Teaching of Social Studies
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Teaching of Social Studies
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eaching ing of Soci S ocial al Studies Studies Teach
R.P. Pathak
Copyright © 2012 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia
No part of this eBook may be used or or reproduced in any manner whatsoever whatsoever without the publisher’s prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time. ISBN eISBN9788131767634 9788131776322 Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
xiii
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies
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Concept of Social Studies Social Studies and Social Sciences Definition of Social Studies Differences Differen ces Between Social Sciences and Social Studies Social Sciences 3 Social Studies 3 Scope of Social Studies Aims and Objectives of eaching Socia Sociall Studies Sociall Studies—As a Core Subject Socia Concept of Core Curriculum 6 Core Curriculum Studies as a Core Subject 6 Curriculum for Social Studies Contents of Social Studies Summary References Additional Readings
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Social
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Role and Integration Importance of Social Studies in National
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Meaning and Concept of National Integration Definition of National Integration Need of National Integration Role of Social Studies in National Integration Contents of Social Studies in Promoting National Integration History 12 12 Geography 13 13 Civics 13 13 Economics Methods of eaching for Promoting National Integration Role of Social Studies eacher in Promoting National Integration Te Role of Social Studies in Emotional Integration Summary •
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Chapter 3
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies
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Concept of eaching Definition of eaching Principles of eaching General Principles of eaching 18 Psychological Principles of eaching 21 eachi eaching ng Varia ariable ble Issues in eaching Practices of Socia Sociall Studies Issues Related to Curriculum 23 eaching Controversial Issues Introducingg the Issue 24 Stating the Problem 24 Collection Introducin Collection of Data 24 Guiding the Learners 25 Exploring the Facts Facts and Ideas 25 Arriving at Conclusion 25 eache eacher’ r’ss Role Issues Related to Strategies of eaching Selection Select ion of Appr Appropriate opriate eaching actics Selection Select ion of Appr Appropriate opriate Communication Media Oral Communication 26 Written Communication 27 Selection Select ion of Appr Appropriate opriate Instructi Instructional onal Aids Learning Conditions and Structures 28 Summary References Additional Readings
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Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
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Meaning and Concept of Instructi Instructional onal Aids Significance of Instructi Instructional onal Aids in eaching Social Studies ypes of Instructi Instructional onal Aids Blackboard/Chalkboard List of Items May Be Presented Trough Blackboard 34 34 Effective Effective Use of Blackboard 35 Bulletin Board Board List of Items May Be Displayed in the Bulletin Board 35 Use of Bulletin Board 36 Precaution for Using the Bulletin Board 36 Objects and Specimens Models Qualities of Good Model 37 Charts ype of Charts 37 Diagrams imelines Line Graph 39 39 Bar Graph 39 39 Circle or Pie Graph 39 39 Pictorial Graph 40 Maps ypes of Maps 40
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Contents vii
Reference Books Summary References Additional Readings
Chapter 5
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Social Studies Curriculum—S Curriculum—Selection election and Organization
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Social Studies Curriculu Curriculum m Definition of Curriculum Aims of Socia Sociall Studies Curriculum Principles of Selection, Organization, and Construction of Social Studies Curriculu Curriculum m Children-centred Curriculum 46 Principle of Motivat Motivation ion 46 Principle Related with Direct Life of Children 46 Principles Principles Based on Democratic Values 46 Principle of Integra Integration tion 46 Principle of Flexibility 46 Principle of Community-centred Curriculum 47 Broad-based Curriculum 47 Principle of Learning by Doing 47 Principle of Selection 47 Principle of Co-relation 47 Forward-looking Principle Based on on Democratic Values 47 Pattern of Socia Sociall Studies Curriculum Study of Social Studies Curriculum for Different Stages as Primary, Secondaryy, and Senior Secondar Secondar Secondaryy Primary Stage—Classes I to V (Age (Age Group Group 6 to 11 Years) Years) 48 48 Middle Stage—Classes VI to VIII (Age (Age Group 11 to 14 14 Years) 49 Senior Secondary Stage—Classes IX to XII (Age Group 14 to 17 Years) 50 eaching Method in Secondar Secondaryy and Senior Secondar Secondaryy Stages Shortcomings of Socia Sociall Studies Curriculum Suggestions for Good Curriculum of Social Studies Summary References Additional Readings
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Methods of Teaching Social Studies
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Meaning and Concept of Method Methods of eaching Learning by Doing (Activity Method) Learning by Play Way Method Learning by Experience Learning by Self-Educat Self-Education ion Division of Methods Characteristics Characteris tics of the Good eaching Method Different Methods of eaching Social Studies
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Assignment Essentials Method of an Assignment 59 59 Home Assignments 61 •
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Discussion Method Organization of Discussi Discussion on 64 64 Merits of Discussi Discussion on 65 65 Limitations of Discuss Discussion ion 65 Directing Group Group Discussion 65 Laboratory Method Lecture Method Significance of the Lecture Method 66 Merits of the Lecture Lecture Method Meth od 67 Limitations of Lecture Method 67 Observation Method echniques of the Obser Observation vation Method 68 Review Method Purposes of Review 69 Source Method Use of the Source Method 70 70 Merits of the Source Method 70 70 Limitations of the Source Method 70 How to Make the Source Source Method Meth od Effective Effective 71 Storytelling Method Te Art of Storytelling 71
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Supervised Study Method Objections to Supervi Supervised sed Study 73 Supervi Supervised sed Study and Socialized Recitation 73 Dramatization Method Note Dictation Method Methods Meth ods of Dictating Dictating Notes Notes 75 Defects in the Method of Note Note Dictation 75 Problem-solving Method Difference Between the Problem Method and the Project Method 76 Aims of the Problem-solving Method 76 Characteristics Characteristics or Featur Features es of a Good Problem 76 Basic Principles of the the Problem-Solving Method 77 Sources of the Problems 78 78
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Procedure Steps in the Problem-solving 78 or Role of eacher in the or Problem-solving Method 79 Method Importance Advanta Adva ntages ges of the Problem-sol Problem-solving ving Method Method 79 Limitat Limitations ions of the Problem-solving Method 80 Major Approaches in in Problem-solving Method 81 Inductive–Deductive Inductive–Deduct ive Method Inductive Method 81 81 Deductive Method 82 Analytic–Synthetic Analytic–Synthet ic Method Analytic Ana lytic Method Method 84 84 Synthetic Method 85 Project Method Meaning Mea ning of of Project Method Method 87 Basic Principles or Features Features (Qualities) of the Project Method 88 Kinds of Projects 89 Procedure, Steps, or Stages involved in a Project 89 Essentials of a Good Project 91 Agencies of the Project Method 91 Examples of Projects 92 Merits Merits of the Project Method 93 Limitations of the Project Method Meth od 94 Suggestions 95 •
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Contents ix
Dalton Plan Duties of a eacher 97 Principles Underlying the Dalton Dalton Plan 97 Merits of the Dalton Plan 98 Limitations and Difficulties of Dalton Plan 99 Questioning in Socia Sociall Studies eaching Purpose of Questions 100 Preliminary Questions and Introd Introductory uctory Questions 101 ypes of Questions 102 Te echnique of Questioning 103 Characteristics of Good Questioning 103 Judicious Blending of alking and Questioning 104 Skill in in Answering Answ ering 104 Classification of Answers 105 How to to Deal with Answers 105 Summary References Additional Readings
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Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources
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Social Studies Laborato Laboratory ry
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Equipment of the Socia Sociall Studies Laboratory 110 Sociall Studies Museum Socia 111 Utilizing Community Resources 112 Importance of Community Resources 113 Valuable Community Resources 113 Method of Learning through Community Resources 114 114 aking the School to the Community 114 Community Survey 115 Special Camping Programme 115 Community Service Projec Projectt 115 Bringing the School to the Community 115 Parents eacher Association 116 Celebration of Fairs, Fairs, Festivals, and Social Serv Service ice Activities 116 Advan Advantages tages of Community Resources 116 Summary 117 •
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Social Studies Teacher
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Characteris tics of a Social Studies eacher Characteristics Scholarship 120 Professional raining 120 Personality 120 eaching Skills 121 Specific Qualities of a Social Studies eacher Art of Developmen Developmentt of Human Human Relatio Relations ns 125 125 Objectivity 125 125 Deep Knowledge of the Subject 125 Application of Field Study Teory 126 A Well-informed eacher 126 Widely ravelled Person 126 A Good Communicato Communicatorr 126 Skilled in the Use of echnological Aids 126 An Interpreter of Various Experiences 126 Summary References Additional Readings •
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Chapter 9
Micro-teaching Micro-teach ing in Social Studies
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Nature and Concept of Micro-teaching 130 Definition of Micro-teaching 130 Main Propositions of Micro-teaching 131 Difference between Micro-teaching and raditional eaching 132 Objectives Objectiv es of Introducing Micro-teaching 132 Steps and Procedure in Micro-teaching 133 Phases of Micro-teaching 134 Principles of Micro-teaching 135 eaching Skills and Micro-teaching 135 Skill of Stimulus Variation 136 Skill of Illustrating and Use of Examples 137 Skill of Explaining 137 Skill of Increasing Pupil Participation 137 Skill of Using the Blackboard 138 138 Skill of Writing Instructional Objectives 138 Skill of Classroom Classroom Managemen Ma nagementt 138 Skill of Using Audiovisual Aids 138 Skill of given Assignment 138 138 Skill of Pacing the Lesson 138 138 Modern Categories of Basic Skills in eaching 139 Role of the eacher Supervis Supervisor or in Micro-teaching 140 •
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Evaluative Instruments Aids and Apparatus in Micro-teaching Behaviour Modification Trough Micro-teaching Advantages of Micro-teaching Limitations of Micro-teaching Indian Model of Micro-teaching Salient Featur Features es of of the the Indian Model of Micro-teaching 144 144 Standard Procedure of Micro-teaching in Indian Model as given given by L.C. Singh 146 Summary References Additional Readings
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Models of Teaching and Team Teaching
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Definition of Models of eaching Characteristics Characteri stics of a Model of eaching Functions of Models of eaching Effects of eaching by Modelling Development of a Model Modelling Mode lling Operatio Operations ns or Stages Stages of Modellin Modellingg 151 Fundamental Elements of Models of eaching Glaser’s Basic eaching Model Description Descripti on of Glaser’ Glaser’ss Basic eaching Model Disciplinaryy Model of eaching Social Sciences Disciplinar Personality Model of eaching Socia Sociall Sciences
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eam each eaching ing Definition Defini tion of eam eaching 154 Characteristics of eam eam eaching 154 Origin and Growth of eam eaching 155
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Contents xi
Summary References Additional Readings
Chapter 11
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Lesson Planning in Social Studies
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Meaning and Concept of Lesson Planning
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Nature and Functions of Lesson Planning Definition of Lesson Planning Principles of Lesson Planning Importance of Lesson Planning Criteria of an Effective Lesson Plan Prerequisites of Lesson Planning Approaches Appr oaches to Lesson Planning Herbartian Appr Approach oach of Knowledge Lesson Advanta Adva ntages ges of Herbartian Herbartian Lesson Lesson Planni Planning ng 165 Limitations Limitations of Herbartian Approach 165 Alternative Scheme 166 An An Outline of a Lesson Plan on the basis of Herbartian Steps 167 Herbartian Lesson Plan Model 168 168 General Objectives 168
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Preparation UnitLesson LessonPlan Plan: (Morrison’ (Morrison ’s Appr Approach) oach) Steps of Unit Features ofofUnit Pla n (Unit Approach) 170 Lesson Plan (Unit Approach) 170 Advan Advantages tages of Unit Lesson Lesson Plan 171 Bloom’’s Evaluation of Lesson Planning Bloom Steps of Evaluation Approach of Lesson Planning 173 Merits of Bloom’’s Approach of Lesson Planning 174 Demerits of Bloom Bloom Bloom’’s Approach Appr oach of Lesson Lesson Planni Planning ng 174 Bloom’’s or Evaluation Lesson Plan Model Bloom Presentation: (Learning Exper Experiences) iences) 175 RCEM Appr Approach oach to Lesson Planning Features of the RCEM Approach 177 Teoretical Rationale of the Lesson 178 RCEM Lesson-Plan Model 178 eaching Points 178 ypes of Lessons Skill Lesson Orderly Steps for eaching Skill Lesson 181 Important Points Points for Skill Skill Lesson 182 Appreciation Appr eciation Lesson Steps of Appreciation Lesson 182 Factors Influencing Success Success of an Appreciation Lesson 183 Yearly Plan of Socia Sociall Studies eaching Lesson Plans Lesson Plan No. 1 eaching Aids 185 Aims of the Lesson 185 Sectional
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Revision 187 Sectional Revisi Revision on 187 Lesson Plan No. 2 188 Dramatized Lesson Plan 188 188 Aids 188 188 Preparation 188 188 Presentation 189 189 Application 189 189 Homework 189 •
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Lesson Plan No. 3 Lord Buddha and His eachings 189 189 Illustrative Aids 189 189 Specific Objectives 189 189 Skills 190 190 Attitudes 190 190 eaching Hints and Activities 191 191 Evaluation 191 Lesson Plan No. 4 Illustrative Aids 192 Specific Aims 192 Previous Previous Knowledge 193 Presentation 193 Final Recapitulation 195 Home Assignments 195 Lesson Plan No. 5 Section I 196 Summary References Additional Readings
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Chapter 12
Bibliography Index
Evaluation in Social Studies
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Meaning and Concept of Evaluation Definition of Evaluation Difference Between Measurement and Evaluation
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Principles Good Evaluation Developingofan Developing Effective Programme for Socia Sociall Studies Evaluation in Socia Sociall Studies echniques of Evaluat Evaluation ion in Social Studies 202 Summary References Additional Readings
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Preface
At the present age of science and technology, human beings are facing numerous problems. Education is a dire necessity for the successful functioning of modern democratic societies. Te burden of responsibilities for solving complex social, economic, political, and ethical problems has fallen upon schools where students need to be trained trai ned to solve day-to-day problems rationally. In fulfilling this responsibility, the school should select such instructional programme which coordinates the past with the present and helps them in solving such problems. Tis leads to the emergence of social studies as an independent field of study at the elementary and secondary stages. Te term ‘social studies’ is associated with the functions of the society. Tis term was coined by John Dewey who believed in the essential unity of knowledge. He emphasized the need for the integration of knowledge. Te opinion of Dewey says that no acquired knowledge could ever remain organized without proper co-ordination and incorporation of the basic principles of all subjects such as history, civics, political science, economics, geography, and sociology, a new subject known as social studies came into being. It is a recognized fact that the social living is broader than any one area of the curriculum and that social studies teaching takes place with many of the teacher’s experience both in and out of the school. Te teacher has to be aware of the latest developments in the field of social studies teaching. All relevant and contemporary knowledge about the teaching, the method of dynamic presentation and the selection of material, besides the personality of social studies teacher and the evaluation in social studies, have been encom encompassed passed in this t his book. Tis book explains in simple language and lucid manner the meaning and the concept of teaching of social studies and discusses its role in national integration. Any typical social studies curriculum includes some issues which are not acceptable to all, because different social scientists have different views on these issues. Te book studies some challenges and issues in teaching practices of social studies and offers viable solutions, including proper selection and organization of curriculum, improved methods of teaching, especially micro-teaching, team teaching and utilization of community resources. Some important attributes that a social studies teacher must possess, including proper qualification, fully developed personality, positive attitude, encouraging nature, broad and refreshing outlook, and faith in democratic values, have been described in an inclusive chapter. Evaluation is one of the most important areas of education process. In the teaching–learning activities some instructional objectives are fixed. It is only through evaluation that we come to know whether these objectives have been achieved or not. Various aspects of evaluation in social studies have been discussed discuss ed giving proper examples. We We have directly avoided the details in making the book bulky and in i n taxing upon the time, money, and mind of the readers.
xiv Preface
I am extremely grateful to various writers whose work I have consulted and quoted at certain places in this book. I also acknowledge the co-operation extended to me by several friends and colleagues in the preparation of this book. I must express my grateful appreciation to my wife Smt. Manoj Pathak and my lovely daughter Abhilasa without whose encouragement, devotion and co-operation the publication of this book would not have been possible. I also thank Qudsiya Ahmed and her entire team of Pearson Education for publishing this book in time. Tis book will be highly useful to the students, readers and teachers of social studies. In addition, all those interested in the study of teaching of social studies will find it an ideal reference book. Any suggestions for the improvement of this book will be gratefully acknowledged. R. P. Pathak
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies
1
Te study of social studies as an integral component of general education up to the secondary level of school education is considered crucial because it helps the students to understand the society and the world in which they live. It also enables them to view the socio-economic developments and changes in the context of time and space and also in relation to each other. Te curriculum of social studies at the school level draws its subject matter from history, geography, civics, sociology, and economics. Some elements of commerce commerce are also included i ncluded in it. Man is a social animal. He is born and brought up by the society. Every individual is a part of the society and it is not mainly history, geography, civics or economics that matters, but rather man who influences themselves and is influenced by their history, geography, civics or economics, and their community. Te subject of social studies directly deals with man and the society in which they live, carries the special responsibility of preparing young children to become well-informed and constructive participants in society, capable of developing healthy and social relationships.
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Concept of Social Studies
Social studies deals with man, their relations with other men, and their environment. It, therefore, draws its contents from several social soc ial sciences to help us understand underst and the problem of man and how they deal with them. ‘Society’ is a term used commonly by people. However, many people would not be able to explain correctly the meaning of social studies and how it is related to the society. Let us see what does ‘social studies’ mean. Some of the traits of social studies could be:
Study of society. Dealing with the art of living. Dealing with human relations. Study of contemporary society. Study of the present problems of the society: social, economical, and political.
Sociallbegan Socia studiesinmeans allthe these andTe more. Te term in ‘social ‘social studi of recent Itsformulation widespread usage 191 6 in 1916 USA. term’ s origin Indiastudies’ canes’ b eistraced be ba ckorigin. back with the of the basic system of education in 1937. It has been defined differently by different committees and commissions.
2 Teaching of Social Studies
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Social Studies and Social Sciences
Social science is a generic term covering the scientific study of man, singly or in groups, as regards their essentially non-physical characteristics. Social sciences deal with human behaviour in its social and cultural aspects. Social sciences generally include disciplines such as economics, political science, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and social and economic geography. Social studies integrate the experience and knowledge concerning human relationships. Let us discuss how the term ‘social studies’ emerged. One of the earliest usage of the term ‘social studies’ appeared in the United States in 1906 in an article named he he Southern Southern Workman Workman written written by homas Jesse Jones. In 1908, Jones expanded this article and published Social Studies in the Hampton Curriculum (Jones, Curriculum (Jones, 1908). Jones became the chairman of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education Association. hat committee’s report in 1916 was widely recognized, debated and finally accepted as identifying a curriculum area for secondary schools whose purpose was to prepare young people to become productive citizens. Te term ‘social studies’ acquired additional legitimation and prestige with the formation of the National Council for Social Studies in 1921. Social studies represent a child-centred approach and it is the practical part of human affairs. Both social studies and social sciences share common body of content. Te centre of focus in social sciences and social studies is man’s relationship to man and their environment and how they meet their needs.
y Denition of Social Studies We may define social studies as the study which helps the learners in understanding the human environment in its totality and developing a broader perspective and an empirical, reasonable, and human outlook. Some of the other renowned definitions are as follows: Wesley and Adams—‘Te term social studies is used to designate the school subjects subjects which deal with human relationships.’ relationships.’ Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education ‘Te Social Studies are understood to be those whose subject matter relates Association, directly to theUSA— organization and development of human society and to man as member of social groups.’ Michaelis—‘Social Studies are concerned with man and his interaction with his social and Michaelis— physical environment, they deal with human relationships.’ Height—‘Te Social Studies are the school mirror of the scholarly findings of the social sciences.’ Report of the Secondary Education Commission—‘Social Studies, as a term is comparatively new in Indian education. It is meant to cover the ground traditionally associated with History, Geography,, Economics, Civics etc. Geography etc.’’ National Curriculum Framework for School Education, NCERT National NCERT,, 2000—Te term social sciences has used for Social Studies. It has observed, ‘Social Sciences education aims at providing students essential knowledge, skills and attitude necessary for self-development and also for becoming an effective and contributing member of the society.’ Barr et al.—‘An integration of experience and knowledge concerning human relations for the purpose of citizenship education.’
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 3
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Differences Between Social Sciences and Social Studies
Let us discuss dis cuss how social studies differ from social sciences.
Social Sciences
Tey are the advanced of human society. Tey represent an adultstudies approach. Tey are the theory part of human affairs. Tey lay more emphasis on knowledge. Tey aim at finding out how new truth about human relationships.
Social Studies
Tey are the simplified portions of social sciences. Tey represent a child-centred approach. Tey are the practical part of human affairs. Tey lay emphasis on the functional part of knowledge. Tey aim at guiding adolescents in their learning selected portions what has been deserved
in social sciences.
Civics
l a c i t i e l P o i e n c S c
C u l t u r e
y h p o s o l i h P
E c o
Soical Studies
y g o l o i c o S
n o m i c s
G e o g r a p h y y r o t s i H
A t n o r h p o l o g y
Components of social sciences
4 Teaching of Social Studies
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Scope of Social Studies
Te scope of social studies is very vast and wide and in fact, as wide as the world itself and as lengthy as the history of man on this earth. Te term ‘scope’ refers to the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and extent to be provided through a programme of teaching. Terefore, in this context, we have to answer the following questions:
What is to be included in the programme? What subjects are to be included?
We know that social studies help the learners in understanding the human environment in its totality. Terefore, the breadth of social studies programme should provide for a variety of experiences and so that the learning of children will be well-rounded and well-balanced. Social studies study the relationships, i.e.:
Relationships between man and man. Relationships between man and institutes. Relationships between man and earth. Relationships between man and goods.
Terefore, the above contents are to be included with the programmes of teaching social studies. Te major concern of this area of study is to acquaint children with the past and the present problems related to social, economical, political, and geographical environments. Terefore, its area is extended to the subjects such as history, geography, civics, economics, environmental studies, and sociology.
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Aims and Objectives of Teaching Social Studies
Why formulations and objectives of teaching social studies are necessary? What are the aims and objectives of teaching social studies? Te formulation of objectives is needed for the various reasons:
Selecting significant and meaningful content. Selecting teaching methods and techniques. Providing the basics for measurements and evaluation. Making learning functional. Evolving proper learning situation. Identifying weakness and strengths of pupils in learning. Defining educational processes. Providing the desired direction to the educational activities and programmes.
Te aims of teaching social studies will have to be in consonance with the broader aims of education here and now. Te objectives have to be precise precis e and definite. Te major aims of teaching tea ching social studies are as follows:
o acquaint children with their past and present social, cultural, and geographical environments. o enable the children to appreciate the rich cultural heritage of India and acquaint them in the context of social change.
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 5
o build intelligent democratic citizenship. o build social competence among the pupil. o help children to acquire the right attitude, knowledge, understanding, and competence which they will need in the intervention with social and physical environments. o help the learners in understanding the human environment in its totality and developing a broader outlook. o help the learners grow into well-informed and responsible citizens with necessary attributes/skills and so that they could participate and contribute effectively in the process of development and nation-building. o help the learners to ‘think globally and act locally’. o provide students essential knowledge, skills and attitude which are necessary for selfdevelopment and also for becoming effective and contributing members of the society. o enable the pupils to use their leisure properly. o develop a sense of belongingness in the learners. o develop desirable qualities for an all-round development of rich personality. o promote peace in the society. o participate effectively in the affairs in the community, the state, the country and the world at large.
o promote the values and ideals of humanism, secularism, socialism and democracy. o promote international understanding.
Area of social studies
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Social Studies—As a Core Subject
Te social curriculum of a country, such as its constitution, reflects the ethos of that country. Te Education Commission of India pointed out that there is a need to transform education so as to relate it to the life, needs, and aspirations of the people and to make it an instrument of social
6 Teaching of Social Studies
change. Te purpose of the curriculum of social studies is to awake the social consciousness, to develop democratic values, and to promote national integration. Terefore, the subject of social studies has been given the status of core subject. So what is core curriculum?
Concept of Core Curriculum Te core curriculum designates these learning experiences that are fundamental for all learners because they derive from:
Our common individual drives or needs. Our civic and social needs as participating members of a democratic society.
Core Curriculum Everyone needs the knowledge or learning experiences for living satisfactorily in the modern society. Core curriculum prepares students for living, equipping them with the fundamental knowledge for social living.
Social Studies as a Core Subject For various reasons, social studies has been given the status of core curriculum. Tey are as follows:
Psychological reasons. Sociological reasons. Practical reasons.
Psychological Reasons Psychological Man is a creation of environment and respond to their environment. Tey want to understand it thoroughly and interpret it correctly because they can also change and mould the environment. Terefore, children should be familiar with their environment. Social Studies enables children to understand their own nature and conditional factors in their environment. Children are interested in concrete things. Tere is nothing concrete than life itself. Social studies is a subject of the school curriculum which aims at giving education for life. Sociological Reasons Tere is nothing permanent than change. Society is changing rapidly. With the changing pattern of life, the home fails to provide adequate opportunities to young children for citizenship training. Terefore, providing the necessary social education to children has placed an important obligation on the part of the school. Practical Reasons Man faces a number of problems. Tese may be social, secular, economic and political problems.
Tey want to solve these problems andthe thereby adjustand themselves in to theovercome country. It is the subject of social studies which provides them knowledge experience these problems and to adjust suitable in the environment. It provides the skills and develops attitude to equip with the environment.
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 7
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Curriculum for Social Studies
National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2000) (NCF-2000 ) for School Education states st ates that ‘In a word of everincreasing knowledge, selection and organization of the content areas assume great importance. Te social studies curriculum has to be comprehensive and not heavily loaded with information interrelatedness of ideas and their comprehensibility must be kept in view.’ It should give emphasis upon the optimization of learner’s experiences. Terefore, the themes should be drawn from geography, history, civics, economics and sociology in a balanced manner. Te contents should be organized from simple to complex and immediate to remote. Social Studies stands for: S = Social relatio relationship nship and social efficiency O = Objective attitude C = Citizenship training, training, constructive, constructive, and critical thinking I = Integral knowledge and intelligent understandi understanding ng A = Adaptability Adaptability and appreciation appreciation of other’ other’ss viewpoint L = Learning S = Sensitiveness Sensitiveness of social issues issues = oleran olerance ce U = Unbiased attitude D = Devotion to ideas I = Inter-relationship E = Emotional balance S = Self discipline and social attitude attitude
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Contents of Social Studies
Te following should be included in the contents of social studies:
Indian civilization and its rich cultural heritage. World’s other civilizations and their inter-connectedness.
Different cultural movements and revolutions in the life of the country. Spread of its culture in other lands. Cultural preservation. History of Indian freedom movement. Contribution of India to the world civilization. Contribution made by other cultures. Te constitution of India. Te constitutional obligations. Content essential to natural national identity. Equality of sexes. Removal of social barriers. Fundamental duties and rights.
Human rights. studies. Environmental Resources and sustainable development. Man–environment interaction.
8 Teaching of Social Studies
Population. Surroundings of the children, i.e., home, school, community, neighbourhood, and society. Changes taking place in the surroundings. Fairs, festivals, folk dances, etc. Physical geography geography.. Climatic changes. Natural resources. Food. Agricultural crops. Industry. Social, economic, political developments, and problems. Social class, weaker sections of the society society,, etc. Poverty, illiteracy, corruption, and anti-social practices. especial ly,, world peace, international internati onal cooperation, decolonization, de colonization, India’s role in the world especially etc.
NCF for School Education (2005) states, ‘emphasis has to be laid more on economics, political and social aspects of human environment especially the contemporary world that too with focus on India. Te Europe-centered view of the world must change.’
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expla Exp lain in the the mean meanin ingg and and con conce cept pt of of socia sociall studi studies. es.
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Definee social Defin social studi studies es and and bring bring ou outt clear clearly ly the the scope scope of social stud studies. ies.
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Distin Dis tingu guish ish bet betwee ween n social social sci scien ences ces an and d social social stu studie dies. s.
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State Sta te the ob objec jectiv tives es of tea teach ching ing soc social ial stu studie dies. s.
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Jus usti tify fy the the socia sociall stud studie ies— s—aa core core sub subje ject ct..
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Desc De scri ribe be the the co cont nten entt of of soci social al stu studi dies es..
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Summary
1. 2. 3. 4.
Te study of social sciences scie nces is an integral component of general education. Sociall studies deals with man and their relations with other men and their environment. Socia It is the study of the present problems of the society societ y, i.e., social, economical, economica l, and political. Sociall sciences is a generic term covering the scientific study of man, singly or in groups, as Socia regards their essentially non-physical characteristics. 5. Te social sciences generally includes the disciplines such as economics, political science, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and geography. 6. Socia Sociall studies integrates the experience and knowledge concerning human human relationships. 7. Te scope of social studies is very vast and wide and, in fact, as wide as the world itself itself and as lengthy as the history of man on this earth. 8. Te aimsselecting and objectives of teaching ofand social studies aremaking selecting significant and meaningful content, teaching methodsof techniques, learning functional, defining educational processes, evolving proper learning situations and providing the basis for measurement and evaluation.
Meaning and Concept of Social Studies 9
9. As a core subject—social studies—the studie s—the purpose of the curriculum of social studies is to awake awake the social consciousness, to develop democratic values, and to promote national integration. 10. Tere are various reasons social studies has been bee n given the status of core curriculum, they are psychological, sociological, and practical reasons. 11. National curriculum framework (NCF) (2005) has given great importance for teaching of social studies.
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References
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach . New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 2–6. Schools . New York Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1969. eaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. and oronto: McGraw-Hill Book Co., p. 41. Height, G. 1951. Te Art of eaching . London: Metheuen and Co. Ltd., p. 22. Michaelis, J.U. 1956. Social Studies for Children in a Democracy . Englewood Cliffs: N.J., Prentice Hall, Inc., p. 48. Wesley, E.B. 1952. eaching Social Studies in High School . Boston: M.A., D.C. Health and Company Company,, p. 32.
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Additional Readings
Horn, E. 1937. Met 1937. Methods hods of Instructio Instruction n in the Social Social Studies Studies.. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Bhattacharya, Bhattach arya, S. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Schools . Baroda: Acharya Book Depot. Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in Schools. Schools. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Cumbe rlege, Oxford University Press. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies . Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir. Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher and Distributor, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj.
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Role and Importance of Social Studies in National Integration
2
National integration is a feeling of oneness which transcends all groups or cultural differences and synthesizes different castes, linguistic, and religious communities nationally into compact whole. It is the cementing force that unites the citizens of a country. National integration is the development d evelopment of a mental climate that would help react in terms t erms of oneness. It must inculcate pride and respect for the best in our cultural heritage and wish to improve our country countr y. India is the confluence spot of many religions, regions, languages, castes, creeds, communities, etc. Te progress and development of the country greatly depends upon the national unity. From the time immemorial, India has kept her unity. ‘Unity ‘Unity in diversity ’:’: is the beauty of Indian society.
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Meaning and Concept of National Integration
‘Integration’ is a common term used by people. However, it is difficult to explain correctly the meaning of integration. Let us see what does integration mean. We can define national integration as follows:
Having political unity of the country. Having mutual understanding among all citizens of the country. Having common ideals. Achieving a common objective.
National integration is a comprehensive term and it includes the t he feelings and sentiments of its citizens which govern their political and public behaviour. behaviour. A nation is said to be integrated if its citizens, may be belonging to any caste, community, religion, language and state, have a feeling of oneness, share each others joy, sorrow, smiles and tears and have an interest in the welfare of the nation as a whole. It is the cementing force that unites the citizens of a country. National integration aims at fostering respect and affection for those belonging to other cultural and ethnicprevailing groups. National integration bringing about social cultural differences among people withinmeans the tolerance range. In economic, a nutshell, we canand say that national integration is nothing but unity in diversity. Te feeling of overall oneness of the nation results in fostering national integration.
12 12 Teaching of Social Studies
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Denition of National Integration
Dorothy Tompson—‘National integration is a feeling that binds the citizens of a country.’ Preston— ‘National integration is the job to inculcate knowledge of our country, pride in it and respect for the best in our national environment, aspirations, and traditions, and a wish to improve our country.’
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Need of National Integration
In the previous section, we have discussed the meaning of national integration; however, a question may come to our mind, that is, why national integration is necessary or what is the need of national integration? National integration is necessary for the following:
For creating a mighty nation. For the success of democracy and socialism. For the ending of caste system. For synthesizing religious values.
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For the progress and development of the nation.
Role of Social Studies in National Integration
Social studies include a variety of subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics environmental studies. Tese subjects subject s include many contents. Different methods are used to teach these subjects. Terefore, what should be the contents of social studies in promoting national integration? What method the teacher should adopt for teaching social studies? What is the role of social studies teacher in promoting national integration?
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Contents of Social Studies in Promoting National Integration
Social studies consists of subjects such as history, geography, civics, and economics. Let us discuss the topics to be included in these subjects for promoting the national integration.
History Unity is the precondition for all progress. For rapid progress, peaceful atmosphere is necessary. Ours is a land of many races, languages, cultures, sects, and religions; however, there is ‘unity in diversity’. o exhibit this unity-in-diversity, the development of different races, cultures, languages, dress, food, manner, customs, religions, etc. should be taught to the students. Lives and teachings of Gautam Buddha, Buddha, Mahaveer , Chaitanya Chaitanya,, Kabir Mohammed Saheb, Saheb, Meerabai Meer abai,, Eknath Eknath,, Ramdas and Muslim Sufis, Sufis, Guru Nanak Nanak and Gur Govind Sing Ji, Ji, and Isha and Isha Masih Masih ,
should be included in the curriculum. ofthe different pilgrim places of Hindus, Jains, Bauddh Muslims, Christians, etc. Te are toimportance be taught to students. Tere is a predominant cultural unity throughout the country. Different festivals and ceremonies are celebrated by different sects all over the country. Te history of the festivals such ,
Role and Importance of Social Studies in National Integration
13
as Holi, Diwali, Dussehra, Vaisakhi, Mohram, Pongal, and Onam will be taught to the pupils for promoting national integration. We find unique/blend of passion and the old Indian style even in architecture, painting, music and other Indian culture through the ages; their unity in spite of varied diversities diversities need to be emphasized. emphasized. A short and simple history of the National Movement must be taught to every child before they leave the school. Tis history reflects a saga of sacrifices willingly made and sufferings patiently borne by Indians. Tis will instil national consciousness and appraise the youth with the price which the preceding generations paid for freedom. Te biography of national heroes such as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar ilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Sardar Ballabhbai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Bhagat Singh may be taught to the students. Te student should be made familiarize with the historic events such as the Quit India Movement, Dandi March, Jallianwala Jalli anwala Bagh ragedy, ragedy, and Non-Cooperation Non-Cooper ation Movement. Te pupils should be taught about the impact of world events such as the Russian Revolution, the World Wars, and the role of Indians in these wars, the Revolution of China, the Chinese and Pakistani aggression against India, and Kargil War.
Geography India is a land of different regions. Terefore, human geography of each region should be taught to the students. Map reading should be made compulsory. Te rivers, waterfalls, mines, oil and coal resources, mountain peaks, peaks, and forest wealth belong to all of us; it is essential for all and it shows unity. Man-made dams, power plants, railways, roads, air, and water ways are common resources. Tey give benefit to all of us. Tere is tremendous similarity in the style of our dress and food habits. Tese should be emphasized in the curriculum to promote national integration.
Civics Tere are different people living in India; however, they follow the same constitution. Tey enjoy the same fundamental rights given by the constitution. Teir fundamental duties are also the same. Tey are all equal before b efore the law. law. Tough there are administrative administ rative boundaries among the various states of the country, they are arbitrary and artificial. Tere is one president, one prime minister and one supreme court. All these have to be emphasized well in the curriculum for the promotion of national integration.
Economics Despite economic disparities among the people, we belong to one nation. Every year, the parliament passes a budget for the whole nation. Te students should be taught about the budget and how it is prepared. Te students should be made familiar with the five-year plans to impress upon them how India has forged ahead ‘to the service of millions who suffer’ and ‘to give reality to our dreams’. Tese help in promoting national integration among the pupils.
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Methods of Teaching for Promoting National Integration
Different methods of teaching are adopted for teaching social studies. However, for promoting national integration among pupils, such methods should be adopted by which the qualities such as co-operation, tolerance, leadership, respect for others’ opinion and social values will be
14 14 Teaching of Social Studies
developed among the pupils. Terefore, the method such as panel discussion, activity, learning by doing, project, play-way, field trips, demonstration, seminar, and symposium are to be used for teaching of social studies.
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Role of Social Studies Teacher in Promoting National Integration
eachers are regarded as the central force in the whole educational system. Tey can create such an environment in which the pupils can live together. Te teachers should emphasize the spirit of tolerance providing the Indian life. Tey can emphasize that during the Golden Age of the Guptas,, Fa-Hein was impressed by the toleration of the people, Harsha Guptas Harsha adopted the policy of ar introduced Din-E-Elahi, etc. religious freedom, Akb freedom, Akbar introduced Din-E-Elahi, etc. eachers should narrate the stories of the great heroes of the nation who sacrificed their lives for the unity and integrity of the country. o infuse the blood of national integration among the pupils, the teacher should make efforts for creating a feeling of pride for the eminent personalities such as Visyesaraya Visyesaraya and and C.P C.P.. Ramaswamy Rama swamy who who dreamt of a national grid for electricity and for the waters of the Ganges to flow flow into the Cauvery. Cauvery.
teacher should laymust stress upon the point that technological developments makeTe it imperative that we stand together. Distances have been eliminated; travel also has become easier. Tere are developed means of communication systems such as telephone, mobile phones, fax, and Internet. Tere are challenging problems of defence, research, and economic development. India has to keep her head high. Tis can be possible if we are united and make all our efforts to strengthen our country’s unity. Te teachers should emphasize the need for bringing national unity to fight against the forces such as communication, casteism, regionalism, and terrorism.
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The Role of Social Studies in Emotional Integration
Te Ministry of Education, Government of India, appointed the Committee on Emotional Integration under the chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand in 1961. Te committee made valuable recommendations on the role of education in promoting the process of emotional integration programmes for youth in schools and colleges. It observed, ‘Te teaching social studies at all levels, i.e., primary, secondary and university stages would impart knowledge of the geographical, historical and cultural backgrounds of the country and the world as whole.’ Te committee laid special stress on the role of social studies.
1. Curriculum should be re-oriented to suit the needs of secular state. 2. Singing national song, national anthem and other patriotic songs in the school. 3. Stimulating children to read newspapers and books of non-communal nature and throwing light on the contribution of nationalists. 4. Students should be told the history of the national flag and taught at the very earliest stage to show reverence to the national flag. 5. Celebration of nationalofdays as 15the August, 26 and January, January and 2 October in the schools with full participation the such teachers, student, the ,community. 6. Organizing Organizing symposium symposium,, debates, and discussions on topics of secular natur naturee in the school.
Role and Importance of Social Studies in National Integration
15
7. Students’ excursions and tours should be organized time to time. 8. Suitable Suit able handbook for teachers in the social studies should be published. 9. School S chool may conduct several projects which improve the students’ knowledge about the country. 10. Organizing exhibitions on the life of different people living in different parts of the country. 11. Educational and travel documentations with partic particular ular emphasis on various aspects of Indian scenery, flora and fauna and various developmental and reconstruction programmes should be produced for use in schools.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explain Expla in the the impo importanc rtancee of of social social stud studies ies in nati nationa onall integra integration. tion.
2.
State the role State role of of a teacher teacher of of social social studies studies in devel developi oping ng and and prom promotin otingg of emot emotion ional al integration among students.
3.
Defin De finee the the ter term m na natio tiona nall inte integr grat atio ion. n.
4.
Explain Expla in the con conten tentt of social stud studies ies in in promo promoting ting nati national onal int integra egration tion..
5.
Describe Descr ibe the the methods methods of teac teaching hing fo forr promo promoting ting nat nationa ionall integr integratio ation. n.
6.
Elucid Elu cidat atee the the conce concept pt of of emoti emotion onal al int integr egrati ation on..
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Summary
1. National and emotional integrations are the developments of a mental climate that would help react in terms of oneness. 2. National unity is the primary requisite for for national existence. 3. Te ideals of democracy, secularism, and socialism that are enshrined in our constitution can be realized only through emotional and national integrations. 4. National integration is required for the creation creation of a mighty nation. 5. National integration can be created by ending the curse of caste-system and through synthesizing religious values. 6. Te emotional integration of the Indian people is a challenge that cannot be ignored. 7. Te teachers of the educational institutions and teachers of social studies can play an important role in the field of national and emotional integrations.
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References
Approach. Delhi: Vikas Publishing Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 225–260. Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses Studies. Publication No. 14, Ministry of Education, Government of India, p. 141. in Social Studies. Hemming, J. 1970. Te eaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School . New York: Longmans Green and Co., pp. 144–147.
16 16 Teaching of Social Studies
Government of India 1966. Education Commission Report. Report. Ministry of Education, Publication Division, pp. 286–288. Ford Foundation 1954. Report of International eam. eam. Ministry of Education Publication Division, pp. 240–242.
Additional Readings
Moffat, M.P. 1971. Social Studies Instruction. Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. Mac Nee, E.A. 1950. Instruction in Indian Secondary Schools. Schools. London: Oxford University Press. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Intr Introducing oducing Social Studies Studies.. Bombay: Orient Longmans Ltd. Singh, N. and Sharma, M.M. 2006. eaching of Social Sciences. Sciences. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir. Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies.
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies
3
Te aim and objectives o teaching social studies are necessary to point to the broad ideals and to enable us to select significant and meaningul content, teaching methods, and techniques. John V. Michaels has aptly stated, ‘Te social studies are concerned with man and his interaction with his social and physical environments, they deal with human relationship— the central unction o social studies is identical with the central purpose o education—the development o democratic citizenship.’ Social studies deals with the development o the society. It studies the man’s relationship and their environment and how they meet their needs. It deals with the time, both the past and the present, and places, not only o immediate vicinity but o different corners o the world. Its curriculum includes some issue which are not acceptable to all, because different social scientists view differently differently on on the same same issue. issue. Ofen, teachers teachers also ace problems problems in dealing with such issues. In addition to this, the selection o appropriate teaching strategies or different contents o social studies is also a great concern or the teachers. Instructional aids are not an end in itsel. Proper selection o these aids are also important in teaching o social studies.
