Tema 0. Introducción a los Equipos Microinformáticos
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Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
ÃMGAOB ;. ODMOBYWD_ Y^BPAD_ ? ;.;. Am`drcëtaok Am`drcë taok ................................................................................................................................................ ? ;.>. _astbck am`drcëtaod ............................................................................................................................... ? ;.?. Drgbmkgdr Drgbmkg dr .................................................................................................................................................. ? ;.?.;. Gb`amaoaÿm ;.?.>. Odcpdsaoaÿm ;.?.?. Ojksa`aokoaÿm ;.?.?.;. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm su gasbûd amtbrmd ;.?.?.>. Ojksa`aokoaÿm pdr jk bspboa`aoagkg gb usd ;.?.?.?. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm bj tapd gb sbûkjbs qub ckmbhkm ;.?.?.7. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm su pdtbmoak y okpkoagkg ;.?.7. Kpjaokoadmbs
? 7 2 0 0 6 6 ;9
;.7. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm................................................................................................................. ;9 ;.7.;. Gb`amaoaÿm ;.7.>. Wapds ;.7.>.;. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb nkhd mavbj ;.7.>.>. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj
;9 ;9 ;; ;;
;.2. Eastdra E astdrakk gb jds drgbmkgdr dr gbmkgdrbs bs ............................................................................................................... ;> ;.0. Caordam C aordam`drcëta `drcëtaok ok ................................................................................................................................... ;? >. AM@D^CKOAßM Q GKWD_ ;? >.;. Gktds.......................................................................................................................................................... ;7 >.>. Am`drckoaÿm Am`drc koaÿm ............................................................................................................................................ ;7 >.?. Wapds gb am`drcko a m`drckoaÿm aÿm ............................................................................................................................ ;7 >.?.;. Mucáraods >.?.>. Kj`kmucáraods
;7 ;7
?. ^BY^B_BMWKOAßM GB JK AM@D^CKOAßM
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
;2
Yëfamk ; gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
7. _A_WBCK_ GB MRCB^KOAßM ;2 7.;. Gb`ama G b`amaoaÿm oaÿm prbvak .................................................................................................................................... ;0 7.>. Wapds gb sastbcks sastbc ks.................................................................................................................................. ;0 7.>.;. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm md pdsaoadmkjbs 7.>.;.;. _astbck rdckmd 7.>.>. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm pdsaoadmkjbs 7.>.>.;. Wbdrbck `umgkcbmtkj gb jk mucbrkoaÿm 7.>.>.>. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm cës utajazkgds bm Am`drcëtaok 7.>.>.?. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb oukjquabrk k umk nksb gboackj 7.>.>.7. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb gboackj k dtrk nksb oukjquabrk 7.>.>.2. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb n (dotkj d ebxkgboackj) k umk nksb namkrak 7.>.>.0. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb namkrak k dtrk nksb n (dotkj d ebxkgboackj) 7.>.>.6. Odmvbrsaÿm gb nksb ebxkgboackj k dotkj 7.>.>.5. Odmvbrsaÿm gb nksb dotkj k ebxkgboackj
;0 ;0 ;6 ;5 ;5 >; >; >? >? >7 >7
2. RMAGKGB_, CØJWAYJD_ Q _RNCØJWAYJD_ >2 0. RMAGKGB_ GB CBGAGK GB JK AM@D^CKOAßM >6 0.;. Kjckobmkcabmtd..................................................................................................................................... >6 0.;.;. Nat 0.;.>. Nytb 0.;.?. Cøjtapjds gbj nytb 0.;.7. Ykjknrk
>6 >6 >5 ?;
0.>. Yrdobskcabmtd Yrdobsk cabmtd ....................................................................................................................................... ?> 0.?. Wrkmscasaÿm Wrkmsca saÿm ............................................................................................................................................ ??
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk > gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;. ODMOBYWD_ Y^BPAD_ ;.;. Am`drcëtaok Am`drcëtaok bs jk oabmoak qub bstugak bj gasbûd y bj usd gb cëquamks y ebrrkcabmtks qub pbrcatbm trktkr d prdobskr tdgd tapd gb am`drckoaÿm gb `drck kutdcktazkgk . Am`drcëtaok 3 AM@D^ckoaÿm + + kutdCËWAOK .
;.>. _astbck am`drcëtaod Rm sastbck am`drcëtaod bs bj odmhumtd qub rbsujtk gb jk amtbfrkoaÿm gb ouktrd bjbcbmtds 8 Ekrgwkrb. _d`twkrb. Gktds. Ybrsdmks. Bstds odcpdmbmtbs sb rbjkoadmkm ekoabmgd pdsanjb bj prdobskcabmtd kutdcëtaod gb jds gktds , k trkvás gb drgbmkgdrbs, pkrk prdguoar am`drckoaÿm øtaj.
;.?. Drgbmkgdr ;.?.;. Gb`amaoaÿm
Rm drgbmkgdr (d odcputkgdr d odcputkgdrk) bs ‚umk cëquamk okpkz gb kobptkr gktds gb bmtrkgk, rbkjazkr dpbrkoadmbs gb `drck kutdcëtaok odm bjjds, y prdpdroadmkr pr dpdroadmkr umk skjagk–.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ? gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Jk kotavagkg qub trkms`drck jds gktds bm am`drckoaÿm øtaj bs odmdoagk odcd prdobsd gb gktds d trktkcabmtd gb jk am`drckoaÿm . Bstb trktkcabmtd sb gavagb bm jks safuabmtbs `ksbs8 bmtrkgk, prdobsd y skjagk gb jk am`drckoaÿm .
Gktds
Dpbrkoadmbs
^bsujtkgds
;.?.>. Odcpdsaoaÿm
Rm drgbmkgdr bstë `drckgd pdr umk pkrtb `ãsaok (ekrgwkrb) y dtrk pkrtb jÿfaok (sd`twkrb). Ekrgwkrb (ekrg qub pubgb trkguoarsb odcd ‚gurd– y wkrb qub bs samÿmacd gb ‚odsks–, jatbrkjcbmtb trkguoagd gbj amfjás odcd ‚pkrtb gurk– )8 bs bj odmhumtd gb cktbrakjbs `ãsaods qub odcpdmbm bj sastbck am`drcëtaod, bs gboar, bj prdpad odcputkgdr, jds gaspdsatavds bxtbrmds ksã odcd tdgd bj cktbrakj `ãsaod rbjkoadmkgd odm bjjds (odmbotdrbs, oknjbs, bto.). _u knrbvakturk bs Ew. _d`twkrb (sd`t qub pubgb trkguoarsb odcd ‚njkmgd– y wkrb qub bs samÿmacd gb ‚odsks–, jatbrkjcbmtb trkguoagd gbj amfjás odcd ‚pkrtb njkmgk– )8 bs jk pkrtb jÿfaok gbj sastbck am`drcëtaod qub gdtk kj bquapd `ãsaod (ekrgwkrb) gb jk okpkoagkg pkrk rbkjazkr oukjquabr tapd gb tkrbks. _u knrbvakturk bs _w.
Gbmtrd gb jds tapds gb sd`twkrb, umd gb jds cës acpdrtkmtbs bs bj sastbck dpbrktavd (_.D.) qub bs bj sd`twkrb gb sastbck d sd`twkrb gb nksb , yk qub pbrcatb kj usukrad tbmbr bj odmtrdj sdnrb bj ekrgwkrb (odcpdmbmtbs `ãsaods) y gkr sdpdrtb k dtrds prdfrkcks gb kpjaokoaÿm (tkcnaám odmdoagds odcd prdfrkcks am`drcëtaods d sacpjbcbmtb kpjaokoadmbs ). Jds _.D.‑s odcabmzkm k `umoadmkr oukmgd sb bmoabmgb jk odcputkgdrk. Okpks y vastks gb um sastbck am`drcëtaod8
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 7 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.?.?. Ojksa`aokoaÿm
Jks odcputkgdrks pubgbm ojksa`aokrsb sbføm gavbrsds oratbrads. K odmtamukoaÿm, sb cubstrkm jks ojksa`aokoadmbs cës odcumbs.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 2 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.?.?.;. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm su gasbûd amtbrmd
Ktbmgabmgd k su odmstruooaÿm y gasbûd amtbrmd , bxastbm gds tapds gb cëquamks okpkobs gb bhboutkr kjfdratcds8 Jÿfaok oknjbkgk. Cëquamks odm jÿfaok oknjbkgk. Bj kjfdratcd sb acpjbcbmtk amtbradrcbmtb, bm bj oknjbkgd gb sus oarouatds d bm cbcdraks gb sÿjd jboturk (^DC - ^bkg Dmjy Cbcdry). Jks cës odmdoagks sdm8 Jks okjoujkgdrks. Ybrcatbm bhboutkr um møcbrd gbtbrcamkgd gb kjfdratcds prbgb`amagds gb tapd cktbcëtaod (suck, rbstk, cujtapjaokoaÿm, gavasaÿm, `umoadmbs trafdmdcátraoks, jdfkratcds, `umoadmbs bstkgãstaoks, `umoadmbs `amkmoabrks, bto.). Jks odcputkgdrks kmkjÿfaoks. Gbstamkgks kj odmtrdj gb prdobsds y k jk sacujkoaÿm. Kotukjcbmtb sb ekjjkm amstkjkgks bm okgbmks gb `knraokoaÿm y bm cbrokgds. d
d
Jÿfaok prdfrkckgk. Cëquamks odm jÿfaok prdfrkckgk. _dm jks odcputkgdrks odmvbmoadmkjbs qub kgcatbm prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjfdratcds cbgakmtb jds jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm. _dm cëquamks gb prdpÿsatd fbmbrkj (vbrsëtajbs), pubstd qub sb pubgbm kpjaokr bm oukjquabr tapd gb prdobsd. _dm cëquamks vbjdobs, gb frkm okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd y prboasaÿm. Jk vbrsktajagkg gb jks odcputkgdrks rkgaok bm rbguoar oukjquabr prdnjbck sacpjb d odcpjbhd k umk odcnamkoaÿm kgboukgk gb jks ømaoks trbs dpbrkoadmbs qub pubgbm rbkjazkr . ;) Dpbrkoadmbs kratcátaoks (suck y rbstk). >) Dpbrkoadmbs jÿfaoks (odcpkrkoadmbs). ?) Kjckobmkcabmtd y rboupbrkoaÿm gb am`drckoaÿm.
