wliebebnfi efi wlicf`fkfi }lquf }l}|fb elicfi u|iu|ufi `bicn|icfi ]rfqfu+}rfqfu nlwlkbkwbifi, Noi}lw}b kliclifb wlq}rfqfufi nlwlkbkwbifi }l`f`| ebnfbunfi elicfi nln|f}ffi, nlsbafsffi, efi nlkfkw|fi) Ubwl efi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi Wlkbkwbi klkw|irfb }bdfu, nlabf}ffi, ulkwlqfkli, sfufn efi nlwqbafebfi }liebqb rfic nhf}, }lhbiccf ubicnfh `fn| efi cfrfirf alqalef efqb oqfic `fbi) Uloqb+uloqb ef`fk nlwlkbkwbifi wfef |k|kirf kli|ij|nnfi wlqaleffi nfqlif }lubfw uloqbubn|} klkw|irfb }lcb wlilnfifiirf }liebqb rfic ebwfiefic efqb }fu| f}wln ulquliu|) Uloqb+uloqb ef`fk Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwl kbkwbifi 6) Uloqb ]bdfu

Uloqb bib alquo`fn efqb ef}fq wlkbnbqfi afhsf nlalqhf}b`fi }loqfic wlkbkwbi ebuliu|nfi o`lh }bdfu+}bdfu, wlqficfb fuf| mbqb+mbqb rfic ebkb`bnb wlkbkwbi bu|) Fuf} ef}fq wlkbnbqfi ulq}la|u ubka|` ficcfwfi afhsf |iu|n klijfeb }loqfic wlkbkwbi rfic alqhf}b`, }ficfu ebuliu|nfi o`lh nlkfkw|fi wqbafeb wlkbkwbi) Efi nlkfkw|fi wqbafeb rfic ebkfn}|e fef`fh n|f`buf} }l}loqfic elicfi alqafcfb }bdfu, wlqficfb fuf| mbqb+mbqb eb ef`fkirf) Mbqb+ mbqb belf` rfic wlq`| ebkb`bnb wlkbkwbi kli|q|u ]oiefic W ]bfcbfi (6225:3 j|}uq| }ficfu ebwlq`|nfi o`lh nlwlkbkwbifi rfic klilqfwnfi wqbi}bw nlul`fefifi)

1)

Uloqb Wlqb`fn|

Ef}fq wlkbnbqfi uloqb bib fef`fh nlwlkbkwbifi klq|wfnfi wlqb`fn| }loqfic biebtbe| nlubnf kl`fn|nfi nlcbfufi wlicfqfhfi }|fu| nl`okwon nl fqfh wlimfwfbfi u|j|fi) Ef`fk hf` bib, wlkbkwbi klkw|irfb el}nqbw}b wlqb`fn|: f) noi}belqf}b efi }uq|nu|q bib}bf}b Wlqb`fn| }loqfic wlkbkwbi rfic mlielq|ic klkliubicnfi afsfhfi klkb`bnb mbqb qfkfh ufkfh,kf| alqnoi}|`uf}b, klie|n|ic, klkal`f, klielicfqnfi, klilqbkf |}|` efi klkbnbqnfi nl}ljfhulqffi afsfhfi }lquf klkwlq`fn|nfiirf }lubicnfu ebqbirf) Eb }fkwbic bu| ulqefwfu w|`f nlmlielq|icfi wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi rfic `labh klkliubicnfi u|cf} oqcfib}f}b)  a) alqoqbliuf}b nlwfef afsfhfi efi wqoe|n}b   wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi rfic alqoqbliuf}b nlwfef afsfhfi ebufiefb o`lh wlilnfifi wfef h|a|icfi fuf}fi+afsfhfi, wlqhfubfi wqbafeb wlkbkwbi wfef wlk|f}fi nla|u|hfi   afsfhfi }lquf klilqbkf wlqaleffi nlwqbafebfi, nlkfkw|fi efi wlqb`fn| afsfhfi) ]leficnfi wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi rfic alqoqbliuf}b wfef wqoe|n}b klkb`bnb nlmlielq|icfi   wlilnfifi wfef }lcb ulnib} wlnlqjffi, wlic|ufkffi wlirl`liccfqffi efi wlirl`l}fbfi u|cf} }lquf wlimfwfbfi u|j|fi) Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 61