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Concept of Teaching
It difficult define the term ‘teaching’, because a series o behaviour is involved in this process. It is has severaltodimensions. We can define the process ‘teaching’ as one o the ollowing:
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Modiying the behaviour o the students. Providing new knowledge. Developing interpersonal relationship. An interactive process. Manipulation o situation. Giving lecture on a particular topic.
Denition of Teaching
Morrison—‘ —‘eaching eaching is an intimate contact between b etween a more mature personality and a less mature which designed to urther the education o the latter.’ Amidon—‘ Amidon —‘eaching eaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which wh ich takes place between teacher and pupils and occurs during definable activities.’
18 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 18 Gage—‘eaching is a orm o interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour potential o another person.’ Smith—‘eaching is system o actions intends to induce learning through interpersonal relationships.’
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Principles of Teaching
Te principles are necessary to control the behaviour. In order to control the behaviour o teacher, two types o teaching principles are emphasized: (1) General principles o teaching (2) Psychological principles o teaching.
General Principles of Teaching Te general principles o teaching are those principles that t hat are general in nature and have emerged emerged rom the general experiences. Some o the general principles o teaching are as ollows: Principle of definite aim: eaching should start with a definite aim. In the absence o definite aim, the teacher might go astray and at the same time their teaching might lack coherence and
definiteness. Te students do not gain much i the lesson is planned haphazardly and aimlessly. Without definite aim, even the best lesson would ail to achieve its objective. Definite aim is o great help to both the teacher and the students. It makes teaching and learning interesting, effective, precise, and definite. Principle of activity (learning by doing): eaching is ineffective i the students do not actively participate in the lesson. Learning becomes b ecomes active and quicker i the student is made active physically as well as mentally. eaching can be acilitated i the students actively participate in the learning process and learn while actually manipulating the things to be learnt, i.e., put their heads and hands together. Children learn the best through sel-activity but that activity must be psychologically sound. Learning by doing removes the dullness o the t he lesson and puts the children in lie situations. Te children engage themselves ully in the activity and learn qualitativel qualitativelyy as well as quantitatively. quantitatively. Only that knowledge becomes a part o lie which they learn through sel-activity. sel-activity. Hence, teaching
should be so organized as to provide the maximum opportunities opportunities to the children to learn by doing. Te principle may be applied at all the stages in the school. In lower classes, it means more o physical activity such as games, action songs, gardening, and clay modelling. In middle and high classes, some o these activities can also continue. However, apart rom these, the use o assignments and the Dalton plan can also be made or securing active participation o students. Besides the teaching o subjects, the principle o activity may be applied to other orms o teaching in the school. For example, the students can get training in social behaviour by actually organizing and participating in the activities o dramatic club, debating society, scout camps, girl guide camps, picnic, and red-cross society. Principle of linking with actual life and other subjects (principle of correlation): Lie and learning are two poles o a magnet; they become so interdependent that none can exist without the other. Te teacher should not teach in water-tight compartments. Good teaching implies
that learningismust vitallyLearning linked toshould the liebeo unitary the learners subjectseaching o their syllabus. Knowledge one be whole. and and not other ragmentary. should direct the children chi ldren’’s learning towards understanding underst anding o meanings, relationships, relationships , applications, and organizations. Knowledge learnt must be unctional and in its proper context.
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 19
It is quite easy to correlate some topics with the lie around the children and other subjects o their syllabus. For example, the topic o insurance can be taught by arranging a visit to the local office o the lie insurance corporation or it can be related with some local examples o persons who die uninsured and others who had got themselves insured beore death or the topic can be elaborated by making reerence to social evils which insurance attempts to eradicate or some problems or finding the rate and amount o premium can be understood and solved. Principle of planning: Te success o teaching–learning process is directly proportional to the planning. Successul or good teaching is always well planned. Planning involves selection, division, and revision: Selection: Te teaching material should be careully selected. Te selection o the teaching Selection: material should be based upon the ollowing: (a) the instructional objectives, (b) the teacher’s ability to impart knowledge, (c) the learner’s capacity to digest the subject matter. Division: Afer selecting the subject-matter o teaching, it becomes useul to present Division: the teaching material in steps. Division means breaking the chosen subject-matter into convenient and meaningul units in order to make it more understandable. Te technique o dividing the subject-matter into units and sub-units acilitates the teaching–learning process. Without proper proper division, teaching te aching may remain indefinite, incoherent, and conused and poses pos es problem or the learner so ar as the comprehensiveness is concerned. Matter arranged and selected should s hould be properly graded or divided according to the pupil’s pupil’s standard o attainment. Revision: Drill and practice are absolutely essential or the assimilation o knowledge. Revision: Revision helps assimilation and helps teachers to test the understanding o their pupils. Tereore, the matter should be revised and put into practice. Revision should take place at each stage and section better known as sectional revision or recapitulation. Principle of flexibility and elasticity: eaching should not be rigid and stereotyped. It should be flexible and elastic. It should be arranged according to the environment and circumstances. Te teacher should be resourceul, original, imaginative, and creative enough to adapt themselves to the requirements o the students and the teaching–learning situation. Principle of utilizing past experiences: Past experiences serve the base or acquiring new
knowledge. Tereore, teaching should be linked with already acquired knowledge and experiences. It acilitates teaching and helps in achieving a chieving the stipulated st ipulated objectives with wit h great ease and economy. economy. Principle of pupil-centredness: eaching should be pupil-centred, i.e., the needs, interests, abilities, and aspirations o the students should be given due importance in teaching. Te curriculum, methods, techniques, and management o teaching, learning, environment, and evaluation should serve the cause o the pupils. Principle of individual differences: No two individuals are alike. Tey differ in their attitudes, abilities, aptitudes, interests, achievements, aims, ambitions, and aspirations. Some are slow learners and others are quick learners. In the continuum o growth and development, entry behaviour and acquisition o abilities in the cognitive, affective, and conative domains, all pupils occupy different positions. Tereore, teaching should make adequate provision or individual differences. It should be designed, perormed, and evaluated according to the principle o individual differences. Principle of effective strategies and instructional material: Successul teaching demands effective strategies, devices, and instructional material. Tereore, great care should be taken to choose an appropriate strategy, devices, and instructional material or teaching a particular
20 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 20
topic/subject. Tey all vary with the variance in the goals and purposes, pupils, and teaching– learning environment. Principle of conducive environment and proper control: Conducive environment and proper control acilitate teaching and learning. eaching and learning can proceed effectively in an ideal, social, and physical environment. Room temperature, light, ventilation, cleanliness, and seating arrangement are the actorsprincipal–teacher, that influence theand physical environment o a classroom. eacher, principal, teacher–teacher, pupil–teacher relationships, group dynamics, classroom interaction, discipline, and tone o the school are the actors that influence the social environment o a classroom. As these actors significantly influence the teaching–learning process, care should be taken or their proper arrangement and control. Principle of diagnostic and remedial teaching: Good teaching diagnoses the difficulties o the students and suggests remedies. Doubts are removed and concepts are made clear. In successul teaching, it is necessary that a teacher should know the difficulties and problems o the students with a view to remove them. A teacher who is able to remove the difficulties o the students and to solve their problems is considered to be a successul teacher. Principle of suggestiveness: Good teaching proceeds based on the suggestion rather than direction. Te military spirit is advantageous or well-conducted classroom. Te teacher suggests activities, materials, and modes o responses. Suggestion helps in securing the co-operation o pupils. Good teachers do not give order order,, but they give g ive suggestions. When a teacher gives orders, the students eel annoyed, but when a teacher gives suggestion, the students obey to it. Hence, in good teaching, the teacher gives their suggestions to the students or doing a thing or not doing a thing. Principle of progressiveness: eaching should be progressive. A good teacher is concerned with the progress o children in the development o attitudes, interests, ideas, inormation, skills, and abilities and the development o habits o thoughts and action. Good teaching looks or improvement. Progress in the method and technique should find place in good teaching. Good teaching looks orward or the improvement in the light o new experiments in the field o teaching. When teaching improves steadily, it is progressive. Principle of democracy: Successul teaching is democratic. Te teacher should create a democratic environment in the classroom. Tey should think that each individual is entitled to equal rights with every other individual in the classroom. Tey should have no eeling that a particular student is rich and as such the student should be taught properly. Te students should not be taught keeping in view their caste, creed, or religion. A teacher should treat all the students as the members o the same amily belonging to one caste and ollowing one religion. Te teacher should also put themselves at par with the students. In other words, they should think that they are also the members o the amily o the students and not a ruler o the amily. Principle of liberating the mind: Successul teaching liberates and widens the intellectual horizon o the students. Independent habits o study are developed in them. Tey are made to work on their own initiative. Tey are made sel-reliant and sel-confident. Tey are helped in planning, reciting, reciting, discussing, and evaluating the activities and knowledge learnt. Good teaching stimulates the students to activity and in a way that liberalizes their way o thinking and doing things. Te ideal o good teaching is to liberate the mind o the student rom any ear which they may incidentally eel and to develop independence in thought and method o procedure and so that the students may be able to solve their problems independently and work out solutions. Good teaching is characterized by the observance obser vance o these general principles. Like an artist, the teacher must know and apply these principles which help them in acquiring proficiency in their proession.
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 21
Psychologicall Principles of Teaching Psychologica Psychological principles o teaching are those principles which make teaching stimulating and effective by taking into account the psychology o the child. Tese principles have resulted through the experiments and researches o the field o psychology o learning and teaching. Some o the important psychological principles o teaching are given in the ollowing sections. Principle of motivation or interest: Principle o motivation is considered very important to carry out successul teaching–learning process. It is said that hal the battle is won i the students are truly motivated or the lesson. Motivation is the uel that drives the mental engine. Motivation not only promotes but also acilitates learning. Motivation arouses the interest o the children and once they are genuinely interested, they become attentive, and consequently learning becomes effective. Hence, teacher should properly motivate the students by creating interesting learning situations. eaching should be linked with activities and purposes o lie. Children eel motivated or the things which are connected with their natural urge to activity. For example, in schools, many students find it difficult to remember the properties o gases. Merely drilling and repeating these properties is a dull and dry task. A wise teacher would urge them to find out these properties by applying relevant tests in the laboratory. Te students have liking or practical work. Te children’s love to play and activity is utilized or creating motivation through practical work. Curiosity is a very strong urge which can be used or motivation. Te teacher should see that the physical, social, and intellectual environments are conducive to learning. Principle of sympathy and kindness: Sympathetic attitude on the part o the teacher is an essential prerequisite o successul teaching. Successul teaching cannot take place in a situation that lacks sympathy and kindness with the interests and needs o students. Children love and obey those who show kindness and sympathy to them. Students learn more when they are taught in kind and polite manner. Te teacher should be good and kind to the students in order to teach them properly. Tey should keep in mind the shortcomings, limitations and difficulties o the students. Te students’ individual differences should be recognized and congenial environment should be created in the classroom. Congenial environment is an environment o mutual understanding, respect, consideration, and aith. Scolding, nagging, and rebuking have no place in good teaching. Principle of co-operation: Successul teaching is a co-operative affair between the teacher and students. I there is no co-operation, there may not be good teaching. Hence, the teacher should plan their teaching to give the pupils abundant opportunity or co-operation in organization, management, participation in discussion, and other classroom activities. Principle of recreation: Successul teaching is a source o happiness to the teacher and the students as well. Work becomes its own reward or the teacher, and the students enjoy it to the maximum. eaching is not to be continued as a routine affair. affair. It should arouse the creativeness in the children. Successul teaching proves to be a source o creativeness and recreation. It awakens in the learners a desire to be creative and engages them in activity which is a source o pleasure to them. Principle of repetition and exercise: ‘Practice makes a man perect’ is a well-known proverb. It applies well to the field o teaching and learning. I students are asked to repeat learning tasks, they will understand, retain and recall the subject-matter more effectively. Tereore, the
principle repetition helps in bringing desired changes inand behaviour requently effectively.oTe teacherand whoexercise provides practice, revisi on, revision, recapitulation application o whatand has been taught by them may successully achieve the objectives o teaching. Principle of readiness: Readiness on the part o an individual is essential or accomplishing a particular task. I the pupils are not ready to learn, it is the duty o the teacher to make them ready
22 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 22
or learning. Principle o readiness warns the teacher to take up only those tasks or teaching which are according to psychology o the pupils, pupils, i.e., their thei r abilities, interests, attitudes, attitud es, aspirations, maturation, and developmental level. Principle of change and rest: Monotony, atigue, and lack o attention decrease the speed o learning. eaching–learning process ollowed by rest and change rereshes the mind and prepares
the learners or more and effective learning. Te change in stimulus and other types o changes in the contents, methods, and teaching–learning environment with adequate rest and recreation prove very effective in teaching and learning. Hence, the teacher should essentially plan and implement the provision o change, rest, and recreation in their teaching. Principle of providing training to senses: Senses are said to be the gateways o knowledge. eaching and learning become more effective i senses are effectively trained and utilized. Te power o observation, identification, discrimination, experimentation, application, and generalization can be developed through the proper training and unctioning o the senses. Tereore, the teacher should make proper arrangement or the training o senses especially the sense o sight and hearing o the students. O all the senses, the sense o sight is most vivid and provides rich experiences to the individuals. Te results o studies show that nearly 80% o experiences gained by a person are received through the sense o sight, 10% o the experiences
through sense o hearing, and 10% through other senses. Principle of feedback and reinforcement: Feedback and reinorcement play an important role in the process o teaching and learning. A pupil repeats responses that are reinorced and discontinue responses that are not reinorced. Te immediate knowledge o results and positive reinorcer in the orm o praise, grade, certificates, and other incentives may work wonders in the field o teaching and learning. Te knowledge o result should be given to the pupils as quickly as possible. Te principle o providing eedback and reinorcement results in quick and effective learning. Principle of group dynamics: Principle o utilizing group behaviour and group dynamics plays an important role in the achievement o objectives o teaching. Students tend to learn better in a group and also develop qualities o co-operation, mutual respect, sacrifice, etc. Tereore, the teacher should encourage group learning. Tey should make the use o the various aspects o group psychology or the achievement o better results. Principle of creativity and self-expression: eaching should be based on the principle o developing creativity and sel-expression. It should work as an effective medium or selexpression, so that students may develop their talents and abilities. Usually teachers eel happy i the students reproduce the material exactly in the same manner. Tis practice should be discouraged. Te teacher should encourage and praise the students whenever they put orth new, original, and imaginative ideas. As the development o a nation depends upon creative ideas, it becomes imperative that the teacher should create situations in the classroom that inculcate creativity and sel-expression among students. Principle of encouraging self-learning: Te teacher should inculcate the habit o sel-study, independent work and sel-learning among the students by providing proper opportunities and
training to their students or this Besides creating sel-learning or students, the teacher should be available or purpose. guiding them. Tis principle o teachingsituations helps to inculcate selconfidence and positive sel-dependence among students. Moreover, it helps in individualized teaching.
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 23
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Teaching Variable
eaching process involves three variables (Figure 3.1): (1) Independent variable—eacher. (2) Dependent variable—Student. (3) Intervening variable—Te content and the strategies o presentation. presentation. Teacher (Independent Variable)
Student (Dependent Variable)
Figure 3.1
Content (Inter vening Variable)
Teaching Variables
Independent variable (Teacher): Te planning, organizing, leading, and controlling o the teaching are done by the teacher. eacher has the reedom to perorm the activities or providing the learning experiences to the pupils. Dependent variable (Student): Student has to act according to the planning and organization o the teacher. Te student’s learning or perormance is influenced by teaching activities. Intervening variables (Content, Strategies, Tactics, and Techniques of Teaching): Te content o teaching, strategies, tactics o teaching and techniques o motivation are known as intervening variab var iables les.. Te in inter teracti action on betw between een tea teache cherr and stu studen dentt is per perorm ormed ed thr throu ough gh the int interve ervenin ningg var variab iables les..
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Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies
Te issues in teaching practices o social studies can be enumerated as ollows:
Issues related to curriculum (contents). Issues related to the strategies o teaching.
Issues Related to Curriculum Controversy is inherent in the nature o the subject. Our knowledge is limited. Te source o material is not adequate. As a result, a difficulty is experienced in weaving a true account, in separating the truths rom alsehood. Ofen, there is disagreement over ‘acts’ and interpretation o many events and moments. Views expressed are sometimes misleading. Te subjective element also plays a very important part in the process o acceptance, selection, and interpretation o acts.has varying terminology and at times is highly conusing. Interpretation o Te data available the acts is also influenced by the approach approach social scientists to the study o the subject. Some try to relate various acts with one another with a view to present the picture they want to present.
24 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 24
Tereore, the subjective actor involved in interpretation o acts introduces an element o controversy. Some controversial issues in teaching o history are discussed in the ollowing sections. History 1. Origin o Aryans. 2. Decline o o Mughal Empire. 3. Te Revolt o 1857. 4. Macaulay’ Macaulay’ss Role in the Development o Education in India. 5. India’ India’ss Foreign Polic Policy. y. 6. Comprehensive est est Ban reaty (CB). 7. Kashmir Issue. 8. Indo-Pak Border Issue. 9. Israel-Palestine Isra el-Palestine Boarder Issue. 10. Ram Janmabhoomi–Babri Masjid Masjid Controversy. Controversy. Civics 1. Anti-deect Anti-deection ion law law.. 2. Women’s Res Reserv ervation ation Bill. 3. Certai Certain n important constitutional amendments. Economics 1. Libera Liberalization lization o o economy economy.. 2. Privatization. 3. World rade rade Organization (WO).
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Teaching Controversial Issues
Te teacher should cautiously deal with the controversial issues. While teaching the social studies, teachers should present acts, make discussions, and should draw conclusion objectively. Tey must operate within the limits set by their proession and the pursuit o truth. Tey should not air their views without any proposition. Te ollowing procedures may be be ollowed.
Introducing the Issue Students may be provided opportunities to express their strong eelings reely beore they are challenged to examine or re-examine their points o view. Te specific points o controversy involved in the topic should be listed.
Stating the Problem Te teacher should keep the students to state the problem and delimit it.
Collection of Data Te teacher should make all relevant data dat a and inormation available to their pupils or study. Tey should help students gather data to present the argument or and against the issue.
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 25
Guiding the Learners Te teacher should guide the students in identiying the different choices possible or deciding the issue.
Exploring the Facts and Ideas Te teacher should encourage them to explore the acts and ideas which support the issue.
Arriving at Conclusion Te teacher should guide the students towards suspended judgement.
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Teacher’s Role
Regarding the role o teachers in handling controversial issues, the opinion is divided. Some are o the view that the teacher should serve largely as a moderator moderator,, chairman or empire. Others view that the teacher should play a more outspoken role. However, a combination o two will suit the best. eachers should be adequately equipped with the latest knowledge and research about the issue. Tey should not indoctrinate the children with their own views and convictions. Tey should create an atmosphere that emphasizes ree inquiry and the weightage o evidence. Tey should give their personal opinion at the end i students ask or it. Tey should help the pupils to look or inormation judiciously, evaluate the data correctly, think critically, and develop positive views on the issue issue under discussion. discussion.
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Issues Related to Strategies of Teaching
Te teaching objectives are achieved in terms o the behavioural changes among students. Te teacher generates the learning situation, so that desired behavioural change may be brought about. Te behavioural changes o students are the means to achieve the objective o teaching. Tereore, teaching in a view to achieve the objectives o teaching and learning structure, the teacher selects the appropriate teaching strategies and tactics to create the desired learning structure and conditions. It includes the ollowing activities:
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Selection o appropriate teaching tactics. Selection o appropriate communication strategies. Selection o appropriate instructional aids.
Selection of Appropriate Teaching Tactics
eaching tactics are the ways o applying a teaching strategy or achieving the learning objectives. Stones and Morris (1972) Morris (1972) defined the term ‘teaching strategies’ as ‘a generalised plan or a lesson which includes the structure, desired learner behaviour in terms o goals o instruction and an outline o planned tactics necessary to implement the strategy.’ Te lesson strategy is a part o a larger development scheme o the curriculum. Lecture, narration-cum-discussion, field-trips, etc. are the methods, generally, used or teaching social studies. eacher o social studies tries to present a concrete picture o the contents
26 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 26
in the classroom beore the students by using these methods. Social studies is a subject o acts and inormation. Te teacher has to connect the present with the past and the nearest to the arthest in the process o teaching. It depends upon the knowledge k nowledge and style o presentation o the teacher as well as the imagination o the students. For instance, while teaching social studies, a teacher teaches about the longitude and the lines drawn around the earth vertically vert ically and horizontally starting starti ng rom the zero degree rom the centre. Tese lines are only imaginary lines. Tese methods have also some elements. Tese elements cannot be eliminated totally; however, they can be eliminated to some extent. Tereore, teacher should select appropriate teaching tactics taking tak ing into consideration the content and its learning objectives.
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Selection of Appropriate Communication Media
An effective presentation or interaction phase o teaching depends upon the communication media which helps in achieving learning objectives. Generally, a communication in the classroom must include the ollowings: Oral communication.
Written communication.
Oral Communication Tis mode o communication employs speaking and listening communication channel. Te oral communication is largely oral or verbal interaction method. Tis is is based upon the audio-lin audio-lingual gual method (Figure 3.2). Te teacher has to speak on the content orally and expression on the part o the teacher and the students listen the expression first than the theme or content. Content
Speaking
Teacher
Listening
Method
Student
Speaking
Listening
Aids
Figure 3.2
Teacher and Student Interaction (Audio-lingual Method)
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 27
Written Communica Communication tion Tis type o communication is based upon the cognitive code o method o teaching (Figure 3.3). An interaction between teacher and students takes place through reading and writing activities. It ensures about the correct solution o the problem.
Content
Writing
Reading
Teacher
Method
Reading
Student
Writing
Aids
Figure 3.3
Teacher and Student Interaction (Cognitive Code Method)
In writing, content comes first than the expression. Generally, communication is perormed with the help o our activities, i.e., speaking , listening , wiring, wiring, and and reading .
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Selection of Appropriate Instructional Aids
Instructional aids play a significant role in organizing teaching. Instructional aids are used to make lesson interesting and involving more than one sense in teaching–learning situation. Te students can be made active and attentive by the use o teaching aids. Different teaching aids are used in teaching social studies. Hence, selection is the complex problem. Te criteria and principles are used as the basis or selecting appropriate teaching aids are as ollows:
eaching–Learning Objective. Learning Conditions and Structures. eaching–Learning Objectives.
Te objectives ormulated in the planning stage should be considered as criterion or taking decision about the teaching aids. Researches have been conducted in this direction. Te findings o these studies have been presented in able 3.1.
28 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 28 Table 3.1
Teaching Aids and Learning Objectives Learning Objectives
Teaching Aids
Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor
1. Radio
++++
++++
---------
2. Tape-recorder 3. Line-drawing
++++ ++++
++++ ----------
++++ ---------
4. Still pictures
++++
++++
++++
5. Models
----------
++++
++++
6. Films
++++
++++
++++
7. T.V.
++++
++++
++++
8. Ma Maps/globes/charts/tables
++++
++++
++++
9. Educational visits
++++
++++
---------
In able 3.1, plus signs indicate that a particular objective may be achieved by using specific teaching aids. Te blank indicates that particular learning objectives cannot be achieved by the teaching objectives.
Learning Conditions and Structures Learning objectives can be achieved by creating appropriate conditions on the structures o learning. Tus, appropriate teaching aids acilitate appropriate learning structures. Te findings o the research conducted in jlns direction have been summarized in able 3.2. Te plus signs in the ollowing chart indicate that a particular aid may acilitate a particular learning structure. An effective use o instructional aids depends upon learning objectives and learning structure. Table 3.2
Teaching Aids and Learning Structure Learning Structure
Teaching Aids
Signal Principle
Chain
Multiple
Discrimination
C on oncept
1. Radio
-----
++++
-----
-----
-----
2. Tape-recorder
-----
+++
++++
++++
-----
3. Line-drawing
++++
-----
++++
-----
-----
4. Still pictures
++++
-----
-----
++++
++++
5. Models
++++
++++
-----
-----
-----
6. Films
-----
++++
-----
++++
++++
7. T.V.
-----
++++
-----
++++
++++
++++
-----
-----
++++
++++
-----
++++
-----
++++
++++
8. Maps/globes/charts/tables 9. Ed Educational visits
Challenges and Issues in Teaching Practices of Social Studies 29
Te social studies teacher, te acher, thereore, should keep in mind the learning objectives and learning learni ng structure, while selecting the instructional aids or teaching.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expl Ex plai ain n the the co conc ncep eptt o o teac teachi hing ng..
2.
Define the teaching.
3.
Expl Ex plai ain n gene genera rall prin princi cipl ples es o o teac teachi hing ng..
4.
Explai Exp lain n psy psych chol ologi ogical cal pr princ incip iple less o o teac teachin hing. g.
5.
Eluc El ucida idate te var vario ious us pri princ ncip iples les o tea teach ching ing..
6.
Descr De scribe ibe the the issu issues es in in teac teachin hingg pract practice icess o soc social ial stud studies ies..
7.
State Sta te the the selecti selection on o app appro ropria priate te teach teaching ing tactic tacticss in social stud studies. ies.
8.
Evalua Eva luate te the selectio selection n o appr appropr opriat iatee commu communica nication tion media media in teachin teachingg o social social studies. studies.
9.
Explain Expl ain the app appro ropria priate te instru instructio ctional nal aids in teach teaching ing o social stud studies. ies.
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Summary
1. Social studies deals with the development o the society. 2. eaching is an interactive process. process. 3. Tere are two types o teaching principles—(a) general principles o teaching and (b) psychological principles o teaching. 4. Te selection o appropriate appropriate teaching strategies or different contents o o social studies is also a great concern or the teachers. 5. Pro Proper per selection o instructional instructional aids is also important important in teaching o social studies. studies. 6. An effective presentation or interaction phase o teaching depends upon the communication media which helps in achieving learning objectives. 7. Te type o communication is based upon the cognitive code o method o teaching. 8. Learning objectives can be achieved by creating appropriate conditions on structures o learning.
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References
Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International ext Book Company, p. 78. Fenton, E. 1974. eaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Schools. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., pp. 66–64. Bhattacharya, S. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, pp. 55–57. Nasiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the School . London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxord University Press, p. 124. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies . Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, p. 75.
30 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 30
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Additional Readings
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Kocher, S.K. 1990. Te eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Te Sterling Publishers Ltd. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Intr Introducing oducing Social Studies Studies.. Bombay: Orient Longmans. Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, Ansari Road, Daryaganj. Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Studies eaching eaching . Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
4
Te instructional aids are those devices or procedures that help to make teaching–learning more interesting, more stimulating, more reinorcing, and more effective. Good’s Dictionary o Education says, ‘anything by means which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense o hearing or sense o sight.’ Burton’s opinion says, ‘Instructional aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate, stimulate, and reinorce learning.’
o make teaching learning process effective, the learning environment should be made realistic. Learn man learns through sense. Senses are the gateway o the knowledge. Social studies deals with time, both the past and the present, and places not only o immediate vicinity but o different corners o the world. o make this realistic, a variety o instructional aids have to be used. Tese aids are stimuli or learning.
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Meaning and Concept of Instructional Aids
Instructional aids provide a realistic experience to the learners. Tey help in the teaching process. Let us see what does instructional aid mean? We can define instructional aid as one o the ollowings:
Te things which reinorce the teaching. Te objects which present the realistic experience to the learner. Te objects which provide stimuli to the learner. Te objects which provide sensual experience to the learner.
We may also define instructional aid as a device that assists an instructor to transmit acts, skills, attitudes, knowledge, understanding, and application to a learner. Instructional aids are also called teaching aids as the aids are used in the process o teaching. Tese are the devices which present unit o knowledge through auditory or visual or both with a view to help learning. Tey concretize the knowledge to be presented and thus help in making a learning experience appear real living and vital. Instructional aids are thus supplementary materials. Tey provide a sensory experience to the learner. Tese devices help the teacher te acher to classiy, establish, co-relate, and co-ordinate accurate acc urate concepts or interpretations and appreciations and enable them to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningul, and vivid.
32 Teaching of Social Studies 32
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Signicance of Instructional Aids in Teaching Social Studies
Instructional aids provide significant gain in inormational teaching retention and recall, thinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation, and personal growth and development. Te significance o instructional aids is stated below: Tey are supplementary to the words expressed: expressed: In the class, the teacher gives verbal descriptions which go beyond the experience o the pupils. Te teacher gives description o people o different times and climes. Tereore, Tereore, to help the t he pupils to bring the t he acts home, teacher must take the help o instructional aids. Tey supplement the material of the text books: books: Te books in social studies explicate the specificity. Tey do not provide concrete experience. However, by using instructional aids, the teaching can provide direct and purposeul experience. Tey make learning permanent: permanent: Instructional aids are potent motivators. As a result, they enable pupils to learn aster and remember longer. Tey supply the necessary basis or developmental learning and hence make learning more permanent. Tey make social studies real, vivid, vital, interesting, and life like: Social like: Social studies curriculum is generally embedded with rozen and fixed acts. Te o instructional aids can add zest, interest, and vitality to teaching andaccounts learning o situation anduse make interesting the social studies. Tey help in developing concepts, improving attitudes, and extending appreciations and interests: Te interests: Te presentation o the acts with the help o various instructional aids help in portraying portr aying the matter in the true and realistic orm. Tey provide sensory experience. Tis will help in the development o attitude and extension o appreciations and interests.
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Types of Instructional Aids
Te instructional aids can be classified based on the kind o experience they provide; Edgor Dale classified Dale classified the aids as ollows. He described it as the ‘Cone o Experience’ (Figure 4.1). Te experience may be o visual, auditory, or both. Tereore, the instructional aids may be classified into audio aids, visual aids, and audio-visual aids. Audio aids: An audio aid is an instructional device that can be heard, but can not be seen. Examples: radio, tape recorder, etc. Visual aids: A visual aid is an instructional device that can be seen, but can not be heard. Examples: picture, maps, graphs, charts, models, etc. Audio-visual aids: An audio-visual aid is an instructional devise that can be heard as well as seen. Examples: motion picture, television, etc. Instructional aids can be classified according to the way they are projected, i.e., projected and non-projected. Projected aids: Te instructional aids that are projected with the help o the screen. Examples:
film strips, slides, overhead projector, etc. Non-projected aids: Te instructional aids that are projected without the help o screen. Examples: chalkboard, poster, maps and globes, graph and models, radio, tape-recorder, etc.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
Verbal Chalk Board White
Words—Words—Words Least effective method
Coloured Chalk Charts Display Boards
Non-projected Teaching Aids Static Model
Sectional Model Working Model Diorama Epidiascope s e s a e r c n I s s e n e v i t c e f f
Projected Teaching Aids
Slide Projection Black and White Coloured Slides
More Effective than Non-projected Aids
Filmstrip Projection— Colour
E
Overhead Projector Motion Picture—Silent— Black and White Motion Picture—Sound Colour
Loop (cassette) Colour Film C.C.T.V C.C.T .V Demonst Demonstration rations s T.V T.V
Direct Experience
Experiments
Individual doing Experiments Projects, Excursions
Figure 4.1
Relative Effectiveness of Teaching Aids
Edgar Dale’s cone of experience in Teaching Te aching Aids
33
34 34 Teaching of Social Studies
Verbal Symbols Visual Symbols Recordings, Radio, Still Pictures Motion Pictures Television Exhibits Field Trips Demonstrations
Dramatised Experiences Contrived Experiences Direct Purposeful Experiences
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Blackboard/Chalkboard
Te blackboard is probably the most widely used visual aid. It is the oldest and the best riend o a teacher. is the acheapest and most valuable teaching device. eacher Te use can o blackboard in class teachingItcreates ormal atmosphere and motivates learning. use the black board to list items, to write the important point o the lesson, and to draw charts or diagrams or illustrations or the class.
List of Items May Be Presented Through Blackboard Te list o items that are presented through blackboard is as ollows:
Drawing Sketches Maps Graphs
Diagrams echnical words Definitions Keywords
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
Outlines Reviews Daily problems Assigning new problems Problems to be solved
35
Making announcements Giving directions Illustrating procedures esting
Effective Use of Blackboard Following activities are to be done or the effective use o blackboard:
Do not crowd the blackboard. Make wording simple. Plan layout ahead o time. Get together everything you need to use the blackboard beore the class begins—chalk,
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andAvoid otherblackboard items. ruler, Checkeraser, lighting. glare. Sometimes, it will be necessary to lower a shade and turn on the room light. Use colour or emphasis. Print all captions and drawings on a large scale. Te material must be clearly visible to each student. Erase all unrelated material. Keep the black board clean. Prepare complicated illustrations beorehand.
Bulletin Board
Te bulletin board is a sheet o wood, masonite, cork, celetax, or similar material usually usual ly set within a rame. It may be used or displaying pictures, charts, posters, clippings, photographs, or other learning materials. A good bulletin board is a vital and animated tool which is used to arouse students’ interest, to develop efficiency, and to ollow up black board work and other teaching aids. It provides a practical outlet or artistic talent and creative ability or both the teacher and students.
List of Items May Be Displayed in the Bulletin Board Te list o items that are presented through bulletin board is as ollows:
Announcement Booklets and brochures
Bulletins Charts Diagrams Posters
36 Teaching of Social Studies 36
Maps Newspaper clippings Drawings Graphs Cartoons
Pictures Pamphlets Photographs Models and specimens Subject outlines Poli Political tical parties in the coun country try Elections Food
Use of Bulletin Board Following points are needed to use bulletin board:
Collect suitable illustrations or instructional projects or problems. Classiy and file material or use at the right time. Select illustrations pertaining to the specific subject and area under consideration. Arrange illustrations or bulletin board in an interesting manner. Use colour harmony and balance. Exhibit or reer to bulletin board pictures during instruction time. Encourage students to observe and contribute to the bulletin board.
Precaution for Using the Bulletin Board Te precautions or using the bulletin board are as ollows:
Do not capitalize on all bulletin board space in class room. Do not use bulletin board to arouse student interest. Do not use bulletin board to develop subject matter. Do not use bulletin board to ollow through other teaching aids. Do not collect suitable material or bulletin board. Do not classiy and file material used on bulletin board. Do not use pertinent illustrations. illustrations. Do not arrange pictures in orderly and interesting manner. Do not create original titles. Do not use colour harmony and balance. Do not caption all illustration. Do not change material requently. Do not make bulletin board tell a story.
Do not make your own bulletin boards i none are available. Do not make them large enough. Do not place them where they can be easily seen by all students. Do not experiment with potable bulletin boards.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
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Objects and Specimens
Objects may be defined as real things which have been removed as units or their natural settings. Coins, stamps, Indian relics, tools, some locally manuactured products, etc. are some o the examples examp les o objects which can be used with affect in teaching social studies. A specimen is a small piece, segment, part or sample o real object, or the material used in the preparation o it. Tese teaching aids are powerul interest-arousing devices that possess the capacity o bringing into play all five sense-touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste. An instructor who capitalizes on as many o these senses as possible increases the efficiency o their teaching proportionately.
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Models
Models are the recognizable three-dimensional representations o real things. Tey are the replicas o large objects. Tey reduce large object to a size convenient or observation. Tey give a vivid impression o the real objects.
Qualities of Good Model Following qualities are essential or good model.
Accuracy Simplicity Utility Solidity, i.e., inherent strength to resist Ingenuity, i.e., must be an expression o the innate capacity and potentiality o a child
A variety o models, such as the models o personalities, armours, human dwellings, ornaments, utensils, costumes, pillar and rock inscriptions, the place o historical important, agriculture, the means o transport, the means o communication and the documents o copper plates, architecture and sculpture can be prepared and used or illustrating the social studies.
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Charts
A chart is a diagrammatic representation. It is drawn to arrange, to delineate, or to clariy the relationships among the individuals within an organization, the ingredients in a product, the steps in a process, or the sequence o events in a historical period. Witch and Schullar defined defined a chart as ‘combinations o graphic and pictorial media designed or the orderly and logical visualizing o relationships between key ke y acts or ideas’. Te particular particu lar role o the chart is always to show relationships such as comparisons, relative amounts, developments, processes, classification, and organization.
Type of Charts Tere are various kinds o charts, each embodying a specific visual pattern. Let us discuss, briefly, the most commonly commonly used charts in social studies. Genealogy Charts/Tree Charts As its name suggests, the tree chart is developed rom a base composed o several ‘roots’ which lead in to a single trunk. Te branches, in turn, represent the developments and relationships.
38 38 Teaching of Social Studies
Tese charts are used to represent the growth and development o an empire, a dynasty and historical acts o this nature. Tese charts help to summarize historical topics. Tabulation Chart Te data are presented in a tabular orm. Te sequence o relationships can be shown in a tabular
orm. data areunder analyzed under severalable heads4.1 andshows sub-heads; the greatchart battles Indian history may beTe analyzed many sub-heads. the tabulation oo the First War o Indian Independence. Table 4.1
Tabulation Chart of First War of Indian Independence—1857
Causes
Events
Results
Political
Delhi—Bahadur Shah
Crown Rule Begins Secretary of State for India
Economic
Kanpur—Nana Saheb
Appointed Viceroy Appointed Policy of Annexation Given Up Indian Army-Reorganized Policy of Divide and Rule Begun Religious Freedom Assured Government Job Opened to Public India’s Freedom Movements Takes Takes Birth
Social and Religious
Central Delhi—Tantia Tope
Military
Lucknow
Immediate
Jhansi-Laxmibai
Chronology/Time Charts Tese charts provide a chronological ramework within which the events and developments may be recorded. Tese charts chart s develop time sense s ense among the pupils and help them to comprehend and visualize the pageant pageant o time and its relationships. relationships. Political Political developmen development, t, cultural achievements, achievements, religious, etc. can be most easily shown in chronological chart. Flowcharts Tese charts which are made up o rectangles, lines, arrows, and circles show the unctional relationships within an organization. Te lines that connect rectangles, circles, or other graphic representations show the directional flow. Tese charts are well suited to show unctional relationships such as the organiza organizations tions o city administration, the relationship among among the executive, judicial, and legislative departments, the relationship among the central, the provincial, and the local administrations o different rulers, and how the government gets and spends money.
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Diagrams
Webster Dictionary D ictionary defines defines it as ‘any line drawing made or mathematical or scientific purposes; a mechanical drawing or geometrical figure.’ It is a drawing that shows enlargement and relations as o parts to the whole, relative values, origins and developments, chronological fluctuations distributions, distribution s, etc.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
39
Witch and Schullar defined diagram as ‘a simplified drawing designed designe d to show interrelationships primarily by means o lines and symbols.’ Diagrams usually can better be used or the summary and review than or the introduction. Diagrams should be used along with other aids.
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Timelines
imeline reduces time sense into space sense or easy comparison. Te concept o space involves both the concept o sequence and distance. ime is represented by a horizontal or vertical line and happenings are fixed on it according to their dates o occurrences in a chorological sequence. It helps in ‘knowing how much beore’ and how much afer and event. imelines can be o various kinds, i.e., progressive and regressive timelines, pictorial and comparative timelines. Witch Witc h and Schullar defined defined graph as ‘a visual representation o numerical data’. Graphs are flat pictures which employ dots, lines, or pictures to visualize numerical and statistical data d ata to show statistics or relationships. Graphs are effective tools or making comparisons and contrasts or presenting complicated acts to students. An interesting graph will arrest attention and make students stop, look, and think. A good graph requires little explanation and tells its story at a glance. Tere are many kinds o graphs. Among those the most commonly used graph in social studies are as ollows:
Line graphs. Bar graph. Circle or pie graph. Pictorial graph.
Let us discuss dis cuss each o them in the t he ollowing ollowing sections.
Line Graph Line graph is the most accurate o all graphs. A line graph should be used when there are a considerable number o data to be plotted or when the data are continuous. Te concepts are represented with the help o simple lines, vertically or horizontally drawn.
Bar Graph Bar graphs are the simplest o all graphs to read. Each o the several groups o data to be plotted is represented by either vertical or horizontal bars. Te length o the bar expresses the amount or percentage o data; all the bars are o the same width. Tese are especially helpul in comparing or contrasting many subjects such as comparisons o income and wages, quotas, sales, the period o different emperors, and temperature.
Circle or Pie Graph his graph is represented by a circle. he sectors o which are used to represent component parts o a whole. he inormation in ormation such as allocation o unds or dierent heads in the budget o a country, or state, or municipality, distribution o money on dierent subjects in the ive-year plans, and distribution o money on dierent sectors can be represented by circle graphs.
40 40 Teaching of Social Studies
Pictorial Graph Pictures are used or the expression o ideas. Te number or size o the pictures conveys the proportionate amounts. It arouses interest among the pupils.
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Maps
Webster’s Dictionary defines defines map as ‘a representation (usually on a flat surace) o the surace o the earth or o some part o it, showing the relative size and position, according to some scale or projection o the parts represented.’ Tey are flat representations o the earth’s surace, which convey inormation by means o lines, symbols, words, and colours. Maps are essential or the teaching o social studies. Place and time are the two most important abstracts with which a teacher o social studies is concerned. With the help o map, the teacher o social studies can show distances and bearings or countries o reasonable size with scarcely any error; climate, the races o man, the types o rocks and minerals the comparative size o towns, etc. may also be shown very clearly. Tereore, it is very essentiall that pupils should learn to read the maps. Tey must be able to interpret the symbols and essentia the lines o the map into their physical nature.