;.?.?.>. Ojksa`aokoaÿm pdr jk bspboa`aoagkg gb usd
d
Bstb oratbrad ekob rb`brbmoak kj usd d prdpÿsatd pkrk bj oukj sb gasbûkm y odmstruybm . Rsd fbmbrkj. Odcputkgdrk gb usd fbmbrkj. Yubgb utajazkrsb bm ga`brbmtbs kpjaokoadmbs, odcd oëjoujds oabmtã`aods, oëjoujds táomaods d gb fbstaÿm kgcamastrktavk. Bs bj usukrad, quabm gbtbrcamk quá kpjaokoaÿm rbkjazkr gbpbmgabmgd gbj prdfrkck qub gboagk bhboutkr.
d
Rsd bspboã`aod. Odcputkgdrk gb usd bspboã`aod. ^bfujkrcbmtb subjbm odmstruarsb odm caordprdobskgdrbs y sÿjd pubgbm utajazkrsb pkrk umk kpjaokoaÿm odmorbtk d um frupd gb kpjaokoadmbs gbtbrcamkgd. Bhbcpjds8 Rmk odcputkgdrk pkrk odmtrdj gb trë`aod, um vagbd-hubfd gb ndjsajjd, jk odmtbmagk bm um rdndt. Jk ckydrãk sdm odcputkgdrks bcnbnagks, qub md sdm koobsanjbs garbotkcbmtb pdr `drckr pkrtb gb um sastbck, odcd bm jks oëckrks y vagbd-frknkgdrks gafatkjbs y cuoeds dtrds bquapds gdcástaods d amgustrakjbs.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 0 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.?.?.?. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm bj tapd gb sbûkjbs qub ckmbhkm
Ktbmgabmgd kj tapd gb sbûkjbs qub ckmbhkm d cdgd gb rbprbsbmtkr jk am`drckoaÿm pubgbm sbr8 _astbck kmkjÿfaod. Okjoujkgdrks kmkjÿfaoks Ckmbhkm sbûkjbs kmkjÿfaoks , rbfujkrcbmtb bjáotraoks, qub sdm prdpdroadmkjbs k cbgagks `ãsaoks gb tapd odmtamud. _u prdfrkckoaÿm fbmbrkjcbmtb bstë bm su prdpad oknjbkgd, odmstatuagd pdr umk sbrab gb oarouatds d cÿgujds. _b utajazkm `umgkcbmtkjcbmtb pkrk bj odmtrdj gb prdobsds y bm prdnjbcks gb sacujkoaÿm pkrk rbsdjvbr boukoadmbs cktbcëtaoks.
d
_astbck gafatkj. Okjoujkgdrks gafatkjbs y odcputkgdrks. Ckmbhkm sbûkjbs bjáotraoks gasorbtks gb tapd gafatkj , qub sÿjd pubgbm tdckr gds vkjdrbs. Jks odcputkgdrks, qub ga`abrbm gb jks okjoujkgdrks bm qub pubgbm rbkjazkr dpbrkoadmbs gb tapd jÿfaod y pdsbbm ckydr okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd pkrk kjnbrfkr prdfrkcks, tabmbm um okcpd gb kpjaokoaÿm cës kcpjad. _b prdfrkckm uskmgd jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm jd qub pbrcatb su utajazkoaÿm bm oukjquabr tapd gb trknkhd.
d
_astbck eãnragd. Okjoujkgdrks d odcputkgdrks eãnragks. _dm jks qub tabmbm bjbcbmtds d umagkgbs gb tapd kmkjÿfaod y gb tapd gafatkj . Yubgbm bstkr `drckgks, pdr bhbcpjd, pdr umk odcputkgdrk gafatkj qub prdobsk am`drckoaÿm kmkjÿfaok, pkrk jd oukj oubmtk odm odmvbrtagdrbs bm sus bmtrkgks (kmkjÿfaod-gafatkjbs) y bm sus skjagks (gafatkj-kmkjÿfaods) qub ‚trkguobm– jk sbûkj.
d
;.?.?.7. Ojksa`aokoaÿm sbføm su pdtbmoak y okpkoagkg
@rboubmtbcbmtb jks odcputkgdrks gafatkjbs sb pubgbm oktbfdrazkr sbføm su pdtbmoak gb oëjoujd, okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd y okmtagkg gb usukrads d tbrcamkjbs qub pubgbm sdpdrtkr . _bføm bstds oratbrads, sb ojksa`aokm bm8
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 6 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
_upbrodcputkgdrk. Bs umk cëquamk gasbûkgk pkrk oëjoujds qub rbquabrbm frkm vbjdoagkg gb prdobsd . _u okrkotbrãstaok `umgkcbmtkj, jk rkpagbz . ^bfujkrcbmtb bstëm gdtkgks gb vkrads prdobskgdrbs qub trknkhkm bm pkrkjbjd , pkrk odmsbfuar rbkjazkr najjdmbs gb dpbrkoadmbs pdr sbfumgd . Gdtkgks odm odcpdmbmtbs gb cuy kjtk vbjdoagkg odcd8 cbcdrak pramoapkj gb frkm okpkoagkg y gasods cuy rëpagds. Odcd bhbcpjd tbmbcds jks odcputkgdrks Orky (;, >, U-CY b QCY) gb Orky ^bsbkroe Amo. Rm bhbcpjd gb usd tãpaod bs pkrk prbgaooaÿm ojacktdjÿfaok . Ckordodcputkgdrk d ckam`rkcb. Bstë gasbûkgk pramoapkjcbmtb pkrk gkr sbrvaoad k frkmgbs bcprbsks y drfkmazkoadmbs . _u pdtbmoak gb oëjoujd bs am`bradr k jks kmtbradrbs , oa`rëmgdsb bm jk bhbouoaÿm gb vkrads cajjdmbs gb dpbrkoadmbs pdr sbfumgd . Bmtrb sus okrkotbrãstaoks tãpaoks pramoapkjbs bstë jk okpkoagkg gb sdpdrtkr um frkm møcbrd gb tbrcamkjbs rbcdtds d bstkoadmbs gb trknkhd odmbotkgds k trkvás gb jk rbg, gaspdmbr gb umk frkm okmtagkg gb cbcdrak cksavk y prdobskr jk am`drckoaÿm bm cdgd gb trkmskooadmbs. Kgbcës, pubgbm amtbrvbmar bm prdobsds gastranuagds bm jds qub sb odmbotkm gds d cës odcputkgdrks bm pkrkjbjd pkrk odcpkrtar bj trknkhd k rbkjazkr. Odcd bhbcpjd tbmbcds jk ANC/7?0; gb jk Amtbrmktadmkj Nusambss Ckoeambs. Camaodcputkgdrks d sbrvagdrbs gb rbg. _dm bquapds gb rkmfd cbgad , sacajkrbs k jks kmtbradrbs pbrd gb prbstkoadmbs y prboads cës rbguoagds , bs gboar, pubgbm ktbmgbr umk okmtagkg cbmdr gb tbrcamkjbs. Gasbûkgks pkrk amtbrkotukr sacujtëmbkcbmtb odm cøjtapjbs usukrads , sdm uskgks bm bcprbsks d gbpkrtkcbmtds gb tapd cbgad. Odcd bhbcpjds tãpaods pubgbm cbmoadmkrsb jk PKU gb Gafatkj Bquapcbmt Odrpdrktadm (GBO) y jk K_/799 gb ANC. Caordodcputkgdrks. _u `umoadmkcabmtd amtbrmd bstë nkskgd bm bj usd gb um caordprdobskgdr pkrk odmsbfuar umk sbrab gb prbstkoadmbs pkrk ounrar jk fkck cës nkhk gb mbobsagkgbs bm bj cumgd gb jk am`drcëtaok bm jd rb`brbmtb k pdtbmoak, ckmbhknajagkg, pdrtknajagkg, prboad y dtrds . _dm bquapds cdmdusukrad . Bs bj tapd gb odcputkgdr cës ga`umgagd. _b pubgbm ga`brbmoakr k su vbz gds odm`afurkoadmbs acpdrtkmtbs gbmtrd gb bstb frupd8 jk Bstkoaÿm gb Wrknkhd y jk Odcputkgdrk Ybrsdmkj. Bstkoaÿm gb Wrknkhd (wdrlstktadm). Bs umk caordodcputkgdrk gb frkm pdtbmoak pugaámgdsb odmsagbrkr jk fkck cës kjtk gb jks caordodcputkgdrks. Ybrcatb jk odmbxaÿm bm umk rbg odm umk odcputkgdrk gb ckydr pdtbmoak y qub bs utajazkgk bm jds mbfdoads d trknkhds gb amfbmabrãk. d
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 5 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods. d
Odcputkgdrk Ybrsdmkj (Ybrsdmkj Odcputbr, YO). Bs umk caordodcputkgdrk gb `ëoaj usd y frkmgbs prbstkoadmbs. Bs bj frupd gb odcputkgdrks pkrk bj oukj bj cbrokgd tabmb gaspdmanjb jk ckydr fkck gb bquapds ekrgwkrb y gb kpjaokoadmbs sd`twkrb .
YO gb ANC.
Kppjb AA (;br drgbmkgdr).
YO kotukj.