Wfef }b}b `fbi, wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi kli|q|u koel` `lfelq}hbw moiubi||k wfef ef}fqirf fef e|f rfbu| alqoqbliuf}b nlwfef wlkbkwbi efi afsfhfi) ]leficnfi alqef}fqnfi koel` cqfdbn nlwlkbkwbifi, wlqb`fn| }lubfw wlkbkwbi efwfu eb|n|q kl`f`|b e|f ebkli}b rfbu|  wlqhfubfiirf ulqhfefw hf}b`/u|cf} efi ulqhfefw afsfhf i/h|a|icfi i/h|a|icfi nlqjf) Nlmlielq|icfi wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi wfef hfnbnfuirf ubefn efwfu eb`lwf}nfi efqb kf}f`fh d|ic}b efi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi (JFD)]uoilq, 6238:551+55=" 6238:551+55="

=) Uloqb ]bu|f}boif`

Nlalqhf}b`fi

}loqfic

wlkbkwbi

kli|q|u

uloqb

}bu|f}boif`

ebuliu|nfi

o`lh

mbqb

nlwlkbkwbifi elicfi wlqb`fn| ulquliu| rfic eb}l}|fbnfi elicfi u|iu|ufi }bu|f}b nlwlkbkwbifi efi }bu|f}b oqcfib}f}boif` rfic ebhfefwb elicfi klkwlqhbu|icnfi dfnuoq  sfnu| efi q|fic) Dfnuoq }bu|f}boif` rfic alqwlicfq|h ulqhfefw cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi ulquliu| kli|q|u ]oiefic W) ]bfcbfi (6225:612" (6225:612" fef`fh * Jlib} wlnlqjffi efi nokw`ln}buf} u|cf}> * Aliu|n efi }bdfu u lnio`ocb rfic ebc|ifnfi> * Wlq}lw}b, }bnfw efi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi> * Ioqkf rfic ebfi|u nl`okwon> * Qliufic nlief`b> * Fimfkfi efqb `|fq oqcfib}f}b> * Ubicnfu }uql}}> * Bn`bk rfic ulqefwfu ef`fk ef`f k oqcfib}f}b)

Ldlnubtbuf} nlwlkbkwbifi }l}loqfic ebuliu|nfi o`lh nlkfkw|fi ½klkafmfµ }bu|f}b rfic ebhfefwb efi klirl}|fbnfi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifiirf fcfq momon elicfi efi kfkw| klkli|hb u|iu|ufi }bu|f}b ulq}la|u) Wlirl}|fbfi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi ebkfn}|e fef`fh nlkfkw|fi kliliu|nfi mbqb nlwlkbkwbifi efi wlqb`fn| ulquliu| nfqlif u|iu|ufi }bu|f}b ulquliu|) ]lh|a|icfi elicfi hf` ulq}la|u alqnlkafic`fh koel`+koel` nlwlkbkwbifi alqbn|u : f) Koel` noiubi||k Ouonqfubn+Elkonqfubn 

Cfrf efi wlqb`fn| nlwlkbkwbifi ulquliu| }l`fbi alqh|a|icfi elicfi }bu|f}b efi noieb}b rfic ebhfefwb, j|cf alqnfbufi elicfi d|ic}b nlwlkbkwbifi ulquliu| rfic hfq|} eb}l`liccfqfnfi) Moiuoh: ef`fk hf` wlicfkab`fi nlw|u|}fi, wlkbkwbi alqcfrf ouonqfubn 

Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 6=

fnfi klicfkab` nlw|u|}fi }liebqb, mbqb nlwlkbkwbifi rfic klioijo` nlulcf}fi eb}lqufb   wlqb`fn| rfic alqoqbliuf}b wfef wlirl`l}fbfi u|cf})]leficnfi wlkbkwbi alqcfrf elkonqfubn fnfi klicfjfn afsfhfiirf |iu|n alqwfqub}bwf}b) Mbqb nlwlkbkwbifi rfic klioijo` eb }bib fef`fh klijfeb wlielicfq rfic afbn eb}lqufb wlqb`fn| klkalqbnfi  wlqhfubfi wfef nlwliubicfi efi nla|u|hfi afsfhfi)

a) Koel` µ Biulqfn}b Fuf}fi+Afsfhfiµ :