Types of Maps Tere are mainly our types o maps according to the content they present beore the learners. Physical Maps Tese maps show the physical acts about the earth. Tese show the geographical eatures o the earth such as oceans, mountains, mines, and soil. Tese also show the climate, natural vegetation, and special data as altitude, temperature, rainall, precipitation, etc. Political Maps Tese maps show national and state boundaries, national and state capita, important town and cities, transportation (rail, road, air, and naval), etc. Commercial and Economic Maps Tese maps show land areas in relation to the economy. Such maps include the data combined in physical maps particularly when these data are important to the economic lie o the area. Relief Maps Tese may be considered as a model o geographical eatures o a place. On the three-dimensional th ree-dimensional relie maps, students can see the contours and develop realistic conceptions that can be obtained only through great effort rom a flat map. Tey should be used where geographical eatures have a direct influence on the course o events. According to the orm o the maps, there are some important types o maps, which are discussed in the ollowing sections. Chalk Board Outline Maps Tese basic outline maps are blank except or land and water suraces, although sometimes other details are included (e.g., (e.g. , the states in a map o our country). Te map is pointed on the chalkboard, chalkb oard, or the outlines are quickly traced around a prepared pattern o cardboard or the thin wood.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
41
Projected Maps A slide, a film strip, a transparency, or material shown by an opaque projector will provide a map that every student can see clearly. Tere is no limit to the content on the orm o maps shown in this manner. Flat TeyMaps present the spherical earth on a flat surace. Tey are o different kinds, i.e., political, polit ical, physical economic, temperature, roads, etc. Atlas It is a collection o maps and outline geographical materials that can be profitably used by a student independently. Globes Globe is a spherical model o the earth. It is a three-dimensional representation o the earth. It resembles the earth in shape and shows water and land masses in proper relative sizes and positions. Globe gives a true idea o the total environment at a glance in a classroom situation. A child can understand the concepts o time, space, wind’s planetary relations and proportions. It can be used or the teaching o these developments which are more or less common to the whole world, i.e., the dawn o civilization, the industrial revolution, the growth o democracy, etc. Pictures Pictures are iconic and semi-symbolic signs, i.e., they resemble in many particulars the object they represent. Pictures help children to understand that social studies is concerned with real things, real places, and real persons. Pictures will simpliy the abstractions and help, create, and maintain interest. Especially, or the teaching o history and geography, picture is regarded as an old amiliar riend. Slides and Film Strips Slides and filmstrips are still picture media. Tey are inherently suited to the convenient presentation o a great variety o visual materials such as pictures, cartoons, charts, graphs, diagrams, maps, and tables. Both have the attention—ocusing power o any projected image; however, they are relatively expensive. Tey cover a wide range o topics in social studies and grade levels. Tey can be projected in a partially darkened room thus acilitating urther class discussion and note taking. Tey are essentially similar, with one major exception that the slides can be shown individually in any desired order. A filmstrip is a series o related still photographs on a single roll o processed film. For teaching history, a teacher can use slides o Mohanjdaro, Harappa, Maurayan Art, Gupta Art, the lie o Buddha, Indian monuments, etc. Films A film is a multiple media o communication. It presents acts act s in a realistic realist ic way, way, dramatizes human
relations, arouses emotions, and transmits attitudes. Films enrich the learning by presenting a series or sequences o meaningul experience experien ce involving motion. Tey can transcend the barriers barr iers o time, complexity, and space and bring the past, present, prese nt, and probable denomination o experience experie nce through which reality can be achieved, processed, explained, and situations reproduced.
42 42 Teaching of Social Studies
A number o types o films can be used or teaching social studies—films giving inormation, episode on the lie o an individual, etc. In social studies, the films o important historical events, the lie on other lands, ocean and ocean currents, national integration, reedom struggle, parliamentary orm o government, etc. can be used or instruction. Te effective use o films requires special skills and knowledge in the use o projection equipment. For the effective useBeore o films, the teacher should know what it isitabout and how it fits into the material being taught. projecting the film they should plan careully. Television Now-a-days, television is used as an instructional aid. Many programmes are telecasted by the television channels. Last year, ‘Gyan-Darshan’, an educational channel, was inaugurated by the Prime Minister o India. Indira Gandhi National Open University telecasts its educational programme o various grades on DD-1. University Grants Commission programmes are telecasted on DDI. Recently, ‘ZEE’ V launched its it s educational channel. Various programmes related social soci al studies topics are telecasted by these channels on various days. elevision connected with VCP/VCR can be used in the classrooms or teaching social studies. Utilization o video-assisted learning system and internal video eedback techniques can be affectively used or teaching. Te teacher can make video recording o important geographical places and can show the recording in the classroom beore students. Likewise, teacher can make video clippings o the t he places o historic importance and exhibit them in the course o teaching history. Tese provide stronger and direct stimuli to personal thought and understanding than mere lecture on words. Trough the use o visual media, consistency is built up into the instructional system. Trough television, the ‘Super Lecture’ or ‘Master eacher’ is available at a number o places simultaneously without the expense o time and to it or travel. Computer Computer is a very sophisticated electronic device. It requires careul preparation or use and higher pre-requisite or understanding. Some computer-assisted instructional (CAI) packages are available or different topics o the social studies. It has more application in geography;
particularly, maps, aerial photographs, and weather changes can be easily taught through the computer using simulation techniques. Computers with ‘Internet’ connection can also be effectively used or teaching social studies. It gives immense opportunities or learning more and to rationalize the thinking. Te learning will become sharp. Te most important actor is that the computer is a ‘flexible’ teacher not like ‘rigid human teacher’. Radio Radio is also used as an instructional aid. All India Radio broadcasts different educational programmes including social studies in different days. Regional centres also broadcast their regional programmes on education. Radio supplements classroom instruction and widens the general knowledge o the pupils and the teacher. Broadcasts inuse a new lie into the curriculum by correlating knowledge and skills to the immediate needs and the natural environment o the learner.
It enables the students to listen to the expert, the historian, and the scientific and the firstrate teachers. Radio challenges dogmatic teaching and passive learning by presenting various responsible views concerning controversial issues. Te talks on ‘Gandhiji’s lie’, ‘Vivekananda’s lie’, ‘impact o 1857 Sepoy Mutiny on India’s reedom struggle’, etc. are quite useul in social studies.
Use of Instructional Aids in Social Studies
43
Newspapers Every social studies classroom should be well stocked with newspapers. Te collection should include both local and metropolitan dailies. Newspapers can motivate the students to know about the past events. Newspapers contain a reservoir o resources and illustrations. Newspapers may be used as means o sensitizing the class to the need or up-to-date inormation. Newspapers
provide the inormation about trends, inventions and discoveries, research and new developments, and national andmovements, international political scenario. Tus, newspapers can help in closing the gap between inormation contained in the books and changing developments o the world. Te special issues o the newspapers, such as republic day issues, independence day issues and Diwali special, contain various inormation about education, which may contribute to develop the ability o the critical thinking o the students.
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Reference Books
Te teacher can use reerence books, such as dictionaries, yearbooks, handbooks, government reports, and encyclopaedia, as aid in teaching social studies. Students need in-depth knowledge in a particular subject; thereore, the teacher should take the help these reerence materials to provide inormation to students.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explai Exp lain n the use use o inst instruc ructio tional nal aids aids in in teach teaching ing o o social social stud studies ies..
2.
Describe Desc ribe the the concep conceptt and signifi significanc cancee o inst instructio ructional nal aids aids in teac teaching hing o social social studi studies. es.
3.
Explai Exp lain n the types types o o instru instructi ction onal al aids aids in teac teachin hingg o socia sociall studie studies. s.
4.
Clariy Clar iy the the types types and and impo importanc rtancee o o maps maps in teach teaching ing o social stud studies. ies.
5.
Explai Exp lain n the use use o film filmss and tel televi evisio sion n in teac teachin hingg o socia sociall studie studies. s.
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Summary
1. Te instructional aids are those devices or procedures that help to make teaching–learning more interesting. 2. Instructiona Instructionall aids provide a realisti realisticc experience to the learners. 3. Instructional aids provide significant gains in inormational teaching retention and recall, thinking and reasonin reasoning, g, activity intere interest. st. 4. Te use o instructional aids can add zest, interest, and vitalit vitalityy to teaching–learni teaching–learning ng situation and make interesting the social studies. 5. Te instructional aids may may be classified as audio aids, visual aids, and audio-visual aids. 6. Models are the recognizable three-dimensional representations o real things. 7. Accuracy Accuracy,, simplicity, utility, utility, and solidity are the qualities o good model. 8. A chart is diagrammatic representation. 9. Diagrams usually can better be used or summary and review than or introduction. It should be used along with other aids. 10. Map is a representation o the surace o the earth. 11. Atlas is a collection o maps and outline geographical materials that can be profitably used by the students independently.
44 44 Teaching of Social Studies
12. 13. 14. 15.
Globe is a spherical model o the earth. It is a three-dimensi three-dimensional onal representation o the earth. Slides and filmstrips are still picture media. A film is a multiple media o communication. communication. elevision is a very popular instructional aid; many programmes are telecasted by the television channels.
16. Computer is a very sophisticated sophisti cated electronic device. It requires careul preparation preparation or use and higher prerequisite or understanding. 17. Radio is also used as an instructional instructional aid. 18. Newspapers can motivate the students to know about the past events. 19. Dictionaries Dictionaries,, yearbooks, handbooks, government reports and encyclopaedia are known as reerence book. It can be used or seeking depth knowledge in a particular subject.
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References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education, Education, Jalandhar: Paul Publishers, p. 268. Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach, Approach , New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., p. 169. Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools, Schools, Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, pp. 106–107. Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1990. eaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools, Schools, oronto: New York, McGraw Hill Book & Company, p. 281. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, p. 147.
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Additional Readings
Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, Ansari Road, Daryaganj. Kochhar, S.K. 1990. Te eaching eaching of Social S ocial Studies. Studies . New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd. Highet, G. 1951. Te Art of eaching . London: Methuen and Co. Ltd. Horne, E. 1937. Met 1937. Methods hods of Instructio Instruction n in the Social Social Studies Studies.. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. White, E.M. 1923. Te eaching of Modern Civics. Civics. George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.
Social Studies Curriculum—Selection and Organization
5
Curriculum is the pivot and hub around which all activities in the school revolve. Curriculum in social studies is that part o the t he school curriculum which includes subject matter and activities that enable children to acquire an understanding o human relationships relationships,, the knowledge o environment dedication to the basic principles and the values o the society and a commitment to participate in the process through which the society s ociety is maintained and improved. Social studies curriculum may be considered as a tool in the (social studies teacher) to mould his material (the pupil) in accordance accordanc e with the hands natureoothe theartist society and children in his studio (school).
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Social Studies Curriculum
Social studies being rela related ted with the t he society gives real experience to children about about lie. Social studies has certain aims and objectives attainable attainable only through a planned system which is called curriculum. Te word ‘curriculum’ has been taken rom Latin, which means ‘field or race’. Curriculum has a very important role in the process o education; ‘how and when’ to teach is only o secondary importance. What is o primary importance is ‘what to teach’, which is the essence o curriculum.
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Denition of Curriculum
Crow and Crow—‘Te Curriculum includes all the experiences o students which they learn in and outside the school that are included in a programme devised to help them in their mental, physical, social and moral development.’ Payne—‘Curriculum consists o all the situations selected and organized by the school or the development o personality o students and to bring about desired changes in their behaviour.’ Mudaliar Mudal iar Com Commiss mission— ion—‘Te Curriculum includes the totality o experiences which students receive through many activities in school and in numerous inormal contacts between teachers and students.’ Tus, curriculum helps children in the evolution o their balanced personality.
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Aims of Social Studies Curriculum
Te aims o social studies curriculum are given as ollows:
o make harmonious development in children. o help children becoming good citizens by inculcating democratic values in them.
Social Studies Studies 46 Teaching of Social 46
o improve and develop the skills, abilities, and interests o pupils. o develop social virtues such as honesty, truthulness, and democratic spirits among children. o provide the opportunity o sel-experience to children. o provide them the training to be good and useul citizens.
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o make children socially useul citizens in uture by developing their inherent and latent qualities.
Principles of Selection, Organization, and Construction of Social Studies Curriculum
Following principles should be borne in mind while selecting the social studies curriculum or children.
Children-centred Curriculum Educationists consider children to be the centre o curriculum. Pupils get real education through activity andoexperience. Tus, be while interests, ests, abilities, and needs children should keptconstructing in mind. social studies curriculum, the inter
Principle of Motivation Being children centred, the curriculum curric ulum should be based on children psychology. I the curriculum is not based on the skills, attitudes, interests, and abilities o children, children are likely to lose active participation in learning.
Principle Related with Direct Life of Children Te curriculum should include all those activities which are directly related with lie, as children take more active interest in the solution o such activities.
Principles Based on Democratic Values Democracy is the most widely accepted political system in the present day world. Its success depends upon enlightened and intelligent citizens. Tereore, a good curriculum should help children in developing democratic qualities qual ities such as sympathy, sympathy, brotherhood, mutual co-operation, honesty, equality, and co-existence.
Principle of Integration Social studies should provide link between the past and the present. Tereore, its curriculum should be correlated with the past and the present. Tis kind o an integrated curriculum will enable children to understand their environment.
Principle of Flexibility A good curriculum should always be flexible, flexi ble, so that necessary necessar y changes can be made in its content and subject matter with the changing time, needs, and situations.
Social Studies Curriculu Curriculum—Selection m—Selection and Organization 47
Principle of Community-c Community-centred entred Curriculum Te development o children depends on their living with individuals o the society. Tereore, it is essential that their needs and desires must harmonize with the needs and desires o those with whom they have to live in the society. Te children cannot be educated in vacuum. Tey are to be educated in and through the society in which they are born. Tus, a good curriculum should be society based.
Broad-based Curriculum Socia l studies curriculum should not be based on a partic Social particular ular community or or should not prepare students or a particular proession. Te aim o education should be ocussed around preparing children or lie and world. For this, it is essential that a curriculum should be as broad based as possible and its construction should take care o all local, national, international, personal, and amilial activities.
Principle of Learning by Doing A good social studies curriculum should be based on activity, such as the knowledge obtained by children by sel-learning and practice, is more effective and permanent.
Principle of Selection A good curriculum should be based on the principle o selection. All the important topics o study should be arranged and taught systematically.
Principle of Co-relation Te knowledge attained through co-related study o various subjects and activities is relatively more clear and permanent. Social studies is a combination o different subjects such as history, economics, geography, and political science. Tereore, a good curriculum should be helpul in the attainment o co-related knowledge.
Forward-looking Forward-look ing Principle Based on Democratic Values Te pupils o today are adult citizens o tomorrow. Tey have to shoulder the responsibilities o the nation in their uture lie; thereore, they need to be taught to live a really democratic way o lie. In order to enable pupils to ulfil this objective, the t he curriculum should be based bas ed on democratic principles. By making them orward-looking, it will also help them to adjust themselves to the varying conditions conditions o lie lie in the world. world.
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Pattern of Social Studies Curriculum
Te ollowing topics may be suggested or inclusion while constructing the social studies curriculum or various classes:
It should be concerned with daily human needs such as housing, clothing, clothi ng, ood, education, transport and communication, electricity, religion, and recreation. It should be related with social needs such as neighbourhood, village, town, schools, estivals, airs, clubs, shops, actories, and religious institutions.
Social Studies Studies 48 Teaching of Social 48
It should be related with amilial needs such as contributions o an individual towards his amily, mutual co-operation, rights and duties, and social and civic virtues. It should be related with cultural needs such as religious and social customs, national days, ancient Indian culture and civilization, and the stories o ancient leaders. It should be related with political needs such as municipal committee, panchayat, tehsil,
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and national administration. district, It shouldstate, be related with economic needs such as agriculture, industry, occupation o people, distribution o goods, problem o unemployment, and money transaction. It should be related with physical needs such as rain, sun, soil, weather, mineral and water resources, annual lie, and natural conditions. It should be related with scientific and technological needs such as lie stories o amous scientists and inventors, man’s conquest o time, distance, water, air, and technology. It should be related with current needs such as world peace, international understanding, Panchsheel, UNO, international trade, and interdependence o nations. It should be based on curricular needs such as charts, models, pictures, group discussions, tours, and excursions.
Study of Social Studies Curriculum for Different Stages as Primary, Secondary, and Senior Secondary
Primary Stage—Classes Stage—Classes I to V (Age Group 6 to 11 Years) At primary stage, our subject should help children amiliarize with their surroundings and acilitate them study about the surrounding and the environment, which should be the central point o curriculum. With this view in mind, the curriculum should emphasize the ollowing aspects: Economic aspect: At primary stage, the curriculum should deal with man’s economic activities such as arming, handicrafs, industries and trade, exchange o things, village and town markets, banks, co-operative societies, the means o transport and communications, and the importance o animals in our economic lie. Physical aspect: Primary class curriculum should concentrate on the knowledge o physical needs such as rain, climate, weather, land, rivers, mountains, seas, orests, and natural resources. Social aspect: At this stage, it is essential to impart knowledge to children about amily, school, neighbourhood, social lie at national and international levels, the effect o religious institutions on social lie, the stories o ood, shelter and clothing, and social institutions such as clubs and organizations; thereore, the curriculum should lay due emphasis on all these things. Historical problems: At this stage, the children need to be conversant with historical acts; thereore, the curriculum should include the stories o important leaders and their contribution in social and cultural lives, historical historical events, wars etc. Cultural aspect: At this stage, the curriculum should also touch the study o social and religious traditions, personal hygiene and cleanliness, celebration o different estivals etc. Civil aspect: Te curriculum at this level should also include study o social and civil virtues, obligation towards ellow beings, society and amily, rights and duties, and use o ranchise. Current problems: Children, at this stage, should learn about the importance o simple current problems such as starvation starvat ion or hunger, hunger, ignorance, diseases, dise ases, idleness, id leness, road saety saet y, and programmes
Social Studies Curriculu Curriculum—Selection m—Selection and Organization 49
o social and economic developments. Te curriculum should enable them to fight against these problems. Political aspect: Te children are supposed to have elementary knowledge about our political system such as panchayat, municipal committee, zila parishad, village, district, and state administration; thereore, the curriculum should include all these topics. Teaching method: As the mind and aculties o children are not well developed at primary stage, we should ensure that teaching method at this stage should be simple, related with the environment o children and based on the interests o pupils. Facts and relevant materials should be presented in story orm and more o maps, charts, models, diagrams, and other audiovisual aids o the materials should be made to make teaching easier and interesting or the children o primary classes.
Middle Stage—Classes Stage—Classes VI to VIII (Age Group 11 to 14 Years) At this age and level, children’s mind starts developing; with this, the level o education should also increase. Now, the need or concentrating on the study o problems o the country in relation to world arises and the curriculum with ollowing aspects is suggested. Economic aspect: Te economic aspect o the curriculum should include the study o use o machines in agriculture and industry, the economic development through five-year plans, the economic interdependence o the nations, the ulfilment o human wants, and the means o transport and communications. Physical aspect: In the physical aspect o the curriculum, the study o earth and solar system, ocean, land and air routes, the effect o weather and climatic conditions, the geographical conditions o the country, the natural regions o the world etc. should be included. Social aspect: At this stage, the social aspect o the social studies curriculum should concentrate on the present social conditions o Indian social lie in different periods and the study o socially and economically backward classes o people. Historical aspect: While constructing the social studies curriculum regarding historical aspect, at this stage, st age, due emphasis needs to be given on the primitive primit ive man’ man’s early movement and settlements o races, Aryan Civilization, Sindhu Valley Civilization, Greek Civilization, Modern Civilization, and the impact o Western Culture. Cultural aspect: As ar as the cultural aspect o the social studies curriculum is concerned, emphasis should be laid on different stages o Indian civilization, religious and social evils, customs and traditions, and the contribution o great leaders in guiding the nation. Political and Civic aspects: In political and civic aspects o the social studies curriculum, at this stage, the topics need to be highlighted are state and central governments, courts, local selgovernment, zila parishad, dependence on home, school, amily and society, rights and duties o citizens, education or citizenship, and national and international responsibilities o citizens. Current problems: With regard to current problems, the social studies syllabus, at this stage, should include the study o national unity, five-year plans, Panchsheel, Indian oreign policy,
multipurpose cultural lives oprojects, people. and the impact o science and technology on political, economic, and Teaching method: As the mental level starts developing at this stage, we can depend on the problems and project methods o teaching along with storytelling, lecture, and textbook methods.
Social Studies Studies 50 Teaching of Social 50
Te teachers should also use, rom time to time, the audiovisual aids, pictures, maps, models, and other means to make the lesson clearly understandable, interesting, and easy. Organization o drama and debate competitions, tours and visits to museums and historical places also play a very important role in the development o attitudes and skills o the students.
Senior Secondary Stage—Classes IX to XII (Age Group 14 to 17 Years)
At the stage o senior secondary classes, children are supposed to have a grown up mind with the development o understanding and reasoning power. As afer XII class, majority o the children or various reasons discontinue their studies; there is a need to teach integrated course o study in secondary class, i.e., in IX and X classes. However, in XI and XII classes, emphasis should be given on specialized study o history, geography, civics, economics, and sociology as separate and independent subjects. For secondary and senior secondary classes, the ollowing social studies curriculums are suggested. Economic aspect: Economic aspect o the curriculum should include the topics such as the study o increasing population o India. Industrial development and problems, progress with regard to Indian agriculture, nationalization o the means o production, community development project, and the establishment o the socialist pattern o society as conceived by Vinoba Bhave and Gandhiji. Physical aspect: Tis emphasizes the study o the physical eatures o India, the land, air, and sea routes o the world, the important natural regions o the world, and the transport and communication systems. Social aspect: Te social aspect o social studies curriculum prepared or higher secondary classes should give stress on the topics such as the social problems afer Independence o India, the philosophy o Gandhiji’s lie, and the lie o citizens in independent India. Historical aspect: Tis should lay emphasis on the evolution and birth and lie o man on the earth, the origin o languages, the use o fire, and man’s conquest over nature and lie in prehistoric and ancient times. Cultural aspect: Tis aspect o the curriculum should concentrate on Greek, Rome, and Aryan
civilizations, the impact o Islam on Indian culture, the awareness o national spirit in India and world contributions. Political and Civic aspects: Tese include the studies o need or world peace, Panchsheel and the role o UNO. Current aspect: In current aspect o the curriculum, we take into account the study o the problems such as begging, prohibition, international understanding, national unity, and the impact o science and technology on modern lie.
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Teaching Method in Secondary and Senior Secondary Stages
In secondary and senior secondary classes, our endeavour should be helpul to impart real and practical knowledge as ar as possible. Besides using the teaching methods suggested to be ollowed at middle level, we can also use here unit method, problems and source method o
Social Studies Curriculu Curriculum—Selection m—Selection and Organization 51
teaching. eaching can be made interesting, appealing, and more effective to the students by increasing the use o various audiovisual aids such as radio, television, graphs and models, and other means such as tours, excursions, and group discussions. Making o scrap book and album or school museums can encourage students to participate in various activities and develop interest in studies. We should also emphasize co-curricular activities as community andnecessary celebration o national international days. In addition, such provision should besurveys made or changes in theand curriculum in changing conditions and situations.
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Shortcomings of Social Studies Curriculum
Te present day curriculum is deective, as it is more theoretical and less practical. It lays greater emphasis on bookish knowledge and consequently the significance o subject matter and examinations has increased. Tere is a lack o co-relation among different subjects; thereore, their scope is only limited.
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Suggestions for Good Curriculum of Social Studies
A good curriculum should be flexible and based on the changing needs and individual differences. Te subject matter o the curriculum should be selected, keeping in view the child psychology. Te curriculum should not be heavy and burdensome. It should be according to the mental level o children and based on their interest, ability, capacity and previous experience.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explain Expl ain briefl brieflyy the selectio selection n and orga organiza nization tion o o social social studies studies curricu curriculum lum..
2.
Discuss Discu ss the the princi principle pless o con construc struction tion o social stu studies dies curri curriculu culum. m.
3.
Describe Descr ibe the the teachin teachingg method method in in seconda secondary ry and and senior senior secon secondary dary stage stages. s.
4.
Givee your Giv your sugge suggestio stions ns or or good good curricu curriculum lum o social stu studies. dies.
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Summary
1. Curriculum has a very important role in the process process o education. 2. Te curriculum o social studies is that a part o the school curriculum which includes subject matter and activities that enable the children to acquire an understanding o human relationships and knowledge o the environment. 3. Te harmonious development o children, good citizenship, the development o o the skills, and the development o democratic values are the aims o social studies curriculum. 4. Children-cent Children-centred red curriculum, curric ulum, motivation, democratic values, v alues, integration, integ ration, flexibility, flexibi lity, community-centred curriculum, learning by doing, and co-relation are the principles o selection, organization, and construction o social studies curriculum. 5. Social studies curriculum curric ulum or or different stages as primary, primary, secondary, and senior secondary. 6. Real and practical knowledge knowledge should should be added in teaching o social studies.
Social Studies Studies 52 Teaching of Social 52
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References
Aggrawal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies: A Practical Approach. Approach. New New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 38–40. Kocher, S.K. 1990. Te eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, pp. 52–55. Wittch, Audio-Visu -Visual al Ma Material terial . New York: Harper & Brothers, p. 181.W.A. and Schullar, C.F. 1957. Audio Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, p. 172. Moffat, M.P. 1990. Social Studies Instruction. Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies. Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Daryaganj, pp. pp. 77–78.
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Additional Readings
Barr, A. et al . 1977. Te International Encyclopedia of Education. Education. New York: Penguin Press. Nasiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the School . London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxord University Press. Hemming, J. 1990. Te eaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School . London: New York, Longmans, Green &oducing Co. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Intr Social Studies Studies.. Bombay: Orient Longmans Ltd. Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International ext Book Company.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies
6
A method must stand or all by their suitability to the person who adopts them. Te same method can be a wonderul success with one teacher and just a big ailure on the hands o the other. Similarly, a method which is successul with a group o students may not be successul when used by the same teacher with a different group o students or with the same group o students under different conditions. A method must, thereore, be flexible and workable. Tereore, let us take methods as our servants and not allow them to become our masters.
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Meaning and Concept of Method
Broudy’s—‘Method reers to the ormal structure o the sequence o acts commonly denoted by instruction. Te term method covers both strategies and tactics o teaching and involves the choice o what is to be taught, and in which order it is to be presented’. Wesley’s—‘eaching method is the teacher-operated activity by which the students get knowledge’. Bining and Bining —‘eaching method is the mobile activity o educational process’.
It can be concluded that a method is a means or a procedure which a teacher ollows to make learning interesting, easy, and effective. It is the process o planning, guiding, sharing, and evaluating learning with a group o students. It is an orderly way o doing something. It is the logical, systematized, and organized way o doing a thing or effective control; it is an effective procedure o using experience. Te meaning o a method can be urther highlighted by giving the characteristics o a good teaching method.
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Methods of Teaching
Te effect o recent developments in educational philosophy and educational psychology upon the methods o teaching has been revolutionary. Te central place in the school, in theory at least, has been given to the student. Any process that is not based upon the ‘student-activity’ is not in accord with recent educational theories. Te present century has been termed as ‘Te Century o the Child’. Rousseau considers the ‘child’ is a ‘hero’ in ‘Te drama o education’, and as such they must play the dominant role. Te origin o modern methodology may be traced to Great Didactic Didactic o Johann Amos Comenius who lived in the seventeenth century. Comenius believed that all instructions should
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be careully graded grade d and arranged in a natural order. He He advocated that the teacher, te acher, in his methods, should appeal through the sense perception to the understanding o the child. He set orth his principles in his Great Didactic. Didactic. Te work o Comenius, however, like that o other educators o his time was buried beneath the sea o religious controversy and bigotry o his age. Emile o Rousseau in the second hal o the eighteenth century laid the oundations o Emile the methodology and became inspiration oved orward-looking andothers progressive educators. Comenius provided some ideas,the Rousseau impro improved and enlarged, and worked on them t hem and put them into practice. In his chie educational work Emile Emile,, Rousseau begins with his principle ‘Everything ‘Everything is good as it comes rom the hands o the Author o Nature; Nature; but everything degenerates in the hands o man’. He points out that there are three great teachers, ‘nature, man, and things’. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi attempted to ‘psychologies instruct instruction ion’’. He declared that the t he basis o all education was a drawing out process and not a pouring in process, that the basis o all education lay in the nature o the child, and that the methods o instruction must be sought and constructed to that end. Wilhelm August Froebel and Johann Friedrich Herbart, the disciples and ollowers o Pestalozzi, developed elaborate systems o education. Te work o Froebel dealt largely with the Kindergarten stage. Herbart gave his amous ‘Herbartian Steps’ which cast a flood o light on the existing methods. Herbartian steps became the stimulators o various other movements in the field o education. Herbart condemned the rote method and stressed comprehension and association. Te concept that the outcome o education was not the strengthening o the mental aculties but rather the building up o an ‘apperceptive mass’ o ideas was very revolutionary. Herbartian theory and practice became popular in Germany between 1865 and 1885. eachers and students rom many lands studied at Jena, a centre o Herbartian teaching. By 1890, these ideas were brought to America where they received an almost universal acceptance. Te period o Herbartian influence, on the whole, was a transitional one. It prepared the way or newer and better concepts o education. By 1910, Herbartian, as a system o education, was quite generally criticized. Herbartianism stressed on the teacher and the ormal procedure o teachings; the new theories o educational philosophy emphasized the pupils. Emphasis during recent years has been on individual instruction in the classroom, but the socialization o the individual is not to be neglected. Almost all modern methods and procedures and be used to promote both. It is believed that socialization can be used in connection with the individual development. In the social studies, even more than any other subject in the school, socialization is necessary. Trough their own activities intermingled with the activities o the group, the pupil can learn and develop. Education must begin with the child and must be adapted to the needs and requirements o the child as they the y grow. grow. Only in this manner, according according to this philosophy phi losophy,, the individual can be made socially efficient. Te Secondary Education Commission (1952–53) has emphasized the need or right methods o teaching in these words, ‘Every teacher and educationist o experience knows that even the best curriculum and the most perect syllabus remain dead unless quickened into lie by the right methods o teaching and the right kind o teachers. Sometimes even an unsatisactory and unimaginative syllabus can be made interesting and significant by the gifed teacher who does not ocus his mind on the subject-matter to be taught o the inormation to be imparted but on his students—their interests and aptitudes, their reactions and response. He judges the success o his lesson not by the amount o matter covered but by the understanding, the appreciation and the efficiency achieved by the students’.
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In the world o Herbart Ward Ward and Frank Roscoe, ‘While it is true that good method is not merely a collection o artifices or mechanical devices and that every teacher must devise his own method, it is important to remember that good method can result only rom the constant observation o certain broad principles, Tese include orderly procedure in teaching, an arrangement o the subject-matter which will avoid waste o time and o energy and a distribution o emphasis which will secure the greatest co-operation rom the pupils and maintain their active interest’.
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Learning by Doing (Activity Method)
Children have been endowed by nature with tremendous vitality. Tey have within them the springs o youth, joy, joy, and vigour. Tey possess curiosity and wish to know things or themselves. In the words o .S. .S. Avinashilingam, ‘Te Great Ganga o lie flows majestically on. But i anyo anyone ne tries to retain and dam d am it, the dam will break unless attemp attempts ts are simultaneously made to divert it into other channels. Tese waters can only be diverted but cannot be dammed indefinitely. I anyone tried to do the impossible, it would be at his peril, or the dam will break, sooner or later. So is the nature o children. Te great vitality o our children cannot be permanently restrained without providing a positive purpose. In ordinary bookish classroom education, the teacher teaches, students are but passive listeners. Teir energy has not to be restrained by ear, inducement or punishment. Tis is against their nature and that is why we see much outbursts o so-called indiscipline. But, on the other hand, i we provide such activities in which the children themselves can take part we will find that discipline becomes natural. Tus, providing or various types o activities which will interest the children and give them opportunities or observation and the use o their hands is to offer them the ulfillment and satisaction, which nothing else coners’. Te principle o ‘Learning by Doing’ has been accepted by all the progressive educators and in all the progressive countries. All educationists recognize that activity is an important instrument o education. Comenius—‘Impression must be ensured by expression and what has to be done must be learnt by doing’. Rousseau—He protested against the traditional methods o teaching very vehemently and he declared, ‘Children are first restless and then curious. Instead o making the child stick to his books, I keep him busy in workshop, his hands will work to the profit o his mind’. Prestalozzi—He called the traditional t raditional system s ystem as ‘the wordy system o teaching’ tea ching’. According to him, ‘Our unpsychological schools are essentially only artificial stifling machines or destroying all the results o the power and experience, the nature hersel brings to lie in them. Afer they enjoyed sensuous lie or five years, we make all nature round them vanish beore their eyes: tyrannically to the delightul course o their unrestricted reedom; peg them up like sheep; pitilessly chain them or hours, days, weeks, months, years to the contemplation o unnatural and unattractive letters’.
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Learning by Play Way Method
Froebel —‘Play is the main activity o childhood’, which Froebel considers as ‘the highest phase o child development….or it is sel-active representation o the stage…. It gives, thereore, joy, reedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world. It holds the source o all that is
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good’. But, ‘without rational conscious guidance’, says Froebel, ‘childish activity degenerates into aimless play instead o preparing or those tasks o lie or which it is designed’.
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Learning by Experience
—Deweyinvestigation Dewey endeavoured substitute bookish learningto by recommended andtoexperimentation. According him,experience. the school He is a strongly ‘special environment’ where a certain quality o lie and certain types o activities and occupations are provided with the object o securing children’s development along desirable lines. ‘Te teacher’, according to him, ‘is a guide and director, he steers the boat but the energy that propels it must come rom those who are learning’.
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Learning by Self-Education
Madam Montessori— Madam Montessori—She shifed the emphasis rom ‘teaching to learning’. She believed that seleducation is the best method by which the child learns in their own way and at his own rate. She used the word ‘Directress’ ‘Direct ress’. James Welton James Welton—‘Te teacher is like a guide and the pupil like a traveller in an unknown country. Te traveller knows where he wants to go, but knows neither the way nor the exact character o the place he wishes to go…. But unless the traveller that is the pupil takes the journey himsel, nothing is accomplished. Many a lesson is too much like a guide describing the journey to the would-be traveller who sits and listens but does not leave his chair to undertake it. In other lessons, the guide himsel laboriously takes the journeys again and again, but the traveller that should be, remains inert. In short, no matter how admirably a lesson is planned, there is no really methodical teaching unless the pupils by their own efforts pass along the road traced or them; or as has been said, ‘true teaching is nothing but arousing and directing learning activity o another’. Gandhiji—‘Let us now cry a halt and concentrate on education o the child properly through manual work, not as a side activity but as a prime means o intellectual training’.
Tus we find that a long line o distinguished experts in education have advocated that knowledge can best be given through constructive constructive activities suitable to the child. Tese new ideas on education have brought a new and hopeul message to our children. Principle of learning by doing out-of-class activities: Te scope o this principle is not related only to the learning o various subjects but also to the out-o-class activities. Students should be engaged in debating, editing, scouting, dramatizing, etc. Games and sports are other fields. Students should be provided the opportunities to render social service to the community. community. Social education centres, social service clubs, etc. should be started. N.C.C., B.S.S., all provide the useul channels to harness the energies o the youth and thereby sublimate the instincts o the students. Learning by doing in social studies: Te principle can be employed in all the school subjects.
History . Children should be taken to the places o historical interest, i.e., ancient monuments, caves, orts, ruins, edicts, museums, etc. Te charts and the models o the various battles should be prepared. Te maps o various dynasties and the extent o empire should be prepared. Historical plays may be dramatized. Te students may be encouraged to read historical novels.
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Geography. Te excursions to the places o geographical interest should be arranged. Te Geography. students should be asked to prepare geographical maps, models, and charts to show geographical acts in colours and lines on paper as well as on the earth. Civics. Te visits to the meetings and sessions o village panchayat, district boards, state assemblies, etc. may be arranged.
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Division of Methods
Te division o methods are ollowing: Inspirational methods: Tese methods are primarily primarily based on the high activity on the part o the t he instructor-teacher. Giving a sermon to the students or to any group o learners is a good example o this methodology. Expository methods: In these methods, cognitive emphasis emphasis is very high, while the student activity and emphasis on experience is low. One good example o the expository method is the lecture method in which the main emphasis is on imparting cognitive inormation to the learners. Natural learning methods: Te main rationale o these methods is that learning takes place in a natural way and the planning or learning is not necessary. Learners are lef on their own, with ree and unplanned activity. Tus, the emphasis on learning activity is high, whereas it is low on the planned experience and on the cognitive inputs. Individualized methods: Tese methods are quite well known mainly through the popularity o programmed instruction. Te main characteristic o these methods is the guided search s earch encouraged by the instructor inst ructor or the teacher te acher.. In addition addit ion to the programmed instruction, sel-study, computercomputeroriented instruction, case method, and prescribed experiments in science are other examples o individualized learning in which the main emphasis is or each learner at their own pace. Encounter methods: Carl Rogers had popularized the term ‘encounter’, although several other terms are used such as -Group, sensitivity training, and interpersonal conrontation. In these methods, the main emphasis is on the experience and learner activity. Since the emphasis is on providing experience through conrontation or through encounter, and not through cognitive understanding, these methods are effective or changing basic behavioural patterns and developing new ways o looking at things. Role play also involves some amount o encounter. Discovery methods: Tese methods are high on all the dimensions: learner activity, experience and experimentation by the learner, and cognitive understanding. Simulations primarily come under the category as also sel-generated experiments in science. Te main emphasis o methods in this category is on problem-solving and providing the necessary ramework to the learner, so that while solving the problem the learner is also able to learn the rationale and logic o what they have done. Group methods: Methods such as the project method come under this category.
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Characteristics of the Good Teaching Method
We can characterize the good methods o teaching as below: Tey should aim at inculcating love o work. Tey should aim at developing the desire to do work with the highest measure o efficiency o which one is capable. Te motto o every school and their pupils should be ‘Everything that is
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worth doing at all is worth doing well’. Whether it be making a speech, sp eech, writing a composition, drawing a map, cleaning the classroom, making a book rack, or orming a queue. Tey should provide numerous opportunities o participation in reely accepted projects and activities in which discipline and co-operation are constantly in demand. Tey should aim at developing the capacity or ‘clear thinking’ which distinguishes every is asked to make a speech a debating societytruly or toeducated write an person, essay or‘whether to answera astudent question in history, geography, orinscience or to experiment, the accent should always be on clear thinking and on lucid expression which is a mirror o clear cle ar thought’. Te methods o teaching should expand the range o students’ interest. ‘We would urge all schools to provide in the timetable, at least one ree period every day in which students may pursue their avourite hobbies and creative activities individually or in groups, preerably under the guidance o some interested teacher’, recommended the Secondary Education Commission. Tey should aim at providing opportunities to pupils to apply practically the knowledge that has been acquired by them. Tus, they should aim at transorming present bookish schools into ‘work schools’ or ‘activity schools’. Tey should aim at the quickening o interest and training in efficient techniques o learning and study. Tey should train the students in the art o study. Tey should train the students in the use o reerence materials such as the list o contents and index in books, the dictionary, the atlas, and reerence books such as the encyclopaedia. Tey should be adapted to suit different levels o intelligence. Tey should be such that they balance the claim o individual work with co-operative or group effort. Te training o emotions, attitudes, and social capacities takes place best in the context o projects and units o work undertaken co-operatively. Te Secondary Education Commission has recommended that the teachers should be so trained that they are able to visualize and organize at least a part o the curriculum in the orm o projects and activity units which groups o students may take up and carry to completion.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expla Exp lain in the me meani aning ng an and d con conce cept pt o the me metho thod. d.
2.
What do you What you unders understand tand by by the term term ‘meth ‘method’? od’? Expl Explain ain the the charac characteri teristics stics o o a good good teaching method.
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Different Methods of Teaching Social Studies
Assignment method. Dalton Plan. Discussion method. Laborato Laboratory ry method.
Lecture method. Observation method. Questioning. Problem-solving method.
Project method.
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Review method. Socialized classroom recitation method. Source method. Storytellin Storytellingg method. Supervised study method.
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ext book method. Dramatization method. Note dictation method. Inductive-deductive method. Analytic–syn Analytic–synthetic thetic method.
Assignment Method
Significance of assignment: N.L. Bossing B ossing has observed, ‘Te central position o the assignmen assignmentt in the techniques o teaching has remained unquestioned’. G.H. Betts asserts, ‘Upon the proper assignment o the lesson depends much o the success o the recitation, and also much o the pupil’s progress in learning how to study’. W.N. Drum suggests, ‘eachers generally do not
appreciate importance o the assignment, thesingle work cause’ o the. pupils probablyand suffers as much rom hasty the or careless as signment assignment as rom rom anyand other H.R. Douglass oth ers others are o the view, ‘Te assignment represents one o the most important phases o teaching’.
Essentials of an Assignment Te assignment should be clear and definite:
Te assignment should be concise but sufficiently detailed to enable each student to understand the task assigned. Te assignment should anticipate special difficulties and suggest ways to remove them. Te assignment should relate the new unit to past experience. Students should understand the importance o the assignment. Te assignment should arouse an interest in advance work. Te assignment should provide or the differences in the ability and the interest o students. Te assignment should be motivated chiefly by the hope o worthwhile achievements, rather than scholastic reward or the ear o punishment. Te assignment should stimulate thought. Te assignment should provide necessary and specific directions or the study o lesson. Te assignment should be adjusted to the time and opportunity o the class. Te materials o the assignment should be varied and adaptable to the needs and the interests o the students.
Types of Assignment N.L. Bossing has listed the ollowing types o assignment: assignment:
Page or paragraph assignment . Ofen thought o as the textbook textbo ok assignment. Unortunately, Unortunately, this method is still widely used as recent studies have have revealed. Chapter assignment . Another orm o the textbook assignment thought vastly different rom the page or paragraph orm. Chapters usually are o a unitary nature and involve
some elements o completeness within themselves.
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opical assignment . Tis type may or may not centre around a single chapter in a textbook. textb ook. It has a wealth o possibility in the social sciences particularly. Problem assignment. assignment. Where an arbitrary distinction is set up between a problem and a project, the type becomes very valuable orm o assignment. Project assignment. assignment. Adapted especially to the workshop, natural sciences, and some
measure to the social sciences. Its special appeal is through the natural motor activity required. Experience assignment . Most requently used in mathematics. It represents the old traditional approach to teaching, although i used in combination with other types, this orm can be used very effectively. Individual or group report assignment . Used extensively as a device to supplement other types and to provide or individual differences in interests and capacities within the class; very effective. Unit assignment . It may apply to any extensive segment o classroom activity that presents the actors o cohesion and a relatively complete additional element around which the unit may resolve itsel as a core. A rather pretentious problem may serve as this unitary core. Experimental assignment . Tis is a orm o the problem and project types characteristic o the science laboratory. oo ofen in practice, it does not represent either an experiment or a problem in the true sense. It can be made a vital instrument o educational training i properly used. Practice assignment . Tis type t ype represents represents an assignment o repetitions o activities designed to produce mental or motor skills. Te mastery o the simple combinations in arithmetic, memorization o a poem, or practice in speed on the typewriter is the example o this type o assignment.