Odcputkgdrks Cÿvajbs. Gbmtrd gb jks odcputkgdrks pbrsdmkjbs, ktbmgabmgd k su tkckûd y prbstkoadmbs pubgbm ga`brbmoakrsb dtrds cdgbjds kgbcës gbj ojësaod qub sdm8 Ydrtëtaj d jkptdp. Bs umk odcputkgdrk pbrsdmkj cës ckmbhknjb, gb tkckûd pbqubûd y frkm pdtbmoak . _u pbsd dsoajk bmtrb ; y > Lajdfrkcds . Mdtbnddl8 _acajkr kj jkptdp, pbrd cës pbqubûk, odm cbmdr pbsd. Ybrcatb `umoadmbs gb odcputkgdrk pbrsdmkj odm okpkoagkg gb oëjoujd y gb kfbmgk bvdjuoadmkgks pkrk kpjaokoadmbs odcbroakjbs. d
d
d
Mdtbnddl. _acajkr kj jkptdp, pbrd cës pbqubûk, odm cbmdr pbsd . Ybrcatb `umoadmbs gb odcputkgdrk pbrsdmkj odm okpkoagkg gb oëjoujd y gb kfbmgk bvdjuoadmkgks pkrk kpjaokoadmbs odcbroakjbs.
Ydolbt-YO d pkjctdp (YGK). Bs umk odcputkgdrk pbrsdmkj gb ckmd qub rbprbsbmtk jk vbrsaÿm øjtack gb jk okjoujkgdrk oabmtã`aok prdfrkcknjb.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk 1 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.?.7. Kpjaokoadmbs
Kjfumks gb jks pramoapkjbs kpjaokoadmbs gbj drgbmkgdr sdm jks safuabmtbs8 Yrdobskgdrbs gb tbxtds. Edhks gb oëjoujd. Nksbs gb gktds. Frë`aods y `dtdfrk`ãk gafatkj. _dmagd y vãgbd gafatkj. Cujtacbgak. Wbjbodcumaokoadmbs y rbgbs. Amtbjafbmoak krta`aoakj. Bmtrbtbmacabmtd (hubfds). ^bsdjuoaÿm gb prdnjbcks fbmbrkjbs. Bhbcpjd8 Jds odcputkgdrbs mds pbrcatbm8 Gaspdmbr gb bjbotrdgdcástaods amtbjafbmtbs qub odmtrdjkm bj fkstd bmbrfátaod, bto. Ckmtbmbr um sd`astaokgd sastbck gb sbfuragkg bm mubstrd gdcaoajad. Bmodmtrkr tdgd tapd gb am`drckoaÿm k trkvás gb Amtbrmbt. Drfkmazkr jk am`drckoaÿm gb mubstrd drgbmkgdr pbrsdmkj, `ëoaj gb koobgbr, gb `drck drfkmazkgk, bto. Odcumaokrmds rëpagk y `ëoajcbmtb odm dtrks pbrsdmks, k trkvás gb odrrbd bjbotrÿmaod, cbmskhbrãk pdr tbjá`dmd, satads Vbn, bto.
;.7. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm ;.7.;. Gb`amaoaÿm
Bj sd`twkrb bs gbskrrdjjkgd cbgakmtb gastamtds jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm , qub pbrcatbm odmtrdjkr bj odcpdrtkcabmtd gb umk cëquamk . Bstds jbmfukhbs odmsastbm bm um odmhumtd gb sãcndjds y rbfjks samtëotaoks y sbcëmtaoks, qub gb`ambm bj safma`aokgd gb sus bjbcbmtds y bxprbsadmbs. ;.7.>. Wapds
Rm jbmfukhb gb prdfrkckoaÿm pbrcatb k jds prdfrkckgdrbs gbj sd`twkrb bspboa`aokr, bm `drck prboask, sdnrb quá gktds gbnb dpbrkr umk odcputkgdrk. _b ojksa`aokm bm gds tapds8 Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb nkhd mavbj. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;9 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.7.>.;. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb nkhd mavbj
Jds jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb nkhd mavbj sdm kqubjjds utajazkgds `umgkcbmtkjcbmtb pkrk odmtrdjkr bj ‚ekrgwkrb– gbj drgbmkgdr y gbpbmgbm tdtkjcbmtb gb jk cëquamk y md sb pubgbm utajazkr bm dtrks cëquamks. _dm jds cës odcpjaokgds, pbrd sdjd jds uskm prëotaokcbmtb jds orbkgdrbs gb jks cëquamks . Odm bstb tapd gb jbmfukhbs prdfrkckm jk ksafmkoaÿm y janbrkoaÿm gb cbcdrak, bj usd gb pumtbrds, bj pdgbr uskr pksd pdr vkjdr y pdr rb`brbmoak, jk orbkoaÿm gb tapds gb gktds, bto. Jbmfukhb cëquamk8 nkskgd bm bj oÿgafd namkrad (9 y ;).
Jbmfukhb bmskcnjkgdr8 bstë nkskgk bm jds ‚cmbcÿmaods– (pdr bhbcpjd8 KGG, JDKG, …), qub sdm frupds gb okrkotbrbs kj`kmucáraods qub sacndjazkm jks ÿrgbmbs d tkrbks k rbkjazkr.
;.7.>.>. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj
Jds jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj sdm cës pkrboagds kj jbmfukhb mkturkj euckmd y md gbpbmgbm gb jk cëquamk y sarvbm `umgkcbmtkjcbmtb pkrk orbkr prdfrkcks am`drcëtaods qub sdjuoadmkm ga`brbmtbs prdnjbcks. _dm jds cës uskgds pdr jds prdfrkckgdrbs y pdr tdgd gbj cumgd qub rbkjazk prdfrkcks am`drcëtaods. Bhbcpjds8 Yksokj, O, O++, Hkvk, EWCJ, YEY, bto.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;; gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
;.2. Eastdrak gb jds drgbmkgdrbs
Jk eastdrak gb jds drgbmkgdrbs sb nksk bm jks safuabmtbs fbmbrkoadmbs8 Y^ACB^K FBMB^KOAßM (;170-;127)8 ;1778 CK^L A (drgbmkgdr bjbotrdcboëmaod). ;1708 BMAKO (drgbmkgdr gafatkj bjbotrÿmaod cës vbjdz qub bj CK^L A). Odcputkgdrks gb ckfmatugbs fafkmtbsoks. ;12;8 Odcabmzk jk rbvdjuoaÿm am`drcëtaok. @knraokoaÿm bm sbrab. Pdm Mbwckm8 kjckobmkcabmtd gb prdfrkcks bm cbcdraks. ANC 69; (pracbr odcputkgdr bjbotrÿmaod odm cbcdrak pramoapkj y sboumgkrak). Jbmfukhbs bmskcnjkgdrbs. d
d
d
d
_BFRMGK FBMB^KOAßM (;122-;107)8 Wrkmsastdrbs, møojbds gb `brratk y tkcndrbs ckfmátaods. Ãmgaobs d pumtbrds8 kjckobmkm garbooadmbs gb cbcdrak. d
d
d
d
d
Yrdobskgdrbs kratcátaods8 oarouatds bjbotrÿmaods< oëjoujds k frkm vbjdoagkg. Yrdobskgdrbs gb bmtrkgk-skjagk 8 janbrkm k jk OYR gb tkrbks rutamkraks. Jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj.
WB^OB^K FBMB^KOAßM (;102-;169)8 Oeaps8 oarouatds amtbfrkgds gb sajaoad. Cbcdraks gb sajaoad bm jufkr gb `brratk. Cbcdrak vartukj8 sastbcks bstruoturkgds hbrërquaokcbmtb. Ydtbmoakoaÿm gb jds jbmfukhbs gb prdfrkckoaÿm gb kjtd mavbj. d
d
d
d
d
d
d
Cujtaprdfrkckoaÿm y sbfcbmtkoaÿm. Bhbouoaÿm gb vkrads prdfrkcks sacujtëmbkcbmtb. _astbcks dpbrktavds. ANC ?09.
ORK^WK FBMB^KOAßM (;16;-;15;)8 Oarouatds J_A (kjtk bsokjk gb amtbfrkoaÿm). Cuoeks pubrtks jÿfaoks bm oeaps gb pdods cajãcbtrds. AMWBJ 7997. Yracbr caordprdobskgdr odcbroakj. Caordprdobskgdrbs bm sbrab8 Wbxks Amstrucbmts. _astbcks dpbrktavds gb tabcpd odcpkrtagd . ANC ?95;, @uhatsu ?59. d
d
d
d
d
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;> gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
[RAMWK FBMB^KOAßM (;15> bm kgbjkmtb)8 d
d
d
d
d
d
Kpkraoaÿm gb jds odcputkgdrbs pbrsdmkjbs (YO)8 59955, 59>50, 59?50, 59750. Ybmtauc 7. _astbck dpbrktavd C_-GD_. Oksks Kppjb b ANC, kpkrboabrdm jds drgbmkgdrbs ojÿmaods. Yrdfrkcks bspboã`aods pkrk YO. ^bgbs gb drgbmkgdrbs . _astbck dpbrktavd Vamgdws , cujtacbgak y pdrtëtajbs.