Kli|q|u koel` bib, ldlnubtbuf} nlwlkbkwbifi }l}loqfic ulqcfiu|ic wfef biulqfn}b rfic ulqjfeb fiufqf wlkbkwbi efi afsfhfiirf efi }ljf|hkfif biulqfn}b ulq}la|u klkwlicfq|hb   wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi rfic alq}ficn|ufi) ]loqfic fnfi klijfeb wlkbkwbi rfic ldlnubd, fwfab`f: * H|a|icfi fuf}fi efi afsfhfi ebnfu lcoqbnfi afbn> * U|cf} rfic hfq|} eb nlqjfnfi afsfhfi eb}|}|i wfef ubicnfu u bicnfu }uq|nu|q rfic ubiccb> ubiccb> * Wo}b}b nlslificfi wlkbkwbi ulqco`oic n|fu)

m) Koel` ]bu|f}boif`

Koel` bib klilnfinfi afhsf ldlnubtbuf} nlwlkbkwbifi }l}loqfic ulqcfiu|ic wfef   wlkb`bhfi cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi rfic ulwfu |iu|n klichfefwb }bu|f}b ulquliu| efi ubicnfu nlkfuficfi jbsf afsfhfi) Ebkli}b nlwlkbkwbifi rfic ebc|ifnfi ef`fk koel` bib fef`fh wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi rfic alqnfbufi elicfi u|cf} nlwlkbkwbifiirf efi h|a|icfi fuf}fi+afsfhfi) Alqef}fqnfi ebkli}b ulq}la|u, cfrf nlwlkbkwbifi rfic efwfu ebc|ifnfi fef`fh: * Klkalqbufh|nfi> * Klij|f`> * Klicfjfn afsfhfi alqwlqfi }lquf> * Kl`fn|nfi wliel`lcf}bfi)

e) Koel` µ Jf`fi+ U|j|fi µ

]loqfic wlkbkwbi rfic ldlnubd kli|q|u koel` bib fef`fh wlkbkwbi rfic kfkw| kli|ij|nnfi jf`fi rfic efwfu ebulkw|h afsfhfi) ]f`fh }fu| klnfib}kl |iu|n  kls|j|enfi hf` ulq}la|u rfbu| nljl`f}fi u|cf} rfic hfq|} eb`fn|nfi afsfhfi efi

Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 65

  wlqhfubfi wlkbkwbi nlwfef nlwliubicfi efi nla|u|hfi afsfhfiirf) Wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi  alqnfbufi elicfi hf` ulq}la|u hfq|} klq|wfnfi df nuoq koubtf}boif` afcb afsfhfiirf)

l) Koel` ½Wbkwbifi+Wlqfi }lquf Afsfhfiµ :

Wlqhfubfi |ufkf koel` koel` bib fef`fh fef`f h wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi ebnfbunfi elicfi wqo}l} wlicfkab`fi wlicfkab`fi nlw|u|}fi) Wlqb`fn| wlkbkwbi wlq`| eb}l}|fbnfi elicfi }uq|nu|q u|cf} rfic hfq|} eb}l`l}fbnfi o`lh afsfhfiirf) ]f`fh }fu| }rfqfu wliubic |iu|n wfqfebckf ulq}la|u fef`fh fefirf }lqficnfbfi nluliu|fi rfic hfq|} ebuffub o`lh afsfhfi ef`fk kliliu|nfi aliu|n efi ubicnfu wlqfi }lquf  afsfhfi ef`fk wlicfkab`fi nlw|u|}fi) Aliu|n efi ubicnfu wlqfi }lquf afsfhfi ulq}la|u ½ebebnulnfiµ o`lh }bu|f}b rfic ebhfefwb efi kf}f`fh rfic bicbi ebwlmfhnfi kl`f`|b wqo}l}  wlicfkab`fi nlw|u|}fi) nlw|u|}fi)