Difficulties in the preparation of a good assignment: Fleming and Wooding have listed the ollowing difficulties:
Insufficient thought and preparation in planning the assignment. Inability to obtain an acceptance by the pupil o a worthy purpose or perormance o the task. Simulation in the preparation o the assignments by appealing to the interests o adolescents and by providing or real needs growing out o pupil experience. Prevention o loss o interest due to too long phase o time between the assignment and preparation. Avoidance o assignments so long that successul accomplishment is impossible in the time available or preparation, with consequent loss o interest. Guarding against too many and too varied activities, resulting in dividing interests with consequent bad habits o work and unsatisactory accomplishments. Difficulty in presenting work to be done so that it is clearly understood by the pupils; also, the difficulty o ascertaining whether every pupil understands. Gauging the difficulty o work so that success is possible or each pupil. Determining essential requirements, and differentiation o assignments to suit the various
levels and types o ability existing in the t he class. Inclusion o challenges to mental exploration by the pupil, thereby stimulating real thinking. thinki ng. Provision or continuity o work by presenting new problems as a continuation o previous experience and anticipation o uture problems.
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Correlating with other subjects and outside activities. Focusing attention on important elements in the new problem o task and directing the attack in such a way as to increase interest rather than lessen it, to stimulate effort, and to overcome seeming obstacles to accomplishment. Providing the necessary tools or preparation by training in study procedures and
techniques, and in selection, organization, and use o materials, thereby developing effective habits o independent work. Giving to pupils devices or checking the mastery and perormance o work undertaken. Evaluating the effectiveness o an assignment by the quality o response during the presentation o the assignment and by the adequacy o pupil preparation. Providing sufficient time or adequate consideration o the assignment and determining the psychological moment or its presentation.
Suggested assignment procedure: Te procedure suggested or the preparation o a good assignment is as ollows:
Analyze the nature o the learning process required in the advance unit. Tis is without exception the first step in i n a good assignment procedure. Much o what ollows in any good assignment depends upon this analysis. Study the various types o assignments available and select the one, or modified orm o it, which appears to fit best the learning situation. Some assignment types are admirably adapted to one orm o learning or teaching but not to others. Provide the essential background or the advance work where uncertainty exists that such background obtains. At this point too, many teachers are likely to assume the adequacy o this background when in act it may not exist. Scarcely one can emphasize too strongly the apperceptive preparation or the new. Whether this is the next step in the assignment procedure or not, it is obvious that very early in the assignment phase the teacher must throw out a challenge to the student that will enlist their interest and maximum effort in the new unit. Outline in sufficient detail the advance unit to be studied. Suggest some plan o attack upon the new unit. It is well to remember one caution—do not do or the student that which they may be led to do or themselves. Tis suggests the desirability o leading the class in a co-operative discovery o desirable leads or the general attack upon the new. Where reerence to source material other than the textbooks is necessary, this should be made specific. Te most satisactory plan in the large unit assignment is to provide the select list o available sources in mimeographed or hectographed orm with chapter or inclusive page reerences given.
Home Assignments Whether or not homework should be given to the students is a controversial point. Extreme views have been expressed expressed regarding regarding the useulness o homework. homework. Te assignment assignment o home home task has been emphatically denounced by Bray. He writes, ‘Under normal conditions a reasonable day’s work or a child has been done at the close o the afernoon and homework as it is generally organised does more harm than good as a rule in this country except perhaps rom the point o view o examination success’. On the other hand, P.C. Wren commends the assigning o
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homework. An average guardian also eels that some work should be given to the student which they should do at home. Purpose of Home Task in Social Studies Te ollowing purposes can be stated:
o provide opportunities to students to work independently and thereby to develop in them sel-reliance and initiative. o develop the habits o reading regularly among the students. o provide opportunities to the students to utilize their leisure time profitably. It is generally seen that our school children waste their precious time in loitering about or making mischie when no such work is given to them. o give them an opportunity to do practice what is done in the school. o finish the prescribed courses in time. Te syllabus is too heavy to be finished in the classroom work. o serve as a link in the parent–teacher co-operation. It enables the parents to know that regular work is being done in the school. o develop permanent interests and to train the students in the profitable use o leisure. o enable the child to revise their previous lesson and prepare the next one. o provide remedial measure or backward children. o give a chance to every child to progress at their own speed.
Type of Homework given Te ollowing are the types o homework:
Writing essay-type answers to questions arising out o the subject-matter already done in the class. Verbal memorizing work pertaining to curricular and co-curricular activities. It may take the orm o cramming acts, principles, poems, spelling, etc. o memorizing work in respect o dramatics, debates, etc.
Practical work,calligraphy, e.g., preparation ranscription, etc. o charts, maps, knitting, sewing, drawing, etc. Advance preparation or the coming lesson.
Disadvantages of Homework given Tese are as ollows:
It deprives the children o participating in recreational activities when it imposes heavy demands upon them. It is a great hindrance in the way o the students o enjoying amily and social lie. It deprives children o the opportunity to help their parents in supplementing their income. It imposes a great physical strain on small children and thus endangers their health.
It becomes a constant source o ear and worry to the students and thereore it endangers their emotional stability. Children are tempted to copy whenever they find that the home task is difficult to do.
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Sometimes children are tempted to tell a lie that due to certain reasons they have ailed to do home task. Unhealthy home conditions make study more harmul than profitable. Tere is a lack o adequate light and quietness in a large number o Indian homes, and the atmosphere is not congenial or study.
oo much o homework develops an attitude o indifference on the part o the pupils and they become careless. Lack o proper correction by the teacher, sometimes, gives rise to carelessness on the part o the pupils. It also develops wrong habits o work i the work is not properly checked. oo much work is set by some overenthusiastic specialist specia list teachers in their t heir subjects, subjects , completely disregarding what other teachers o the same class might have set or the same day. Te task is generally too academic in nature and ignores those activities that are needed most or an all-round development o the personality o the child. It is not properly adjusted to pupils’ needs and capacities.
Principles of Assigning Homework Te ollowing are the principles o assigning homework:
Te nature o the homework should be such that it does not require any kind o assistance rom a private tutor or guardian. It should not be purely mechanical, i.e., requiring no general knowledge on the part o the child. Homework should aim at developing the taste o the individual child. Tis purpose can be very conveniently conveniently realized realized i homework homework is in the natur naturee o hobbies. hobbies. Homework should be very definite. It should be supplementary rather preparatory as ar as possible. A single assignment or the whole class may not be considered as appropriate. It should vary according according to the mental mental and physical physical makeup makeup o the students. students. Homework in different subjects should be co-ordinated. Homework timetable should be ramed so as to avoid conusion. While assigning homework, ‘Principle o sliding scales’ should be adapted. Te primary classes might be given home task to keep them busy or about hal hour or so; in the middle, secondary, and senior secondary classes time involved in doing home task should not exceed one hour. Normally it should be given on alternate days. Home task should not be set as a punishment. Home task should be properly checked. Library books should be given or reading at home as a home task. Te copies o the homework timetables may be sent to the parents to seek their cooperation which is very important. While assigning homework, the teachers should take into consideration the home conditions o the child such as domestic employment, working condition in the
home, etc. About 15% marks should be reserved or the evaluation o the student’s work based on the assignments done through the year.
64 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 64 Methods of Correction Te ollowing methods o correction may be adopted:
Correction by the teacher. Correction with the help o the bright students in the class. Correction with the help o the blackboard. Correction by interchanging the exercise books among the students. Glance checking and singing by teachers.
At the primary stage, teachers should correct all the assignments without any help rom the children. At this stage, it is not possible or the children to do any sel-correction.
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Discussion Method
Meaning and significance of the discussion method: Tis method has been used in the teaching–learning process since times immemorial. It was widely used at the amous Nalanda University. Te Greek scholars in their work used to discuss various problems and issues with their disciples. Discussion has been described as a thoughtul consideration o the relationships
involved inand a topic or a problem under study. It is concerned withand theintegrating analysis, comparison, evaluation, conclusions o these relationships. It aims at uniting the work o the class. It is carried out by organizing, outlining, and relating the acts studied. It encourages the students to direct their thinking process towards the solution o a problem and to use their experiences or a urther clarification and consolidation o learning material. Discussion is to be distinguished rom debate in which the participants seek to prove a point rather than to discover a truth. Debate Deb ate may also be marked by uncontrolled exchange o verbalism. Discussion is very important in stimulating mental activity, developing fluency and ease in expression, bringing clarity clarit y o ideas in thinking t hinking and training t raining in the presentation present ation o one’ one’s ideas and acts. An exchange o ideas and opinions offers valuable training to students in reflective reflec tive thinking. think ing. Essential parts or constituents of discussion: Tese are as under:
Te leader–the teacher. Te group–the students. Te problem or the topic. Te content–body o knowledge. Evaluation–change in ideas, attitudes, etc.
Organization Organizatio n of Discussion Te ollowing are the main techniques o organizing discussion:
Introducing a topic or a problem by the teacher by giving points or explanations to serve as the basis o discussion. Calling upon a pupil by the teacher to give acts, describe a scene or situation, explain an incident, event, or happening or getting the discussion started.
Preparing an outline o points co-operatively by the teacher and a ew students which may become the starting point or discussion. Asking the students to describe their t heir own experiences connected with the subject, topic, or problem and making them points or discussion.
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Presenting detailed papers by the teacher and discussions thereon. Presenting detailed papers by the students and discussing them in the class. Showing special works and projects to the class and discussing them. Showing some pictures, charts, diagrams, or any audiovisual material and discussion about them.
Merits of Discussion Te ollowing are the merits o discussion:
It helps in clariying issues. It helps children in crystallizing their thinking. It helps students in discovering what they do not know and what they have overlooked. It engenders more reflection. It is arther rom rote learning. It represents a type o pooled knowledge, ideas, and eelings o several persons. It develops team spirit. It engenders toleration o views which are at variance. It affords opportunities to the students to learn together, make suggestions, share
comprehend the students topic, evaluate thedistinctly, findings, stand and summarize the results. responsibility, It provides opportunities to the to speak and sit correctly, respect the ideas o others, share interests, ask pertinent questions, and comprehend the problem beore the group. It helps the teacher in discovering talented students who have potential or becoming good leaders.
Limitations of Discussion Te limitations o discussion are ollowing:
It is not suitable in all topics. It is likely to be dominated by a ew students. It is likely to go off the track. It may lead to unpleasant eelings. It may create emotional tensions. It may involve unnecessary arguments.
Directing Group Discussion Te teacher has to show immense patience and skill to ensure that discussion takes place on the right lines and in the appropriate environment. Te ollowing points may be considered in this respect:
Students should be well acquainted with the significance o the topic, its nature and scope, and causes why the class should discuss it. Discussion should be confined to important aspects.
Students should be encouraged to participate in the discussion. Ideas may be invited without pressure or embarrassment. Explanations, where needed, should be provided. Personality cult should be avoided.
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Co-operation rather than competition should be encouraged. Efforts should be made to develop team spirit. Doubts, mistakes, and wrong interpretation should be made clear by the teacher. Facts and points should be evaluated. Facts and points should be summarized.
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Students should be guided to appreciate difference o opinion and views. Goals o discussion should be kept in view. Only a ew students should not be allowed to dominate classroom discussion. Shy students may be given training in discussion in small groups so that their hesitation is removed while participating in bigger groups.
Laboratory Method
H.C. Hill presents a picture o the laboratory method as used in the University o Chicago High School in a class in civics. He says, ‘Te greater part o the students will be studying and writing at their work tables. wo or three may be having a quiet conerence on some moot point. Others Ot hers may be comparing notes or outlines o some phase o the work. One student may be busy at the dictionary, hunting or the explanation o some phrase or term; another may be consulting an atlas; a third may be sharpening a pencil or filling his ountain pen; a ourth may be making a map or preparing a graph; a fifh may be conerring with the teacher about some difficulty or asking or a criticism on his notes or outlines. Usually one or two students will be browsing among the volumes in the bookcases or going through tables o contents or indexes to find a clue to some obscure item. Now and then an idler or a dawdler will wil l be observed. obser ved. In general, however, the room is a place o quite, disorderly order, order, in which students are busily engaged in profitable activities o one kind or another’. Bining and Bining sum up the situation, ‘Conviction on troublesome issues and questions must come as a result o analysis, judgement, and experience. eachers must be loyal to the ideals o tolerance, truth, justice, and honesty. Tey should emphasize, in their teaching, attitudes, ideals, intellectual habits, and other qualities qualit ies that will bring about ab out an educated citizency in a great democracy. A ew educators have suggested that the teaching o ideals—even those ideals upon which there is general agreement—is a orm o indoctrination. From this viewpoint, we are being indoctrinated. I it means going to the extremes o Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany or present-day Soviet Russia, it is to be condemned. On the other hand, a social and civic training that is in accord with democratic ideals—call it what we may—is not only desirable but essential i our schools are to have any part in training citizens who will build a nobler society, reer rom aults and deects than the present one’.
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Lecture Method
Signicance of the Lecture Method It is the oldest teaching method given by the philosophy o idealism. As used in education, the lecture method reers to the teaching procedure involved involved in the t he clarification or explanation to the student o some major idea. Tis method lays emphasis on the presentation o the content. Te teacher is more active and students are passive, but they use question–answer to keep them attentive in the class. It is used to clariy matters, to expand content, and to motivate the students. By changing their voice, by impersonating characters, by shifing their position, and by using simple devices, a teacher can deliver their lesson effectively. effectively. While delivering their t heir lecture, a teacher te acher can indicate by their acial expression, gestures, and tones the t he exact shade o the meaning that they t hey wish to convey convey..
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 67
Merits of the Lecture Method Te ollowing are the merits o the lecture method: It is economical as it needs no apparatus and no laboratory. A large number o students can be taught at a time.
It saves time and covers syllabus in a limited time. It is very effective in giving actual inormation and in relating some o the thrilling anecdotes with historical lessons. Te lie stories o great adventures, experimenters, investigators, and thinkers can become very interesting and valuable talks by a teacher. Lecturing makes the work o the teacher very simple. Tey need not make elaborate arrangements. A good lecture not only stimulates the students but also lingers long in their imagination. It motivates students to become good orators. It provides better scope or clarification and or laying stress on significant ideas. It brings a personal contact and touch to impress or influence the pupils. It provides flexibility. As the teacher is in close and intimate contact with their pupils, they can adjust their technique in accordance with their abilities, aptitudes, and interests.
It gives the the students students training training in in taking listening. It gives notes rapidly. It develops good audience habits. It provides opportunities o correlating events and subjects. It enables the linkage o previous knowledge with the new one.
Limitations of Lecture Method Te limitations o this method are as ollows:
Tere is a very little scope or pupil activity. It does not take into consideration individual differences. Lecturing is against the principle o ‘Learning by Doing’. It spooneeds the students without developing their power o reasoning. Speed o the lecture may be too ast or the learner to grasp the line o thought. An average student may not be able to fix up their attention to a lecture o 40–45 minutes. A lecturer is likely to cover more content without realizing that little learning takes place. A lecture may become monotonous to the students afer a while. Very ew teachers can keep the interest o the students upto the end.
Te effective use o the lecture method, the ollowing points should be kept in view when using this device o teaching:
Matter should be arranged in such a way as to leave a single clear impression on the minds o the students. Te teacher should have pauses in between the lesson so that the students may learn the new knowledge bit by bit.
Te rate o exposition should be slow when the class is backward. Te teacher should utilize different ways o presenting the same inormation. Tere should be abundant repetition, but it should be in a new way so that the class may not eel dullness.
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Children’s way o looking at things should be considered in exposition. Language used should be amiliar and suitable. Te lesson should be divided into sections which have a logical sequence. Tis will enable the students to understand easily and will also train them in systematic thinking besides assisting them to put their own thoughts logically.
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Te rate o exposition and the size o the subject-matter are determined by the individual capacity o children and teacher’s natural rate o speech. Proper use o the blackboard should be made. Actual objects, models, diagrams, sketches, etc. should be used. Te students should be encouraged to ask questions. Tis will enable them to get their doubts removed. Verbal illustrations such as examples and comparisons should be used to enable the students to grasp the exposition. Pictorial illustrations such as pictures, maps, and charts should be reely used as these help in the motivation o the students. Te aim o the lesson should be kept in view and the students should be ully made conversant with the aim.
Observation Method
It is rightly believed that the observation under the careul guidance o a social studies teacher proves very effective in the process o learning, and acts, skills, and behaviour learnt are retained or a longer period. Observation or direct experience or visits to actual places, say, a monument, a ort, a field, a river, a temple, an institution, etc. provide ample opportunities to students, or ‘seeing’, ‘hearing’, ‘examining’, ‘gathering data’ and ‘asking’ questions. Visits to hospitals, telephone exchanges, telegraph offices, study trips to airports, etc. show how people and goods are transported rom one place to another. Pupils understand better the working o markets, co-operative stores, and actories when they see their working and thus acquaint themselves with the processes o production, distribution, exchange, and consumption. Such experiences are most conducive to learning. Te concrete data on cultural, industrial, political and geographical acts act s and relationship being more ‘tangible’, ‘visible’, and ‘describable’ serve as a great motivating orce or urther enquiry in social sciences. Te observation lends vitality to the subject-matter o social studies.
Techniques of the Observation Method Te ollowing techniques are adopted in the observation method:
Field trips o educational excursions. Commu Community nity surveys. Commu Community nity service ser vice projects.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expl Explain ain the oll ollowin owingg methods methods with with special special reere reerence nce to meanin meaning, g, proced procedure ure,, advantag advantage, e, and limitation. (a) Assignment method (b) Discussion method (c) Laboratory method (d) Lecture method (e) Observation method.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 69
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Review Method
N.L. Bossing states, ‘Te term review connotes not a mere repetition, o acts to fix them more firmly in mind, but rather a new view o these acts in a different setting that results in new understandings, changed attitudes or different behaviour patterns’. H.N. Rivilin regards review as, ‘deepening Review the students insight into the increasing his appreciation o its ramifications’. must recall essential actsproblem…… and appraisals o the segments o experience in a final summary that actually involves a new view and a new understanding and provides a basis or changed behaviour.
Purposes of Review Te ollowing are the purposes o review:
Fixing in mind the activities or materials learnt. learnt. Organizing the materials and experiences into larger units or understanding. Enabling the students to gain perspective. Providing or the desirable expansion and supplementation o materials and experience.
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Providing apperceptive basis uture study. Diagnosinganstudent weakness inor preparation and understanding. Diagnosing teacher weakness. Creating new interest in old materials.
Source Method
Te source method implies the use o original material and original origi nal sources in the teaching o social socia l studies. Te source method provides first-hand experiences and leads to better understanding o the subject. Sources may be divided into two categories:
Primary sources. Secondary source sources. s.
Primary sources. sources. Physical remains or relics or unconscious testimony in ar off historical sites, roads, pyramids, human remains, clothing, ood, ortification, utensils, pottery, building, implements, machinery, urniture, weapons, fine arts and museum pieces o many kinds, inscriptions, chiselled stories, monuments, tombs, coins, stamps, tape-strips, scenery and portraits, sculptures, historical paintings etc. Consciously inormation has been transmitted in the orm o oral or written testimony. Written sources include constitutions, charters, court decisions, official minutes or records, autobiographies, letters, diaries, geneologies, contracts, deeds, wills, permits, licences, affidavits, depositions, declarations, proclamations, certificates, bills, receipts, magazines and newspapers, accounts, advertisements, maps, diagrams, books, pamphlets, films, catalogues, paintings, inscriptions, recordings, transcriptions, and research reports. Oral tradition includes ballads, anecdotes, tales, and saga. Secondary sources. Tese sources. Tese are those sources that are written by those who are not on the scene o the event. Tey simply describe the reports o those persons who either participate in an event or were eyewitnesses o the events. Generally, they are several times removed rom the original
first hand account o events, and as such they are usually o limited worth.
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An act passed by the Parliament is a primary data, whereas its extracts extract s published in newspapers are covered by the secondary data. Te report o the University Education Commission is primary primar y data, but contents published in textbooks orm the secondary data. Many history textbooks and encyclopaedias are examples o secondary sources.
Use of the Source Method It can be used at the ollowing stages o the lesson: Pre-lesson use of resources. Te visits to the actual sites o monuments, efforts, or museums may be arranged. Te teacher can ask the students to read selected passages connected with the lesson beorehand. Mid-lesson Mid-les son use of resour resources. ces. Te extracts rom original or secondary sources can be read during the course o the lesson. Tey create real situations, impart reality and vividness to the lesson, and reinorce the impact o teaching. Post-lesson use of resources. Pre-lesson use o resources can also become the post-lesson use o resources and vice versa. Students may be given assignments that need the use o resources and vice versa. Students may be given assignments that need the use o resources. Tey may be encouraged to pursue their interest in a particular topic, do some critical thinking and analysis, and prepare their own account.
Merits of the Source Method Te ollowing are the merits o the source method:
It develops a sense o reality and vividness. It develops a sense o objectivity. It provides a congenial and motivating environment. It arouses curiosity among the students. It develops elementary skills o collecting data, d ata, sifing the relevant, and organizing the same. It provides the opportunities or useul mental exercises—right thinking and imagining, comparing and analysing, drawing inerences, etc. It promotes the interest in the study o the subject. It initiates the students in social studies research. It provides unctional knowledge. Even the slow and backward children eel interested when they see original sources. sources. Teir learning becomes unctional because because it is gained in the real counter. It supplements classroom lesson.
Limitations of the Source Method Te limitations are given below:
It is very difficult or the school teachers to have an easy access to original sources. Utilization o original sources is a very difficult task or the school students as they lack the requisite training. Te method is very complex and technical. Tere is the difficulty o languages. Almost all the original sources are in Sanskrit, Pali,
Arabic or Persian, and a ew in English.
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Contemporary authors and writers have given their own prejudices preerences and limitations with the result that it becomes very difficult sif act rom fiction. Te students are, thus, lost in the maze o conflicting views about the same event or movement. Te source method o teaching social studies is very expensive. Te source method o teaching social studies is time consuming.
How to Make the Source Method Effective Te students should be encouraged to study the resource books bo oks in the library. Educational tours to places o importance may be arranged. Te students may be asked to write their own impressions and inerences about the places they visit. Te copies o important extracts rom the relevant records may be pasted on the blackboard or the use o students. Keatings thinks that original sources can be used or creating suitable environment in the lower orm. Well-planned, purposive, and well-directed efforts have to be made by the teacher in the use o this method. By suggesting the use o the resource method in social studies, we do not aim at making our students research scholars. Te use o the method in selected topics is likely to make the study o social studies more meaningul and real.
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Storytelling Method
Storytelling is one o the most important methods o teaching social studies. It is an art which enables the teacher to come very close to the heart o the students, and thereby they attract their attention. Some teachers are born storytellers and they are very ortunate in this respect. Tis art o storytelling aims at presenting to the pupils, through the medium o speech, clear, vivid, interesting, ordered ordered sequences o events, events, in such a way that their minds reconstruct these happenings and they live in imagination imaginati on through the experiences recounted either as spectators spec tators or possibly as participators. Storytelling enables the teacher to make lessons lively and interesting to the pupils. Te stories o great personalities, reormers, writers, saints, discoverers and scientists, etc. must be told to the students. Storytelling helps in enhancing the interests o the students in the subject. It goes a long way in firing the imagination o the students. Storytelling can be relied upon by the teacher as the best companion or helping in developing in their pupils traits o character such as charity, piety, truthulness, and valour.
The Art of Storytelling Te art o storytelling can be cultivate cultivated d by:
Observing skilul narrato narrators. rs. Studying the work o successul story writers. Practicing storytelling storytelling.. Critically evaluating one’s own perormance and bringing about necessary changes.
In telling a story, the teacher should be guided by the ollowing points:
Suitable stories or the age o the students should be selected. A story that appeals and interests the seven-year-old child will not suit the child o our years o age. Small children o our or five years are interested in stories o boys and girls. Te child o seven or eight years takes interest in hearing to the stories o magic and wonder and the stories o giants,
adventure, and romance.
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Te stories should be short and the plot easy. Te teachers must know well the story that they want to narrate. I they stop in the middle, it will detract charm rom the story. Te language employed in telling a story should be very simple and easy. A story should be told and not read. Te story loses a great deal o its interest or the
children i it is read. Te teachers themselves should like the story and take interest in storytelling. Tere should be plenty o action in the stories. Key sentences and phrases should be repeated as the children enjoy this repetition. Te stories should be loaded with activities and experiences amiliar to the children. R. Strang has observed, ‘Stories or young children, thereore, should be told in terms o action and sense impressions. Upto the age o six years, a child is most alive to moving things—engines, boats, horses and wagons, animals, boys and girls in action. Children lose interest when the action is interrupted by a long descriptive passage. In telling a story one can notice the drop in interest during descriptive and explanatory portions, and the flare-up o interest again when the action is resumed. Since the young child’s own activities and experiences are the ones most interesting to him, the first stories should be about experiences amiliar to children’.
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Conversation, any, in the story should be given in direct speech and notout indirect speech. Te method oiintroducing and developing the story should be thought beorehand. Te story should be told in a natural way and very vividly. Humour makes the story more interesting and should not be neglected. o make the story more realistic, the teacher may use pictures and draw diagrams on the blackboard. Te story should suggest and inspire the students to action. Ryburn suggests that well-known and amiliar stories can be made resh i they are told as though one o the characters in the story were telling it. He writes, ‘Te story o Asoka and the Kalinga war could be told as i Asoka, himsel, were telling it’. Te story must have some aim besides mere enjoyment. Te teacher must keep in mind the aim while narrating a story. It is all the more better i the students too know the aim.
Supervised Study Method
Arthur C. Bining and David H. Bining describe the meaning o supervised study as, ‘By supervised study, we mean the supervision by the teacher o a group or class o pupils as they work at their desk or around their tables. In this procedure, we find pupils busy at work that has been assigned to them by the teacher. When they meet a difficulty that they cannot overcome, they ask the teacher or direction and assistance. Te teacher, when not called upon, walks up quietly up and down the classroom or remains at his desk watching the pupils do their work continually alert or any wrong procedures that the pupils may ollow. He is always ready to direct and aid them’. Individual attention. Supervised attention. Supervised study is an aid in helping to solve the problem o individual differences. Supervised study aids in preventing ailures. Te pupil works along their own mental level and at their own capacity. Assignments can be given to meet all levels o ability. Better pupil–teacher relations. Another relations. Another good eature eature o supervised study is seen in the better pupil–teacher relations that it promotes. In the usual class teaching procedure, the teacher is requently considered a hard task master, and the procedure ofen produces a ‘class versus
teacher attitude. Under the supervised study programme, they appear in the role o a helper and
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 73
guide. Tere is greater opportunity or the display o sympathy and understanding. Te teacher is able to understand the pupil and their difficulties better and is in a position to spurt them on to a greater effort. Development of skills. Tere skills. Tere are certain skills ski lls that can best be developed under und er this procedure. A thorough use o the supervised method would reveal weaknesses in the learner. Te ollowing skills can be developed easily. Skills as to how to read social studies material. Skills as to how to use encyclopaedias. Skills as to how to use dictionaries. Skills as to how to use maps, atlases, indexes, and almanacs. Skills as to how to read graphs.
Objections to Supervised Study Tere are some objections such as: Some investigations have concluded that the bright pupil is not helped under this method and in some cases is even hindered by the method. Supervised study requires the lengthened school day, which is not possible due to various pressures o co-curricular activities. Supervised study is a costly method. It would necessitate an increase in the teaching orce that would mean an increased cost o education. Supervised study depends too much on the initiative and enthusiasm o the students which they seldom display. Supervised study destroys the supremacy o the teacher as they play a secondary role in the teaching–learning process.
Supervised Study and Socialized Recitation Bining and Bining have explained the difference, ‘Te socialised recitation has been used successully with a supervised study procedure. In a class period o sixty minutes, however, it would be better to use a simplified orm o socialised recitation. Te first part o the period can be devoted to the socialised study. For example, the procedure could be as ollows. During the socialised recitation, the direction di rection o the class is under a pupil Chairman and a discussion leader. Te Chairman first calls upon a pupil, previously chosen by the Chairman, teacher or class, or review o the work o the preceding day. Corrections and additions are then voluntarily made. Te Chairman next calls or the topic or problem o the day, in order to be sure that subject is clearly in the minds o the members o the group group.. Te discussion leader now takes charge. Each phase o the topic or problem is then discussed by the group, under the direction o the leader. Afer the discussion the t he teacher examines or comments on any points that have not been clearly brought out’.
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Dramatization Method
Dramatization has been described as a ‘synthetic art’, involving the purposive co-ordination and control o the delicate organs o speech and muscles o the body bod y combined with a sense o rhythm,
with a view to ree and intelligent expression o emotions and ideas.
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Dramatic art affords innumerable opportunities or the correlation o a large number o subjects. In the preparation o their roles, the students indirectly and unconsciously improve their speech habits and language. A systematic study o historical events has to be made when pageants o the lie o great persons are prepared, i.e., pageant on the lie o Buddha, Chandragupta, Vikramaditya, Gandhiji, etc. Children prepare costumes suiting different ages and thus come to know about the dresses o the people during different periods o history. Dramatics also add to the geographical knowledge o the students. Carpentry and other mechanical arts acilitate the work o construction o the stage. Dance and music add to the beauty o a drama. Drama has its great social value. It is a co-operative enterprise and develops the qualities o co-operation and social understanding. It helps in ostering esprit ostering esprit de corps among corps among the students. In various school unctions, unctions, dramas orm the chie chie items o the programme. programme. For the honour honour o the school, every student works to the best o their capacity. Dramatics afford the students many opportunities or training in team work. Tey are very helpul in providing the students with the opportunities or the release o the inhibitions to which they are subjected by the conventions o society. Tere are many activities in a drama, and as such students o diverse aptitudes get chances to choose items or which are best suited and satisy their urges, e.g., sel-expression through the various activities o athey drama. Conditions for success. A success. A number o rehearsals bring grace and success to the play when it is staged. Pupils should prepare as much stage material as they can. Children should be encouraged to write their own plays. Te usual participants in this activity should be given opportunities to play different roles. Te same pupils as ar as possible should, however, not be allowed to play the role o a villain. Selection of Play Selection o play are ollowing:
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Plays chosen should depict the evils o the social customs. A play should have a literary value also. Te students should be able to understand and appreciate the play. It should also have entertainment value. It should be ree rom objectional subject-matter. Tere should be no vulgarity in the play.
Note Dictation Method
V.D. Ghate has observed, ‘Tere is too much dictating o notes in our schools and the history teacher seems to be by ar the worst culprit’. Dictating notes, by and large, has become a coaching and not a teaching device. It has, o course, a great significance in teaching o social studies. It is used due to the ollowing reasons:
Lack o suitable history textbooks. Pressure o work with the teacher and less time or preparing the reason. Shortcut to finish the overcrowded subject-matter.
Shortcut to pass the examination. Lack o adequate power o expression o the teacher.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 75
Methods of Dictating Notes
Detailed notes on important topics afer discussing the topic in the class. Notes in the question–answer orm primarily rom the examination point o view—guess questions and their answers.
Explanatory notes and summaries on the blackboards.
Defects in the Method of Note Dictation Deects in the method o note dictation are as ollows:
It does not provide training in developing critical approach. Note dictation makes history teaching synonymous with memorization o acts communicated by the teacher. Note dictation ails to develop proper insight into the subject. Note dictation proves to be a great hindrance in developing the habit o consulting reerence books and textbooks also. Instead o dictating notes to the students, they should be encouraged to prepare their own notes.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
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Explain the oll Explain ollowin owingg methods methods with speci special al ree reeren rence ce to to meanin meaning, g, advan advantage tage,, and limitation. (a) Review method (b) Source method (c) Storytelling method (d) Supervised study method (e) Dramatization Dramatization method ( ) Note dictation method
Problem-solving Method
Everybody, at some time or the other, is conronted with serious problems o lie or with minor problems needing immediate attention. Education is considered to be a preparation or a training ground or meeting this challenge. Students are to be trained in the school or social participation and also to be b e equipped to meet the problems o complex complex lie. Knowledge, thus gained in the school, becomes useul and purposeul, and the students become active participants in the entire process. Bossing: N.L. Bossing, in his book, eaching in Secondary Schools, Schools, writes, ‘Te ‘ Te problem method consists o the organisation o the school work in such a way as to present to mind o the learner a genuine problem that challenges him to sustained effort to achieve its solution on a mental plane’. Good’s Dictionary of Education: Te problem method is a ‘manner o dealing with that which is problematic, a method involving clear definition o problem conronted, ormation o hypothetical solution, deliberates test o hypothesis until evidence warrants its acceptance’. Yokam and Simpson: Yokam and Simpson in their book Modern Met Methods hods and echn echniques iques of eaching state, state, ‘Problem solving method is a method in which a person uses his ability to solve
problems which conront him, enables a man to exercise control over his activities and his environment. Without it he is at the mercy o nature and cannot make intelligent social progress’. Rusk’s: ‘Problem solving may be defined as planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity or the
purpose o finding a satisactory solution .
76 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 76 Ross: ‘Problem solving is an educational device whereby the teacher and the pupils attempt in a conclusions, planned, purposeul effort to arrive at an explanation or solution to some educationally significant difficulty’.
It must be noted that problem-solving method is a method in which a elt difficulty to act in an educational situation is realized, and then an attempt is made in an intelligent, planned, and purposeul way to find its solution. In other words, the problem-solving method consists o conscious, meaningul, and well-integrated activity. It begins with a problematic solution and adopts the problem-solving procedure.
Difference Between the Problem Method and the Project Method Problems and projects are so ofen spoken together that it seems necessary to distinguish between the two terms. Te problem method differs rom the project in that the emphasis in it is on the mental solution reached rather than on practical accomplishment. Project is a more purposeul and constructive activity. It embraces both intellectual and physical problems. But it is characterized chiefly by mental activity and by critical thinking and is, thereore, more directly applicable to the school-level instruction. In the words o Wilson and Wilson, ‘But even a thoroughly motivated problem is not a project. Te problem may be solved in thought only while the project requires the completion o some objective piece o work based upon a problem or a series o problems……. Te difference is that the problem solution may end in thought while the project can end only with the successul completion o an objective unit o work’.
Aims of the Problem-solvin Problem-solving g Method Te problem method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learnt in the orm o a problem, the solution o which requires activity on the part o the pupils. Indirectly they acquire the needed knowledge. Knowledge gained is useul and real, and it comes in its natural setting in a correlated manner. Problems set to the students must be o such a nature that the students are genuinely interested to solve them.
Characteristics or Features of a Good Problem Students will be able to tackle problems successully i the ollowing characteristics o good problems are kept in view. Real: Problems should be real rather than artificial. Interesting: Tey should be interesting. Tey should make the students genuinely interested in solving them. Suitable: Problems should be suitable to the age, needs, mental and physical capacities, and resourceulness o the students. Related to life: Problems should be related to actual lie. Tey should have direct bearing on the general lie o the students. Te students should get training in solving s olving real-lie problems. problems. Tought provoking: Problems should be thought provoking. Tey should present a genuine
difficulty, mental or physical, which demands reflective thinking on the part o the learners. Te students recognize them as challenge.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 77 Correlated with previous knowledge: Problems selected should have correlation with the already gained knowledge o the students. Tis will acilitate solution. Correlated with environment: Problems should be correlated with physical and social environment o the students and also with other school subjects. Educational value: Problems should be worthwhile and o educational value. Maximum activity: Problems should be such that they may provide maximum activity and useul knowledge to the students. Clear and definite: Problems should be clear and definite. Tey should be ree rom ambiguities. Possible of solution: Problems should be possible o solution, i.e., they should not be too deep or the particular group o students, and specific inormation needed or solving the problems should be available. Tey should be b e capable o completion completion within the t he time limits set by the course. Fitted in curricular organization: Problems should be such that they can be fitted well in the present curricular organization; otherwise they may pose various administrative difficulties in the school. No financial strain: Problems should cause no strain on the financial resources o either the school or the students.
Basic Principles of the Problem-So Problem-Solving lving Method Te meaning o problem-solving method can be urther illustrated by highlighting the ollowing basic principles o the problem-solving method: Principle of judicious selection of problem: Problem should be judiciously selected while keeping in view the characteristics o a good problem. Problem should be (1) real; (2) interesting; (3) suitable according to age, need, mental and physical capacities, and resourceulness o the students; (4) related to lie; (5) thought provoking; (6) correlated with previous knowledge; (7) correlated with physical and social environment; (8) educationally useul; (9) activity oriented; (10) clear and definite; (11) possible o solution; (12) fitted in curricular organization; (13) ree rom financial strain. Principle of mental activity: A problematic situation provides or maximum mental activity. It leads to active thinking and thereore, results in proper understanding o the situation. Principle of freedom: Te principle o giving reedom to students may be observed. Problems should not be imposed on the students. Students may be grouped together on the basis o common interests, and each group may choose problems which the group would preer to tackle. Principle of owning the problem: Students must eel the problem on their own. Te problem must include interest and values to arouse the curiosity o students or finding the solution. Te students must eel it worthwhile to make efforts or its solution. Principle of stating the problem: Te problem must be stated in definite terms. It is the duty o the teacher to see that the problem is stated in definite terms. I it is defined clearly, the students will be able to keep it in mind while working on the problem. Principle of selecting material: Te means o solving the problem must not be vague to the students; otherwise most o the value o the procedure will be lost. Hence judicious selection o the material must be made.
Principle of definiteness of conclusion: Conclusions or solutions must be definite and clear. Many means may be adopted to arrive at definite conclusions. One o the students may be asked
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to summarize the conclusion beore the whole class. Other students may be asked to evaluate and criticize it until it is accepted by all. Tis definiteness o the conclusion or solution must be emphasized. Principle of congenial environment: Te teacher should provide a congenial and co-operative environment or solving the problems.
Sources of the Problems Sources o the problems are ollowing: Subjects: Generally mathematics and science are considered the only subjects where problem-solving problem-sol ving method may be adopted. But its use has been now extended to other subjects as well. Social studies, history, geography, civics, and health education provide numerous opportunities or problem solving. Every subject has its own problems. Tese problems can train the students in the t he art o reflective thinking. Te problems may be o intellectual, social, or manual nature. School life: School lie urnishes many practical problems such as collecting unds or Red Cross, doing school work to beautiy the school, organizing certain estivals, celebrating some days, and staging dramas. Students: Te problems may be suggested by the students themselves. eacher: Te teacher can present a problem beore the students, but it should be accepted by the students as their own problem.
Procedure or Steps in the Problem-solving Method Procedure or steps in the problem-solving method are ollowing: Recognition of the problem: Te first step involved in problem solving is the recognition o the problem. A problem arises out o a situation. A situation should be created by the teacher in which the students eel the presence o the problem and the need to solve it. Te problem
should arise rom the educational needs o the students. Te problem situation may be created by the discussion on various topics, the survey o surrounding environment, and the needs o the students. Te teacher must see that t hat the problem gets beore the children in such a way as to arouse their interest and challenge them to study it. Interpretation and delimitation of the problem: Once the problem has been recognized, recognize d, it must be properly interpreted, defined, and delimited. Te teacher may explain the problem in detail or the student may interpret it through discussion. Te student should be clear about the scope o the problem. Te age, intelligence, and interests o the students should be kept in mind at this stage. Collection of data: Afer students have grasped the meaning o the problem, they must be stimulated to collect relevant data in a systematic manner. Te teacher may invite suggestions rom the students regarding the relevant material. Tey may provide the necessary inormation about the sources to be tapped. Tey may ask the students to read books rom the library, study charts, graphs, maps, pamphlets, and such other source materials. Tey may have to contact some experts in the field or to make a ew field trips. Te students will thus collect all sorts o
inormation regarding the problem at hand.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 79 Organization and evaluation of data: Afer collecting data, it should be properly organized and evaluated. Te superfluous materials should be eliminated. Te teacher should help the students in eliminating the irrelevant data. Formulation of tentative solutions: All inerences drawn on the data must be considered tentatively. tentati vely. In In words o Yokam Yokam and Simpson, ‘Judgement must be b e suspended suspende d until sufficient suffici ent data are gathered, evaluated and organised in a systematic manner to urther the solution o the problem problem’’. Establishing the final conclusion: entative solutions are pooled together. Discussion takes place and the students are encouraged to take part in discussion. Wrong inerences are rejected and final conclusion is drawn on the basis o logical and collective thinking. Verification of results: Afer arriving at the final conclusion, it may be verified. Its validity may be tested in various ways: (a) By applying the hypothesis to new situations, (b) By experimenting urther with it, (c) By collecting new data through study and investigation.
Role of Teacher in the Problem-solving Method Te role o teacher in the problem-solving method are as under:
Te problem situations. Te teacher teachershould shouldcreate provide guidance in: (a) defining the problem, (b) collecting, organizing, and interpreting the data. Te teacher should have confidence in them. Tey must possess the ability to sense the problem clearly, supply the necessary challenge or their students, and make good the deficiency o textbooks. Te teacher should see to it that problem solving develops in the students the art o reasoning and gives them practical knowledge and skill valuable in lie.
Importance or Advantages of the Problem-solv Problem-solving ing Method Importance or advantages o the problem-solving method are ollowing: Intellectual development: It develops the power o thinking and reasoning o students. It stimulates intellectual pursuits and develops power o critical judgement. Students have to explore the situation to find out the possible solutions and select the best possible p ossible solution. Tey get a chance to think, to judge, to evaluate, to compare, and to select the best. Development of social qualities: Te problem method provides valuable social experiences to students. Tey solve the problems through joint and collective efforts. Various social qualities such as discipline, social sensitiveness, co-operation, ellow-eeling, open-mindedness, and tolerance are developed. Te students find that there are so many sides to a problem and they listen to different point o view. So they become tolerant in outlook and open-minded in their attitude. Tey begin to value the opinions o others. Tey work in the orm o a group, and it contributes to their social development. Development of initiative and self-dependence: Students learn sel-dependence and initiative
as they have to depend upon themselves or the solution o their problems. Development of study habits: Students develop desirable study habits. Tey have to read various books. Tey develop the habit o selective study. As they have to solve many problems, they tend
to be critical in studies.
80 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 80 Development of self-expression: Students perorm purposeul activities and get training in selexpression through discussion during the solution o the problems. Assimilation of knowledge: Knowledge is gained as a result o purposeul activity, connected with students’ everyday lie. So it is easily assimilated. Problems of life and active participation: Te problem method conorms to lie. It prepares the students to meet the problems o lie and helps them to learn how to act in the new situations. It marks or students’ activity. Te students are stimulated to struggle or solutions o certain problems. Tey are then no longer passive members o a class but active participants. Cordial relations between teacher and students: Good and cordial relations between teacher and students are established and promoted. Te teacher comes to know the difficulties which the various students ace and helps them accordingly. accordingly. Studen Students ts learn to appr appreciate eciate the guidance o the teacher. Tus a oundation is laid or good and happy relations between the teacher and the taught, which is indispensable or the success o the teaching–learning process.