;.0. Caordam`drcëtaok Oukmgd eknjkcds gb caordam`drcëtaok, mds rb`bracds k jk pkrtb gb jk am`drcëtaok qub sb gbskrrdjjk frkoaks k jds caordprdobskgdrbs . K pbskr gb qub bj bhbcpjd cës odmdoagd gb jks kpjaokoadmbs gbj caordprdobskgdr bs bj gb jds drgbmkgdrbs pbrsdmkjbs (YO), bm jds qub pksk k sbr bj odcpdmbmtb qub pracbrd sb mdcnrk bm jks okrkotbrãstaoks gbj drgbmkgdr (Amtbj, KCG, bto.), su utajazkoaÿm md sÿjd sb rbguob k bjjds, samd qub jk prdfrkckoaÿm gbj vãgbd, bj odmtrdj gb tabcpd gbj caorddmgks, bj sastbck gb kjkrck gdcástaod, jds rbjdhbs gafatkjbs, … sam djvagkr jds sbrvagdrbs d jds rdutbrs gb Amtbrmbt, tkcnaám bstëm nkskgds bm caordprdobskgdrbs. Ykrk cuoeds, bj caordprdobskgdr (d sacpjbcbmtb prdobskgdr), bs jk pabgrk kmfujkr sdnrb jk qub sb bstë bga`aokmgd jk cdgbrmk _doabgkg gb jk Am`drckoaÿm . Bs bj oarouatd amtbfrkgd obmtrkj y cës odcpjbhd gb um sastbck am`drcëtaod< k cdgd gb ajustrkoaÿm, sb jb subjb jjkckr pdr kmkjdfãk bj «obrbnrd¼ gb um odcputkgdr . Bs um oarouatd amtbfrkgd odm`drckgd pdr cajjdmbs gb odcpdmbmtbs bjbotrÿmaods. Odmstatuyb jk Rmagkg Obmtrkj gb Yrdobskcabmtd (OYR) gb um YO oktkjdfkgd odcd caordodcputkgdr. Jks bcprbsks cës odmdoagks qub sb gbgaokm k jk `knraokoaÿm gb bstds sdm Oyrax (`kcdsk prd `knraokr pkrk ANC), KCG y sdnrbtdgd Amtbj .
>. AM@D^CKOAßM Q GKWD_ Fbmbrkjcbmtb, bm bj jbmfukhb odjdquakj, jds tárcamds gktd b am`drckoaÿm sb utajazkm odcd samÿmacds, pbrd odmobptukjcbmtb sdm gastamtds. GKWD ≩ AM@D^CKOAßM
Jds gktds sdm jk umagkg nësaok gbj sastbck gb am`drckoaÿm y jk am`drckoaÿm sdm jds gktds bstruoturkgds .
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;? gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
>.;. Gktds Jds gktds sdm ‚odmhumtds gb sãcndjds utajazkgds pkrk rbprbsbmtkr um vkjdr mucáraod, um eboed, um dnhbtd d umk agbk gb umk ckmbrk kgboukgk pkrk su odcumaokoaÿm, amtbrprbtkoaÿm y prdobskcabmtd pdr sbrbs euckmds d cbgads kutdcëtaods– . Bm vbrgkg, bj gktd bs um odmobptd nësaod d bjbcbmtkj odcd jds mdcnrbs gb jks odsks d jks okmtagkgbs (um prboad, umk `boek, bj mdcnrb gb umk pbrsdmk, bto.). Bj gktd md tabmb vkjdr sbcëmtaod (sbmtagd) bm sã cascd, pbrd odmvbmabmtbcbmtb trktkgd (prdobskgd) sb pubgb utajazkr bm jk rbkjazkoaÿm gb oëjoujds d tdck gb gboasadmbs. Rm gktd pdr sã cascd md odmstatuyb am`drckoaÿm, bs bj prdobskgd gb jds gktds jd qub mds prdpdroadmk am`drckoaÿm. Bhbcpjds8 Burds, Ndjsk, ?.???, NNPK, bto.
>.>. Am`drckoaÿm Jk am`drckoaÿm, k ga`brbmoak gb jds gktds, tabmb safma`aokgd, rbjbvkmoak y prdpÿsatd . Jk am`drckoaÿm bstë `drckgk pkrk kjføm `am. Am`drckr bs gkr `drck k kjfd. Bhbcpjd8 Jk odtazkoaÿm gbj NNPK bm jk Ndjsk bs gb ?.???. Bm bstb pumtd, y tbmabmgd bm oubmtk jks kmtbradrbs gb`amaoadmbs, pdgbcds gb`amar jk am`drckoaÿm øtaj odcd ‚um odmhumtd gb gktds kobrok gb eboeds, dnhbtds, vkjdrbs b agbks, qub drfkmazkgds bm um odmtbxtd gbtbrcamkgd tabmbm safma`aokgd øtaj pkrk jk pbrsdmk qub jds rboanb, ouyd prdpÿsatd pubgb sbr bj gb rbguoar jk amobrtagucnrb, amorbcbmtkr bj odmdoacabmtd kobrok gb kjfd d kyugkr k tdckr gboasadmbs sdnrb bjj ds– . Jk boukoaÿm bxpubstk k odmtamukoaÿm bs cuy acpdrtkmtb, y rbsucb jks kmtbradrbs agbks8 GKWD_ + AMWB^Y^BWKOAßM (ODMWBUWD) 3 AM@D^CKOAßM ØWAJ Bhbcpjds8 Ástds sdm odmobptds nësaods gb Am`drcëtaok (Odrrbotd). Nësaods sdm odmobptds gb bstds Am`drcëtaok (Amodrrbotd).
>.?. Wapds gb am`drckoaÿm Ykrtabmgd gb jk ga`brbmoak sbcëmtaok y samtëotaok gb jk am`drckoaÿm, jds tapds gb am`drckoaÿm qub sdm susobptanjbs gb usd u odcumaokoaÿm pkrk bj sbr euckmd, pubgbm sbr kfrupkgds bm gds nësaods8 mucáraods y kj`kmucáraods. >.?.;. Mucáraods
_dm vkjdrbs mucáraods (oukmtatktavds) bxprbskgds bm umk gbtbrcamkgk umagkg gb cbgagk< jk am`drckoaÿm odmtbmagk bm bjjds md gbpbmgb gb su vkjdr knsdjutd, samd gb su safma`aokgd rbspbotd k dtrds vkjdrbs knsdjutds rboanagds kmtbradr y pdstbradrcbmtb. Bs gboar, sdm bj odmhumtd gb am`drckoaÿm `drckgd sÿjd pdr møcbrds, qub pubgbm rbprbsbmtkr ga`brbmtbs tapds gb am`drckoaÿm. Ydr bhbcpjd, jk tbcpbrkturk kcnabmtb gb umk oaugkg, gdmgb tbcpbrkturk sbrãk um møcbrd qub mds amgaok k quá cbmskhb odrrbspdmgb. _b utajazk bj sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm gboackj. >.?.>. Kj`kmucáraods
_dm kfrupkoadmbs gb jbtrks, møcbrds y dtrds okrkotbrbs odcd safmds gb pumtukoaÿm , qub sdm garbotkcbmtb amtbrprbtknjbs bm bj cdgd euckmd gb bxprbskrsb pdr bsoratd< okgk sãcndjd bs gastamfuanjb y jbfanjb pdr sbpkrkgd, y sb odcpdmb gb sãcndjds bjbcbmtkjbs `drckmtbs gb jk odcumaokoaÿm vbrnkj.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;7 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
?. ^BY^B_BMWKOAßM GB JK AM@D^CKOAßM Kmtbs gb trktkr odm gbtkjjb bm jds sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm, odmvabmb ga`brbmoakr bmtrb jk rbprbsbmtkoaÿm amtbrmk y jk rbprbsbmtkoaÿm bxtbrmk gb jk am`drckoaÿm. Bxtbrmkcbmtb (okrkotbrbs kj`knátaods, mucáraods y bspboakjbs). Amtbrmkcbmtb (bmtbmganjb pdr bj drgbmkgdr ‟ odga`aokgk). Bj dnhbtavd gbj drgbmkgdr bs trkms`drckr jk am`drckoaÿm bxtbrmk qub bj sbr euckmd odcprbmgb bm pktrdmbs gb sãcndjds ‚9– y ‚;– `ëoajcbmtb kjckobmknjbs y prdobsknjbs pdr jds bjbcbmtds amtbrmds gb jk casck .
7. _A_WBCK_ GB MRCB^KOAßM K jd jkrfd gb jk eastdrak, bj sbr euckmd ek bcpjbkgd gavbrsd cátdgds d sastbcks pkrk rbprbsbmtkr jds møcbrds y sktas`kobr sus mbobsagkgbs gb oëjoujd. Jds sastbcks mucáraods cës kmtafuds sdm8
Bfapoad. Frabfd. Oeamd. Kztbok. Nknajÿmaod.
^dckmd. Ckyk. Eamgø. Ërknb. Bto.
Bj cës odcøm bmtrb mdsdtrds bs bj sastbck gboackj. Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;2 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
7.;. Gb`amaoaÿm prbvak _b gbmdcamk sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm kj odmhumtd gb sãcndjds y rbfjks qub sb utajazkm pkrk rbprbsbmtkr jks okmtagkgbs gb jks ckfmatugbs d vkjdrbs mucáraods . Bj odmhumtd gb sãcndjds qub gaspdmb okgk sastbck mucáraod sb odmdob odcd kj`knbtd. K pkrtar gb bjjds sb bxprbskrëm tdgks jks okmtagkgbs. Bhbcpjds8 _astbck gb mucbrkoaÿm
Kj`knbtd
_astbck rdckmd
A, P, U, J, O, G, C
_astbck gboackj
9, ;, >, ?, 7, 2, 0, 6, 5, 1
Rm cascd møcbrd d okmtagkg sb rbprbsbmtk gb `drck ga`brbmtb bm okgk sastbck. Bhbcpjds8 _astbck rdckmd
_astbck gboackj
AAA
?
U
;9
UUA
>;
7.>. Wapds gb sastbcks
Jds sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm pubgbm sbr (d sb ojksa`aokm bm)8 Md pdsaoadmkjbs. Ydsaoadmkjbs.
7.>.;. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm md pdsaoadmkjbs
doupk .