Moiuoh oqcfib}f}b koelqi

]f`fh }fu| oqcfib}f}b koelqi rfic fef eb Bieoil}bf fef`fh NDM f`bf} Nliu|mnr Dqble Mhbmnli) Clqfb sfqf`faf frfk coqlic rfic hfebq hfkwbq eb }lubfw ba| nouf wqotbi}b eb ilclqb bib uliu|irf a|nfi hf` rfic f}bic eb kf}rfqfnfu Bieoil}bf) Hfn sfqf`faf NDM eb Bieoil}bf ebwlcfic u|iccf` o`lh   WU) Df}udooe Bieoil}bf) NDM eb}la|u oqcfib}f}b koelqi nfqlif

}|efh

klicbkw`lkliuf}bnfi   BU

(bidoqkfuboi

ulmhio`ocr" ef`fk

}b}ulk

owlqf}boif`irf) Bkw`lkliuf}birf }liebqb ubefn kfbi+kfbi) kfbi+kfbi) Hf` bib ulq`bhfu u lq`bhfu efqb ebficnfuirf }loqfic ficcouf elsfi ebqln}b rfic }lmfqf nh|}|} klkbkwbi afcbfi BU eb wlq|}fhffi ulq}la|u) Elicfi ebulkwfunfiirf }loqfic ebqlnu|q rfic klkafsfhb alalqfwf kfifjlq eb ubicnfu klilicfh }uq|nu|q oqcfib}f}b, ulq`bhfu afhsf NDM eb Bieoil}bf }|efh klkfiefic   wliubic wo}b}b BU }lmfqf }ufulcb} ef`fk kls|j|enfi u|j|fi+u|j|fi fnubtbuf} ab}ib}irf)   Ifk|i jficfi ebafrficnfi afhsf elwfqulkli BU eb wlq|}fhffi bu| kl`bafunfi afirfn  }lnf`b }|kalq efrf kfi|}bf) ]fkf }lnf`b ubefn & ]|kalq efrf kfi|}bf rfic ulq`bafu ef`fk   wlicl`o`ffi BU efqb `ltl` ebqlnu|q hbiccf }ufd n|qfic `labh hfirf alqj|k`fh }lnbufq 67 oqfic }fjf) Ubk bib }lmfqf nh|}|} klkfic don|} ef`fk wlir|}|ifi efi wliclief`bfi }uqfulcbn BU ef`fk kliowfic nlalqhf}b`fi wlq|}fhffi klimbwufnfi co`+co` |}fhfirf) ]l`|q|h nlcbfufi bkw`lkliuf}b eb`fn|nfi }lmfqf o|u}o|qml }lhbiccf wlq|}fhffi }l`f`| klkwlqo`lh kf}|nfi bkw`lkliuf}b BU ulqk|ufnhbq ifk|i ulufw kliclelwfinfi ldlnubdbuf} efi ldb}bli}birf) Afhnfi elicfi ebwbkwbi }loqfic ebqlnu|q w|i, WU) Df}udooe

Nlwlkbkwbifi Nlwlkbkwbifi ef`fk oqcfib}f}b

Wfcl 6<

Bieoil}bf ulufw klkbiuf afiu|fi noi}|`ufi BU eb ef`fk kliefkwbicb ebtb}b BU }|wfrf ulufw wfef noqbeoq rfic ulwfu }f}fqfi }lquf klkalqbnfi kf}|nfi+kf}|nfi kf}|nfi+kf}|nfi }uqfulcb} nlwfef   wfqf wlklcfic nlabjfnfi) Kfifjlkli NDM j|cf klicc||ifnfi wqbi}bw rfic klicfm|  wfef uloqb oqcfib}f}b oqcf ib}f}b Koelqi, Koelqi, fiufqf f iufqf `fbi: `fbi: 6) Klkwlqubkaficnfi Klkwlqubkaficnfi }lk|f l`lkli, oqcfib}f}b, 1) Klkfiefic oqcfib}f}b }lafcfb }|fu| }b}ulk, =) Wlirl}|fbfi ebqb elicfi wlq|afhfi `bicn|icfiirf, `bicn|icfiirf, 5) Oqcfib}f}b

efi

`bicn|icfiirf

hfq|}

eb`bhfu

}lafcfb

}l}|fu|

rfic

}f`bic

nlulqcfiu|icfi)