Limitations of the Problem-solvi Problem-solving ng Method Limitations o the problem-solving method are as under: ime consuming: Te problem-solving method is time consuming as children ofen go astray. Te progress o students is very slow because they may not be able to find the correct solution and go on repeating incorrect things. Te syllabus may not be covered in time. Unsuitable for small children: Te method is not suitable or small children because they do not have enough background or ruitul discussion o real problems. Tey may not properly understand and organize the material. Dull and monotonous: Tis method will become dull and monotonous i used too requently. Te teacher may not be able to impart inormation rom their own side. So this method can be used as one o the procedures and not as the sole method. Lack of suitable books: Tere is lack o suitable books or reerence and guidance. Books written in traditional style cannot serve this t his purpose. Lack of trained teachers: Tere is shortage o trained teachers to put such method into actual practice. Not useful for lower standards: Tis method is useul only or the students o higher classes who possess higher type o thinking required in problem solving. It is not useul in lower standards. Unsuitable for existing system of education: Tis method does not fit in the existing system o education. Neither the social studies curriculum nor the examination encourages this method. It is difficult to organize syllabus according to the requirements o the method. eacher cannot suggest sufficient problems to cover each topic o every subject. All topics cannot be covered by this method. Neglecting physical activity: Generally the problem-solving method lays all emphasis on mental or intellectual activity such as thinking and reasoning. Te solution o a problem is
ound by mental deliberation. Physical activity is neglected. Tis makes the learning situation artificial. In actual lie, problems are rarely confined only to intellectual sphere. No satisfactory results: Generally, the method does not achieve satisactory results. Hence
students and teachers remain dissatisfied and discouraged.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 81
It may be noted that what is expected rom school children by this method is mental solution rather than practical accomplishment. It is a way o thinking or a way o lie that has to be developed through the problem method.
Major Approaches in Problem-solvin Problem-solving g Method In the problem-solving method, our different approaches may be ollowed: (1) inductive approach, (2) deductive approach, (3) analytic approach, and (4) synthetic approach.
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Inductive–Deductive Method
Inductive Method In the inductive method, we lead our pupils rom particular instances to general conclusions, rom concrete cases to abstract rules, rom the known to the unknown, rom the observed to the unobserved, rom empirical to rational, and rom individual cases to generalizations. For example, we find that a crow is black; another crow is also black; still another crow is also black. We then come to the conclusion that all crows are black. Te process o induction calls or perception, reasoning, judgement, and generalization. Steps in the Inductive Method Steps in the inductive method are ollowing: Recognition of the problem: Te first step is clear recognition o the problem. It should be clearly understood and defined by the pupils. Te teacher can help the students by questions and suggestions. Searching for data: Once the problem has been defined, the child should start searching or data rom all possible sources such as books, magazines, journals, and making visits to certain places. Organization of data: Under the guidance o teacher, the pupils organize the data which they have collected rom various sources. Tey select relevant data and discard irrelevant material. Tis may be done individually or by groups. Framing tentative solutions: By studying particular instances, the pupils rame possible solutions. Te teacher is in the background. Elimination: Te various tentative solutions put orth in the above step are discussed, argued, and judged. Tey are critically evaluated. Teir weaknesses are pointed out. Tus many tentative solutions are eliminated, and only the probable solutions remain. Verification: Te solutions are applied to the situation and results are verified. Te procedure is repeated until a correct solution is discovered. Advantages of Inductive Method Advantages o inductive method are ollowing: Psychological method: Tis method is psychologically sound. It is based on the principle o
learning by doing. Promotes self-activity and interest: Tis method promotes sel-activity and interest. Te pupil remains active throughout the process. It gives them pleasure. Tey eel interested in experiments,
experiences, and discoverie discoveries. s.
82 82 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Fosters independence and self-confidence: Tis method osters independence and selconfidence in the pupil which proves very useul in later lie. Develops initiative and creative thinking: In this method, children discover the solution themselves. Hence it develops and encourages initiative and creative thinking. Promotes self-acquired knowledge: All that we learn with the help o inductive method is remembered easily because it is sel-acquired. Possibility of correlation: In this method, the pupils observe and analyze particular objects o similar and different nature and try to arrive at general truth. Hence a lot o correlation is possible. According to maxims of teaching: Inductive method takes into consideration all the maxims o good teaching like to proceed rom the known to the unknown, rom concrete to abstract, rom empirical to rational, rom particular to general, and rom the observed to the unobserved. Limitations of the Inductive Method Limitations o the inductive method are ollowing: Not useful in case of all subjects: Te inductive method is quite useul in teaching mathematics, science, and grammar, grammar, but it is generally not applicable in case cas e o social studies history,, geography, history geography, etc. Te acts o history and geography cannot be experienced by individual students. We We shall have to accept these acts rom the testimony o others. Wrong conclusions: Sometimes the t he pupils may draw hasty or wrong conclusions. Tey may draw conclusion beore coming across an adequate number o instances. Tis jump to conclusion may be a dangerous one. Lengthy and boring: At the advanced stage, i.e., with higher classes, the inductive method sometimes is not so useul. It is lengthy and becomes tedious, dull, and boring. Incomplete without deduction: Tis method is incomplete without the deductive method. Induction helps in making generalizations. In order to utilize these generalizations or concrete purposes, we need deduction. Moreover, only the principles o deduction can help us in the detection o allacies. New teaching always starts with induction and ends in deduction where the
knowledge learnt is applied, verified, and established.
Deductive Method Te deductive method is opposite o the inductive method. In the deductive method rules, principles and conclusions are applied to particular cases. Te students proceed rom general to particular, abstract to concrete, and ormula to examples. For example, the students are told that ‘air exerts pressure’. Tey are asked to veriy it by means o experiments. Similarly, they are told that the area o rectangle = length × breadth. Ten a ew sums are solved beore the students. Te students apply the ormulae to solve these t hese problems and they memorize these thes e or uture use. Steps Involved in the Deductive Method
Te ollowing steps involved in the deductive method: Recognition of the problem: Like the inductive method, the first step involved in deductive approach is the clear recognition o the problem. It should be clearly understood and defined by
the students.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 83 Searching for data: Te students collect data. It may involve the study o particular things and phenomena. Reviewing: Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find as to which may be applicable to find a solution. Formulation of inference: In this step, the rule, principle, or generalization is applied to a problem, and inerence is ormulated that the problem alls under such rule, principle, or generalization. Verification: Verification o the inerence is done by applying it to a case. I it solves the problem, proble m, then it is accepted; otherwise the t he procedure procedure is repeated to find the correct one. Advantages of the Deductive Method Advantages o the deductive method are ollowing: Short and time saving: Te deductive method is short and time saving. It takes little time to solve the problems by predetermined ormulae. eacher’s work simplified: s implified: In the deductive method, the t he teacher’s teacher’s work is very much simplified. Tey simply give a rule and ask their pupils to veriy it by application to several concrete examples. Useful for small children: Tis method is very useul or small children because with small children we generally use the story or telling method. Enhances speed: It enhances speed and efficiency in solving problems. Glorifies memory: Tis method glorifies memory, as the students have to memorize a considerable number o definitions. Useful during practice and revision: Tis method is adequate and advantageous during practice and revision stage. Limitations of the Deductive Method Limitations o the deductive method are ollowing: Encourages cram work: Te deductive method encourages memorization and cram work. As we have already pointed out that in the deductive method rules, ormulae or definitions are first stated and then the students are asked to apply them and use them. Te students begin to do so without understanding these rules and ormulae. Tus the educative process is ultimately reduced to the memorization o acts. Tese acts are soon orgotten. Moreover, these acts will cause an unnecessary and heavy burden on the brain. No self-activity: Tere is no sel-activity or sel-effort on the part o students. Students are given ready-made rules and ormulae. Tey are given no opportunity to do things or themselves. Tus they are deprived o the pleasure o sel-effort and sel-activity. Unnatural and unpsychological: Te deductive method is unnatural and unpsychological. Te beginner has no ability to understand abstract knowledge without having first gone through
concrete examples. In all natural development, practice precedes theory and concrete examples precede abstract ideas. Te deductive method is just a reverse o this natural procedure. Not suitable for discovery: Te deductive method is not suitable or the development o thinking,
reasoning, and discovery.
84 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 84 Comparison Between the Inductive Method and the Deductive Method Inductive Approach or Method
Deductive Approach or Method
1. We proceed from particular instances to general laws or formulae.
1. We start with general law or formula and then solve particular problems by applying this law
2. It is a method of discovery and provides education.
or formula. 2. It is a method of verication and explanation and provides instruction.
3. It is a method of specialization, i.e., the pupil may acquire some special knowledge.
3. It is a method of generalization, i.e., its aim is to t the pupil generally for the battle of life.
4. It is a slow method.
4. It is a quick method.
5. It is a safe method. The general law is reached step by step. Its meaning is properly understood and applied with success.
5. It is not a safe method. The general law may not be properly understood. Hence it may lead to faulty application.
6. It is an upward movement of thought leading to denitions, principles, or rules.
6. It is a downward movement of thought leading to good understanding of the principle or rule.
7. It fosters self-reliance. Pupils depend on their own observations and judgment.
7. It encourages dependence on others. Knowledge which is gained with the help of this method may be forgotten soon.
8. It leads to new knowledge but depends on deduction for verication.
8. It does not lead to new knowledge. It depends upon induction for new knowledge.
9. It implies much training and little information.
9. It implies much information and little training.
10. Induction tests the material validity, i.e., whether the application of deduction is real or not.
10. Deduction can give us the formal validity because the rule is taken for granted. The formal validity may be misleading if the general statement is wrong.
Both methods are equally necessary as the right and lef oot are or walking or as both the wheels are wanted or a cart. Both these thes e methods should go side by side supplementing s upplementing each other. other. Tey are inseparable. We cannot use one method to the exclusion o the other. Induction should always be ollowed by deduction, and deduction should be established through induction. Just as it is impossible to separate orm and matter, similarly the orm o thought, i.e., deduction, and matter o thought, i.e., induction, should never be isolated as such. For the attainment o truth and the development o knowledge, these two processes must co-operate like a lame man o good vision and a blind blind man man o o sure sure oot. In short, modern teaching shoul should d always always start with inductio induction, n, lead to deduction, where the knowledge learnt is verified, and then ends in induction, where the knowledge is applied to urther examples. It should be induction cum deduction cum induction.
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Analytic–Synthetic Method
Analytic Method Analysis means to break, to separate, and to unloose things that are together. In the analytic
method, we split the material or the problem presented into component parts. Analysis is ofen identified with induction and synthesis with deduction. Analysis is the method o
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 85
discovering the solution o a problem, and heuristic attitude is implicit in it. At every step in analysis, we see whether it would acilitate the learning process or would help in arriving at the solution. Te meaning o analytical method can be explained in the light o the ollowing characteristics o analytical method: o break the material: Te analysis method breaks the material into simpler parts. Tese parts can be easily handled, understood, and assimilated. Application of inductive reasoning: Te analytic method applies inductive way o reasoning. In the induction method, knowledge is revealed and not told. Like inductive procedure, in the analytic method we proceed rom the known to the unknown and rom the particular to the general. Heuristic spirit: Te analytic method has heuristic spirit implicit in it. Students are made to learn and establish acts through t hrough their own efforts. Merits of the Analytic Method Te ollowing merits o the analytic method are: Logical method: Te analytic method is a logical method. It leaves no doubt and convinces the learner. Useful for for understanding and discovery: discovery : It is useul or understanding and discovery. It is based on reasoning and justification. Specially useful for complex knowledge: Te analytic method is specially useul where the knowledge to be learnt is either complex or the relations existing among the various parts are not very clear to the students. Limitations of the Analytic Method Limitation o the analytic method are ollowing: Lengthy: Sometimes analytic method becomes lengthy, time consuming, and laborious. Not applicable to all topics: Tis method may not be applicable to all the topics equally well. Low efficiency: It is difficult to acquire efficiency and speed with this method.
Synthetic Method Te synthetic method is the opposite o the analytic method. Synthesis implies composition or the putting o two or more things together. Synthesis is to place together things that are apart. It is identified with wit h deduction. It is the method o ormulating, ormulating, recording, and presenting concisely the discovered solution omitting the trials and errors. It is the synthesis that clarifies and completes the purpose o analysis. Merits of Synthetic Method Merits o synthetic method are as under: Quick and straightforward: It is a quick and straightorward method. It saves time.
Develops memory: It develops memory. Promotes information: It develops inormation.
86 86 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Limitations of the Synthetic Method Limitations o the synthetic method are ollowing: Encourages cram work: Te synthetic method encourages memorization and cram work. It does not develop originality. No heuristic approach: Tere is no heuristic approach in it. It is not a method or a thinker and a discoverer dis coverer.. Forgotten Forgott en steps: It is not easy to recall or reconstruct the orgotten steps. Comparison Between the Analytic Method and the Synthetic Method Analytic Approach or Method
Synthetic Approach or Method
1. It starts from the conclusion and goes to the hypothesis.
1. It begins with the hypothesis and ends with the conclusion.
2. It is a process of exploration and demands thought.
2. It is a process of presentation of previously discovered facts.
3. It is a slow and lengthy method and involves trial and error.
3. It is a quick method and omits trial and error.
4. It is a method for a thinker and a discoverer.
4. It is a method for a crammer.
5. It develops originality originality..
5. It develops memory memory..
6. Students can recall and reconstruct steps easily,, if forgotten. easily
6. It is not easy to recall or reconstruct the forgotten steps.
7. It has heuristic spirit implicit in it.
7. There is no heuristic spirit in it.
8. It is the pre-runner of synthesis.
8. It is the follower of analysis.
Like the inductive and the deductive methods, the analytic and the synthetic methods are also to go together. Analysis leads to synthesis and synthesis makes the purpose o analysis clear and complete. Both the analytic and the synthetic methods are interdependent and complementary and hence indispensable in teaching. Analysis helps to understand and synthesis helps to retain the knowledge in memory. Analysis orms the beginning and synthesis orms the ollow-up work. Te discoveries made analytically are represented synthetically. Synthesis without analysis is dogmatic. Analysis without synthesis at the end is utile and meaningless. Tus as a classroom procedure, proced ure, the analytic–synthetic method is the best.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explain the ollo Explain ollowing wing method methodss with special special ree reeren rence ce to meanin meaningg advantag advantages es and limitations: (a) inductive method, (b) deductive method, (c) analytic method, and (d) synthetic method.
2.
Discuss Discu ss the adva advanta ntages ges and and limita limitation tionss o the the prob problemlem-solv solving ing method method..
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Project Method
Te project method, like many other activity methods, is also a modern contribution to
educational theory and practice. It is a result o John Dewey’s philosophy o education which is known as pragmatism, or experimentalism, or instrumentalism. It was developed and improved
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 87
by Proessor William Kilpatrick, a ollower o Dewey. Dr. J.A. Stevenson worked on it urther and perected it as a method o teaching. Now it is being ollowed in the progressive schools all over the world.
Meaning of Project Method Kilpatrick’s view —‘A project is a whole-hearted purposeul activity, proceeding in a social environment’. Stevenson’s view —‘A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting’. Ballard’s view —‘A project is a bit o real lie that has been imported into the school’. Burton’s view —‘Te problem is a project which results in doing. Te motor element is not what makes the activity a project, but the problem-solving o a practical nature, accompanying the activity’. Ryburn’s view —‘A project is a purposeul activity which completed in vacuum with co-operation Ryburn’s and understanding’. Tomas and Lang’s view —‘Project is a voluntary act in which there are constructive and creative attempts and ideas which have some definite concrete and tangible results’. Snedden’s view Snedden’s vi ew —‘Project is a unit o educative educati ve work in which the most prominent eature is some orm o positive and concrete achievement’. W.W. Charters’ view —‘In the topical organisation principles are learned first while whil e in the projects the problems are proposed which demand in the solution the development o principles by the learner as needed’.
Te above-mentioned definitions o the project emphasize the ollowing points: Problematic Problemat ic act: act : A project is a problematic act. Voluntary act: A project is a voluntary act which involves constructive and creative ideas. Purposeful activity: A project is a purposeul activity. Whole-hearted activity: A project is a whole-hearted activity. Activity in natural setting: A project is an activity in a natural setting. Activity in social setting: A project is an activity in a social setting. A bit of real life: A project is a bit o real lie introduced in school. Problem solving of practical nature: A project is a problem solving o a practical nature. Voluntary act: A project is a voluntary act in which there are constructive and creative attempts. Positive and concrete achievement: A project is a positive and concrete achievement. Activity of solutions: A project is an activity through which solutions o various problems are ound.
Te Herbartian method is teacher centred, whereas the project method is pupil centred. In this (project) method, the school, the contents, the curriculum, and techniques o teaching and learning are considered rom the pupil’s point o view. It emphasizes learning by doing and learning by living. In the project method, the activity is chosen rom the real lie o the children. Te project is
not a theory; it is an activity or a problem. Here the child is not required to learn the lesson by heart. In this method, they t hey would really do and learn. Te child will be active both physically and
88 88 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
mentally. Children are provided the opportunities o work and play. It should be noted here that the project is a problematic act, not merely an ordinary activity. Te problem requires reasoning, imagining, evaluating, calculating, and judging. It is not a mechanical activity; it is a meaningul act. Tere is no scope or artificial, bookish, and unrealistic education in the project method. Te student learns by perorming the activity. Te project is carried to completion. It is not lef unfinished. Te project is carried in a social environment. It teaches the students co-operation, mutual help, and sympathy. Tus it helps the children to become socially efficient citizens.
Basic Principles or Features (Qualities) of the Project Method Te project method can be urther illustrated by highlighting the basic principles or the eatures o the project method: Principle of purpose: A good project is always purposeul and has a clear-cut goal. Te pupils ollow the project just to reach the goal. Te knowledge o purpose is a great stimulus which motivates the pupil to achieve the goal. Purpose motivates learning. Interest cannot be aroused by purposeless or aimless and meaningless activities. Principle of activity: A child is active by nature. Tey love activity. Te instincts o curiosity, construction, pugnacity, and sel-assertion make them active by nature. So opportunities should be provided to the child to be active and to do things or themselves. Physical as well as mental activities activit ies are to be provided provide d to them. Tey are to be allowed to t o ‘do’ ‘do’ and ‘to ‘to live’ and to ‘live through doing’. Te project method gives pupils ample opportunities to think and plan intelligently and then carry out the project in co-operation with others. Principle of experience: Experience is the best educator. First-hand experience is the basis o learning in the project method. Tus through social participation, the child indirectly receives character training and assimilates practical democracy. Principle of reality: We educate the children or real lie, and it can be done only by bringing real lie into the programme o education. A project is a bit o real lie imported into the school. Tere
is no scope or teaching superfluous things in the project method. Real present is always more meaningul and significant or the child than the buried past and hazy uture. But i a project is good, past and present can be represented through it and can be made real through present-lie situations. A project presents real-lie situations to the children. Principle of freedom: Tere should be reedom at all stages in a project. Children should choose plan and execute a project without intererence by an external authority. Project should be the outcome o spontaneous activity on the part o children. In such atmosphere, children express themselves reely and this leads to the development o well-adjusted personality. Children should be ree to choose the activity according to needs, interests, capacities, and powers. Principle of utility: Utility is one o the basic principles o the project method. Te knowledge gained should be useul and practical. Te experience and knowledge gained through projects ensure utility because they are carried out under natural conditions. Tis method removes the
boredom created due to the absence o practical experience in the classroom teaching through traditional methods. Principle of laws of learning: Te project method is soundly based on the psychological principles
o learning, namely, principle o readiness, exercise and effect evolved by Torndike, principle
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 89
o learning by doing, principle o sel-experience, principle o sel-learning, and principle o motivated learning. Principle of democratic procedure: Tere is everything democratic in a project. Tere are no set rules and regulations, not even a set programme to carry out a project. It is the participants themselves who are responsible or the choice o the project and or the completion o the activity. In act, many children join the activity. None o them is a dictator and none is inerior to anybody else in the group. All stand on equal ooting and all utilize their best talents and efforts or the completion. Everything goes on in a democratic way. Tere are no commands and orders. Tere are suggestions, discussions, and their decisions which are carried out voluntarily and aithully by the participants part icipants themselves.
Kinds of Projects Following kinds o projects are: Producer’ss type: When the students construct something material, e.g., a soap, a hut, etc. Producer’ Consumer type: Where the students may get an experience and enjoy, e.g., reading a poem,
listening to a story, watching television, appreciating light music, enjoying classical music, etc. Drill type: When it is aimed at acquiring efficiency in some activity, e.g., skill in swimming, singing, dancing, etc. Problem type: When the main purpose is to solve a problem involving the intellectual processes, such as determining the density o a liquid. Another classification: Projects are generally o two types: Simple projects: In simple projects, there is only one work to do like stitching a shirt or baking a bread, or doing such other work. Complex projects: In complex projects, there are more than one work to do. For example, arranging a drama or raising a wall, etc. In this process, children get the knowledge o various subjects.
Procedure, Steps, or Stages involved in a Project Providing situations: First, the teacher has to provide provide suitable pupil-centred interesting situation. It means that the teacher is to provide such a situation according to the needs, interests, and aptitudes o the pupils, which may give them a spontaneous urge to carry it out. Situations may be provided by the conversations on different topics, discussions on pictures, buildings or cities, by telling stories, or taking out children on excursions and educational tours. Educational trips, coming estivals, the days o national importance, and many kinds o other social activities may provide ruitul situations situati ons or projects. projects. In the first step, there is no choosing at all. Tey make them conscious o various subjects and that too through the active participation and co-operation o the children. Children themselves think o various subjects, make their lists, and go on finding still more. However, the teacher’s guidance is there. Stevenson taught the use o the electric bell to his high school scho ol students by the project method. Te necessity o completely overhauling the bell system in the school building arose, and this
occasion was utilized in providing a situation.
90 90 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Choosing and purposing: Afer the situation has been provided, the next step is the choice o a good project. Purposing is very important. It is the centre around which a project moves. Te project selected must be such that it satisfies a definite need or purpose. Te purpose, as ar as possible, must be acceptable to all the students o a class. Dr. Kilpatrick writes, ‘Te part o the pupil and the part o the teacher in most o the school work depend largely on who does the
purposing. It is practically the whole thing’. Te students themselves should choose the project. Te teacher should not be in a hurry to choose the project. Better results and better satisaction can be had only through sel-choice. Many situations should be provided to children. Tese situations should be discussed and the teacher should give useul suggestions. Decision should always be democratic. Te teacher should merely guide and not thrust their opinion. Te children must eel that the project is their own choice. According to the criteria, the children take up every purposeul project and test its worthwhileness rom various aspects such as:
Is it the most needed and most useul activity? Is it practicable with the limited sources available? Is the material required in connection with its completion available? Is it o some educational value? Is it within the time limit? How much will it cost and how much time and labour will it require? Is it useul or the community?
Planning: Afer a suitable choice has been made, the next step is to prepare a plan or the execution o the project. Good planning leads to better results. Te entire planning is to be done by the pupils under the guidance o the teacher, afer a good deal o discussion. Each child should be encouraged to participate in the discussion and offer their suggestions. Te entire plan should be put in black and white by the pupils in their project book. Executing: When the plan is ready, the teacher should encourage the pupils to put into practice. It requires a lot o work. Te whole project is to be executed through the co-operative efforts o all students. Te various activities o the project should be divided according to the individual
interests and activities o the different students in the class. Te teacher is to see that interests t hat every student is assigned some duty to do work. Tey should give guidance to the students. Tey are to suggest books or reerences, provide them with the necessary inormation, advise them to do particular type o activity, and help them on the right line. Tis is the stage at which the students perorm many activities and learn useul experiences. Tey keep themselves busy in collecting inormation; reading and writing in various languages; keeping accounts; calculating prices; looking up maps; collecting specimens o different things; measuring length and area; visiting markets, museums, and zoos; visiting vis iting fields and crops; seeking help rom others, and the like. Judging (Evaluating): Afer the completion o the project, the students should be asked to review their work. Lessons Less ons must be learnt rom the mistakes that have been made in the various steps. Te students must learn to criticize constructively their own work. Sel-criticism is a
valuable orm o training. t raining. Te students should find out what things they have learnt rom the project. Recording: All the pupils should maintain a project book in which they should put down a
complete record o all the activities connected with the project. Tis record will include: (1) the
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 91
choice o the project, (2) its planning, (3) discussion held, (4) duties assigned, (5) reerences and books consulted, (6) difficulties elt, (7) experiences gained, (8) guidance sought, and (9) important points or uture reerence and guidance. Tus the project book should give a comprehensive picture o the project as a whole.
Essentials of a Good Project Essentials o a good project are ollowing: Usefulness: Project should be useul and the children should eel that it has some utility or them. Te learning experiences in project must be capable o being applied in lie. Interesting: Projects should be interesting to students. Tey must make an appeal to the instinctive and emotional hunger o the students. Economical: Te projects should be economical. Tey should not unnecessary tax the energy and pocket o the students. Tere should be least wastage o time. imely: Projects should be related directly to the lesson and vocational interests. Projects should suit the age, interests, aptitudes, abilities, and mental level o the students. Environmental and
seasonal actors should also be taken into account. Challenging: Projects should neither be too simple and easy nor too long and difficult. Tey should be challenging. Young students want to do tasks which are challenging in nature. Rich in experiences: Projects should be rich in experiences. Tey should provide experiences o high standard, including social contacts and character training. Tey must ulfil some educational purpose. Tey should be capable o correlating different subjects and practical activities o lie. Maximum activity: Te project should have a maximum number o activities so that all the participants may be able to have due share o experience. Availability of resources: Material connected with the project should be readily available in the Availability school or in the neighbourhood school. Te pupils should be able to handle it without difficulty. Co-operativeness: Te project should provide opportunities to the students to think and plan
independently as well co-operatively. Te projects should be executed in such a way that the students are kept active both physically and mentally.
Agencies of the Project Method Agencies o the project method are: eacher: Te teacher is an essential part o this method. Teir duty is to create an ideal environment in the school where the students may grow and develop. Tey are to bring about the social organization, directly or indirectly. School: School is the field o activity o the pupil as well as the t he teacher. Students grow and develop over there, and teachers help them to grow and develop. Te environment o the school should enable the students to achieve the main purpose o education, i.e., the development o wholesome,
balanced, and integrated personality. An important aim o education under the projects is socialization o the students, and thereore the school should present a ‘society in miniature’. Curriculum: Curriculum has to be laid down or achieving the purpose o education. Tis has
been done under the project method as well. Te curriculum, as planned, has to be dynamic,
92 92 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
flexible, pupil centred, activity centred, and lie centred, so that it may reflect the activities o the children, the real eatures o the society. Method of teaching: In the project method, those techniques or teaching that are suitable or acquiring knowledge are adopted. Tis method is made suitable or children and their environment. Discipline: Discipline is also very important. Without discipline, the society cannot run and so in school the environment has to present the miniature o the discipline o the society. Te environment environme nt in the school s chool should be such that it encourages the children to give g ive expression to their natural aculties in co-operation with others, so that there may be a social environment as well. Democracy: An environment ringing with reedom must be created to enable the pupils to learn the real spirit o democracy. Tis spirit requires that we should not only do our work conscientiously but also let others to do their work and do not interere with their duties
Examples of Projects Project: Village Survey History: Te history o the village, i any, relics and monuments, dwellings o primitive man
caves, huts, etc. houses through different ages and at different places. Geography: Te source o water supply, climate, crops, ruits, vegetables, and other products. Economics: Te occupation o the people, agricultural yield per acre, village handicrafs, rural indebtedness, indebtednes s, and co-operative societies. Civics: Working o the village panchayat, co-operative store, and educational acilities. General science: Te health and sanitation o the village, water acilities, causes o diseases, village dispensary, dispensary, ventilatio ventilation, n, etc. Arithmetic: Te estimate o the cost o the village drainage system, the calculation o the per capita income o the villager, the measurement o land holding, the calculation o different items in the amily budgets, the calculation o the total area o the cultivable land, and the calculation o agricultural produce per acre. Language: Te description o the various details o the survey. Art work: Te preparation o charts depicting the conditions o an ideal village. Project: The Pageant on the Life of Buddha History: Te social, religious and political conditions o Indians at that time and the sources o inormation regarding the lie o Buddha. Geography: Different places connected with the lie o Buddha and the preparation o maps showing these places. Language: Te study o books which throw light on the lie o Buddha and the writing o the various details details o project. project. Religion: Te evils o untouchability, love or all, truth and non-violence, and the teaching o
Buddha. Civics: Te co-operative spirit to make the project a success. Drawing: Te preparation o stage and making lighting arrangement.
Art: Beautification work in the project.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 93
Merits of the Project Method Merits o the project method are ollowing: Based on laws of learning: Te project method is based on psychological psychologi cal laws o learning, namely (1) law o readiness, (2) law o exercise, and (3) law o effect. Law of readiness: Te law o readiness requires the child’s mind to be ready or acquiring knowledge. Te planning, the discussion, and the selection o the project prepare the child’s mind to participate in the execution o the project. Law of exercise: Te law o exercise requires the child to practice what they have learnt. Learning to be effective must be practised. Te project method affords many opportunities to the students to learn by doing. Law of effect: According to this law, i learning is to be effective and ruitul, it must be accompanied by satisaction and happiness. By actually doing things in the project, the child gets pleasure and satisaction. Related to life: Te projects are related to everyday needs nee ds and the experiences exper iences o the child. Various subjects are taught to the extent that they are applicable in practical lie. So knowledge gained is
real, practical, purposeul, and useul, leading to the ormation o proper habits and attitudes. Te children get opportunities to acquaint themselves with the real problems o lie. Tey learn the practical useulness o different subjects o the curriculum. Correlates all the subjects: Te project method gives unity to the curriculum. Various subjects are not taught like separate units. Tey are taught as a compact whole and related to lie. Te curriculum is drawn up in such a way that it has the co-ordination o various subjects. Subjects do not remain isolated. Learning comes as by-product o purposeul activity. raining for a democratic way of life: Te project project method provides sufficient opportunities opportuniti es to the students to work co-operatively or a common purpose. Decisions are arrived at democratically. Children are trained to think and work together or a common purpose. Group interaction is promoted. Students acquire oresight, power o judgement, independence o thought and action, initiative, responsibility, sel-reliance, tolerance, and sel-respect. All these virtues are helpul in a democratic way o lie. raining for citizenship: Te project method imparts training to the students to inculcate the qualities o citizenship such as open-mindedness, tolerance, resourceulness, and independence. Dignity of labour: All children have to work with their own hands in a project. Hence they develop a taste or all kinds o work. Tey learn that there is nobleness in working and doing things with their own hands. Tus, dignity o labour is maintained. Sel-reliance and sense o responsibility are cultivated among the students. Tey make their own decision and enjoy the product o their own labours. Character building: Te project method is helpul in character building. Children develop the habit o shouldering responsibilities, taking initiative, and arriving at an independent decision. Sel-reliance, sel-dependence, sel-confidence, and resourceulness lead to their character
development. Problem solving: Te project method discourages cramming and memory work. It emphasizes
problem solving. It develops thinking and reasoning powers o students. It aims at providing training in scientific method o inquiry.
94 94 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Source of happiness for the backward: Te project method provides a great relie to the backward and retarded children by providing them the opportunities o participation in practical situation. Such children are incapable o thinking abstract things and keep themselves busy in concrete and practical situations. Tey can do well in projects through concrete learning situations. Freedom: Te project method provides reedom. Te students work with great enthusiasm or the completion o their sel-chosen project. Tey do not eel tired as there is a good deal o variety in their work and the atmosphere is ull o reedom. Play-way method: Te project method provides education in a play-way method. Te whole activity is a sort o play or the children. It is not like a hard task thrust upon children rom the above. Tereore, they learn most heartily. No indiscipline: Te project method solves the problem o indiscipline. As the children remain busy with their sel-chosen work, they do not get the opportunities to think o antisocial or indisciplined ways. Economical: Te project method is economical. It gives the best o results with the least o wastage o time, energy, and effort. Children learn only those things which they actually need or the present lie and the lie to come, and they learn it by living. Te learning is very effective and
thereore very economical in that way too.
Limitations of the Project Method Limitations o the project method are ollowing: Haphazard teaching: eaching is discontinuous and haphazard in the project method. Many a time, projects do not keep the examination and curriculum in view. No single project can deal with all the subjects, and there are some important topics that cannot be taught through this method. Te child is to be educated or many situations which cannot be subjected to projects in schools. I we depend upon projects alone, we may miss much desirable knowledge. Moreover, knowledge does not come continuously in a project. Upsetting the timetable: Projects cannot be bowedgodown in theTe chains o rigid time-table in the schools.ofEven fixed syllabus and projects cannot together. activities need their own organization but in the atmosphere o reedom and activity. Projects upset the routine work o the school. Neglect of drill work: Te project method neglects practice and the development o skill o drill in various subjects. Te students do not get adequate drill in arithmetic, reading, spelling, drawing, etc. Neglect of literary aspect: Tere is more o manual labour than literary work in projects. For the successul completion o the project, the participants have to devote many hours to the practical activities and spare less time or literary work. In the modern age o science, the coming generations need much knowledge which is not possible possibl e to be transerred to them in limited time. ti me. Difficulty of suitable textbooks: Te preparation o books suitable or the project is by no means
an easy task. Collateral reading and reerence books are the very soul o the project method. But useul books or various projects are not available.
Costly: Te project method is costly. It requires a lot o expensive material which most o our schools cannot afford to provide.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 95 Strain on teachers: Te project method lays too much strain on the teacher. Te teacher has to provide the learning situations; to guide in the proper selection o projects; to supervise their execution; and to remain active, alert, and vigilant throughout the process to help the students in various difficulties which they ofen come across. Tey have to look at the activities o all the children. Tey are not task masters even. It is their duty to see that every pupil is getting
education in a balanced ba lanced way. oo oo much strain is put on the resourceulness res ourceulness and intelligence intelli gence o the teacher. One teacher cannot be efficient in all the subjects, and at the same time the principle o correlation is not easy to work out. Tereore, an ordinary teacher cannot succeed in this method. Lack of competent teachers: For the successul working o this method, very learned, efficient, and resourceul teachers are needed, which are generally not available. Artificial correlation: Sometimes teachers show overenthusiasm in stretching the projects upon which the class is working beyond its natural limits and try to connect those topics which have remote connections with the project in hand. Unsuitable for small children: Small children are too young and inexperienced to select really valuable and good projects. As we have to depend upon them as ar as the choice is concerned, concerned, we may ace many difficulties in this respect. It is not wise to rely and depend too much on the choice o the children. Unsuitable for the shirkers: Te project method is unsuitable or the shirkers and shy. Students who are not inclined to take responsibility may remain in the background and do very little work. Unsuitable for transfers: Te change o a school is very difficult. I a student has to change over an ordinary school rom a school which is ollowing the project method or vice versa, they will not be able to adjust themselves properly. Both the methods differ so much that it will be a problem or such a child.
Suggestions Suggestions or projects are ollowing: Supplement to class teaching: Te project method may only be a supplement to classroom teaching. Projects may be used or the revision and reorientation o knowledge learnt. Direct classroom lesson: o fill the gap in knowledge learnt, direct classroom lesson should be given. Readjusting syllabus: Te syllabus can be readjusted to accommodate the projects. So most o the students can be helped to derive the benefits o the project. Te teacher can teach through the project method topics such as Village Survey, the Pageant on the Lie o Buddha, Digging a Well, Running a Co-operative Store, Our Village or own, Means o Communication, National Projects and Development, U.N.O., and Geographical Regions. eachers’ training: eachers can be trained to guide the projects. Low-cost projects: Low-cost projects can be taken up within the available finance. Moreover, to overcome the financial difficulties, such projects may also be taken in higher classes which may
bring income to the school, e.g., staging a drama, etc. Practice through formal teaching: Te practice in reading, spelling, pronunciation, drawing
and solving mathematical problems, neglected by the project, should be provided through ormal teaching.
96 96 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
y
Dalton Plan
Te plan is named not afer its originator Miss Helen Parkhurst, but afer the name o the town in which it was first adopted in a high school. Miss Parkhurst attaches the importance to the use o the word ‘laboratory’. She writes, ‘I cling to it in the hope that it may gradually shif the educational point o view away rom the atmosphere o prejudice which the word “school” calls up in our minds. Let us think o school rather as a sociological laboratory where the pupils themselves are the experimenters, not the victims o an intricate and crystallised system system in in the evolu evolution tion o o which which they have have neither part nor nor lot. Let us think o it as a place where community conditions prevail as they prevail in lie itsel ’. Her aim was to create ‘a new type o educational society’ by putting boys and girls under entirely different conditions o living rom those provided in the ordinary classroom and to re-organize the community lie o the school. Assignment or contracts: Te teachers outline the work o the year to be done in their respective subjects to enable the students to know about the scope and the nature o the work they are required to complete in each subject. Te work is urther subdivided into suitable monthly units by the subject teachers. While preparing the assignment, the teachers bear in mind the actors such as holidays, time available, revision at various stages, co-curricular activities, and the demands o other subjects. Each unit o work is accepted by the pupil as a ‘contract’, and they promise to complete the work and to satisy the teacher beore going to the next unit. Each subject has its separate assignment. Te child will be given the new assignment only when they have completed their assignments in all the subjects. A pupil is not allowed to do more than the month’s work in a single subject unless they finish the month’s contract in every other subject. Te child is ree to undertake an assignment o a month in any manner they like, i.e., they may devote one week completely to complete their assignment in one subject and may ignore assignments in other subjects during that particular week and take up assignments in other subjects in the second, third, or the ourth week. Tey may spend their whole day in one assignment o a subject and so on. Te only limitation is that they must finish the whole contract,
i.e., monthly assignments in each subject or a particular month, beore the second contract is entered upon. Subject teachers: Te Dalton Plan does away with class teachers and accepts specialist teachers. Each specialist teacher supervises each child in their subject and guides their work. Tey render all possible help to the child to complete their assignment in time. Subject rooms: Te plan scraps classrooms and gives their place to subject-rooms which are called subject-laboratories. Each specialist is the incharge o their room. Each subject-room is adequately equipped with the material required in that subject. It contains books and magazines, charts, maps, models, apparatus and appliances, etc. concerning that subject. Tere is no fixed timetable and no fixed period. Each student is ree to devote more times to the subject in which they are weak and less in which they are up to the mark. Records: Graphs are kept to show the work done by each child and in each subject so that the pupils themselves and the teachers may know how they are progressing. wo records are maintained by the pupils themselves; one showing their progress in each subject and the other
in all subjects. Te third record is kept by the subject teachers themselves and is hung in the subject-room.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 97
Tese records serve as a mirror to indicate the work o the pupils and are kept up-todate. Tese serve as a link also between the teacher and the pupil and bring them in close cooperation or the effective learning. Te graph, in act, is a constant reminder o the ‘contract’ or ‘promise’ and helps to make one conscious o the extent to which the progress is made and is to be made. Conferences: Usually the morning time until recess is devoted to individual work by each child or may be devoted or voluntary group work. Te afernoon time may be used by the teacher or oral lessons in their subject. Group discussions under the guidance o the teacher may be held. Tese oral lessons or group discussions are called ‘conerences’. Tese conerences may be devoted to remove common difficulties or to explain certain items o common interest and importance.
Duties of a Teacher Te duties o a teacher in the Dalton Plan may be summed up as under:
(1) Preparing assignments and giving them to the pupils as and when required. (2) Keeping an atmosphere o study in the room. (3) Giving explanation o any details o the assignment and removing the difficulties o o the pupils. (4) Giving inormation with regard to the use o relevant equipment and material. (5) Ensuring that each assignment is finished properly beore the new assignment is given to the pupil. (6) Keeping ull records o the progress made by pupil in different classes. (7) Keeping the subject-l subject-library ibrary and other equipment up-to-date and in proper order order.. Te teacher, in the Dalton Plan, is ‘a helper, not a driver; the pursued, not the pursuer’.
Principles Underlying the Dalton Plan Principles underlying the Dalton plan are ollowing: Te principle of individual work: John Adams says, ‘It is the most dramatic and systematic break away rom the class-teaching unit’. It is now generally accepted that the students differ in various respects and it is olly to tag them together or or keeping pace in studies. Te plan aims aims at providing equal opportunities to all pupils to work at their own rate and speed. Te time taken is not necessarily equal but a minimum uniorm achievement is required. In the words o Miss Parkhurst, ‘It is a piece o machinery or putting into operation the principle o individual work’. Te principle of freedom: Children work well when they are given the t he reedom to do so. Tere are no arbitrary fixed periods. Tere are no classroom restrictions or rigidity o discipline. In the Dalton Plan, children are ree to move about, to consult one another, and to work in any particular subject. In the words o an educationist, ‘It aims to giving to the older child that reedom or sel-development which has proved so valuable in the school lie o the “inant” while at the same time ensuring that he shall master thoroughly the academic work required by the curriculum o the school’.
Te principle of self-effort: Learning to be effective must be the product o one s own sel-effort. In the Dalton Plan, the child learns through their own efforts.
98 98 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Te principle of co-operation: In a subject-laboratory, pupils o different age groups not only assist each other when occasions demand but also are very much helped in turn, without being distracted, in the task o a companion being similar i not identical. According to Miss Parkhurst, the school can only reflect the social experience o the community when all its part or groups develop the same intimate relations with one another as is ound in a society as a whole. Te
schools should be organized in such a way that the pupils and teachers come in close interaction with one another. Miss Parkhurst has used the term ‘interaction o group lie’. Te students live and work together with the same s ame teachers, in the same shared common workshops or laboratories. Te principle of setting goals: Te child is enabled to survey the whole field, to see the goal at which they are aiming at, and thus a stimulus is provided to them and they take up the work bit by bit, thereby increasing and ensuring better learning.