Jds sastbcks md pdsaoadmkjbs odmsastbm bm qub bj vkjdr gb okgk oa`rk md gbpbmgb gbj jufkr qub
Bhbcpjds8 Jds møcbrds rdckmds, bj nknajÿmaod d sbxkfbsackj . Kotukjcbmtb, jds gds sastbcks cës utajazkgds sdm bj rdckmd y bj sbxkfbsackj. Bj amodmvbmabmtb qub tabmbm bstds sastbcks bs qub pkrk bsoranar vkjdrbs mucáraods frkmgbs sdm mbobskrads cuoeds sãcndjds , y kgbcës rbsujtk ga`ãoaj b`botukr dpbrkoadmbs kratcátaoks odm bjjds , odsk qub md suobgb odm jds pdsaoadmkjbs. 7.>.;.;. _astbck rdckmd
Bj sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm rdckmk sb gbskrrdjjÿ bm jk kmtafuk ^dck y sb utajazÿ bm tdgd su acpbrad. Bs um sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm md pdsaoadmkj, bm bj qub sb uskm sabtb jbtrks ckyøsoujks gbj kj`knbtd jktamd odcd sãcndjds pkrk rbprbsbmtkr jds møcbrds, qub sdm8 A, P, U, J, O, G y C. Gaoeds sãcndjds tabmbm su bquavkjbmoak bm bj sastbck gboackj8 A3; O 3 ;99 P32 G 3 299 U 3 ;9 C3;.999 J 3 29 Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;0 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bj sastbck gb møcbrds rdckmds okrbob gbj 9 , amtrdguoagd pdstbradrcbmtb pdr jds ërknbs, pdr jd qub sb odmvabrtb bm um sastbck cuy odcpjaokgd kj qubrbr rbkjazkr cujtapjaokoadmbs y gavasadmbs . Bstb sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm, ek okãgd bm gbsusd y sÿjd sb jd usk odm `ambs gbodrktavds (rbjdhbs, bstktuks, cdmucbmtds) y oabrtd prdtdodjd (pkrk mucbrkr jds safjds, amgaokr jds okpãtujds bm jds janrds, ekobr rb`brbmoak k um gbtbrcamkgd kûd, bto.). 7.>.>. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm pdsaoadmkjbs
_b bmtabmgb pdr sastbcks pdsaoadmkjbs kqubjjds bm jds oukjbs bj vkjdr gb okgk oa`rk gbpbmgb gb jk pdsaoaÿm qub doupk . Bhbcpjd8 _a tbmbcds jds møcbrds 57 y 75, vbcds qub bj 57 tabmb umk okgbmk gb sãcndjds bj 5 y bj 7, cabmtrks qub bj 75 tabmb umk okgbmk gb sãcndjds odcpubstk pdr bj 7 y bj 5. Okgk umd gb bstds sãcndjds tabmb um vkjdr gastamtd gbpbmgabmgd gb su pdsaoaÿm gbmtrd gb jk okgbmk qub `drck bj møcbrd. Bj gãfatd cës k jk gbrboek rbprbsbmtk jks umagkgbs y bj safuabmtb gãfatd rbprbsbmtk k jks gbobmks. Bm bj 57 bj 7 rbprbsbmtk jks umagkgbs y bj 5 jks gbobmks. Bm bj 75 bj 5 rbprbsbmtk jks umagkgbs y bj 7 jks gbobmks. Bhbcpjd8 Bj møcbrd 0?>7 bstë `drckgd pdr 7 umagkgbs, > gbobmks, ? obmtbmks y 0 umagkgbs gb cajjkr , tkj odcd sb rbprbsbmtk k odmtamukoaÿm8 0?>7 3 0¶;999 + ?¶;99 + >¶;9 + 7
Bm oukjquabr sastbck pdsaoadmkj, jk pdsaoaÿm gb jk oa`rk gb jk bxtrbck gbrboek bs jk gb cbmdr vkjdr, d pdsaoaÿm gb drgbm am`bradr , y jk oa`rk qub jk doupk sb gbmdcamk gãfatd cbmds safma`aoktavd. Cabmtrks qub jk pdsaoaÿm gb jk oa`rk gb jk bxtrbck azquabrgk bs jk gb ckydr vkjdr, d pdsaoaÿm gb drgbm supbradr , y jk oa`rk qub jk doupk sb gbmdcamk gãfatd cës safma`aoktavd. Bhbcpjd8 _a tbmbcds bj møcbrd 0?>7, bj gãfatd cbmds safma`aoktavd bs jk oa`rk 7 y bj gãfatd cës safma`aoktavd bs jk oa`rk 0. Bhbcpjd8
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;6 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bstds sastbcks sb okrkotbrazkm `umgkcbmtkjcbmtb pdr su nksb, qub bs bj møcbrd gb sãcndjds gastamtds qub sb bcpjbkm bm um sastbck gbtbrcamkgd pkrk rbprbsbmtkr jk am`drckoaÿm . Bm bstds sastbcks tbmbcds tkmtds sãcndjds odcd jk nksb gbj sastbck, qub odcd ebcds gaoed kmtbs sb odmdobm odcd kj`knbtd< bs gboar, sa jk nksb bs n, bj kj`knbtd vk gb 9 k n-; sãcndjds . Bhbcpjd8 Gboacds qub mubstrd sastbck gboackj bs gb nksb ;9 yk qub bxastbm ;9 sãcndjds gastamtds (gbj 9 kj 1) y bj sastbck namkrad bs gb nksb > pdrqub utajazk > sãcndjds (9 y ;). Nksb
Kj`knbtd
>
9, ;
;9
9, ;, >, ?, 7, 2, 0, 6, 5, 1
Jds møcbrds ckydrbs qub jk nksb sb rbprbsbmtkm pdr cbgad gb vkraks oa`rks . _a jk nksb bs n , bj rkmfd gb okgk oa`rk vk gb 9 k n-; . Gb cdgd qub um sastbck bm nksb n pubgb rbprbsbmtkr oukjquabr møcbrd pdr frkmgb qub sbk. Bhbcpjd8 Bj møcbrd 0?>7 gb 7 oa`rks bm um sastbck gb nksb ;9 bs vëjagd pdrqub okgk oa`rk bstë odcprbmgagk bmtrb 9 y 1, cabmtrks qub bj møcbrd ;K md jd bs pdrqub jk oa`rk K md bs um sãcndjd gb su kj`knbtd. 7.>.>.;. Wbdrbck `umgkcbmtkj gb jk mucbrkoaÿm
Bm um sastbck pdsaoadmkj gb nksb n, oukjquabr møcbrd M odm m gãfatds bmtbrds bxprbskgd gb jk `drck M 3 (U m Um-; ... U; U9)n, sb pubgb rbprbsbmtkr odcd um pdjamdcad gb pdtbmoak gb jk nksb n 8 M 3 Um¶nm + Um-;¶nm-; + ... + U ;¶n; + U9¶n9
Gdmgb8 U a 8 sdm jks gastamtks oa`rks gbj vkjdr mucáraod. Bj rkmfd gb okgk oa`rk vk gb 9 k n-; (9 U a : n) . a8 pdsaoaÿm qub doupk okgk oa`rk gbmtrd gbj møcbrd . _b mucbrk bm `drck orboabmtb ekoak jk azquabrgk gbsgb 9 bm kgbjkmtb y gb ; bm ;, d sbk a 3 9, ;, ..., m. Bj frkm cáratd gb bstds sastbcks `ub jk amtrdguooaÿm gbj sãcndjd obrd pkrk rbprbsbmtkr oukjquabr møcbrd pdr frkmgb qub sbk y sacpja`aokr jk `drck gb b`botukr jks dpbrkoadmbs . Kj tbmbr okgk oa`rk um vkjdr rbjktavd sbføm bj jufkr qub doupk, su prbsbmoak bm um møcbrd safma`aok sacpjbcbmtb qub jk pdtbmoak gb jk nksb rbprbsbmtkgk pdr jk pdsaoaÿm gbj gãfatd 9 md sb utajazk, odm jd qub sb ekob acprbsoamganjb pkrk amgaokr jk kusbmoak gb umagkgbs gb kjføm drgbm . Bhbcpjd8 Bj møcbrd gboackj 599? safma`aok8 5¶;9? + 9¶;9> + 9¶;9; + ?¶;99 3 3 5¶;999 + 9¶;99 + 9¶;9 + ?¶; 3 3 5999 + 9 + 9 + ? 3 599? 7.>.>.>. _astbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm cës utajazkgds bm Am`drcëtaok
Jds sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm pdsaoadmkjbs cës usukjbs bm Am`drcëtaok sdm8 _astbck namkrad. _astbck dotkj. _astbck ebxkgboackj.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;5 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Ykrk kprbmgbr k ckmbhkrjds, sb rbourrb `rboubmtbcbmtb k jk kmkjdfãk odm bj sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm cës odmdoagd y utajazkgd k gakrad bmtrb jks pbrsdmks8 bj sastbck gboackj gb nksb ;9. Bm jk safuabmtb tknjk sb cubstrkm bstds sastbcks. Nksb gb Møcbrd gb _astbck gb mucbrkoaÿm Kj`knbtd mucbrkoaÿm sãcndjds _astbck gboackj Nksb ;9 ;9 9, ;, >, ?, 7, 2, 0, 6, 5, 1 _astbck namkrad Nksb > > 9, ; _astbck dotkj Nksb 5 5 9, ;, >, ?, 7, 2, 0, 6 _astbck ebxkgboackj Nksb ;0 ;0 9, ;, >, ?, 7, 2, 0, 6, 5, 1, K, N, O, G, B, @ Bstds sastbcks ga`abrbm bm oukmtd k jk gaspdsaoaÿm y kj tapd gb jds sãcndjds qub utajazkm. Odcd sb pubgb dnsbrvkr, bj gãfatd gb ckydr vkjdr bm bj sastbck mucáraod namkrad bs bj ;, bm bj dotkj bj 6, bm bj gboackj bj 1 y bm bj ebxkgboackj jk jbtrk @, ouyd vkjdr mucáraod bs afukj k ;2. Bm bj sastbck namkrad, bj nat cbmds safma`aoktavd (J_N, Jbkst _afma`aokmt Nat) bs bj nat qub bstë satukgd bm bj bxtrbcd gbrboed gbj møcbrd namkrad (doupk jk pdsaoaÿm 9). Cabmtrks qub bj nat cës safma`aoktavd (C_N, Cdst _afma`aokmt Nat) bs bj nat qub bstë satukgd bm bj bxtrbcd azquabrgd gbj møcbrd namkrad . Bhbcpjd8
K pkrtar gb kedrk, pkrk bvatkr odm`usadmbs, oukmgd bxprbsbcds um vkjdr mucáraod (M) pdmgrbcds um sunãmgaob kj `amkj amgaokmgd jk nksb (n) bm jk qub sb bxprbsk gaoed vkjdr ( Mn), skjvd qub pdr bj odmtbxtd qubgb su`aoabmtbcbmtb ojkrd. Bhbcpjds8 >>2;9 Bj sunãmgaob amgaok qub bj møcbrd >>2 bs gb nksb ;9. ;;9;;> Bj sunãmgaob amgaok qub bj møcbrd ;;9;; bs gb nksb >. Bhbcpjds8 _astbck gboackj >?;9 ;;9;9 2;9 ;9;> ;;9> ;> _astbck namkrad _astbck dotkj >?5 ;;95 65 _astbck ebxkgboackj >?;0 ;;9;0 K?@9;0
Bhbcpjds8 Bm bj sastbck gboackj, bj møcbrd ;>2 ;9 bs um møcbrd vëjagd, pbrd bj møcbrd ;>K ;9 md jd bs, yk qub utajazk um sãcndjd K md vëjagd bm bj sastbck gboackj. Bm bj sastbck namkrad, bj møcbrd ;9; > bs um møcbrd vëjagd, pbrd bj møcbrd ;9> > md jd bs, yk qub bj sãcndjd > md bs um sãcndjd vëjagd bm bj sastbck namkrad. Bm bj sastbck dotkj, bj møcbrd ?2 5 bs um møcbrd vëjagd, pbrd bj møcbrd ?1 5 md jd bs, yk qub bj sãcndjd 1 md bs um sãcndjd vëjagd bm bj sastbck dotkj. Bm bj sastbck ebxkgboackj, bj møcbrd @;B7 ;0 bs um møcbrd vëjagd, pbrd bj møcbrd @LB7 ;0 md jd bs, yk qub bj sãcndjd L md bs um sãcndjd vëjagd bm bj sastbck ebxkgboackj.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ;1 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Jk safuabmtb tknjk cubstrk ebxkgboackj (ekstk bj møcbrd ?;). Gboackj 9 ; > ? 7 2 0 6 5 1 ;9 ;; ;> ;? ;7 ;2 ;0 ;6 ;5 ;1 >9 >; >> >? >7 >2 >0 >6 >5 >1 ?9 ?;
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
jks bquavkjbmoaks bmtrb jds sastbcks gboackj, namkrad, dotkj y Namkrad
Dotkj
Ebxkgboackj
9 ; ;9 ;; ;99 ;9; ;;9 ;;; ;999 ;99; ;9;9 ;9;; ;;99 ;;9; ;;;9 ;;;; ;9999 ;999; ;99;9 ;99;; ;9;99 ;9;9; ;9;;9 ;9;;; ;;999 ;;99; ;;9;9 ;;9;; ;;;99 ;;;9; ;;;;9 ;;;;;
9 ; > ? 7 2 0 6 ;9 ;; ;> ;? ;7 ;2 ;0 ;6 >9 >; >> >? >7 >2 >0 >6 ?9 ?; ?> ?? ?7 ?2 ?0 ?6
9 ; > ? 7 2 0 6 5 1 K N O G B @ ;9 ;; ;> ;? ;7 ;2 ;0 ;6 ;5 ;1 ;K ;N ;O ;G ;B ;@
Yëfamk >9 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
7.>.>.?. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb oukjquabrk k umk nksb gboackj
Ykrk jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd bm oukjquabr nksb kj sastbck gboackj , kpjaokrbcds bj tbdrbck `umgkcbmtkj gb jk mucbrkoaÿm qub rbjkoadmk umk okmtagkg bxprbskgk bm oukjquabr sastbck gb mucbrkoaÿm pdsaoadmkj odm su bquavkjbmtb bm nksb ;9. Odmvbrsaÿm gb namkrad k gboackj Bhbcpjd8 Dntbmbr bj vkjdr gboackj gb jds safuabmtbs møcbrds namkrads (jd rbsdjvbrbcds gaspdmabmgd jds prdguotds bm odjucmk pkrk `koajatkr jk suck)8 ;;9;> 3 ;¶>? + ;¶>> + 9¶>; + ;¶>9 3 ;¶5 + ;¶7 + 9¶> + ;¶; 3 5 + 7 + 9 + ; 3 ;?;9 Bhbcpjd8
Odmvbrsaÿm gb dotkj k gboackj Bhbcpjd8 Dntbmbr bj vkjdr gboackj gb jds safuabmtbs møcbrds bm bj sastbck dotkj (jd rbsdjvbrbcds gaspdmabmgd jds prdguotds bm odjucmk pkrk `koajatkr jk suck)8 655 3 6¶5 ; + 5¶59 3 6¶5 + 5¶;
3 20 + 5 3 07;9 Odmvbrsaÿm gb ebxkgboackj k gboackj Bhbcpjd8 Dntbmbr bj vkjdr gboackj gb jds safuabmtbs møcbrds bm bj sastbck ebxkgboackj, rbbcpjkzkmgd jds sãcndjds ebxkgboackjbs odm sãcndjds gboackjbs (jd rbsdjvbrbcds gaspdmabmgd jds prdguotds bm odjucmk pkrk `koajatkr jk suck)8 ;?K;0 3 ;¶;0> + ?¶;0; + ;9¶;09 3 ;¶>20 + ?¶;0 + ;9¶;
3 >20 + 75 + ;9 3 ?;7;9 7.>.>.7. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb gboackj k dtrk nksb oukjquabrk
Jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd gboackj k nksb n sb b`botøk cbgakmtb jks safuabmtbs dpbrkoadmbs8 gavagar pdr jk nksb, fukrgkr bj rbstd y vdjvbr k gavagar bj odoabmtb y ksã suobsavkcbmtb ekstk qub bj odoabmtb sbk cbmdr qub jk nksb . Bj møcbrd bm nksb n bstë `drckgd pdr bj øjtacd odoabmtb y pdr jds rbstds gbj øjtacd kj pracbrd. Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >; gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Odmvbrsaÿm gb gboackj k namkrad Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd gboackj >0 k namkrad. >0 > 0 ;? > >0;9 3 ;;9;9> 9 ; 0 > 9 ? > ; ;
Gãfatd cbmds safma`aoktavd
Gãfatd cës safma`aoktavd
K odmtamukoaÿm, sb bsoranb bj øjtacd odoabmtb y jds rbstds gb gbrboek k azquabrgk8 ;;9;9 _b odmojuyb qub8 >0 ;9 3 ;;9;9 > Odmvbrsaÿm gb gboackj k dotkj Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd gboackj >0 k dotkj. >0 5 >0;9 3 ?>5 > ?