Merits of the Dalton Plan Te Dalton plan is a continuation o the Montessori method and is especially applicable to secondary school work. Te plan has the ollowing advantages: Individual teaching: Each pupil is permitted to work at their own rate. Te plan approaches
teaching and instruction rom the point o view o the pupil. Te weak are not hurried along at the speed o other pupils and the bright are not kept back because o their slow class-ellows. Te teacher pays individual attention to each child. Continuity of work: Tere is no waste o time as is usually the case in the conduct o various examinations or promotion or other purposes. Tere are no ailures, and the promotions rom one grade to another may take place at any time. Te absence rom school o a child due to ill health or otherwise does not stand in their way o working smoothly. Tey can start the work just rom where they had stopped and can make up their deficiency in their own speed. Tere is no danger that some courses have been covered in their absence and they have missed them. Development of qualities like self-effort and self-confidence: Tere is absolutely no spooneeding in the Dalton Plan. Ready-made knowledge is not given to the child. Tey have to depend upon themselves in the solution o their problems. Tey have to consult suitable books and other reerence reerence materials. Tey themselves have to experience difficulties difficult ies and to solve their problems. All this makes them sel-confident. Purposeful learning: Student’ Student’ss ‘contract’ ‘contract’ or ‘assignment’ is like a project in ront o them, and or its completion they try their best and devote their heart and soul into the work. Tus, learning becomes motivated and purposeul. Development of desirable study habits: Te students have to make use o a variety o materials to complete their assignments. Tey have to study reerence books, source books, etc., and all this helps to develop desirable study habits in them. Development of sense of responsibility: Te ‘contract’ is a constant reminder to the children to complete their work in time.
Tey eel that they must ulfil their responsibility that they have accepted in entering upon the ‘assignment’. Solving the problem of home task: Tere is no need or giving home task. Te child in order to
complete their assignment may o their own accord devote extra time in the subject-laboratory. Tus compulsory homework loses its terror in the school.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 99 Solving the problem of discipline: No restrictions are put on children. Tey work in an atmosphere o reedom. Tey accept their own responsibility and work or its ulfilment. Tere is no rigid timetable, timet able, and the students are not orced to attend to studies according to a set timetable. Problem o truancy, mischie, and delinquency are rare. Simplification of the problem of evaluation: Te graph system is a valuable check on the progress o each child. Te records show the progress o each pupil and enable them to know where they stand. In a way, records can help to give incentives to them. Tere is no necessity o requent tests and awarding o marks. Better pupil–teacher relationships: Te plan enables the teacher to know the child individually. Every child is ree to seek the teacher’s guidance at any point when a difficulty occurs. Te teacher is essentially a guide and a helper.
Limitations and Difculties of Dalton Plan Te limitations and difficulties o this plan are given below: Not suitable for the average child and a shirker: Te clever and the bright students can
derive a lotwithout o benefits romlesson. this scheme. It is also not possible or the average childthe to attitude learn new principles a ormal Te shirkers find opportunities to develop o ‘postponement’. Development of individualistic tendencies: As a child has their own assignment to do, they may not like to help their other riends i they are required to do so on the plea that they are absorbed in their own work. Pinkevitch observers, ‘We cannot but express the ear that it will be instrumental in developing individualistic tendencies in children’. A purely intellectual plan: Te plan ails to provide or liberal group activities. Tere is little scope or social service activities. Dr. Dr. Cox states, ‘Te ‘ Te Dalton Plan is highly inadequate or social education’. Unsuitable for lessons that require inspirational treatment: Tere are certain subjects which require collective lessons or appreciation purposes. Physical training, music, and drill in
languages need group teaching. Tereore, the plan is unsuitable or these subjects. Lack of suitable teachers For the successul working o the plan, competent, liberal, and progressive teachers are required. Te plan puts heavy demands upon the teachers who are expected to prepare good assignment and be able to guide and help the pupils i and when such guidance or help is needed. eachers must be in a position to inspire students to work hard independently. It is very difficult to get such teachers. Lack of well-equipped libraries: Most o the libraries o our school are not adequately equipped and are without any trained librarians. But under the Dalton Plan, we require a wide variety o suitable textbooks, source books, and other relevant materials so that the children may prepare their assignmen assignments. ts. Unsuitable for junior classes: Te plan is more suitable or children above nine years o age. Very costly: Te plan is very expensive. It requires many more teachers and well-equipped libraries and other equipment. No provision for individual differences: It is very difficult to change the attitude o the teachers
who are accustomed to old methods o class teaching. Tey do not like sweeping changes. Moreover, they do not like to give reedom to pupil.
100 100 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
A review o the limitations and difficulties o the Dalton Plan shows that it is not possible to introduce this plan in its entirety in our schools. s chools. However, However, there is much that can be introduced in ordinary teaching. We should should try to t o evolve some system in which class teaching may be done in the morning and individual teaching in the afernoon. More individual attention should be given to the students. Tey should be encouraged to read extra books and a record o that should be kept. Some sort o day-to-day assessment should be made o the work done by each child, and the results should be communicated to them so that they may be motivated to work hard.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Discuss the advan Discuss advantage tagess and limita limitation tionss o the pro project ject method. method. Give Give your your sugg suggestio estions ns or or effective use o the project method.
2.
Explain Expl ain the the merits merits and and limita limitation tionss o the the use use o the Dalto Dalton n Plan Plan in India Indian n conte context. xt.
3.
State Sta te the ro role le o the tea teach cher er in the the Dal Dalto ton n Pla Plan. n.
4.
Can we we combi combine ne class class teach teaching ing method method with with the the Dalton Dalton Plan? Plan? Giv Givee argum arguments ents in suppo support rt o your answer ans wer..
y
Questioning in Social Studies Teaching
‘Good questions’, writes F. Teodore Struck, ‘by their very nature, are educative, and they have a very prominent place in all kinds o learning’. Questioning plays an indispensable part in ‘learning’, ‘teaching’, and ‘testing’. I used in the right way, at the proper time, questions lead to new realms o understanding; they serve as a means o organizing knowledge, or correlating the results o educative experiences; o tying together units o learning; and o integrating personality. One who questions aultlessly teaches effectively is not without meaning. Salmon holds that a bad questioner is a bad teacher; they may be a good lecturer. In the words o Ryburn, ‘It is no exaggeration to say that the success o a teacher in any particu lar lesson, and in teaching particular tea ching in general, depends depe nds upon his ability to question quest ion well’. According to Raymont, ‘Te acquisition o a good style o questioning may be laid down definitely as one o the essential ambitions o a young teacher’. Te art o questioning is the most potent weapon in the educational armoury o the teacher. It has been well said: I keep six honest serving men, Tey taught me all I know, Teir names are what and why and when, And how and where and who.
Purpose of Questions Purpose o questions are ollowing:
o test the previous knowledge o the students. o enable them to recall something.
o enable them to recognize something. o enable them to think over something.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 101
o enable them to reason about something. o elicit something rom students. o stimulate interest and effort on the part o students. o keep the children mentally alert. o promote initiative and originality.
o stimulate the curiosity o the students. o ascertain whether they are ollowing the lesson or not. o link new knowledge with old. o revise the lesson and thus fix the acts in the minds o the students. o secure the co-operation o the students. o diagnose the weak points o the students. o ormulate the general rules.
CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICA TION OF QUESTIONS
Formal questions
Teaching questions
Preliminary questions
Natural questions
Testing or developing questions
Recapitulatory questions
Formal Questions Formal questions are those where the questioner already knows the inormation which they ask or. Classroom questions may be put under this category. Natural Questions In natural questions, the questioner does not know the inormation about which they ask and make a query. eacher’s questions are ormal and those o the students are natural.
Preliminary Questions and Introductory Questions Tese questions are generally asked at the beginning o the lesson. Te purposes are:
(1) o test the previous knowledge o the students. (2) o link the new knowledge with the already learnt knowledge. (3) o motivate the child and arouse their curiosity.
Tese questions enable the teacher to test the readiness o the students’ mind. Questioning at this stage enables the teacher to ollow the maxim ‘From the known to the unknown’.
Te questions should be relevant to the topic. Teir number should be very small, say three or our.
102 102 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies Recapitulatory Questions Such questions are generally put at the end o a lesson or at the end o each section o the lesson. Such questions questions serve ser ve two purposes:
o enable the teacher to know i the children have picked up the ideas they wanted them
to olearn. serve the purpose o revision and to give students a good opportunity or practice.
Developing Questions Tese questions are said to be the backbone o the lesson. Tey are used:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
o develop a partic particular ular line o o thought. o lead the pupils pupils to discover acts or themselves. o ormulate new generalizations in an inductive way. way. o ocus attention attention on important points. o develop knowledge step by step. o enable the students to use their powers o obser observation, vation, o comparison, and o concentration.
(7) the inattentive narrative instudents order toattentive the class is ollowing. (8) o o break make the aensure ttentivethat ones. A great skill is required on the part o the teacher to ask developing questions. Te teacher has to lead the students to think and discover acts or themselves. While narrating a story, the teacher should not ask questions.
Types of Questions ypes o questions are ollowing:
Comparison or contrast. Example: What is the difference between wealth and capital? Decision for or against. Example: Do you consider it correct to call Chandragupta Maurya as the first Emperor o India?
Application in new situations. Example: Suggest measures to remove illiteracy in your village or town. town. Classification. Example: Are the ollowing ree goods or economic goods—air, sunshine, machinery, gold, ood? Relationship between cause and effect. Example: What is the relation relation between population p opulation and economic prosperity? Example or illustration. Example: Describe cases when prices rise with the decrease in the supply o some commodities. Statement of aim. Example: Why is the author interested in the t he study o problem children? Criticism. Example: Do you think Ashok was justified in ollowing the policy o ‘non violence’? violence ’? Inference. Example: From the data given, which place do you consider to be more hotter? Discussion. Example: Discuss the most important proposals or bringing down the prices. Definition. Example: Define elasticity o demand.
Recall. Example: What do you consider the three most important inventions o the last century?
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 103
Summary. Example: What were the causes o the downall o Mughal Empire? Observation. Example: Observe this t his experiment. Formulation of new questions. Example: What questions did occur to our mind?
The Technique of Questioning
Te teacher should bear in mind the ollowing points in this connection:
Te question should be asked first and then the student asked to answer it. Te main advantage in asking the question first is to set the whole class thinking to find out the answer. On the other hand, i a particular student is asked to stand or sit, as the case may be, and then the question is put to them, other students may not show much interest. Te questions should be evenly distributed. No child should be neglected. At the same time, questions should not be given in a regular order round the class. Generally there is a tendency to put either too many questions or too less to the students sitting at the back or in the ront. Such a tendency should be avoided. Plenty o time should be allowed or pupils to think out the answer. However, the time allowed will depend upon the nature o the question. Te inability o a child to answer a question should be accepted. Te teacher should avoid wasting a lot o time in trying to get an answer out o a child who cannot answer. A skilul teacher recognizes when the case is hopeless and the child is unable to answer the question in spite o their best efforts. A volley o questions asked in a rapid-fire manner is upsetting.
Characteristics of Good Questioning Characteristics o good questioning are ollowing: Te language o the question should be simple.
Questions bethe graded. Teynot should neither be in tooit.easy difficult. I will the problem is should too easy, child will take any interest I it nor is tootoo difficult, they
get discouraged. Questions should not be ambiguous, lengthy, and vague. Tey should be clear, brie, and to the point. Tey should be suited to the ability o the children to whom the questions are put. Questions should be relevant to the topic. Questions once asked should not be repeated unless the teacher is sure the class has not ollowed it. Te teacher should try to vary the orm o their questions. wo questions should not be asked in one. Questions should be interesting as ar as possible. Questions should be ramed in such a way that these do not encourage guesswork. Te teacher should s hould not generally admit answers ans wers like ‘yes’, ‘no’, single si ngle words. Questions should be b e o developing nature. Every question should grow out o the response
o the previous one. Questions should be in a sequence so that lesson may develop properly.
104 104 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
Suggestive questions such as ‘Was Sardar Patel an Iron man?’ should be avoided as they ail to encourage mental activity. Leading questions quest ions such as ‘Do you know that Subhas Chandra Bose was the ounder o the Indian National Army?’ should not be asked. Echo questions such as ‘Mahatma Buddha was born at Lumbini. Where was Mahatma Buddha born?’ should not be asked. Avoid phrases like ‘Can any one answer this question?’ Questions should be addressed to the entire class. Questions should be asked in a pleasing manner. Questions should should be put in such a way that every student thinks that they will be asked to answer whether they are good or weak. Adequate time should be allowed to answer. Questions should be addressed to the whole group and not to individuals.
Te main characteristic o questioning is to lead the child to discover new acts act s or themselves, by guiding them through easy process o thinking or o reasoning. The teacher’s attitude to pupils’ questions
Te ollowing acts should be kept in mind: Te students should be encouraged to ask questions. Relevancy in questions should be insisted upon. Te teacher must insist on courtesy. Several pupils should not be allowed to ask questions at the same time. Everyone should be asked to listen to a question. Pupils’ questions may be made the starting point or a small project. Te teacher should be rank enough to admit their inability to answer a question when they do not know the answer. However, in due course, they should be able to answer that question. For the sake o prestige in the eyes o the students, they should not give a wrong answer.
Judicious Blending of Talking and Questioning Questioning is not a one-way traffic. Tere is an ample scope or the teacher as well as or the students to put questions. Te teaching–learning process is effective only when the teacher as well as the pupils are active and co-operative. Te aim o the teaching–learning process is to enable the child learn in such a way that it enables them to adjust themselves to the environment. As both the teachers and the pupils are attempting to realize the same goal, it is evident that they must be active and not passive.
Skill in Answering Te same care and skill in dealing with pupils’ answers, as in questioning them, should be shown. Afer all, what or do we ask questions? Not or the sake o question! Te aim is to motivate children, to create interest, to test what the child knows and what they do not know, to encourage and stimulate thinking and act-finding, and to clear ambiguities and doubts. Te quality and the nature o the answer reveal whether the purposes o questioning are ulfilled or not. Rather it may be that questioning is a means to teach something that is revealed through answers. Questions
and answers may be compared with the blades o scissors. Both are indispensable in the teaching– learning process as both the blades are required to cut a piece o cloth.
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 105
Answers reveal the deficiency o the students as well as the teachers. Tey are the touchstone to test the effectiveness o the teaching–learning process. I the answers are not satisactory, it clearly indicates that there is something wrong either with the teaching process or with the learning process. Either the teacher has not taught in the proper manner or the students have not understood the subject-matter. Tereore, answers provide an important tool to make necessary changes in the teaching–learning process.
Classication of Answers A close analysis o the various types o answers shows that these can be put under the ollowing six categories: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Right and correct answers. Correct but incomplete. Partially correct and partia partially lly wrong. Wrong but intelligent. Ridiculously wrong. Mischievous.
How to Deal with Answers No hard and ast rule can be laid down or dealing with various categories o answers. Ward and Rascoe write in this connection, ‘Tere are no rules. It is unwise to pass over all wrong answers as it is unwise to deal with all. Some are genuine, misconceptions, which the teacher must clear up at that time or later on, others are imperect and incomplete answers, genuine also, which must be rounded off, others are haphazard or stupid and should be treated with contempt or else with such brie but emphatic words o disapproval as the teacher may have a command’. Te ollowing are the different ways o dealing with answers. Appreciatio Appr eciation. n. Te Te teacher should always appreciate the answers o students as appreciation will encourage the students to think urther. Even i the answers are wrong but the teacher eels that Ana the child is wron making genuine When attempts, appreciation given. Analysis lysis of w rongg answers. When answers. the due answers given by should most obethe students are wrong, the teacher should try to analyze their causes. Te cau ses may be as under: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Te deective or or difficult language used by by the teachers. Te deective explanation o o the subject-matter taught. Te inattentiveness on the part o the students. Te lapses o memory. Te toughness and complexity o the subject-matter.
In such cases, the teacher should accept the responsibility and should not eel shy o teaching the subject-matter again. Encouragement of children. When children. When the answers are partly right and partly wrong, the students should be encouraged to analyze themselves the nature o their mistake. Te teacher may ask urther questions to analyze the nature o the mistake. When all the actors that are responsible or wrong answer, or answers are not clear to all the students, they may be asked to build up the
real answers once again. It is unwise on the part o the teacher to be impatient and to make the necessary completion or correction themselves.
106 106 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
reatment of wrong answers. When answers. When a particular student gives a wrong answer, the teacher should not pass on till they get the right answer without explaining why the first answer is wrong. Te child must be made to understand why their answer is wrong. Tey are not likely to gain anything rom the right answer i their doubts remain unexplained. Answers Answ ers carrying some other version, other than expected by the teacher. teacher. Te teacher should accept and appreciate correct and complete answer, although it may differ rom the answers as expected by the teacher. Tere are a ew intelligent students in every class who believe in novelty and do a lot o extra reading. Te difference in approach should be explained by the teacher. Te form of the answers according to the nature of the lesson. Whether the answer should be in bits or incomplete sentences depends upon the nature o the lesson. Complete sentences may not be insisted upon in arithmetic, science, and in some cases in history or geography. But in a language lesson where the aim is to develop the power o expression, the teacher should insist upon complete sentences. No general rule can be laid down. It is up to the teacher to decide the orm o the answer. But it must be stressed that t hat whatever be the t he orm, answers should be in i n a clear, simple, and concise language. Answers Answ ers based on right right understand understanding. ing. Te Te teacher must make sure that the answers as given by the students are really based on genuine mental activity. Parrot ashion words, though they may have senses, are not based on any thought or understanding on the part o the child. Te teacher must go deeper and ensure that the child really knows what they say. Answers Answ ers given in unison. unison. Answers Answers given in unison should be discouraged. Such answers lack educational value and, thereore, should be disallowed. Assertive students should be given their due only. Tey should not be allowed to usurp the right o others who are slower or are perhaps making a mistake. Students should not be allowed to interrupt others while they are answering questions. Observance of courtesy. courtesy. Te teacher should see that the ordinary courtesy is observed in answering questions. Te students should stand or sit and address in the proper way. Encouragement to shy and submissive students. Tere students. Tere are always some students who eel shy and become nervous when questions are put to them. Tough they know the answers quite allright, yet they remain silent. Te teacher should, in all such cases, give more encouragement and appreciation. Repetition of good answers. answers. Good answers o the students should be reerred to the class, got repeated, preerably by another pupil. Te teacher should avoid repeating a correct answer themselves, themselve s, unless they want it to be specially stressed. Discouragement to irrelevant answers. Te answers. Te students should be made to realize the cause o the irrelevant answer and the teacher should study thoroughly that the irrelevant answer is not due to some mischie on the part o the student. Development of the summary of the lesson with the help of the answers. Te answers given by the students at the recapitulatory stage may be used to develop a summary o the lesson. All the answers in brie may be written on the blackboard and the students should be encouraged to develop an integrated summary with the help o these answers. Correct, clear, and thoughtul answers result rom clear thought-provoking questions. Te better means o evoking evoki ng responses rom the students are sympathy, sympathy, patience, and encouragement rather than impatience, harshness, or snubbing them. Right and correct answers imply that the teacher is using right and correct methods o teaching and the students are learning in an
appropriate manner. It may, thereore, be concluded that the pupil s answers to the questions
Methods of Teaching Social Studies 107
are equally important i not more than the questions o the teacher in the teaching–learning process. Questions properly planned, careully worded, evenly distributed, scientifically and psychologically asked, honestly answered, and intelligently ollowed up are very profitable and in act indispensable in the effective teaching–learning process. Colvin gave recognition to questioning in these words, ‘Te efficiency o instruction is measured in a large degree by the nature o the questions that are asked and the care with which they are ramed. No teacher o elementary elemen tary o secondary s econdary school subjects can succeed in his instruction i he has not a air mastery o the art o questioning’.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Descr De scribe ibe the nee need d and and the pu purpo rpose se o qu quest estio ionin ning. g.
2.
Expl Ex plai ain n the the type typess o o que quest stio ioni ning ng..
3.
Discu Di scuss ss the ch char aract acteri eristi stics cs o goo good d ques questio tionin ning. g.
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Summary
1. Method reers to the ormal structure o the sequence o acts commonly denoted by instruction. 2. Method is a means which a teacher ollows to make learning interesting, easy, and effective. 3. Good teaching methods aim at inculcating the love or work. 4. Tere are various methods o teaching social studies, i.e. the assignment method, the discussion method, the lecture method, the problem-solving method, the project method, the source method, the inductive–deductive method, the analytic–synthetic method, the Dalton Plan and questioning, etc. 5. Induction should always be ollowed by deduction and deduction should be established induction. 6. through Te analytic and synthetic methods are interdependent and complementary and hence indispensable in teaching. 7. Discoveries made analytically and represented synthetically. 8. Te project project method is not and cannot be an educational panacea. 9. Project should be an essentia essentiall eature o the educational programme. programme. 10. Te Dalton Plan is developed by Miss Helen Helen Parkhurst. 11. Individual work, mutual co-operation, sel-effort, and reedom are main principles o Dalton Plan. 12. Questionin Questioningg plays an indispensable indispensable part in learning, teaching, and testing. 13. Te art o questioning is the most potent weapon in the educational armoury o the teacher. 14. Te purpose o questions questions to test the previous knowledge o the students. 15. Te main characterist characteristic ic o questioning is to lead the child to discover new acts or themselves, by guiding them through easy process o thinking or o reasoning. 16. Questions are properly planned, careully worded, evenly distributed, scientifically and
psychologically asked honestly answered in the effective teaching–learning process.
108 108 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
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References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers, pp. 508–523. Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 90–101. Bhattacharye, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, pp. 141–144. Schools. oronto, Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1990. eaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, pp. 110–112. Moffatt, M.P. M.P. 1985. 1 985. Social Studies Instruction. Instruction. New York: York: Prentice Hall Inc.
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Additional Readings
Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses in Social Studies, Studies, Publication No. 14, Ministry o Education, Government o India. Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International extbook Company. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Intr Introducing oducing Social Studies Studies.. Bombay: Orient Longmans Ltd. Hemming, James. 1985. Te eaching of Social Studies in Secondary School . New York, London: Longmans Green and Company. Jarolimek, John. 1968. Social Studies in High School Education. Education . New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Social Laboratory and Utilization ofStudies Community Resources
7
Social studies is a dynamic and interesting subject. It requires resourceul resourceul teacher to make its teaching effective. But how-so-ever resourceul and imaginative the teacher may be, they cannot stimulate learning without a proper climate and atmosphere. Te classroom provides physical setting and a learning environment or successul teaching o social studies.
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Social Studies Laboratory
Modern technology has placed different types o instructional aids at their disposal. Apart rom text books, there are different types o reerence books, pamphlets, magazines, maps, globes, charts, projects, etc. which must be used to make the teaching-learning process effective. A social studies room or what a ew subject specialists would like to term as social studies laboratory, ully equipped with modern aids, will provide a pleasant social and cooperative environment where the teachers and the learners eel homely. It is a must or every school. It has been observed by M.P. Moffatt, ‘Class-room urnishings and their arrangements have directed bearing upon the quality o results obtained. Satisactory outcomes can be expected rom any class-room situation only when adequate acilities are provided. It should be urnished to provide a suitable environment or acquiring and practicing social studies skills.’ It has been recognized that like sciences, social studies also require a specially equipped room or laboratory. Tis alone can acilitate the use o modern methods and techniques such as Play-way Method, Problem Method, Project Method, and the Socialized Recitation Method. Special setting and equipment are needed or utilizing these methods. A social studies laboratory should serve the purpose o a classroom, a library, a workshop, an amateur theatre, a students’ club, a stock room, all combined into one. It may grow steadily and constantly as regards equipment. It should become the exciting ‘hub’ o activity or the students and teachers o social studies. It should be so planned and arranged that it provides an inviting and stimulating environment. It should be a place o ‘doing’ rather than o ‘talking’. Social studies library is an integral part o social studies programme and it helps in making it as living and vital discipline. Social studies library is the treasure vault o the store house o ideas. In act, it is the flowing stream o living thoughts. Library o social studies provides suitable opportunities to the student to use acts in a creative and productive way to arrive at their own
independent conclusions and enable them to grow in enriched knowledge, abilities, skills, and interests.
110 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 110
Following are some o the considerations which necessitate the provision o a special laboratory or social studies. Providing ‘home o their own’ to social studies teachers or developing enthusiasm or the subject and aith in themselves and the students.
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Creating maintaining anunctional effective teaching-learning environment. Providingand a quick and ready environment by making available work room or the students. Introducing variety in teaching methods and acilitating the use o teaching aids readily and conveniently conveniently.. Saving energy and time in carrying round equipment such as charts, maps, models, pictures, and projectors.
Equipment of the Social Studies Laboratory
Te laboratory should be well-equipped with adequate teaching equipment so that unctional environment is created and the teacher and the students are motivated to work. It should have the ollowing equipment: Audio-visual material which includes epidiascope, filmstrip, magic lantern, projector, tape-recorder, etc. Bulletin boards. Charts and graphs. Flags. Globes. Maps and Atlases. Models. Meteorological instruments—barometer. Rain gauge, thermometers o different kinds. Wind vane. Rock-stones and minerals.
Slide album containing slides showing architecture, architecture, dancing, music, painting, sculpture, etc. Stamps o different kinds. Survey instruments—box compass, compass, chain and arrows, divider, oot rule or scale, flags, plane table, prismatic compass, protector, spirit level, survey field book, tape, tripod. ime charts and graphs. ext books. Reerence books. Unit booklets dealing deal ing with a variety o topics, ranging rom amily lie and neighbourhood to people o other lands and places. Literary materials which include tales o adventure, easy biographies, historical series, travel stories, animal stories, historical novels, etc. Periodicals and magazines dealing with current events and various aspects o lie showing art, literature, music, dance, etc. Pamphlets published by various agencies including Central and State Governments and specialized agencies and also als o by international agencies such as the UNO and UNESCO, etc.
Newspapers.
Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources 111
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Social Studies Museum
Te museum as an instrument o popular education is a twentieth century phenomenon. Until very recently, museums were private clubs or the intellectually privileged and exhibits were arranged in such a way as to be almost meaningless to the scientifically or artistically uninormed visitor. All this has changed, at least in theory, in the modern concept o the museums as a cultural centre o the community greater efforts are being made to make museums inormative. Te Secondary Education Commission, on the role o school museums observed, ‘Museums play a great part in the education o school children as ‘they bring home to them much more vividly than any prosaic lectures, the discoverie discoveriess o the past and the various developments developments that have taken place in many fields o science and technology.’ Again the Commission observes, ‘We believe it is necessary rom the educational point o view to establish such museums in important centres at least wherein both ancient and modern collections will be exhibited and in some cases even demonstrations given o the actual process o development o various scientific discoveries. Nothing can impress students in the ormative age so much as the actual visualising o these experiments in a graphic manner.’ Tese museums are made up o materials used in classroom teaching which, in many cases, are collected, classified and exhibited by students, with or without the help o a teacher. Te museum activities may be an extracurricular unction o the class or the school or they may be incorporated into a scientific-experimental method o teaching. Te objectives o this type o museum are:
o orm within the school or the classroom an embryonic community dedicated to the usual occupations reflected in the school lie o adults. o permit visual instruction and experimentation with actual museum specimens. o stimulate enthusiasm or study and research among both teachers and students. o stimulate interest, co-operation and participation participati on in the cultural activities and scientific scientifi c research conducted by the larger museums. o instruct students in proper scientific methods o laboratory research and museum
conservation and exhibition techniques. o orm, in the absence o larger museums in the community, a nucleus rom which the classroom museum can grow beyond the limits o the school to serve ultimately the community and the region as a whole.
Exhibit programmes, interpretation, visual communication. What are some o the ways in which museums as cultural and educational centres o the community can communicate successully with their transitory visitors o heterogeneous composition? Based on various audience-testing experiments, the ollowing media can be used to heighten the effectiveness o visual communicatio communication. n. Dramatic labels. Usually labels. Usually they are ar too short in the art museums or ar too long. Tey actually righten away rather than entice the average museum visitor. Experiments suggest that large letters placed at the ocal point o the case or exhibit area will successully headline the exhibit and catch the visitor’s attention. Like a newspaper headline, the main label tends to direct the eye to smaller, less conspicuous conspicuous letters that outline the most important points o
the exhibit.
112 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 112
Dramatic lighting. Light lighting. Light is a means o visual communication as well as an attention getter. Coloured lights that change, ade or highlight an exhibit can be used with great dramatic effect. Light can also be used to tell a story and to convey a sense o passing time. Light is particularly important in art museums. Dramatic utilization. utilization. Again experiments suggest that museum visitors should be given a chance to touch exhibits as well as to see them. O course, much depends on the nature and expendability o the object involved but certain types o material—objects o wood, stone and metal, and special ‘touch me’ samples o animal skins and abrics—can be used with great success to satisy the visitor’s urge to touch while permitting a minimum o danger. Dramatic sound effects. Sound, effects. Sound, like light, can be used to heighten the dramatic effect o visual communication. For example, an Amazon rain orest orest exhibition can be b e made vastly more effective by adding the sound o tropical rain, the croaking o rogs, the chattering o monkeys, and the beat o drums. An exhibit o mediaeval art can be made more meaningul i it is accompanied by music o the same period. Effective use of space. space. Special concepts are also important in planning visitor traffic patterns within the exhibit areas.
Evaluate Yourself Why do we need a social studies laboratory? How can we equip it? How can a social studies room serve as a laboratory? Write notes on: (a)) (a
Soci So cial al st stud udie iess muse seum um
(b)) (b
Soci So cial al stu studi dies es lib libra rary ry..
Utilizing Community Resources Learning takes place inside as well as outside the school. In act, most o the subject matter o social studies can be learnt outside the school. Te community environment orms its subject matter. Tereore, social studies can be best taught through community resource. Community has various resources such as historical monuments, geographical places, and economic centres rom where the students can learn a lot. he unctioning o the Government can be best understood in local, state, or national terms. Students can also observe and participate in various social processes and problems. hus the community environment provides good opportunity or students to understand how things practically happen. he community provides concrete data on historical, geographical, political, cultural, and industrial acts and relationships which can be observed in action. Tus, the community is a kind o library or the school. Te community should open its door to the students to gain first hand knowledge and experiences. Tere should be a dynamic relationship between the school and the community. Tey must work together in a co-operative way to help the students to understand the subject matter o social studies. Te school should go to the community resources and the community resources should help the school. As the slogan
goes, let us study the community, use the community, serve the community, and involve the community in the educational process.
Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources 113
Importance of Community Resources Te community resources can enrich the study o social studies in many ways. A child must become a real part o the living community and interact with it. One o the aims o teaching social studies is to develop a useul and effective citizen. Tus the child can become such a member o society with desirable attitudes attitudes and interests by actually participatin participatingg in the social proces process. s. Tere are many experiences which the community can offer the students to experiment with. Te students can go to the community under the guidance o the teacher and gather the required inormation and data. Tey can visit the Nagar-Palika, newspaper office, telephone exchange, post and telegraph office, various industries, libraries, sports complex, air-port, transport centre, etc. to study how these actually unction. Te classroom study is reinorced by actually seeing, observing, and sometimes taking part in the various aspects o community lie. Te students can understand various social problems better by actually observing and participating in them: protection o public property, pollution problem, conservation o resources, unctioning o Government, etc. In this way, students also develop a sense o belongingness to the community, and the community will also be benefitted because o developing this sense in students. Tus the teachers and students o social studies can take ull advantage o various resources offered by the community.
Valuable Community Resources Community offers a wide variety o resources which vary rom community to community. It is not possible to make a list o all the resources. Some communities have rich resources and some have limited resources. However, a resourceul teacher can make the best use o these resources. Some o the community resources are very near the school, such as shopping centres, business offices, railway station, post office, and market. Te resourceul teacher can always make a catalogue o the available resources in the community. Te catalogue o the resources can be done as ollows. Historical Resources Tese resources include places o historical interest such as orts, monuments, temples, churches, museums, caves, inscription, old and new buildings, etc. Geographical Resources Tese resources include places o geographical interest such as hills, valley, canals, centres o transport and communication, railway station, airport, dock, mills, actories, dams, mountains, rocks, tea garden, etc. Cultural Resources Tese resources include places o cultural interest such as theatre, museum, libraries, art galleries, cinema halls, zoos, railway stations, boy scouts, girl guides, universities, V centres, Bal Bhawan, and old buildings. Economic Resources
Tese resources include places o economic interest such as communication centres, dairies, mills, actories, banks, agricultural arms, and water-works.
114 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 114 Scientifc Resources
Tese resources include places o scientific interest such as scientific libraries, hydro-electricpower stations, transmission centres, workshops, actories, engineering establishments, national scientific laboratories, and telephone and telegraph offices. Government Establishment Tese include Nagar Palika, hospitals, police stations, fire stations, Sansad Bhawan, Akashwani, secretariat, military establishment, welare institutions, panchayats, etc. Form of Social Process Tese include the customs, traditions, manners, belies, conventions, and ceremonies taking place in the society.
Method of Learning Through Community Resources Tere are two ways in which the teacher can make use o the community resources. One way is to take the school to the community and the other is bringing the community to the school.
Taking the School to the Community Actual observation is the best way o learning. Te students must be taken to the community resources outside to give them first hand inormation and knowledge about the activities, and working o the community. Exhibition and field trips should be regularly organized purposeully and effectively. In addition to these camping programmes and surveys should also be organized. Tese must be related to the topics in hand, and definite d efinite planning and proper organization should be there. Te details o the topics should be first discussed with the students. Tese programmes should be executed under careul supervision. Afer the execution, the ollow-up programme should be carried out, by asking the students to read books and supplement their knowledge. Tey may be asked to write reports also or prepare notebooks or hold discussion. Field trips can be organized to secure inormation, awake interest, change attitudes, and develop appreciation among the students. Field trips can be simple or complex. Simple field trips can be organized on oot or bicycle, whereas complex field trips will require elaborate transport arrangements and careul planning, like trips to places o historical, geographical, and cultural interests, away rom the local community. Short field trips and visits can be organized to market, post and telegraph office, railway station, libraries, newspaper offices, etc. Field trips arouse curiosity and stimulate imagination o students by developing their perception. Classroom instruction is integrated and linked with the actual lie o the community. Bookish learning is made concrete. Te students also learn the art o living with others. Group lie adds richness to their personality make-up. Teir mental and emotional aspects are developed. Tey learn the customs, traditions, and manners o society. It is essential that or the success o field trips, the teacher must be experienced and resourceul to get maximum advantage out o these activities. It should be properly planned,
organized, executed, and ollowed-up. During the ollow-up, the shortcomings must be noted and diagnosed, so that these are not recorded or urther use.
Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources 115
Community Survey Students o senior classes can conduct community surveys to gain educational experiences. Tese should be conducted systematically. Te data should be collected accurately. Te students can study the past history, economic conditions, social institutions, customs, traditions, ceremonies, etc. Te problems o community can also be studied through survey. Afer the collection o data, it should be tabulated and analyzed or developing understanding o community structure processes, etc. Such surveys will develop the insight o students. Such constructive participation gives the training to the students in studying social problems and developing democratic citizenship. Tey develop sense o co-operation and tolerance by living and interacting with the community. Any aspect and problem o the community can be studied through surveys. Te scope and depth o each survey will depend upon the time available. Te actual survey should be preceded by discussion, discuss ion, and questions about the objectives o the survey. Te method o collecting inormation will also become clear. Te interest o the students will also be aroused.
Special Camping Programme Special camping programmes can also be organized in the natural environment or the students. Tis will provide an opportunity to learn, work, and play in natural environment. Te students will make use o natural resources or their learning. It will develop a closer relationship between man and natural resources. Such programmes will encourage direct learning experiences. It will involve learning by doing, hearing, seeing, and eeling. Such camp will orm a small community. Various problems aced by that community such as preparation o ood, sanitation, sewerage, housing, and health habit will come into play. Democratic lie will prove useul by inculcating democratic citizenship in the students. Te duration o camps will depend upon the age o the students and the time available.
Community Service Project Students can also take part in community service projects like NSS and NCC programmes. Students can involve themselves with the local community, and help them in solving some o their problems. Such projects can be organized to develop habit o cleanliness, planting o trees, literacy programme, water acilities, beautification, repairing o roads and streets, etc.; relie work can also be done by the students during natural calamities and emergencies such as fire. Tese programmes help in an all-round development o the students. Students like activity and such programmes afford enough opportunity or interaction with the community. Proper record o community service projects should be kept.
Bringing the School to the Community Te community can be brought to the school in many ways. Te school can invite resource persons to deliver lectures and talks to students. Such resource persons in the community community can be doctors, merchants, surpanches, commissioners, editors, etc. Teyengineers, can explainbankers, the importance o their own fieldartists, to themunicipal community community, , and services ser vices rendered by them. Important persons rom other big cities and states can also be invited to develop d evelop better
understanding and gain better knowledge. Te community lie can be shown to the students through films also. Various Various activities activit ies o the community can be shown through this thi s medium.
116 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 116
Parents Teacher Association Te schools must have a Parents eacher Association (PA) and regular meetings o the same may be held. Te constructive involvement o parents is very useul. Te PA can make the school a real community centre. In this way, the parents will know about the programmes o the school and can suggest improvements. Tey will also come to know about the progress o their wards. On the other hand, the school can also put orward their point o view to the parents. Te parents can relate their lie experiences to the students and inspire them to realize the values o lie. Te parents will be in a better position to appreciate the work o the teacher. In this way, such associations can serve a useul communication between the school and community.
Celebration of Fairs, Festivals, and Social Service Activities Social studies can be effectively taught by celebrating various kinds o airs, estivals, and national days. In this way, the students will know the importance o these events, and learning process will become interesting, real, and dynamic. Birthdays o great men should be celebrated. Religious estival o the religions can also be organized. It will develop a spirit o tolerance among students. Cultural and seasonal estivals should also be organized in the schools. National days such as Republic Day, U.N. Day, and Human Rights Day should also be organized. Children’s Day will help in the development o their concept. alks and discussion on national and international problem should be arranged. Various social service activities in the school can be organized by the students themselves.
Advantages of Community Resources Te importance o utilizing community resources or the study o social studies can hardly be overemphasized. Te School is a social agency. It must socialize the students. It must help them in understanding the community resources and the social process that take place in society. Te process o socialization can best take place through participation in community activities. Community resources can develop their insight insig ht into the community lie, and prepare the students or uture lie. Geographical and historical aspects become meaningul. Te inormation given in the books becomes concrete and unctional. Tese develop a realistic understanding o the social processes. Students Studen ts are stimulated to read, write, speak, discuss, and observe. All these processes help in the mental, social, and emotional development. Te role o the teacher is important or the utilization o the community resources. Te teacher can develop among students a spirit o co-operation, adjustment, tolerance, and respect or work, which will make the students useul citizens. In community lie, there are also some evils. A wise teacher will highlight the undesirability o these evils. He should bring students to the home why these evils are not desirable in the society. A good teacher will make use o community lie to develop pride in its past achievements, and aith in uture possibilities. Tereore, the teacher must have a thorough knowledge and understanding o the must community Heocan make towards use o allcommunity. these while teaching studies. Te teacher developresources. right kind attitude He mustsocial have patience, initiative, and resourceulness to bring the school and community together. A well-
planned programme o co-operation between the school and community will definitely enrich the learning o social studies.
Social Studies Laboratory and Utilization of Community Resources 117
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explain Expl ain the the use o o comm communit unityy resour resources ces in the teachi teaching ng o o social social studie studies. s.
2.
Whatt do you unde Wha understa rstand nd by by bringin bringingg comm communit unityy into into school school??
3. 4.
What are What are the the difficul difficulties ties in enlisti enlisting ng P PA co-o co-opera peration tion?? List any any two two comm communi unity ty resourc resources es and and explain explain their their need need and impo importanc rtancee
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Summary
1. Modern technology technology has placed different different types o instructional instructional aids at his disposal. disposal. 2. Social studies room or what a ew subject specialists would like to term as social studies laboratory that provide a pleasant social and co-operative environment. 3. Social studies laboratory laboratory serves the purpose purpose o classroom. classroom. 4. Bulletin boards, charts, charts, flags, globes, maps, models, models, rain gauge, gauge, slide, textbooks, and reerence reerence book are the essential equipment o the social studies laboratory. 5. Social studies museum as an instrument o popular education in a twentieth century. Museum Museum play a great part in the education o school children. 6. Dramatic labels, lighting, utilization, utilizat ion, sound effect, and use o o space are used to heighten the effectiveness o visual communication. 7. Te communities communities resources can enrich the study o social studies in many ways, and the role o the teacher is important or the utilization o the community resources.
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References
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach . New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 172–175. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies . Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, p. 192. Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the Schools. Schools. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxord University, pp. 112–114. Kochhar, S.K. 1990. Te eaching eaching of Social Soci al Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd., p. 88. Moffat, M.P. 1985. Social Studies Instruction. Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall Inc., p. 142.
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Additional Readings
Pathak, R.P R .P.. 2010. eaching of Social Soc ial Studies. Studies . New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributor, Di stributor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj. Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book, Depot. Studies. Government o India, Publication o Bramwell, R.D. 1957. Integrated Courses in Social Studies. No. 14, Ministry o Education. Height, G. 1951. Te Art of eaching . London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers.
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Social Studies Teacher
8
As the teacher is to guide the pupils by their example as well as by their precept, they must possess certain refined qualities. Te teacher is expected to be somewhat an ideal person. Tey should possess high qualities in order to impart high values o lie among the pupils. Tey can serve the pupil, the nation, and the human race i they inherently possess the competencies o the high order. Te teacher o social studies deals with attitudes, ideals, and appreciations to a large extent than that o a teacher in other branches o study. Te subject o social studies compared to any other subjects demands de mands more the well-prepared conscientious men and women o sound knowledge and training, whose personalities rank high among other men and women. Te study o mathematics, the appreciation o a poem, the knowledge o the natural world, what so important as they may be, cannot be compared with the attributes o the teacher o social studies who deals with the teaching o pupils to live together in a democracy and elevating the concept o democracy by developing thoughtul, appreciative, and an intelligent electorate. Te teaching o social studies has suffered very much rom poor teaching, especially at the elementary level. Tere is a general opinion that anyone could teach social studies. All that was necessary was a textbook and the ability to read it. Te teacher’s task was merely restricted to see that the pupils knew the acts presented in the textbook. Tis attitude towards the teaching o social studies still exists. A social studies class is requently assigned to a physical education teacher, a drawing teacher, or a music teacher in order that they may complete the schedule. When one considers the aims and objectives o education and the role that the social studies is destined to play in accomplishing these aims, one wonders why the teaching o social studies has been neglected and dealt with very indifferently in many o our schools. Te social studies is to assist pupils to understand this complex world in which we live, in order that this learning learni ng may better adapt themselves to it and prepare themselves or an intelligent and constructive citizenship, we must provide well-trained teachers o social studies at all levels o education.