Gãfatd cbmds safma`aoktavd
Gãfatd cës safma`aoktavd
K odmtamukoaÿm, sb bsoranb bj øjtacd odoabmtb y jds rbstds gb gbrboek k azquabrgk8 ?> _b odmojuyb qub8 >0 ;9 3 ?>5 Odmvbrsaÿm gb gboackj k ebxkgboackj Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd gboackj >0 k ebxkgboackj. >0 ;0 >0;9 3 ;K;0 _b rbbcpjkzk ;9 ; pdr8 K
Gãfatd cbmds safma`aoktavd
Gãfatd cës safma`aoktavd
K odmtamukoaÿm, sb bsoranb bj øjtacd odoabmtb y jds rbstds gb gbrboek k azquabrgk8 ;K _b odmojuyb qub8 >0 ;9 3 ;K;0
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >> gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
7.>.>.2. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb n (dotkj d ebxkgboackj) k umk nksb namkrak
Ykrk rbkjazkr jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd gbsgb umk nksb dotkj d ebxkgboackj k nksb namkrak , utajazkcds jk tknjk gb bquavkjbmoaks bmtrb jds ga`brbmtbs sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm . Odmvbrsaÿm gb dotkj k namkrad Odmsagbrkmgd qub jk nksb 5 bs pdtbmoak gb > (5 3 > ?, sabmgd ? bj møcbrd gb oa`rks), sacpjbcbmtb sustatuacds okgk umk gb jks oa`rks qub jd `drckm pdr sus trbs oa`rks namkraks bquavkjbmtbs. Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd dotkj >67 k namkrad. > 6 75
9;9 ;;; ;99> Bs gboar, >675 3 9;9;;;;99 > Odmvbrsaÿm gb ebxkgboackj k namkrad Odmsagbrkmgd qub jk nksb ;0 bs pdtbmoak gb > (;0 3 > 7, sabmgd ? bj møcbrd gb oa`rks), sacpjbcbmtb sustatuacds okgk umk gb jks oa`rks qub jd `drckm pdr sus ouktrd oa`rks namkraks bquavkjbmtbs. Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd ebxkgboackj ;6@ k namkrad. ; 6 @;0
999; 9;;; ;;;;> Bs gboar, ;6@;0 3 999;9;;;;;;;> 7.>.>.0. Odmvbrsaÿm gb umk nksb namkrak k dtrk nksb n (dotkj d ebxkgboackj)
Ykrk rbkjazkr jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd namkrad k dotkj d ebxkgboackj, utajazkcds jk tknjk gb bquavkjbmoaks bmtrb jds ga`brbmtbs sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm . Odmvbrsaÿm gb namkrad k dotkj Jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd namkrad k dotkj bs cuy sbmoajjk y sb rbkjazk k jk amvbrsk8 sb `drckm frupds gb trbs oa`rks namkraks gb gbrboek ekoak jk azquabrgk , y sb sustatuyb okgk tbrobtd (frupd gb trbs oa`rks) pdr su bquavkjbmtb oa`rk. _a bj frupd `amkj gb jk azquabrgk qubgk amodcpjbtd, sb rbjjbmk odm obrds pdr jk azquabrgk. Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd namkrad 99;9;9;;; k dotkj. 99; 9;9 ;;;>
; > 65 _b odmojuyb qub8 99;9;9;;;> 3 ;>65 Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >? gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Odmvbrsaÿm gb namkrad k ebxkgboackj
Jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd namkrad k ebxkgboackj bs cuy sbmoajjk y sb rbkjazk k jk amvbrsk8 sb `drckm frupds gb ouktrd oa`rks namkraks k pkrtar gb gbrboek ekoak jk azquabrgk , y sb sustatuyb okgk oukrtbtd (frupd gb ouktrd oa`rks) pdr su bquavkjbmtb oa`rk. _a bj frupd `amkj gb jk azquabrgk qubgk amodcpjbtd, sb rbjjbmk odm obrds pdr jk azquabrgk. Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd namkrad 999;;;;9;999 k ebxkgboackj. 999; ;;;9 ;999>
; B 5;0 _b odmojuyb qub8 999;;;;9;999> 3 ;B5;0 7.>.>.6. Odmvbrsaÿm gb nksb ebxkgboackj k dotkj
Jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd ebxkgboackj k dotkj bs cuy sbmoajjk. Yracbrd, sb rbkjazk jk odmvbrsaÿm k namkrad cbgakmtb jk tknjk gb bquavkjbmoaks bmtrb jds ga`brbmtbs sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm y, gbspuás, sb `drckm frupds gb trbs oa`rks namkraks gb gbrboek ekoak jk azquabrgk, y sb sustatuyb okgk tbrobtd (frupd gb trbs oa`rks) pdr su bquavkjbmtb oa`rk gbj sastbck namkrad . _a bj frupd `amkj gb jk azquabrgk qubgk amodcpjbtd, sb rbjjbmk odm obrds pdr jk azquabrgk. Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd ebxkgboackj K7N k dotkj. - Yksd ;8 Ykskr K7N bm nksb ;0 k nksb > cbgakmtb jk Wknjk ;;. K 7 N;0
;9;9 9;99 ;9;;> - Yksd >8 Ykskr ;9; 99; 99; 9;; bm nksb > k nksb 5 cbgakmtb jk Wknjk ;9. ;9;9 9;99 ;9;; >
2 ; ; ?5 _b odmojuyb qub8 K7N ;0 3 2;;?5 7.>.>.5. Odmvbrsaÿm gb nksb dotkj k ebxkgboackj
Jk odmvbrsaÿm gb um møcbrd dotkj k ebxkgboackj bs cuy sbmoajjk. Yracbrd, sb rbkjazk jk odmvbrsaÿm k namkrad cbgakmtb jk tknjk gb bquavkjbmoaks bmtrb jds ga`brbmtbs sastbcks gb mucbrkoaÿm y, gbspuás, sb `drckm frupds gb ouktrd oa`rks namkraks gb gbrboek ekoak jk azquabrgk, y sb sustatuyb okgk oukrtbtd (frupd gb ouktrd oa`rks) pdr su bquavkjbmtb oa`rk gbj sastbck namkrad . _a bj frupd `amkj gb jk azquabrgk qubgk amodcpjbtd, sb rbjjbmk odm obrds pdr jk azquabrgk.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >7 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bhbcpjd8 Odmvbrtar bj møcbrd dotkj >2? k ebxkgboackj. - Yksd ;8 Ykskr >2? bm nksb 5 k nksb > cbgakmtb jk Wknjk ;9. > 2 ?5
9;9
;9;
9;;>
- Yksd >8 Ykskr 9;9 ;9; 9;; bm nksb > k nksb ;0 cbgakmtb jk Wknjk ;;. 9;9 ;9; 9;; >
; _b odmojuyb qub8 >2? 5 3 ;N;0
N;0
2. RMAGKGB_, CØJWAYJD_ Q _RNCØJWAYJD_ Bm bj _astbck Amtbrmkoadmkj (_A) sb gbtbrcamkrdm jks ckfmatugbs `umgkcbmtkjbs , kjfumks gb bjjks sdm8 jk jdmfatug, jk cksk y bj tabcpd y sus umagkgbs odrrbspdmgabmtbs. Rmk ckfmatug bs tdgd kqubjjd qub pubgb sbr cbgagd . Bhbcpjds8 Rskcds jds cbtrds pkrk cbgar jks jdmfatugbs . Rskcds jds jatrds pkrk cbgar okpkoagkgbs . Rtajazkcds jds frkcds oukmgd mbobsatkcds cbgar pbsd . Q bj tabcpd, jd cbgacds bm edrks, camutds y sbfumgds . Ykrk cbgar jk okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd gb am`drckoaÿm, utajazkcds jds Nytbs . Ykrk cbgar jk vbjdoagkg gb prdobskcabmtd gbj prdobskgdr, utajazkcds jds Ebroads . Q pkrk jk trkms`brbmoak gb gktds, uskcds jds nats pdr sbfumgd . Jks umagkgbs cbmoadmkgks tabmbm umagkgbs ckydrbs jjkckgks cøjtapjds y umagkgbs cbmdrbs gbmdcamkgks suncøjtapjds. Bm `drck odmvbmoadmkj, sb gbsafmkm jds cøjtapjds y jds suncøjtapjds odm prb`ahds qub sb kmtbpdmbm kj mdcnrb gb jk umagkg `umgkcbmtkj, jds oukjbs tabmbm um sãcndjd y rbprbsbmtkm um vkjdr .
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >2 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Kpjaokmgd jd kmtbradr, bm kjfumds bhbcpjds gb umagkgbs gb jdmfatug sb tabmb8
bm ;9.
Odcd bj _astbck Amtbrmkoadmkj bs gboackj, jks okmtagkgbs vkrãkm gb umk umagkg k dtrk gb ;9
Bm bj oksd gb kjfumks umagkgbs gb jdmfatug y cksk bstk rbjkoaÿm bs jk safuabmtb8
Ykrk odmvbrtar umk umagkg k dtrk gb cbmdr ckfmatug, sb cujtapjaok pdr ;9, ;99, ;.999, ;9.999, bto., gbpbmgabmgd gb jk rbjkoaÿm qub ekyk bmtrb umk umagkg y dtrk. Bhbcpjd8 Ykrk trkms`drckr 7 lajÿcbtrds k gboëcbtrds, sb ekob jd safuabmtb8 7 Lc 3 7 x ;9 3 79 Ec x ;9 3 799 gkc D nabm8 7 Lc 3 7 x ;9 x ;9 3 7 x j99 3 799 gkc 7 Lc 3 7 x ;99 3 799 gkc Bm bj oksd gb qub sb rbquabrk odmvbrtar umagkgbs cbmdrbs k dtrks ckydrbs, sb gavagb bmtrb ;9, ;99, ;.999, bto. Bhbcpjd8 Ykrk trkms`drckr 2?9 oc k cbtrds, sb ekob jd safuabmtb8 2?9 oc 3 2?9 / ;9 3 2? gc 3 2? / ;9 3 2,? c 2?9 oc 3 2?9 / ;9 / ;9 3 2?9 / ;99 3 2,? c 2?9 oc 3 2?9 / ;99 3 2,? c Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >0 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
0. RMAGKGB_ GB CBGAGK GB JK AM@D^CKOAßM Jks umagkgbs gb cbgagk odmstatuybm umk gb jks okrkotbrãstaoks `umgkcbmtkjbs gbj bspkoad cktbrakj gb rbprbsbmtkoaÿm (d cbcdrak) gb um odcputkgdr . Ydgbcds kfrupkr bstks cbgagks bm trbs frupds8 Kjckobmkcabmtd. Yrdobskcabmtd. Wrkmscasaÿm gb gktds.
0.;. Kjckobmkcabmtd 0.;.;. Nat
Jk umagkg cës pbqubûk (d cãmack) gb am`drckoaÿm bs jk qub odrrbspdmgb k um suobsd bm bj qub sÿjd eky gds kjtbrmktavks pdsanjbs 8 vbrgkgbrd (prbsbmoak gb tbmsaÿm) d `kjsd (kusbmoak gb tbmsaÿm). Yubgb rbprbsbmtkrsb bm bj amtbradr gbj drgbmkgdr odm um ømaod gãfatd gbj sastbck namkrad, bs gboar, um 9 ÿ um ;. K bstb gãfatd sb jb gbmdcamk nat, knrbvakturk gb jks pkjknrks amfjbsks Namkry gafAW (gãfatd namkrad) qub `ub amtrdguoagd pdr Hdem Vajgbr Wulby bm ;170 gurkmtb jk odmstruooaÿm gb jk cëquamk BMAKO. _b gbmdtk pdr ‚n–.
Jk umagkg gb cbgagk nat rbsujtk ga`ãoaj gb bxprbskr oukmgd jk okmtagkg gb am`drckoaÿm kucbmtk . Jk mbobsagkg gb odga`aokr am`drckoadmbs cës odcpjbhks ek jjbvkgd k kfrupkr vkrads nats , kpkrboabmgd ksã jks safuabmtbs umagkgbs8 nytb y cøjtapjds gbj nytb (ksã, eknjkcds gb Lajdnytb, Cbfknytb, Fafknytb, bto.). 0.;.>. Nytb
Rm nytb bs um odmhumtd gb 5 nats qub pbrcatb rbprbsbmtkr >20 (>5) sãcndjds d okrkotbrbs kj`kmucáraods ga`brbmtbs. Bj tárcamd nytb bs jk odmtrkooaÿm gb jks pkjknrks amfjbsks Namkr Q WBrc (tárcamd namkrad) y `ub amtrdguoagd pdr Vbrmbr Nuoeedjz bm ;126 gurkmtb jks pracbrks `ksbs gb gasbûd gbj ANC 69?9 _trbtoe. _b gbmdtk pdr ‚N–.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >6 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bhbcpjd8 Bj oÿgafd K_OAA .