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Characteristics of a Social Studies Teacher
Characteristics o a social studies teacher may be categorized as:
Scholarship Proessional training
120 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 120
Personality eaching skills Human relations
Scholarship Tis includes:
Acquaintance with the problems o the present-day lie. Background o a liberal education. Reader o magazines and newspapers. t he subject taught. Reader o books on the Sound knowledge o the subject being taught.
Professional Training Tis incorporates:
Desire or improvement. Proessional attitude. Reader o proessional books. Reader o educational magazines. Sound proessional training.
Personality It has three aspects: 1. Physical aspects. 2. Passive virtues. 3. Executive abilities. Physical Aspects Tese include: Personal appearance including dress, carriage, social expression, mannerism, and personal persona l cleanliness. Etiquette including good manners, observance o social orms, courtesy, and refinement. Voice, rich, r ich, and mellow. Good language command including pronunciation, enunciation, and grammar. Health. Passive Virtues
Tese include:
Enthusiasm Fairness
Friendliness Optimism
Patience Sel-control Sincerity
Social Studies Teacher 121
Sympathy act Understanding
Executive Abilities
Tese include:
Adaptability Directive ability Industry Initiative Organizing ability Resourceulness Sel-confidence Sel-reliance
Teaching Skills Te Core raining Programme Package (CPP) o the NCER (1979) aiming at enabling the teachers to acquire mastery o manipulative skills or making their teaching effective, includes the ollowing skills:
Skills o class management. Skills o communication (teacher’s acts). Skills o interaction (teacher–pupil acts). Skills o the use o teaching aids. Skills o attitude and behaviour.
Skills of Class Room Management Tese include as mentioned below:
Control and modification of facial expression: expression: Te teacher should enter the class as a balanced person. It is necessary to emphasize the need or neatness and simplicity in their dress and appearance. Gaudy dress and shabby appearances have to be avoided. Te teacher must maintain their calm and confidence in the ace o gesticulation and mimicking o the group. Greetings and taking up proper positions in the class: Te class: Te teacher is expected to offer the greetings while entering the class and then take the central place acing the class. Tey are required to keep moving to the central place when students are offering greetings orally or by standing up in their seats and then ace the t he class and respond to the greetings. Movem Mo vemen ents ts (lo (loco como motio tion n in th thee clas classr sroo oom): m): Appropriateness Appropriateness o movements lies in providing a balanced supervision to the class and in being available at the right time to the student who needs help. Use of appropriate gestures in various situations and various stages: Te stages: Te expressions o gestures o approval, appreciation, and disapproval also have a great bearing on learning. Te tendency o offering undue smile or encouragement or displeasure would create an undue impact. Praise like gold and silver owes its utility to scarcity.
Skills of Communication (Teacher s Acts) Tis comprises five skills, namely, (1) narration, (2) recitation, (3) dramatization, (4) explanation, and (5) demonstration. Tese skills are teacher dominated.
122 Teaching of Social 122 Social Studies Studies Narration
It involves the art o articulated speech making, which comprises the ollowing:
Event-centred read out rom a written text. Event-centred delivered with the help o notes. Event-centred spoken extempore.
Teme-centred read out rom a written text. Teme-centred delivered with the help o notes. Teme-centred spoken extempore.
Recitation
Tis includes:
Reciting poems with a written script. Reciting poems without a written script. Reciting songs and rhymes with a written script. Reciting songs and rhymes without a written script.
Dramatization
Dramatization involves involves the creation o both visual v isual and audio environm environment ent
which are appropriate to the event. Facial expressions appropriate to the occasion, the modulation o voice, movements, pauses, the creation o appropriate environment, and the proper sequence o presentation are very important. Dramatization may be done in the ollowing cases:
Short events with the help o a written script. Short events without the help o a written script. Full story with the help o a written script. Full story without the help o a written script.
Explanation
Tis involves:
Paraphrasing and correlating a given passage. Elaborating and correlating a given passage.
Demonstration
Te ollowing are the main steps:
Preparing or a demonstration. Explaining and demonstrating each step while perorming. Winding up a demonstration.
Skill of Interaction (Teacher–Pupil Acts) Tis includes: Questions and Feedback
Framing types o questions. Framing various questions pertaining to hierarchical objectives.
Presenting and distributing questions to the whole class and eedback by verbal and non-verbal cues.
Social Studies Teacher 123 Discussion
Tis relates to:
Selecting a suitable topic or discussion. Collecting and systematizing inormation. Initiating Initiating,, sustaining, and guiding a discussion.
Concluding a discussion.
Problem Solving
Tis pertains to:
Presenting a problem. Analyzing the problem. Initiating and sustaining the process o problem solving. Guiding problem-solving activities.
Determine Goals/ Pattern of Work
Encourage Students to do Work in Areas that Interest them
Plan for Activities and Assignments
Teacher as Manager
Organise
Organise Resources
Produce Student Assignment Guides and Work Materials
Implement Work Situation so that Students — Study — Respond to i. Directions ii. Guidance iii. Teaching — Evaluate their learning
Evaluate Student’s Achievement
Implement
Evaluate
Role of Social Studies Teachers Source: Role Source: Role of the Social Studies Teacher (Davies 1978)
124 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 124 Skills in the Use of Teaching Aids
Tis consists o:
Selecting the teaching aids as per needs. Preparing charts, models, maps, and diagrams. Operating mechanical aids.
Positioning while writing on and explaining rom the blackboard. Writing on the blackboard with reerence to size, shape, boldness, and colour o letters. Drawing, sketching, and preparing tables and graphs on the blackboard. Analysis of the Subject-Matter, Task or Problem
Studying Characteristics of Learners Defining Specific Communicatio Communications ns Problems
Identifying Objectives (Stating Enabling Objectives, Terminal Objectives, Performance Perf ormance Criteria)
Exploring Available Resources (Environmental, (Environm ental, Human, Financial, Technological) Anticipating Possible Limitations, Constraints and Alternatives
Specifying Methods [Method (strategy) and media selection]
Constructing Prototypes (Programme) Pre Test, Test, Post Test, Test, Media Production and Assembly
Validating Programme or Prototype Try Out with a Representative Group Analysing Results Implementing Recycle
R e v i s i o n
Skill of Communicat Communication ion (Teacher’s Acts)
Social Studies Teacher 125 Skill of Attitude and Behaviour
Patient listening Suggesting Guiding
Counselling
Human Relations
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Tis comprises:
Tis comprises:
Relations with students. Relations with colleagues. Relations with parents. Relations with school personnel. Relation Relationss with administrators, inspectors, supervisors, etc. Relations with the community. Relations with publishers, stationers, sports dealers, etc. Relations with proessional organizations and workers.
Specic Qualities of a Social Studies Teacher
Art of Developm Development ent of Human Relations Social studies has always been the ‘proper study o mankind’ meaning, the study o human relationships. Such studies have a special broad emphasis because they are clustered problems o social behaviour involving much diverse inormation drawn rom many standard disciplines o knowledge. A social studies teacher, thereore, has to be very much concerned with this aspect. I.B. Berkson has observed, ‘As a specialist in human relations he is called upon more ofen than many o his colleagues or public appearances and as a moderator o discussion disc ussion o current and public interest.’
Objectivity Another responsibility o the social studies teacher lies in the recognition and acceptance o objectivity as a continual criterion. Te teacher’s job is not to indoctrinate but to equip students to make decisions based on their sound and objective knowledge. Te teacher’s prime duty is not to select or the students but to point out to them the choices which they may make themselves and a method by which such choices may be made. Te social studies teacher is perhaps always the ocus o the public eye more than others because o the very nature o the subject-matter, i.e., dealing as it does with people and with the contemporary scene. Tey must discuss the issues that are considered controversial and, thereore, they must be doubly careul to pursue their investigations and teaching with objectivity.
Deep Knowledge of the Subject Te primary task any teacher is toinget theirthat students learn by utilizing the knowledge subject-matter. It isonecessary to bear mind ‘lack otosubject preparation stands near the or topthe o
virtually every list o cau virtually causes ses o teach teacher er ail ailure ure.. Tis certa certainly inly does not mean that every schoo schooltea lteache cherr must be a scholar in their branches o study like the doctors o philosophy in colleges and universities. universit ies. Te teacher, however, must know, broadly and deeply, their field o study.
126 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 126
Application of Field Study Theory eachers o social socia l studies should early e arly get into the habit o ‘field study’, study’, i.e., an application applicati on o a field theory to the process o learning, both or themselves and or their students. Each problem which requires investigation and learning is a field o inquiry which can be examined rom different points o view and by drawing upon the knowledge o different disciplines.
A Well-informed Teacher Te contents o social studies change rapidly as the world changes. Te children o today grow up in a rapidly changing, moving, and accelerating universe. Tey need latest and up-to-date knowledge. It is, thereore, very imperative that the teacher o social s ocial studies should be b e keenly interested in the latest developments in economics, social, political, and cultural lie not only o their own country but also o the world at large. Te teacher o social studies should also acquire a broad understanding o the amily, the community, the state, the nation, and the world.
Widely Travelled Person First-hand inormation o the important and significant s ignificant cultural, geographical, and historical buildings and places, art galleries, museums, dams, actories, and projects will greatly help the social studies teachers. ravels will also enable them to develop the breadth o outlook and the width o understanding which will assist them to interpret the culture o different parts o the country and the world to their pupils and thus promote emotional, national, and international understanding.
A Good Communicato Communicatorr Only a good communicator can guide discussion, stimulate interest, and create in the classroom an environment which is rich in terms o inormation and where pupils are challenged to work and learn together. Further, the teacher should be a good storyteller and man o imagination.
Skilled in the Use of Technological Aids A social studies teacher is expected to possess adequate skills in using various aids which enables them to bring vividness and attractiveness in the lesson. Skill in map drawing is also very essential. ess ential.
An Interpreter of Various Experiences M.L. Jacks, while discussing the unctions o a social studies teacher, has observed, ‘Above all he is an interpreter—interpreting not the experiences o his pupils but also the community to which they belong, past noachievements, less than its presen present, t, its purposes andpossibilities, efforts to achieve those purposes, its cultural and its technical its opportunities and the invitation or service
which it extends and the rewards, glittering or dimly discovered which it offers. A social studies teacher is in a very advantageous position to correlate the past and the present, the new and the old, the alien and the native, and the near and the distant.
Social Studies Teacher 127
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Describe the Describe the role role o o the social stud studies ies teach teacher er in enab enabling ling the stude students nts to to understa understand nd the the contemporary problems.
2.
Explain Expl ain the speci specific fic teac teaching hing skill skillss needed needed or a social social stud studies ies teac teacher her..
3.
Evalu Ev aluat atee the the qual qualiti ities es o o a soci social al stu studie diess teac teache herr.
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Summary
1. A social studies teacher plays a very important role role in teaching–learn teaching–learning ing process. 2. Scholarship, proessional proessional training, personality, health, knowledge, positive attitude, narration, teaching skills, human relations, sympathy, good voice, and good language are the main characteristics o a social studies teacher. 3. Te art o development o human relations, relations, objectivity, objectiv ity, deep knowledge o the subject, widely travelled person, good communicator, well experienced are the specific qualities o a social studies teacher.
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References
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 228–230. Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Education. Jalandhar: Paul-Publishers, pp. 298–300. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies . Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, pp. 178–180. Science. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir, Bais, N.S. and Sharma, M.M. 2006. eaching of Social Science. p. 88. Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Studies eaching . Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan, pp. 251–252.
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Additional Readings
Wesley, E.B. 1990. eaching Social Studies in High Schools. Schools . Boston: DC, Health and Company. White, E.M. 1923. Te eaching of Modern Civics. Civics . George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. New York. Harolikar, L.B. 1985. Te eaching eaching of Civics Civ ics.. Bombay: Padma Publications Ltd. Schools. London: Oxord University Press. Mac Nee, E.A. 1950. Instruction in Indian Secondary Schools. Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies, Studies, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributor, Ansari Road Daryaganj.
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Micro-teaching in Social Studies
9
Micro-teaching is a training procedure aiming at simpliying the complexities o the regular teaching process. In a micro-teaching procedure, a trainee is engaged in a scaled-down teaching situation. It is scaled down in terms o the class size, since the trainee is teaching a small group o our to six pupils. Te lesson is scaled down in the length o the class time and is reduced to 5 or 10 minutes. It is also scaled down in terms o the teaching tasks.
Micro-teaching is one o the most important and new developments in the field o teaching practice. Te term ‘micro-teaching’ was first coined by Dwight Allen o the Stanord University in 1963. It was used initially or the training o secondary school teachers. A number o experiments have been conducted in many institutions in the USA, the UK, and the Netherlands. In India, a number o institutions have started work in the area o micro-teaching in the recent years. D.D. iwari was the first to take up this work in 1967 at the Government Central Pedagogical Institute in Allahabad. Tis was ollowed by G.B. Shah who tried an experiment in micro-teaching with the help o a tape-recorder in the Faculty o Education and Psychology in 1970. Other eminent personalities who popularized this field are R.R. Chandasama, L.P. Singh, N.S. Sarkar, N. Pangotra, Palsane and Ghanchi 1967, Srivastava 1970, Mehrotra 1974, B.K. Passi and Sharma 1974. A major breakthrough was made at the echnical eachers’ raining Institute, Madras where a studio or educational television programme was set up in which micro-teaching was introduced or the training o technical teachers. A major contribution to the micro-teaching as a training device was made in 1974 at the echnical eachers’ raining Institute, Chandigarh with the help o videotape and close circuit television (CCV) under the guidance o Dr. N.L. Dosajh. Micro-teaching became a ull-fledged research project at Centre o Advanced Studies in Education (CASE), Baroda. Dr. B.K. Passi and his colleagues completed a research project at Baroda. Te NCER undertook a major project in collaboration with CASE at Baroda and conducted a number o workshops at various colleges o education. Te echnical eachers’ raining Institute, Calcutta started micro-teaching with the help o an audio tape. Micro-teaching as an innovative teacherotraining wasStudy experimented upon at the pre-service level or three years, onetechnique year at theoCentre Advanced in Education, M.S.
University, Baroda and two years at D.A.V. College o Education, Abohar. In the light o research experience gained at Baroda and Abohar, micro-teaching has been introduced as an integral part o student teaching or all the college students since 1976.
130 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 130
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Nature and Concept of Micro-teaching
Micro-teaching is a training concept that can be applied at the pre-service and in-service stages in the t he proessional development development o teachers. Micro-teaching provides the teachers with a practice setting or instruction in which the normal complexities o classroom are reduced and in which the teacher receives a great deal o eedback on their perormance. o minimize the complexities o the normal teaching encounter, several dimensions are limited. Te length o the lesson is reduced. Te scope o the lesson is narrowed, and the teacher teaches only a ew students. Basically in micro-teaching, the trainee is engaged in a scaled-down teaching situation. It is scaled down in terms o the class size, since the trainee is teaching a small group o 5–10 pupils. Te lesson is scaled down in length o the class time and is reduced to 5–10 minutes. It is also scaled down in terms o the teaching tasks. Tese tasks may include the practising and mastering o a specific teaching skill such as lecturing or teacher explanation, questioning or leading a discussion; mastering o specific teaching strategies; flexibility, instructional decision making; alternative uses o specific curricula, instructional materials, and classroom management. Only one skill or task is taken up at a time. I possible micro-lesson is videotaped or tape recorded. Te student–teacher immediately views their lesson, evaluates it, amends their approach, reteaches the lesson to another group o pupils, reviews, and evaluates. Some o the well-known definitions o micro-teaching are given below.
Denition of Micro-teaching Bush (1968)—Tey defines micro-teaching as a ‘teacher education technique which allows teachers to apply well defined teaching skills to a careully prepared lesson in a planned series o 5–10 minutes, encounters with a small group o real class-room students, ofen with an opportunity to observe the perormance on video-tape.’ Dwight Allen and Kevin Ryan (1969)—Tey define micro-teaching as a ‘scaled down teaching encounter in class-size and class-time.’ Tey elaborate it urther by saying, ‘Micro-teaching is a system o controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behavior and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.’ Mc Aleese and Urwin Urwin (1970) —Tey observe that the term ‘micro-teaching is most ofen applied to the use o closed-circuit television (CC) to give immediate eedback o a trainee teacher’s perormance in a simplified environment.’ Tey urther suggest that micro-teaching is best viewed as a orm o simula simulated ted teaching usually incorpor incorporating ating reduced com complexity plexity and some eedback placed ‘along a simulation spectrum ranging rom the purely abstract text-book o teaching practice through the actual class-room teaching.’ Clif and Others (1976)—Tey stated, ‘micro-teaching is a teacher teaching procedure which reduces the teaching situation to simpler and more controlled encounter achieved by limiting the practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing teaching time and class size.’ Passi and Lalita—Tey stated, ‘Micro-teaching is a training technique which requires student
teachers to ion teach single short duration durat o atime. time.’ ’ concept using specified teaching skill to a small number o pupils in a
L.C. Singh opines—‘Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in which a teacher teaches a small unit to a group o five pupils or a small period o 5 to 20 minutes. Such a situation offers a helpul setting or a experienced or inexperienced teacher to acquire new teaching skills and to refine old ones.’
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 131 Jangira and Ajit Singh—‘Micro-teaching is a training setting or the student teacher where the complexities o normal class-room teaching are reduced by:
Practising one component skill at a time. Limiting the content to a single concept.
Reducing the size to 5–10 pupils. Reducing the duration o the lesson to 5–10 minutes.
In the light o these definitions it can be concluded that the ollowing are the eatures o micro-teaching: Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching but ocuses on developing the teaching skills. Scaled-down teaching: Micro-teaching is a scaled-down teaching:
o reduce the class size to 5–10 pupils. o reduce the duration o period to 5–10 minutes. o reduce the size o the lesson. o reduce the teaching skill.
Individualized device: Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training device. Providing feedback: It provides the adequate eedback or trainee’s perormance. Device for preparing teachers: Micro-teaching is a device to prepare effective teachers. Selection of one skill: It provides the opportunity to select one skill at a time and practise it through scaled-down encounter and then take others in a similar way.
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Main Propositions of Micro-teaching
In the words o Allen and Ryan, micro-teaching is an idea at the core o which lie five essential propositions: Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching. Although the teaching situation is a constructed one in the sense that teacher and the students work together in a practice situation, nevertheless, bonafide teaching does take place. Reducing complexities: Micro-teaching lessens the complexities o normal classroom teaching. Te class size, the scope o content, and the time are all reduced. Focus on training: Micro-teaching ocuses on training or the accomplishment o specific tasks. Tese tasks may be the practice o techniques o teaching, the mastery o certain curricular materials, or the demonstration o teaching methods. Increased control of practice: Micro-teaching allows or the increased control o practice. In the practice setting o micro-teaching, the rituals o time, students, methods o eedback and supervision, and many other actors can be manipulated. As a result, a high degree o control can be built into the training programme. Expanding knowledge of results: Micro-teaching greatly expands the normal knowledge o
results or the eedback in teaching. Immediately a brie micro-lesson, the trainee engages in a dimensions critique o their perormance. o give afer themteaching a maximum insight into their
perormance, several sources o eedback are at their disposal. With the guidance o a supervisor or a colleague, they analyze the aspects o their own perormance in the light o their goals. Te trainee and the supervisor super visor examine the student response orms that are designed to elicit students’ reactions to specific aspects o their teaching. When the supervisor has a video tape available,
132 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 132
they can use video tape playbacks in assisting the teacher how they can perorm and how they can improve their teaching. All their eedback can be immediately translated into practice when the trainee reteaches shortly afer the critique conerence.
Difference Between Micro-teaching and Traditional Teaching Difference between micro-teaching and traditional teaching are as under below: Simple versus complex teaching: Micro-teaching is simple and non-threatening. raditional teaching is relatively complex and threatening. Specification of objectives: In micro-teaching, the objectives are specified in behavioural terms. In traditional teaching, the objectives are not specified in behavioural terms. Providing feedback: In micro-teaching, immediate eedback is provided; in traditional teaching, eedback is not provided. Size of class: In micro-teaching, a class is divided into small groups o 5–10 pupil–teachers. In traditional teaching, the class consists o 50–100 pupil–teachers. Duration: In micro-teaching, the duration is 5–10 minutes; in traditional teaching, the duration is 40–60 minutes. Pattern of classroom interaction: In micro-teaching, the patterns o classroom interaction can be objectively studied. In traditional teaching, the patterns o classroom interaction cannot be objectively studied. Practising skills: In micro-teaching, the pupil–teacher practises only one skill selected s elected or practice. In traditional teaching, the pupil–teacher practises the whole complex teaching behaviour. Role of supervisor: In micro-teaching, the role o the supervisor is specific and well defined to improve teaching. In traditional teaching, the role o the supervisor is vague and is not useul to improve teaching. Awareness: Micro-teaching develops more awareness among student teachers with regard to proessional training. Score: Micro-teaching enunciates better scoring in the university examinations than their
counterparts in conventional teaching.
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Objectives of Introducing Micro-teaching
d Sharma Duggal and Duggal an Sharma have listed the ollowing objectives o introducing micro-teaching in colleges o education: o initiate the teacher trainees to analyze and develop teacher behaviour under laboratory conditions. o land novice teachers gradually in the real classroom afer gaining enough confidence. o impart intensive training in the component skills o teaching to teacher trainees at preservice level. o involve the academic potential o teacher trainees or providing eedback to the peers. o lessen the work load o teacher educators with the involvement o peer supervisors.
o lessen the burden upon practising schools while having the practice o teaching skills under the simulation conditions in colleges o education. o explore the human resources to the maximum and minimizing the cost with regard to time, money, and materials.
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Steps and Procedure in Micro-teaching
Te micro-teaching procedure involves the ollowing steps: Defining the skill: A particular skill is defined to the t he trainees in terms o teaching behaviours to
provide the knowledge and awareness o teaching skills. Demonstrating the skills: Te specific skill is demonstrated by the experts or shown through a video tape or a film film to the teacher-train teacher-trainees. ees. Planning the lesson: Te student teacher plans a short (micro) lesson with the help o their supervisor,, in which they supervisor t hey can practice a particular skill. eaching the lesson: Te pupil–teacher teaches the lesson to a small group o pupils pupils (i.e., 5–10 pupils). Te lesson is observed by the supervisor (teacher) or the peers or videotaped or audiotaped audiota ped or televised at close circuit television (CCV). Discussion: Te teaching is ollowed by the discussion to provide the eedback (suggested improvements) to the trainee. Te video tape or the audio tape may be displayed to observe their teaching activities by the trainee. Te awareness o their teaching perormance provides the reinorcement to the pupil–teacher. Replanning: In the light o the discussion and suggestions, the pupil–teacher replans the lesson in order to practise the small skill effectively. Reteaching: Te revised lesson is retaught ret aught to another small group o students o same class or the same duration to practise the same skill. Rediscussion: Te reteaching is again ollowed by the discussion, discuss ion, the suggestion, and encouraging encouragi ng the teaching perormance. Tus, the eedback is again provided to the trainee. Repeating the cycle: Te ‘teach–reteach’ ‘teach–reteach’ cycle is repeated until the desired level o skill is achieved. achieved .
Tus, we find that in micro-teaching the pupil–teacher tries to complete the 5 R’s, namely, Recording, Recordin g, Reviewing, Respondin Responding, g, Refining, and Redoing. Micro-teaching cycle may be represented as: Plan → each → Discuss and Feedback → Replan → Rediscuss and Reeedback. Te diagrammatic representation o micro-teaching cycle is given as under (Figure 9.1): 1. Plan
2. Teach
3. Discuss and Feedback
7. Refeedback
6. Rediscuss
4. Replan
Figure 9.1
5. Reteach
Micro-teaching Cycle
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Phases of Micro-teaching
Clif and Others have suggested three phases o micro-teaching procedure: Knowledge acquisition phase: It involves two major activities:
o observe demonstration skills. o analyze and discuss demonstration.
Skill acquisition phase: Tree activities are perormed under this phase in the ollowing sequence:
o prepare a micro-lesson. o practise the teaching skill. o evaluate the perormance.
Te evaluation activity provides the basis to replan the lesson or reteaching the same topic to practise the same skill. ransfer phase: Afer acquiring the skills in the second phase, the pupil–teachers are given an opportunity to use the skill in normal classroom teaching situation (Figure 9.2 ). Planning for 5 min. Teaching
Micro-teaching (1) 5 min. each, 3 Teachers Video
Discussion with Video Play-Back, 3 Teachers Evaluation Sheet Replanning
Micro-teaching (2) 5 min.
Self-confirmation
Figure 9.2
Micro-teaching in classroom situation
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Principles of Micro-teaching
Principle of practice: ‘Practice makes a man perect’ is a well–known saying. I any activity is done repeatedly, it is learnt effectively. Micro-teaching provides sufficient practice in each small task or skill thereby enhancing the pupil–teacher to gain mastery. Principle of reinforcemen reinforcement: t: Te psychologists have long been aware o the value o reinorcement in the learning process. Te reinorcement involves the teacher encouraging pupils’ responses using verbal praise, accepting their responses or non-verbal ones such as a smile. In the microteaching lessons, the reinorcement (encouragement) is given to the pupil–teacher rom time to time or their better perormance with the eedback. Consequently, they attain satisaction and their perormance is improved. Te reinorcement and the eedback stimulate them or better learning and better teaching. Principle of experimentation: Micro-teaching resulted rom an experiment. Experimentation consists o the objective observation o actions perormed under controlled conditions. Te controlled conditions are provided in micro-teaching. Te pupil–teacher and the supervisor experiment on the teaching skill under controlled conditions. Te variables such as the time, the content, the students, and the teaching techniques can easily be manipulated or controlled. From its very beginning, micro-teaching has been used as a means o research. Many aspects o micro-teaching that render it valuable as a training technique also render it valuable as a research tool. Principle of evaluation: A proper evaluation o pupil–teacher’s work can become an effective motivation or better learning and better teaching. In micro-teaching, the supervisor supervises and evaluates each micro-lesson. Sel-evaluation is also possible. With the help o a video-tape recorder, the teacher-trainee is in a position to evaluate their perormance. On the basis o selevaluation, improvement can be made. Principle of precise supervision: Te supervision that accompanies micro-teaching is highly specific and precise. Te supervisor pays ull attention to one point at a time. Both the supervisor and the teacher are clear about the aim o the micro-lesson ahead o time. Te supervisor super visor possesses possess es
an ‘observation schedule’ whichinthey fill we up systematize while supervising. Tey make an assessment on aa rating scale. Rating is a method which the expression or opinion concerning particular trait. Principle of continuity: Micro-teaching implies continuity. Te teacher learns and relearns the skill o teaching continuously.
Planning → Teaching Teaching → Discussing Discussing and Feedback → Replanning Replanning → Reteaching Reteaching → Rediscussing Rediscussing → Refeedback till mastery is attained is its unique feature. feature.
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Teaching Skills and Micro-teaching
Micro-teaching is used or developing certain teaching skills. A teaching skill is defined as a set o teacher behaviours which are especially effective in bringing about desired changes in the pupil– teachers. Tere are various skills which can be developed among the pupil–teachers:
—Tey have suggested ourteen teaching skills: (1) stimulus variation, Allen and Ryans (1969) (1969)— variation, (2) set induction, induction, (3) closure, (4) silence and non-verbal cues, (5) reinorcement o student participation, (6) fluency in asking questions, (7) probing questions, questions, (8) higher order questions,
136 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 136
(9) divergent questions, (10) recognizing attending behaviour, (11) illustrating and using examples, (12) lecturing, (13) planned repetition, and (xiv) completeness o communication. B.K. Passi (1976)— (1976)—He has stated thirteen skills which can be developed through micro-teaching: (1) writing instructional instruct ional objectives, (2) introducing a lesson, (3) fluency in questioning, (4) probing
questions, explaining, (6) illustrating with examples, (7) reinorcement stimulus variation, (8) silence and non-verbal(5) cues (such as smile, acial expression, etc.), (9) (or encouraging the pupils to participate), (10) increasing pupil participation, (11) using blackboard, (12) achieving closure, and (13) recognizing attending behaviour. Some o the teaching skills which can be described with the help o micro-teaching as given by L.C. Singh are as ollows:
Skill of Stimulus Variation Tis skill is related to classroom attention. It is based on the principle that changes in the stimuli in one’s perception captures their attention. Tis skill involves the deliberate changing o various attention producing behaviours by the teacher in order to keep pupils attentive at a high level. Such behaviours include teacher movements, gestures, change in speech patterns, ocussing, changing interaction, styles, shifing sensory channels, pausing, and such others. Set induction: Te term ‘set’ reers to the establishment o cognitive rapport between the pupils and the teachers to obtain immediate involvement in the lesson. Experience indicated a direct relationship relatio nship between the effectiveness in inducing the set and effectiveness in the total lesson. I the teacher succeeds in creating a positive set, the likelihood o pupil involvement in the lesson will be enhanced. Closure: Tis skill is complementary to ‘set induction’. Closure is attained when the major purposes, principles, and constructs o a lesson or a portion o the lesson are judged to have been learnt and the pupils are able to relate new knowledge with the previous knowledge. It is more than a quick summary o the portions covered. In addition to bringing a cognitive link between the previous knowledge and the new knowledge, the pupils eel a sense o achievement. I the planned lesson is not completed, the teacher can use closure by drawing attention to the major points accomplished upto that point. eacher’s silence and non-verbal cues: Te use o silence and non-verbal cues is a powerul tool in the classroom. During silence deliberately introduced by the teacher, they use some non-verbal cues such as gestures, body movements, etc., in order to encourage the pupil in participation. Reinforcement pupil participation: Reinorcing the desired pupil behaviour through the use o positive reinorcing behaviours is an integral part o the learning process. his skill involves the teacher encouraging pupil’s responses or any desirable behaviours using verbal statements such as ‘good’, ‘continue’, etc., or non-verbal cues such as a smile, nodding the head, etc. Fluency in questioning: Tis is a skill in asking questions. By fluency is meant the use o as many questions as possible in a given period o time. However, it should be noted that no question is
considered to be relevant unless it is ollowed by the effective student responses. Te purpose behind this skill is to increase the number o meaningul questions asked by the teacher in a given period o time taking into consideration its effectiveness.
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 137 Probing questions: Probing requires that the teacher asks questions that require the pupils to go beyond superficial ‘first answer’ questions. Tis can be done in five ways:
Asking the pupil or more inormation and/or more meaning. Requiring the pupil to rationally justiy their response.
Reocussing the pupil’s or class’s attention on a related issue. Prompting the pupil or giving him hints. Redirecting the question to other pupils.
Recognizing and attention behaviour: Te teachers can be trained to become more sensitive to the classroom behaviour o the pupils. Te successul teacher, through visual cues, quickly recognizes the indications o interest or boredom, comprehension or bewilderment. Te acial expressions, the directions o the eyes, the tilt o the head, and the bodily posture, offer commonly recurrent cues which make it possible or the skilled teacher to evaluate their classroom perormance according to the pupil’s reactions. Tey can then change their ‘pace’, vary the activity, introduce the new instructional strategies as necessary, and improve the quality o their teaching.
Skill of Illustrating and Use of Examples Te use o examples is essential or a good, sound, and clear teaching. Te examples are necessary to clariy, veriy, or substantiate concepts. Both inductive and deductive uses o examples can be used effectively by the teacher. Te effective use o examples includes: Starting with simple examples and progressing to more complex ones. Starting with examples relevant to students’ experience and knowledge. Relating the examples to the principles or ideas being taught. Checking to see i the objectives o the lesson have been achieved by asking students to give examples which illustrate the main point.
Skill of Explaining In a classroom, an explanation is a set o interrelated statements made by the teacher related to a phenomenon, an idea, etc., in order to bring about or increase the pupil’s understanding. In order to become an effective explainer in the classroom, the teacher should practice more and more o desirable behaviours such as using explaining links, using beginning and concluding statements, and testing the pupil’s understanding behaviours such as making irrelevant statements, lacking in continuity, using inappropriate vocabulary, lacking in fluency, and using vague words and phrases as ar as possible.
Skill of Increasing Pupil Participation Te skill o increasing the pupil participation involves integrating the our components, namely, creating set, questioning, encouraging pupil participation, and pausing in such a way that pupil
participation is maximized. Pupil participation involves the pupil’s verbal response and initiation only. Te first three components o the skill involve both verbal and non-verbal behaviours and the ourth involves only the non-verbal teacher behaviours.
138 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 138
Skill of Using the Blackboard Tis skill involves: Writing legibly on the blackboard using distinctly different letters which are large enough
be readin bythe all the pupils and with adequate space in between them. only the relevant to Neatness blackboard work which can be achieved by retaining matter under ocus and by seeing that there is no overwriting. Appropriateness o written work on the blackboard, meaning, brevity, simplicity, and continuity in the points being presented; underlining the important acts with coloured chalks; developing the necessary and proportionate diagrams along with the lesson, etc.
Skill of Writing Instructional Objectives Tis skill involves writing objectives that are (1) well stated; (2) adequate with respect to the learning outcomes; (3) relevant to the content; and (4) adequate with respect to content outline.
Skill of Classroom Management Te management dimensions o teaching consists o a number o unctions or activities that the teachers perorm as an integral part o the teaching job, i.e., creating conditions within the classroom group as well as in the classroom environment which enables students to behave in socially approved ways, and makes learning interesting, challenging, and appealing.
Skill of Using Audiovisual Aids Audiovisual aids help to make learning more meaningul, interesting, and effective. At the same time, they attract attrac t and hold the attention o the pupils, help to combat the tendency o being absentminded, provide proper motivation, add variety and break the monotony o ordinary instruction, help in orming the right type o mental images, stimulate critical thinking, and increase the power o retentively. Tese aids must be simple, brie, appropriate, interesting, and realistic. Teir success depends mostly on the appropriate use to which they are put and the moderation with which they are employed. Te teacher is the best judge to decide the proper use o such material, which demands a great deal o planning on the part o the teacher. Tey are most effective when they aim at supplementing classroom teaching. While selecting the instructional materials, the teacher must consider the knowledge o the pupils, the subject matter to be taught, the situation in which they are presented, the time at hand, and the ability to handle and use the aids.
Skill of Given Assignment An assignment is a task or piece o work given by the teacher to an individual individua l or to a class. It is always a part o the daily lesson plan or the teacher. Assignments that are properly understood, skilully planned, intelligently and sympathetically assigned are indispensable and invaluable. Te skill o giving the assignment consists in motivating the pupils in order to awaken interest, defining the objectives in clear and simple terms, setting proper time limits, and supervising super vising the given assignment. assign ment.
Skill of Pacing the Lesson Te pacing o a lesson means the variation in the speed o teaching. Pacing the lesson should depend commonly upon the amount o difficulty experienced by the pupils in mastering the
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 139
lesson. Many problems in teaching can be easily solved i adequate attention is paid by the teacher to allocate the time needed to every lesson. While pacing the lesson, the teacher should keep in mind the ollowing guidelines: the time at hand, the syllabus to be covered, the level o mental ability o pupils, and the objectives o the lesson to be taught. Te teacher can know the pace o the lesson by recognizing the attending and non-attending behaviours o the pupils. Accordingly, the pacing can be increased or decreased. Te use of higher order questions: Te higher order questions are defined as questions which cannot be answered rom memory or simple sensory description. Tey require finding a rule or a principle rather than defining one. Te critical requirements or a ‘good’ classroom question are that it prompts the student to use the ideas rather than just remember them. Although some teachers intuitively ask questions o high quality, many teachers overemphasize those questions that require only the simplest cognitive activity on the part o the students. Procedures have been designed to sensitize beginning teachers to the effects o questioning on their students and which provide practice in orming and using higher order questions. Divergent questions: A divergent question requires higher order thinking, as the answers are not easily predictable and more than one in number. It requires the respondent to organize the
elements into the new patterns, predict the hypotheses, or to iner rom the situations. In the classroom, such questions provoke pupils to higher order thinking so that rom a long-term view they can develop higher order skills such as those involved in problem solving. Lecturing: raining raining in some o the successul techniques te chniques o lecturing based bas ed upon a communication model is the ocus or this skill. Te delivery techniques, the use o audiovisual audiovisual materials, the set induction pacing, the closure, the redundancy and repetition, and other skills related to lecturing are included. Planned repetition: Te purpose o this skill is to clariy and reinorce major ideas, key words, principles, and concepts in a lecture or discussion. Te use o planned repetition is a powerul technique in ocussing and highlighting important points, and describing them rom a different point o view. Improper Improper use o this skill can cause conusion and poor learning among the students, while proper use can direct their attention to points which the teacher wishes to emphasize. Completeness of communication: Although the importance and need or other communication is blatant, it is not ofen the guiding principle in actual communication. Sensitivity training on the importance and the difficulty o being understood is the ocus o this skill. ski ll. Several classroom games have been devised which dramatically demonstrate to teachers that which they consider to be clear instructions are ofen not clear at all to the students. Te sensitivity training in the skill o communicating with others will produce the teachers who are more responsive to possible mis-communication.
Modern Categories of Basic Skills in Teaching Modern experts have given the ollowing broad categories o basic skills in teaching: Planning Skillsinclude the skill o writing instructional objectives. Planning skills
Motivational Skills Tese skills include encouraging pupils, set induction, and establishing rapport.
140 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 140 Presentation Skills Te presentation and communication skills include introducing a lesson, explaining the lesson, giving examples, lecturing, drilling, and using blackboard and other aids.
Questioning Skills the fluency in asking questions, and probing questions. Tese skills include Skills of Small Group Instruction Te skills o a small group instruction include programming or individualizing instruction, guiding, and counselling. Developing Pupils’ Thinking Tese skills include developing thinking, thinki ng, reasoning, problem solving, creativity, and sel-direction. sel-direct ion. Evaluative Skills Te evaluative skills include skills o assessment, diagnosing o difficulties, and providing
remedial measures. Managerial Skills Tese skills include the skills o class management and maintaining discipline.
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Role of the Teacher Supervisor in Micro-teaching
Te micro-teaching supervisor is essentially a teacher. Teir role is to increase and refine perormance to the skills that serve as the objectives. Te responsibility o the supervisor is twoold: Developing ability to perform a skill: Te supervisor must help the trainee to develop the ability
to perorm a skill. With regard to this role, the supervisor discharges the ollowing unctions: Te supervisor helps the trainee in the discrimination o the skill and reinorces their perormance o it. Tey help the trainee to understand the behaviours that constitute the skill and to become sensitive to the cues that signal when the skill ought to be perormed. When the trainee perorms the skill, or begins to approximate the perormance o it, the supervisor reinorces their behaviour. In other words, the supervisor helps the trainee see what they should do, and tells them when they have done it. o understand the application of skill: Te supervisor must help the trainee to understand when the skill should be applied. Tis role o the supervisor relates to the application o skills. Having a repertory o reinorcement skills does not ensure good classroom application. Good perormance depends on when and where the skills are used. Te supervisor, then, must help the
trainee in making these proessional decisions. Working with trainees: In micro-teaching, each supervisor is assigned between 5 and 10 teacher trainees at the start o the session, and they work closely with this group.
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 141 Visiting schools: Te supervisor visits their trainees in the t he school and prepares a special schedule o micro-teaching lessons in the practising schools. Tis involves special arrangements. Te time is only between 5 and 10 minutes. Afer the lesson, the pupils discuss with the supervisor. Supervising the lesson: Te supervisor supervises super vises the lesson. less on. Tey have to note note the improvements
which are to be made by the pupil–teacher in the presentation o the lesson. Evaluating the lesson: Te supervisor has to evaluate the lesson and to give the suitable eedback.
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Evaluative Instruments
Te teaching skills being developed through micro-teaching lessons are to be evaluated or observed by the peers or the supervisors. Te rating schedule is used as a criterion measure: Te most popular evaluative instrument or assessing the effectiveness o micro-teaching is the Stanord eacher Competence Appraisal Guide (SCAG). Allen and Ryan (1969) have given an evaluation sheet or assessing the skill o reinorcement. It consists o our dimensions o the reinorcement skill: Rewarding correct responses: Te correct responses o the students are praised or rewarded by saying ‘fine’, ‘good’, ‘excellent’, etc. Using non-verbal cues: Te teacher uses non-verbal cues (smile) to encourage their students. Giving credit: Te teacher gives credit to student’s answering a question which is partly correct. Referring positive aspects: Te teacher reers to the positive aspects o a student’s previous responses.
Tese our dimensions are recorded by the observer in terms o requency that the teacher has used the category number o times. Te categories are assessed on scales ranging rom three to seven points. Te SCAG consists o a number o scales rating the broad aspects o a teacher’s perormance.
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Aids and inApparatus Micro-teaching Aids and apparatus micro-teaching in are ollowing: Observation schedule (checklist): Te observation schedule should be used. It may be used in the orm o a checklist or a questionnaire. It should include all items to be observed. Cassette tape recorder: For recording the entire conversation in the classroom, a cassette tape recorder may be used. It can be used or appraising one’s own sel or by the supervisor. Videotape recorder: Te videotape recorder has both the advantages o sight and sound. Close circuit television: Trough close circuit television, the entire classroom programmes can be seen in another room and shown to other group, when these programmes are taking place. Tus with the help o close circuit television, all the staff members and pupil–teachers can watch the lesson without disturbing the class. A movie film: Te entire programme can be recorded with the help o a movie film and can be
seen repeatedly. One-way screen: One-way screen may be used. wo monitors: wo monitors should be available or assistance.
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Behaviour Modication Through Micro-teaching
Behaviour modification through micro-teaching are ollowing: Concentration on Specific behaviour: Allen and Eve define micro-teaching micro-teachi ng as ‘a system o controlled controlled
practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.’ Tus, micro-teaching leads to the modification o behaviour. Careful planning: A micro-lesson is cautiously planned with the help o a supervisor. Te whole lesson is built around a single teaching skill so as maximize the use o behavioural components in that skill during teaching. Tus, while planning in micro-teaching the teacher plans to modiy their behaviour. Knowledge and awareness: In micro-teaching, a particular skill is defined to the trainees in terms o teaching behaviours to provide the knowledge and awareness o teaching skills. Tus, microteaching develops awareness towards towards specific behaviours and specific teaching skills. Micro-teaching also develops the awareness among the student teachers with regard to proessional training. Classroom interaction: Micro-teaching modifies the behaviour o the teacher and increases their classroom interaction because in micro-teaching classroom interaction can be studied objectively. Change in attitude: Micro-teaching brings a change in attitude towards the teaching proession. Tis change in the attitude itsel is a modification o behaviour and also leads lea ds to other modifications o behaviour behav iour.. Development of teaching skills: Micro-teaching helps in the development o teaching skills such as the skill o explaining, the skill o questioning, the skill o reinorcement, the skill o stimulus variation, the skill o illustrating with examples, the skill o using the blackboard, the skill o silence and non-verbal cues, the skill o increasing pupils’ participation, etc. Tese skills are helpul in the modification o the behaviours o both the teachers and the students. Feedback: In the eedback session in micro-teaching, eedback is given to the teacher. Tis eedback modifies their behaviour. Observation: In micro-teaching, the teachers change their behaviour by observing others. Tus, micro-teaching leads to the modification o behaviour. Introspection: While practising micro-teaching, the teachers are aware o their behaviour and consciously introspect to modiy their behaviour. Retrospection: Afer practising micro-teaching, the t he teachers think what they the y have done, and how how they have behaved during teaching. Tey can replan and reteach and modifies their behaviour. Repetition: Te micro-teaching cycle is repeated till the expected level o mastery is achieved. Tis repetition modifies behaviour. Steps in behaviour modification: Te steps involved in the behaviour modification suggested by McDonald are implicit in micro-teaching. Tese steps are:
Stating the behaviour in operational terms.