0.;.?. Cøjtapjds gbj nytb
Odcd um nytb rbprbsbmtk um okrëotbr , jk okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd gb um sdpdrtb gb am`drckoaÿm (tkj odcd gasod gurd, gasqubtb d oamtk ckfmátaok) sb cagb bm nytbs . Kj sbr umk umagkg rbjktavkcbmtb pbqubûk, bs usukj utajazkr cøjtapjds gbj nytb. Lajdnytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 nytbs (> ;9). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚LN–. Cbfknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 LN (> >9). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚CN–. Fafknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 CN (> ?9). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚FN–. Wbrknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 FN (> 79). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚WN–. Ybtknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 WN (> 29). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚YN–. Bxknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 YN (> 09). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚BN–. Xbttknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 BN (> 69). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚XN–. Qdttknytb8 odmhumtd gb ;.9>7 XN (> 59). _b gbmdtk pdr ‚QN–.
MDWK8 Bj cdtavd gb qub jk prdpdroaÿm bmtrb jks gastamtks ckfmatugbs sbk gb ;.9>7 , bm jufkr gb ;.999 qub bs jd eknatukj bm bj sastbck gboackj, sb gbnb k qub ;.9>7 bs jk pdtbmoak gb nksb > qub cës sb kprdxack k ;.999 (;9 ?), bstd bs, > ;9 3 ;.9>7 ≅ ;.999 3 ;9?, bquavkjbmtb kj prb`ahd lajd. Kmëjdfkcbmtb, dourrb odm jds gbcës prb`ahds (C, F, W, Y, B, X, Q). Bm odmsboubmoak, bj `kotdr gb cujtapjaokoaÿm bs ;.9>7 vbobs bj vkjdr kmtbradr bm jufkr gb ;.999. Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >5 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bhbcpjds8 ;,77 CN bs jk okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd gb um Gasqubtb gb ?³-pujfkgks . 029 k 699 CN bs jk okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd gb um OG mdrckj. Bxastbm dtrds odm okpkoagkg gb 599-562 CN. 7,69 FN bs jk okpkoagkg gb kjckobmkcabmtd gb um GPG mdrckj.
Ykrk rbkjazkr jks odmvbrsadmbs bmtrb umagkgbs gb cbgagk , nkstk odm cujtapjaokr d gavagar pdr su bquavkjbmtb . Bhbcpjds8 Odmvbrtar 09 Nytbs k Nats8 09 Nytbs x 5 nats 3 759 nats Odmvbrtar >.?29 Nytbs k LN8 >.?29 Nytbs x ; LN (yk qub ; LN bs afukj k ;.9>7 Nytbs) 3 >,>1 LN
Bhbcpjd8 Kotukjcbmtb, jk okpkoagkg gb cbcdrak ^KC sb cagb bm CN d FN , y jk okpkoagkg gb jds gasods gurds, bm FN d WN .
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk >1 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bhbcpjds gb kjckobmkcabmtd8
Rm gdoucbmtd gb 07 LN sdm 07 pdr ;.9>7 Nytbs 3 02.2?0 Nytbs. _a qubrbcds kjckobmkr umk pëfamk gb tbxtd odcpjbtd , qub kprdxackgkcbmtb doupk 22 jãmbks pdr 19 okrkotbrbs y bspkoads bm okgk umk, sb rbquabrbm 7.129 Nytbs pdrqub jds bspkoads tkcnaám rbquabrbm um nytb. Rm gdoucbmtd gb gabz pëfamks sbrëm kjrbgbgdr gb 71.299 Nytbs. Rm janrd gb ?99 pëfamks sbrëm kprdxackgkcbmtb ;.752.999 Nytbs. Ksã qub rëpagkcbmtb bstkcds eknjkmgd gb cajbs y cajjdmbs gb Nytbs. Ksã, umk edhk odm ?99 pkjknrks gb 0 jbtrks okgk umk rbqubrarë gb tkm sdjd ;.599 Nytbs ÿ ;,5 Lajdnytbs. Rm janrd gb 299 pëfamks odm 699 pkjknrks gb 0 jbtrks prdcbgad pdr pëfamk rbqubrarë bmtdmobs8 >.;99.999 Nytbs 3 >.;99 Lajdnytbs 3 >,; Cbfknytbs 3 >,; CN. Ykrk bj oksd gb kjckobmkr acëfbmbs, odcd ástks jjbvkm tdgd bj gbtkjjb pumtd pdr pumtd, k jd qub jjkckcds pãxbj, ástks rbquabrbm um nytb pdr okgk pumtd y ksã umk ackfbm gb ;.9>7 x ;.9>7 pãxbjbs, rbqubrarëm ;.975.260 Nytbs 3 ; Cbfknytbs pkrk bj oksd gb umk ackfbm odm >20 odjdrbs. _a quasaárkcds kjckobmkr vãgbd gb odjdrbs, pbmsbcds bm um vãgbd gb ;2 sbfumgds gb ?9 oukgrds pdr sbfumgd gb 2;> x 2;> pãxbjbs, bmtdmobs rbqubracds kjfd ksã odcd8 ;;6.107.599 Nytbs 3 ;;6,16 CN. Odcd sb pubgbm ackfamkr, bmtrb vãgbd y sdmagd pdgbcds bcpbzkr k doupkr cuoed bspkoad, pdr bstk rkzÿm sb ekm fbmbrkgd `drcktds odcpracagds qub kedrrkm bspkoad, kj md kjckobmkr gktds rbpbtagds. Bstds `drcktds sdm jds jjkckgds8 .fa` .hpf. .cpf .wkv .cp? . Odmsagbrkmgd odcprbsaÿm gb gktds , um janrd odm acëfbmbs nabm pubgb qubgkr kjckobmkgd kgboukgkcbmtb bm umds 29 Cbfknytbs. Ksã, umk bmoaojdpbgak gb >9 vdjøcbmbs pubgb qubgkr kjckobmkgk kgboukgkcbmtb bm > OG‑s. Jk okpkoagkg sbrãk gb ;.>99 Cnytbs 3 ;,> Fafknytbs 3 ;.>99.999 Lajdnytbs 3 ;.>99.999.999 Nytbs. Rmk pbjãoujk gb > edrks bm ; OG odm okpkoagkg gb 099 Cbfknytbs. Ykrk md sbfuar ckrbkmgd odm møcbrds, ackfãmktb ouëmtd pubgb kjckobmkr um gasod gurd gb 59 FN4 Yubs sã... ;6 cajjdmbs gb pëfamks! qub sbrãkm oksa 25 caj janrds (gb ?99 pëfamks okgk umd).
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ?9 gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
0.;.7. Ykjknrk
Bm bj gasbûd gb jk krquatboturk gb um odcputkgdr bs acpdrtkmtb tbmbr bm oubmtk bj tkckûd gb jds oÿgafds namkrads , yk qub jks ga`brbmtbs umagkgbs `umoadmkjbs gb um drgbmkgdr bstëm gasbûkgks pkrk trknkhkr odm okgbmks gb nats gb um tkckûd gbtbrcamkgd odmdoagd odcd pkjknrk. Rmk pkjknrk bs bj cëxacd møcbrd gb nats odm qub jk OYR pubgb trknkhkr bm pkrkjbjd (k jk vbz) , y subjb sbr cøjtapjd gb um nytb . Ksã, jk pkjknrk subjb sbr gb 5, ;0, ?>, 07 ÿ ;>5 nats. Ksã qub jk jdmfatug gb pkjknrk gbtbrcamk, bm oabrtk cbgagk, jk prboasaÿm gb jds oëjoujds, jk okpkoagkg cëxack gb jk cbcdrak pramoapkj y jk vkrabgkg gb amstruooadmbs cëquamk .
Bhbcpjd8 _astbck Dpbrktavd Vamgdws 6 gb ?> nats.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ?; gb ??
Wbck 98 Amtrdguooaÿm k jds bquapds caordam`drcëtaods.
Bhbcpjd8 Bj tbxtd ‚Kmk ^ads– sb pubgb rbprbsbmtkr bm oÿgafd namkrad.
0.>. Yrdobskcabmtd Jk vbjdoagkg gb prdobskcabmtd gb um prdobskgdr sb cagb bm cbfkebroads . Rm Cbfkebroad bs afukj k um cajjÿm gb ebroads . Rm ebroad (d ebrzad d ebrz ) bs umk umagkg gb `rboubmoak qub bquavkjb k um oaojd d rbpbtaoaÿm gb um bvbmtd pdr sbfumgd . Bstd, bm pkjknrks sacpjbs, safma`aok qub um prdobskgdr qub trknkhb k umk vbjdoagkg gb 299 cbfkebroads bs okpkz gb rbpbtar 299 cajjdmbs gb oaojds pdr sbfumgd. Bm jk kotukjagkg, gkgk jk frkm vbjdoagkg gb jds prdobskgdrbs, jk umagkg cës `rboubmtb bs bj Fafkebroad, qub odrrbspdmgb k ;.999 cajjdmbs gb ebroads pdr sbfumgd . Bhbcpjd8 Bj prdobskgdr Amtbj vk k umk vbjdoagkg gb ;,06 FEz.
Bmokrmkoaÿm Ckrãm Oknkjjbrd
Yëfamk ?> gb ??
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