Stating the criteria or measuring those behaviours that are fixed. Measuring the entry behaviour o the trainee. Stating the actual treatment o behaviour modification. Stating post-treatment measures.
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Advantages of Micro-teaching
Advantages o micro-teaching are ollowing: Modification of teacher behaviour: Micro-teaching is an effective eedback device or the
modification o teacher behaviour. Knowledge of teaching skills: Te knowledge and practice o teaching skills can be given by the use o micro-teaching. Developing teaching skills: Te specific teaching skills are developed by micro-teaching experiences, e.g., the reinorcement skill, the explaining skill, the skill o using black-board, the skill or using audiovisual aids, the skill or class management, etc. Developing teaching efficiency: Micro-teaching is useul or developing the teaching efficiency in pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes. Improving teaching practice: Micro-teaching is a training device or improving the teaching practice and to prepare better and effective teachers. Individualized training: Te training o the teachers becomes individualized. Each trainee
makes progress in developing teaching skills at their own rate depending on their ability. Regulating teaching practice: Micro-teaching permits increased control and regulates the teaching practice. Real teaching: Micro-teaching is real teaching. It can be done either in the real classroom conditions or in the simulated conditions. Reducing complexities: Micro-teaching, as we have stated earlier, reduces the complexities o normal classroom teaching by scaled-down teaching. Te class size, the scope o content, and the time are all reduced. Focus on teaching: It ocuses attention on teaching behaviour to modiy and improve in the desired direction. Analysing one’s own teaching performance: Micro-teaching is an economical device and the
use o videotape enables the trainee to analyze their own teaching perormance. Continuous reinforcement: Te mechanism o eedback device can be combined with other devices such as simulated social skill training and interaction device which provide continuous reinorcement to the trainee’s perormances. Research tool: Micro-teaching is a useul research tool which can be used by their candidates to study teaching even during their course o training.
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Limitations of Micro-teaching
Limitations o micro-teaching are as under: Costly: Micro-teaching is costly or Indian schools as an effective micro-teaching system requires tape records, videotapes, and close circuit television. Narrow scope: Micro-teaching provides the opportunities or developing only a ew skills (say
20–25). But in reality, teaching requires more than these skills. Disturbs existing timetable: Micro-teaching disturbs the existing timetable o practising schools by calling groups or a ew minutes (say 5–10).
144 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 144 Presentation in parts: In 5–10 minutes, a very small content is presented which separates or breaks the lesson. Difficulty in actual practice: In a class o 5–10 pupils, the pupil–teacher may incur any difficulty. Tey may gain a lot o confidence. But in the class o 50 or more, they may ail to teach.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Explain Expl ain the con concep ceptt and and cha charact racterist eristics ics o micr micro-te o-teachi aching. ng.
2.
Discuss the main prop Discuss propositi ositions ons or assum assumptio ptions ns o micro-t micro-teach eaching. ing. How How will you you differenti differentiate ate between micro-teaching and traditional teaching?
3.
Disc Di scus usss the mic micro ro-t -tea each chin ingg proc proced edur uree
4.
Expla Exp lain in the pr princ incip iples les o mic micro ro-te -teac achin hing. g.
5.
‘Micro-teac ‘Micro -teaching hing is used or or developi developing ng certain certain teaching teaching skills. skills.’ Discuss Discuss the teaching teaching skills skills which can be developed with the help o micro-teaching.
6.
Discuss Discu ss the advantag advantages es o micromicro-teac teaching hing.. Point Point out out the limitatio limitations ns o micromicro-teac teaching hing..
7. 8.
Explain Expla in the the rol rolee o o superv superviso isorr in micr micro-t o-teac eachin hing. g. ‘Micro ‘M icro-teac -teaching hing is a scaled-dow scaled-down n teaching teaching encount encounter er in class-size class-size and and class-time class-time..’ Elaborate Elaborate the statement and discuss the uses o micro-teaching.
9.
Define microDefine micro-teac teaching hing.. What What is the importa importance nce o o micromicro-teac teaching hing or bringi bringing ng improvement in education?
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Indian Model of Micro-teaching
Te Indian model o micro-teaching was developed on the bases o researches o Passi (1976) L.C. Singh (1976–1979), Jangira (1978), and Department o eacher Education, the NCER. Te model was developed by Passi, Shah, and others at the Centre o Advanced Study in Education (CASE) at Baroda.
Salient Features of the Indian Model of Micro-teaching Salient eatures o the Indian model o micro teaching are ollowing: Flexibility: Te Indian model o micro-teaching is flexible to suit the varying levels o acilities o space and materials available in the college o education. echnology: Te Indian model o micro-teaching is a model with low or no gadget technology. It does not rely on costly gadgets such as audio tape recorder, a videotape, or a CCV. Modelling: Modelling, i.e., the model o presenting the skill is done through written material, lectures, demonstrations, and discussions and not through films, video, or CCV as in the case o advanced technology models o micro-teaching ollowed in the USA, the UK, Australia, and
other developed countries. Tereore, in the Indian model o micro-teaching we use live models
(demonstrations) and symbolic modelling. Symbolic modelling involves the presentation o models in the orm o written material such as handbooks, guides, and modules. In this ormat o modelling, it is possible to exercise a great deal o control in terms o timings, content, and presentation.
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 145 Feedback: Te term ‘eedback’ reers to providing inormation/perormance with a view to modiying it in the desired duration. Tere are a number o sources o eedback—mechanical gadgets (videotape, audio tape, CCV), college supervisor, peers and any combination o sources o these eedback. Te Indian model o micro-teaching is a model with low or no gadget
technology. Tethe eedback provided through (1) thearecollege supervisor, (2) peer, oris(3) both. allies andsystematic ratings onlive the observation observation by schedule used while giving the eedback and the interpretation about the perormance o student–teacher in the light o model lessons. Micro-teaching laboratory: Te micro-teaching laboratory can unction with the minimum o acilities according to the available space, material, and equipment. Te eedback sessions can be organized even in the corridors or in the open space, i sufficient accommodation is not available. Peers (Student teachers): In the Indian model o micro-teaching, real pupils have been replaced by peers (use o simulation). Tere is the use o the peers instead o the real pupils. Micro-sessions are held with the peers. Te student teachers act as the pupils. Micro-teaching is conducted in the college itsel. It has been demonstrated by researchers in India that stimulated micro-teaching is as effective as teaching with real pupils. Setting: Te micro-teaching setting comprises variables such as the duration o micro-teaching cycle, the number o pupils in a micro-class, and the type o supervisor. In the Indian model o micro-teaching, the setting given on the next page is suggested:
(1) Duration: Te duration o the micro-teaching cycle is as under: Teach
6 Minutes
Feedback
6 Minutes
Replan
12 Minutes
Reteach
6 Minutes
Refeedback
6 Minutes
Total
36 Minutes
(2) Micro-class pupils: A micro-class consists o 5–6 pupils and peers comprise the micro-class. (3) Number of supervisor(s): It is one or two. (4) Feedback : Both the college supervisor(s) and the peers are used or providing eedback to trainees.
Integration: Te integration o teaching skills is the ability on the part o a pupil–teacher to perceive with precision the teaching situation in its entirety, select and organize the teaching skills in the desired sequence to orm effective patterns or realizing the specified instructional objectives, and use them with ease and acility. At least five teaching skills are to be selected and explained at length rom the ollowing:
(1) Explaining, (2) probing questions, (3) stimulus variation, (4) reinorcement, (5) silence
and non-verbal cues, (6) illustrating i llustrating with examples, (7) encouraging pupil–teacher pupil–tea cher s participation, (8) effective use o blackboard (9) set induction, and (10) closure. One skill at a time is to be discussed beore practice. Tese skills are to be practised and developed through micro-teaching.
146 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 146 Minimum cost: Te Indian model o micro-teaching can be implemented with minimum cost. It requires no costly gadgets such as a videotape or a tape recorder. It should be noted that the components o micro-teaching are (1) modelling, (2) eedback, and (3) setting and integration. Accommodating: Te model is more accommodating in terms o space, material, materi al, and equipment. For example, the eedback session can be organized in open space, when no other space is available. Te Indian model o micro-teaching has been successully experimented and is being implemented and put to use in many o the university departments and training institutions.
Standard Procedure of Micro-teaching in Indian Model as given by L.C. Singh L.C. Singh, Ex. Proessor in Education NCER recommended the ollowing procedure (steps) or introducing micro-teaching in secondary teacher education in India in his Micro-teaching Series—7 ‘ Micro-teac Micro-teaching: hing: An An Innova Innovation tion in Teacher Teacher Educat Education ion’’. Orientation: In order to orient teacher-educators and student–teachers about micro-teaching,
theoretical discussion on micro-teaching may be arranged. Te merits and the demerits should also be explained. Discussion of teaching skills: Te concept o teaching skill is clarified first. At least five teaching skills should be selected and explained at length with the help o handbooks on specific teaching skills developed by the CASE, Baroda. One skill at a time may be discussed beore practice. Selected student–teachers student–teachers should be trained in observing observ ing the teaching skill. Presentation of model lesson: Te model lessons o the corresponding skills are then demonstrated by the trained teacher-educator preerably in all the method subjects chosen by the student–teachers. Such model lessons are given in a book on teaching skills namely ‘Becoming ‘Becoming Better Teacher: Micro-teaching Approach’ Approach’ by B.K. Passi. Preparation of micro-lesson plan: Te student–teacher should preerably select one unit concept or a micro-lesson. Micro teaching setting: Te ollowing setting is suggested or the micro-teaching technique under this standard procedure:
(a) Time: Teach Feedback Replan Reteach Refeedback
6 mts. 6 mts. 12 mts. 6 mts. 6 mts.
(b) Number of students
10 mts.
(c) Supervisors(s)
1 or 2
(d) Feedback of the supervisor(s)
Simulated condition: Te peers (student–teachers) should act as the pupils. Micro-teaching is conducted in the college itsel.
Micro-teaching in Social Studies 147 Practice of teaching-skills: At least five skills may be practised by a student–teacher. Any five skills o the ollowing may be selected:
(1) Probing questions, (2) stimulus variation, (3) reinorcement, (4) silence and non-verbal cues, (5) illustrating illust rating with examples, (6) encouraging pupil’s participation, (7) explaining, (8) effective effect ive use o blackboard, (9) set induction, and (10) closure. Observation of teaching skills: Te teaching skills being developed through micro-teaching are to be observed by the peers/the college supervisor. Feedback: Immediate eedback may be given to the student–teachers individually. Te tallies and the ratings on the observation schedule may be used while giving the eedback and the interpretation about the perormance o student–teacher in the light o model lessons. eaching time: Complete cycle o a micro-lesson or each o the five skills will be each → eedback → replan → reteach → reeedback.
Normally, 35 minutes will be taken by a trainee to complete one cycle.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expla Exp lain in the the Indi Indian an mode modell o o micr micro-t o-teac eachin hing. g.
2.
Whatt is the stan Wha standar dard d proced procedure ure o the the Indian Indian model model o micro micro-teac -teaching hing??
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Summary
1. Micro-teaching is a training procedure aiming at simpliying the complexities o the regular teaching process. 2. In this procedure, the trainee is engaged in a scaled-down teaching situation. 3. Te term ‘micro-teaching’ was first coined by Dwight Allen o the Stanord University University in 1963. 4. Tis is a training concept that can be applied at the pre-service and in-service in-ser vice stages in the proessional development o teachers. 5. Micro-teaching cycle may be represented as Plan → each → Discuss and Feedback → Replan → Rediscuss and Reeedback. 6. Te knowledge acquisition, the skill acquisition, and the transer phases are the main phases o micro-teaching 7. Te principles o micro-teaching are are the principle o practice, the principle o reinorcement, the principle o experimentation, the principle o evaluation, the principle o precise supervision, and the principle o continuity. 8. Tere are various teaching skills, i.e., stimulus variation, questioning, explaining, illustrating with examples, reinorcement, using blackboard, and classroom management, etc, which can be developed through micro-teaching.
9. Te modification o o teacher behaviour, behaviour, the knowledge teaching skills, the real teaching , and the continuous reinorcement are main the advantages o micro-teaching. 10. Costly, narrow narrow scope, disturbs the existing timetable, and difficulty in actual practice are the main limitations o micro-teaching.
148 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 148
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References
Wallia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pedagogics of Education. Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers, pp. 256–260. Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. Teaching of Social Studies— Studies— A Pract Practical ical Appr Approach oach.. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 275–276. Pathak, R.P. 2003. New Dimension of Educational Technology . New Delhi: Radha Publishers, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, p. 82. Studies. Agra: Vinod Pustak-Mandir, p. 48. yagi, G. 1989. Teaching of Social Studies. Das, R.C. 1993. Educational Technology Technology A Basic Basi c Text . Delhi: Sterling Publication, pp. 67–69.
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Additional Readings
Jangira, N.K. and Singh, A. 1980. Micr Micro-teach o-teaching—A ing—A Step in Learnin Learningg to Teach each.. New Delhi: Handbook or eacher eacher Educators E ducators NCER. NCER. ery Learning Learning . Kurukshetra: Vishal Publishers University Hooda, R.C. and Jangira, N.K. 1987. Mast 1987. Mastery Campus. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Intr Introducing oducing Social Studies Studies.. Bombay: Orient Longmans Green and Company. Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International ext Book Company. Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1966. Teaching Social Studies in Indian-Schools Indian-Schools.. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot.
Models of Teaching and Team Teaching
10
Models o teaching suggest inter-relationships between teaching and learning at various conditions. Usually these models are prototypes o the theories o learning. Models o teaching are the buildings, whereas the theories o teaching are the construction plans. A teaching model is a model that provides suitable guidelines to the teachers or creating a proper interactive environment or teaching-learning.
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Denition of Models of Teaching
eaching models have been defined in a number o ways. Some o the important definitions o a teaching model are given here to have a wider perspective o this concept. It may also be observed that teaching models in all subjects including social studies have the same characteristics. Allen and Ryan Ryan (1969)—‘Modelling is an individual demonstrating particular pattern which the trainee learns through imitation.’ Bandura (1969)—‘Modelling demonstrates that virtually all learning phenomena resulting rom direct experiences can occur on a vicarious basis through observation o other person’s behaviour
and its consequences or them.’ B.K Passi, L.C. Singh, and D.N. Sansanwal (1991)—‘A model o teaching consists o guidelines or designing educational activities and environments. Model o teaching is a plan that can also be utilise utilised d to shape courses o studies, to design instructional material and to guide instruction.’ instruction.’ Joyce and Weil (1972)—‘eaching models are just instructional designs. Tey describe the process o speciying and producing environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in the behaviour.’ Joyce and Weil (1972)—‘eaching model is a pattern or plan, which can be used to shape a curriculum or course to select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions.’ N. K. Jangira and Ajit Singh (1983)—‘A model o teaching is a set o interrelated components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realise a specific goal. It helps in designing
instructional activities and environmental environmental acilities, carrying out o these activities and realizatio realization n
o the stipulated objectives. Weil and Joyce (1978)—‘A model o teaching consists o guidelines or designing educational activities activit ies and environments. It specifies ways o teaching and learning that are intended to achieve certain kinds o goals.’
150 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 150 Paul D. Eggen et al. (1979)—Explain the meaning o a model as, ‘An engineer, in considering a project, first identifies the type o structure to be built, e.g., a building, a bridge or a road. Having done this, he selects an appropriate design or blueprint to ollow in building that structure. Te specifications o the blueprint determine the actions o the builder takes and the kind o building
that result. Te particular o blueprint or model chosenodepends on model the type o identifies structure to bewill built. In a similar simil ar manner,type a teacher considering the choice a teaching first ident ifies what is to be taught and then selects a model in accordance with that goal. Te model chosen is specifically designed to achieve a particular set o objectives and will determine in large part o the actions o the teachers.’ Educators and psychologists have designed several types o teaching models which provide suitable guidelines to the teachers or modiying the behaviour o the learners.
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Characteristics of a Model of Teaching
Te characteristics o a good model are given below: Specification of learning outcome: All models o teaching speciy what the students should perorm afer completing an instructional sequence. Specification of environment: A teaching model specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be observed. Specification of criterion of performance: A model o teaching specifies the criterion o perormance which is expected rom the students Specification of operations: A model o teaching specifies the mechanism that provides or the reaction o students and interaction with the environment. Scientific procedure: A model o teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modiy the behaviour o the learner. It is not a haphazard combination o acts.
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Functions of Models of Teaching
Tese help in guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques, strategies, and methods or the effective utilization o the teaching situation, and the material or realizing the objective.
Tey help in bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour o the learners. Tey help in finding out ways and means o creating avourable environmental situations or carrying out the teaching process. Tey help in achieving desirable teacher–pupil interaction during teaching. Tey help in the construction o a curriculum or contents o a course. Tey help in the proper selection o instructional material or teaching the prepared course or the curriculum.
Tey help in designing appropriate educational activities.
Tey assist producers o materials to create interesting and effective effect ive materials and learning sources. Tey stimulate the development o new educational innovations. Tey help in the ormation o a theory o teaching.
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Tey help in establishing an empirical relationship between teaching and learning. Tey help in developing social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities, and behavioural aspects o the students.
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Effects of Teaching by Modelling
Bandura and Walters mention three kinds o effects in teaching by modelling. Tese are: (1) a modelling effect, (2) an inhibitary and disinhibitary effect, and (3) an eliciting effect. 1. A modelling effect. 1. effect. A A modelling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to hold a pen when drawing a map or a graph, etc., and thus shows a new behaviour. Here a student learns new kinds o response pattern. 2. An inhibitary and 2. and disinhibitary disinhibitary effect. An effect. An inhibitary or disinhibitary effect takes place when a teacher through modelling lets the student to know that it is not good to look at pictures o nudes even in an art book. 3. An eliciting effect. Te 3. effect. Te eliciting effect takes place when a teacher through modelling tries to teach the students to raise rom their seats when a lady enters the room and thus provides a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited.
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Development of a Model
Modelling Operations or Stages of Modelling Te three stages in the development o a model are: 1. Analysis o a particular skill. skill. 2. Identification o the key elements in it. 3. Exposition o the elements elements in such a way as to exempliy exempliy satisactorily the skills under consideration.
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Fundamental Elements of Models of Teaching
Te ollowing are the undamental elements o a teaching model. Tese are explained while discussing the basic teaching model o Glaser.
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Focus Syntax Principles o reactions Social system Support system
Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Te basic teaching model was developed by Robert Glaser in 1962. It is termed as ‘basic’ because
it tries to explain the whole teaching process by dividing it into our basic components or parts, namely, (1) instructional objectives, (2) entering behaviour, (3) instructional procedures, and (4) perormance assessment. All these our basic components o the teaching process interact and influence each other as explained in Figure 10.1.
152 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 152
Figure 10.1
Components of Teaching Process in Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Instructional objectives: Instructional objectives indicate the stipulated goals that a student is expected to t o attain afer the completion o a part o instruction. instruct ion. Tese are usually based bas ed on Bloom’ Bloom’s axonomy o objectives. object ives. Entering behaviour: Entering behaviour implies the initial behaviour o the student beore the beginning o instruction. Te assessment o the entering behaviour is an important aspect o the instructional process. Instructional procedures: Instructional procedures represent the teaching methods, strategies, and student–teacher interaction patterns involved in teaching. Instructional procedures are
guided by the nature o the instructional objectives and the entering behaviour. Performance Perf ormance assessment: Perormance assessment involves the extent to which the stipulated objectives have been ulfilled. It involves the use o suitable evaluation techniques such as tests, observation, etc. It serves as a eedback device or each o the steps and elements o the teaching process. As matter o act, all these our basic components o the teaching process interact and influence each other. One sets the base or the other by providing a base or eedback or the successul operation o the teaching act.
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Description of Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model
Glaser’s model may be described in terms o the undamental elements as ollows: Focus: It attempts to pinpoint the processes and major activities comprising the entire teaching– learning process. It also brings into light the sequence to be ollowed in the instructional inst ructional processes. process es. Syntax: Te flow o activities in this model is sequential. First, the objectives to be ollowed are fixed in accordance with Bloom’ Bloom’s axonomy axonomy.. Ten the t he potentiality o the learners in terms o their entry behaviour is assessed. Tereafer in the light o the entry behaviour, instructional work is carried out or the achievement o stipulated objectives. object ives. Perormance assessment is the final phase. Principles of reactions: Te main principles o reaction are summarized below:
Principle of Interdependence: Interdependence: Te student’s responses are to be understood and dealt with in the light o the interaction and interdependence o the our stages, i.e., objectives, entry behaviour, instructional process, and assessment. Principle of Active Involvement: Its Involvement: Its proper execution requires a great deal o activity on the
part o the teacher. At every stage, the teacher is expected to develop a proper understanding o the potential and difficulties o his students or achieving the objectives. Principle of Follow-up: In Follow-up: In case the results are not in accordance with the set objectives, gaps and deficiencies have to be ound out and corrective measures need to be taken.
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Social system: Te success o this model depends upon the ability and competency o the teacher in terms o various skills such as the ormulation o objectives, the use o proper strategies, the techniques o evaluation, etc. Support system: Te model or its success needs additional support in terms o (1) the availability availabil ity
o adequate pre-service and in-service in-ser vice acilities to teachers to acquire the inevitable competencies and skills or the use o the model, (2) the availability o desirable teaching–learning environment and situations or the use o suitable teaching strategies, and and (3) availability o appropriate evaluation devices or the assessment o entry and terminal behaviour o the learners. Applicability of the model: Being quite systematic and structured, this model is applicable to almost all learning–teaching situations.
Glaser’s model indicates that teaching includes a wide range o decisions and practices and much o which requires little or no personal contact between the teacher and the student. It implies a greater emphasis on the competency o the teacher than on his personality.
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Disciplinary Model of Teaching Social Sciences
Te disciplinary model o teaching adopted by the teacher relates not only to control the class but also to learning. Te control should be rom within rather than external. An understanding o the appropriate model o discipline will go a long way to enable a teacher to manage classroom activities effectively. Te ollowing are some o the significant points to be borne in the mind by a teacher in this regard.
Basic needs o the students should be properly gratified. eachers can exercise a positive influence on the unctioning o classroom by being courteous. eachers assume the role o a guide and not o a critic. Attention is more likely when teaching-learning provides learners with opportunities to
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apply their skills. Boredom is less likely when teachers vary their teaching strategies. A sense o rhythm should be there in all the activities carried out in the class. Tis is possible i students are kept engaged in worthwhile activities.
Personality Model of Teaching Social Sciences
All teachers including the teachers o social sciences must keep in view the personality aspect. In the words o Dr. E.A. Pires, ‘He (teacher) has to concern himsel with the total development o the child and not only with one or two aspects. He must beriend him and help him in his emotional and social development. devel opment. He must be a philosopher illumining the way o his intellectual and spiritual progress. He must be his guide in his moral and aesthetic advancement. In act, he must be “all things” to all his pupils—a physician concerned about their physical health, a
mental hygienist leading them careully to sound mental health, a philosopher guiding them painstakingly in their research or truth, a moralist assisting and encouraging them to acquire goodness, an artist helping them to find beauty. In act, be must he a minister ministering to their every need. Such a ministry calls or dedicated service.’
154 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 154
Various personality aspects o the teacher include (1) character, (2) open mindedness, (3) impartial attitude, (4) due regard or the personality o the child, (5) consistency in giving commands, (6) judicious use o praise and blame, (7) humorous nature, nature, (8) emotional stability, stability, (9) good appearance, (10) right manners and postures, and (11) sel-analysis.
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Team Teaching
Te idea o team teaching is comparatively new in the field o education. It is one o the most interesting and potentially significant recent developments in education. It is an organizational structure to improve teaching–learning process in the classroom. It is an innovation in school organization in which two or more teachers teach the different parts o a subject to a group o students. Te group is benefited by the expertise o different teachers.
Denition of Team Teaching Carlo-Obson—‘An An instructional instruct ional situation where two or more teachers possessing pos sessing complimentary teaching skills cooperatively plan and implement the instruction or a single group o students
using flexible scheduling and grouping techniques to meet the particular instruction.’ David Warwick—‘A team teaching is a orm o organisation, in which individual teachers decide to pool resources, interest and expertise, in order to devise and implement scheme o work suitable to the needs o their pupils and the acilities o their school.’ France Chase of the University of Chicago— ‘Such an arrangement (team teaching) would allow or maximum use o the available talent; provide guidance or young and experienced teachers.’ Goodlad—‘eam teaching implies a hierarchy o personnel as well as a differentiation o staff unctions based on differences in qualifications or personal interests. Te hierarchy involves a team leader, assistant teacher, teacher’s aide, internal teacher and clerk or some other assay o sources.’ M.B. Naik—‘In a team teaching method, two or more teachers make a plan o the subjects
cooperatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effect on the students periodically.’ Michael J. Michael J. Apter— Apter—‘ ‘eam eam teaching involves bringing together a number o classes, whose w hose teaching is then the joint responsibility o the teachers o these classes who now constitute a team.’ T.T. Shaplin—‘ ‘eam eam teaching is a type o instructional instruct ional organisation involving teaching personnel and the students assigned to them, in which two or more teachers are given responsibilities, working together, or all or a significant part o the instruction o some group o students.’
Characteristics of Team Teaching From the above-mentioned definitions o team teaching, the ollowing characteristics emerge:
It is an instructional arrangement. It involves teaching to be conducted by two or more teachers.
It calls or team spirit in teaching.
eam spirit o teachers is bound to benefit the students to the maximum. It is a sort o pooling o expertise and resources such as experience, interest, knowledge and skills, etc., o teachers. It is economical in the sense that it results in more work in less time.
Models of Teaching and Team Teaching
155
Origin and Growth of Team Teaching Te USA is said to be the birthplace o team teaching. In 1955, it was initiated at the Harvard University. Te second milestone was at Lexington in 1957. Francis Chase o the University o Chicago and J. Leyod rump, Director o the Commission on the Experimental Study, popularized the movement in the secondary schools in the USA. In the 1970s, almost all the institutions inst itutions in the USA used team teaching teachi ng in one or the other way. way.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
Expl Ex plai ain n the the mod model elss o o tea teach chin ing. g.
2.
Descr De scribe ibe the the charac character terist istics ics and and unct unctio ions ns o mode models ls o teac teachin hing. g.
3.
Explai Exp lain n the the Gla Glaser ser’’s basi basicc tea teach ching ing mod model el..
4.
Evalu Ev aluat atee the disc discip iplin linary ary mode modell o teach teaching ing soci social al scien science ces. s.
5.
Criticall Crit icallyy comme comment nt on the perso personali nality ty model model o teac teaching hing social scien sciences. ces.
6.
Defin De finee the the char charac acte teri risti stics cs o o team team tea teach chin ing. g.
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Summary
1. Models o teaching suggest inter-relationships between various conditions o teaching– learning. 2. Models o teaching have been defined in a number number o ways. 3. Te specification o learning outcome, the specification o environment, the specification o operations, and the specification o scientific procedure are the main characteristics o models o teaching. 4. Focus, syntax, the principles o reactions, social system, and support system are the undamental elements o a model o teaching. 5. Glaser model o teaching is known as the basic teaching model. 6. Te basic needs o the students, the teacher’s teacher’s role, the application o skills, etc., etc. , are the main significant actors or the disciplinary model o teaching social sciences. 7. Character, open mindedness mindedness,, impartial attitude, humorous nature, emotional stability, good appearance, right manners, and sel-analysis are the aspects o the personality models o teaching social sciences. 8. eam teaching is comparatively new idea in the field o education. 9. Te characteristics o team teaching are the instructional arrangement, the team spirit in teaching, and its economical nature. 10. One origin o team teaching is developed at Harvard University University in the USA in 1955.
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References
Dececco, J.P. 1970. Te Psychology of Learning and Instruction. Instruction. New Delhi: Prentice Hall o India Pvt. Ltd., p. 184. Joyce, B. and Weil, M. 1985. Models of eachi eaching ng . New Delhi: Prentice Hall o India Pvt. Ltd., pp. 214–216. Pandey, K.P. 1983. Dynamics of eaching Behaviour . Ghaziabad: Amitash Prakashan, p. 64.
156 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 156
Aggarwal, J.C. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach . New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 389–390. Mattoo, B.K. 1996. New eaching echnology for Elementary School eachers. eachers . New Delhi: Neeta Prakashan Ring Road, South Extn Part I, p. 70.
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Additional Readings
Bajpai, A.C. and Leedham, J.F. 1970. Aspects of Educa Educationa tionall echn echnology ology . New York: Pitman Publishing & Co. Das, R.C. 1993. Educational echnology—A echnology—A Basic ext . Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Peter, L.J. 1965. Prescriptive eaching . New York: McGraw-Hill Book & Co. Kochhar, S.K. 1990. Te eaching eaching of Social Soc ial Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd. Pathak R.P R. P. 2003. eaching of Social Soc ial Studies. Studies . New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributers, Ansari Road, Daryaganj Daryaganj..
Lesson Planning in Social Studies
11
Te smallest unit o the proposed teaching material which the teacher wants to teach in one unit o time is called a ‘lesson’. Beore teaching this unit, the teacher prepares an outline o the lesson. Tis outline is based on the principles o learning and is called ‘the lesson plan’. Te pupil–teacher is taught to prepare the lesson plan. Bossing explains the meaning o lesson planning in these words, ‘Lesson planning is the title given to a statement: o the achievements to be realized and the specific means by which these are to be attained as a result o the activitie ac tivitiess engaged in day-by-day under the t he guidance o the teacher.’ Tis definition tends to ocus the teacher’s attention upon the ollowing:
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Outcomes or results in terms o the pupil. Definite processes and procedures with a recognition o activity as the basis o learning. Te pupil in the oreground and the teacher in the background as guide and director only o the learning activity.
Meaning and Concept of Lesson Planning
According to Bossing, ‘Lesson planning is essentially an experience in anticipatory teaching. It is living through in advance, mentally and emotionally, the classroom experience as the teacher visualizes it. Te eager aces, the questions that will arise, the difficulties the pupils will encounter, the way these difficulties are to be met all these the teacher will experience in imagination. Tis is the first essential o good planning. It is here that the teacher can bring into play the subtle power o well-developed imagination. Te more vivid, the better, so long as it is ully tinged with realism.’ Te teacher must possess the ollowing our qualities to plan effectively:
A broad understanding o the subject matter, materials, and activities that will provide the nucleus or the classroom experience. An intimate knowledge o the environmental orces that has played upon the lie o the
class collectively and individually. A thorough comprehension o the psychology o the mental process with an understanding o the realization o the laws o learning leading to the anticipated classroom situation. A teaching technique to meet the general and specific needs o a learning situation.
158 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 158
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Nature and Functions of Lesson Planning
Planning is essential not only in i n teaching but also in all spheres o human activity. activity. Probably, Probably, there is no type o work where the results o poor planning are as devastating as in teaching. R.L. R .L. Stevenson said, ‘o every teacher I would say, “Always plan out your lesson beore-hand but do not be slave to it”.’ Bagley has put it thus, ‘However, ‘However, able and experienced the teacher teacher,, he could do never without his preliminary preparation.’ o o be effective, every ever y intelligent worker plans out their work. A surgeon diagnoses the case, cas e, prepares their surgical instruments beore they put the patient on the operation table; a lawyer makes attempts to anticipate and prepare or every move in the court; an engineer prepares their blue print beore they actually start the construction work o a bridge or a building; the house mistress plans the details o the daily meals; the sales manager gives careul attention to every step in a proposed selling campaign. Similarly, Similarly, teachers ought to plan and prepare their work. A lesson plan indicates the aims to be realized by teaching a lesson, the methods to be employed, and the activities to be undertaken in the class so that it is kept engaged or the realization o the aim. Te lesson plan is actually a plan o action. It includes: Teir working philosophy.
Teir inormation andounderstanding pupils. Teir comprehension the objectiveso otheir education. Teir knowledge o the material to be taught. Teir ability to use effective methods o education.
Te lesson plan affects the teacher’s skill, intelligence, ability, and their personality. Te ollowing are the chie unctions o planning:
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It delimits the field o work o the teacher as well as o the students and provides a definite objective or each day’s work. As the goal is determined, the teacher gets impetus to realize their goal. It tends to prevent wandering rom the subject and going off the way. It serves as a check on the possible wastage o time and energy o the teachers and the students. It makes teaching systematic, orderly, and economical. It helps the teacher to organize and systematize the learning process. Te activities in the lesson are well knit, inter-connected, and associated. Te continuity o the educative process is ensured. It helps in avoiding needless repetition. It helps the teacher to overcome the eeling o nervousness and insecurity. It helps in ostering their confidence to ace the class. It gives opportunities to the teacher to think out new ways and means o making the lesson interesting and to introduce thought-provoking questions. It ensures a definite assignment or the class and the availability o adequate materials or the lesson.
Denition of Lesson Planning
Lester B. Sands—‘A lesson plan is actually a plan o action. It, thereore, includes the working philosophy o the teacher, her knowledge o philosophy, her inormation about and understanding o her pupils, her comprehension o the objectives o education, her knowledge o the material to be taught, and her ability to utilize effective method.’
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 159 Bossing—‘A lesson plan is an organised statement o general and specific goals together with the specific means by which these goals are to be attained by learner under the guidance o the teacher on a given day.’ Binning and Binning—‘Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and
arranging subject-matter and determining the method or procedure.’ Carter V. Good—A lesson plan is ‘a teaching outline o the important points o lesson arranged in order in which they are to be presented. It may include objectives, points to be made, questions to be asked, reerences to materials, assignments etc.’ Te ollowing points highlight the concept o lesson planning: Instructional Instruction al procedure: A lesson plan is an instructional procedure prepared by the teacher. eaching approach: Te lesson plan is designed on the basis o some approach o teaching. Generally, Bloom’s approach is ollowed or lesson planning. It includes three steps: (1) teaching objectives, (2) learning experiences, and (3) change in behaviour. objectives, Plan of action: A lesson plan is actually a plan o action. It includes the working philosophy o the teacher, their inormation about the understanding o the pupils, their comprehension o the objectives o education, their knowledge o the material to be taught, and their ability to utilize an effective method. Statement of objectives and means: A lesson plan is an organized statement o general and specific objectives together with the specific means by which these objectives are to be achieved by the pupils under the guidance o teacher. Selecting subject matter and method: Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and arranging subject matter, and deciding the method that needs to be ollowed. eaching outline: A lesson plan is a teaching outline o the important points o lesson arranged in the order o presentation. It includes objectives, points to be made, aids to be used, questions to be asked, blackboard summary, reerences to material, and assignments. It is the brie outline o the main points o the lesson to be covered by the teacher in a specified period at school or the
realization o stipulated instructional objectives. Indication of what and how: A lesson plan indicates clearly what has already been done, what the pupils are supposed to do, how the pupils are to be engaged in various activities, and what activities are to be pursue pursued. d. Statement of purposes, activities, Statement ac tivities, and techniques: Te lesson plan is a clear and precise statement o the aims and purposes o the lesson and the various devices and techniques to be used by the teacher.. It should make a mention o the specific activities to be undertaken teacher underta ken in the classroom. eacher’s mental visualization: Te lesson plan, is in act, a teacher’s mental visualization o classroom experiences and activities put down in black and white. Heart of teaching: An effective lesson planning is the heart o effective teaching.
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Principles of Lesson Planning
Principles o lesson planning are given below:
Principle of writing the lesson plan: A good lesson plan should preerably be written. It should not remain at the oral or mental stage.
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Principle of statement of objectives: Both the general and specific objectives should be clearly stated. Principle of selection of suitable subject matter: Te contents o the lesson should be selected according to the needs, the interests, the abilities, and the level o the pupils. While selecting the
subject matter, the aims o teaching and the time at disposal should also be kept in mind. Principle of orderly presentation: Te subject matter should be presented in an organized, orderly, and effective manner. An effective presentation includes the ollowing: Principle of correlation: Te subject matter should be correlated with what has been done beore and with what needs to be ollowed. Moreover, it should be correlated with various subjects, crafs, and lie situations. It will make the lesson interesting and more meaningul. Principle of teaching techniques: Te plan should indicate the teaching techniques to be used by the teacher–how the lesson is to be presented, what method is to be ollowed, what questions are to be asked, and what illustrations are to be used. It should clearly indicate the maps, the charts, the models, the pictures, the films, and the other audiovisual aids which are to be used by the teacher. Principle useteacher. of blackboard: lesson plandiagrams should clearly blackboard to be done byofthe It should Te point out the or the indicate sketchesthe which are to bework drawn on the blackboard. Principle of child’s activity and participation: Te lesson plan should indicate child’s activity and participation which is to be made in the classroom. Te pupils should be encouraged to ask questions, solve problems, and perorm experiments. Principle of flexibility: Te lesson plan should be flexible. Te teacher should be ree to depart rom the lesson plan which they have already written. Principle of evaluation exercises: Te lesson plan should indicate the evaluation exercises. Tese exercises may be in the orm o recapitulatory questions and problems relating to the application o knowledge. Principle of assignment: Te lesson plan should include the assignments or the pupils. Principle of selected bibliography: Te lesson plan should indicate the selected bibliography, i.e., the reerence books. Principle of duration and age of pupils: Te lesson plan should be made in accordance with the age level o the pupils as well as with the duration o period. Tere should be a proper division o time to be devoted to the various parts o the lesson. Besides this, the lesson plan should indicate the age o the pupils, the time allotment o the class to be taught, the subject, and the topic. Principle of making summary: Te lesson plan should have an outline or a summary o the whole lesson. Tis summary may be developed on the blackboard with the help o the students.
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Importance of Lesson Planning
Importance o lesson planning are ollowing: Achievement of definite goals: Te lesson planning delimits the field in which the teacher is teaching and enables them to define their aims and objectives more clearly. Te teacher thinks o ways and means with which they can realize their aim most effectively.
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Selection and organization of subject matter: Te lesson planning helps the teacher in the selection and organization o subject matter, materials, and activities. Te subject matter is selected and organized according to the abilities, aptitudes, and developmental level o the pupils. Selection of effective teaching procedure: Te lesson planning helps the teacher in the selection
o the most effective teaching procedure which will wil l lead to the modification o the pupils’ attitudes, their habits, and the inormation in desirable directions. Evaluation of instructions: Te lesson planning enables the teacher to prepare tests or progress and to evaluate the outcome o instructions. Te evaluation is a very important part o teaching– learning process. Te evaluation is possible only i the definite aims and objectives are to be borne in the mind. Prevention of wastage: Te lesson planning prevents the wastage o time, because it helps the teacher to be systematic systemati c and orderly. orderly. It saves them rom haphazard haphazard teaching as needless needl ess repetitions are avoided. Continuity in teaching process: Te lesson planning establishes the proper connections between the different lessons or the units o study. Tus, it encourages the continuity in the teaching process. Provision for summaries and assignments: Te lesson planning provides adequate lesson summaries and ensures a definite assignment or the class which helps in developing insight and understanding. Confidence and self-reliance: Te lesson planning imparts confidence and sel-reliance to the teacher. It enables the teacher to enter the classroom without anxiety. During the planning process, the teacher oresees the difficulties that are likely to arise and prepares themselves to deal with these issues.
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Criteria of an Effective Lesson Plan
An effective lesson plan is like a clock. It reflects many qualities o the teacher—their methods o teaching, their strategies, their devices o teaching, and their use o language. Te lesson plan is a guideline or the pupil–teacher to teach in the classroom. An effective lesson plan helps the pupil–teacher in organizing their teaching in the classroom. Te ollowing is the criteria or the characteristics of an effective lesson plan: plan : Written: An effective lesson plan is in the written orm. It does not remain at the oral or mental stage. Tis assures the teacher that they have read the lesson rom various possible dimensions. Objective-based: An effective lesson plan is a statement o both the general and specific objectives. object ives. Te objectives are written and defined clearly and it helps in the evaluation o the lesson. Based on previous knowledge: Te lesson plan should be related to the previous knowledge o the pupils, i.e., their previous lessons. It should not be isolated rom the previous knowledge o the pupils. Some o the working links must be established.
Suitable units: An effective lesson plan is divided into suitable units so that the students may understand it gradually. Selection of subject matter: In an effective lesson plan, the contents o the lesson are selected according to the needs, interests, abilities, and level o the pupils. While selecting the subject matter, the aims o teaching and the time at disposal are to be borne in mind. Te subject matter
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should be careully selected and well organized under important points stage by stage. It should be progressively correlated with what has gone beore and with what is to ollow. Suitable aids: A right decision should be taken regarding the diagrams, the pictures, the maps, the models, the charts, the graphs, etc., while preparing an ideal lesson plan. Orderly presentation: In an effective lesson plan, the subject matter is presented in an organized, orderly, and effective manner. An effective presentation includes: Correlation: Te subject matter is correlated with what has been done beore and with what is to ollow. It should be correlated with various subjects, crafs, and lie situations. It makes the lesson interesting and more meaningul. eaching techniques, strategies, and aids: An effective lesson plan clearly indicates the techniques and strategies to be used by the teacher—how the lesson is to be presented, what method is to be ollowed, what questions are to be asked, what illustrations are to be used. It clearly indicates the maps, the charts, the models, the flash cards, the pictures, the posters, the filmstrips, the films, and other audiovisual aids to be used by the teacher. Use of blackboard: An effective lesson plan clearly indicates the blackboard work to be done by the teacher. It points out the diagrams or the sketches to be drawn on the blackboard. Pupils’ activity and participation: An effective lesson plan indicates the pupils’ activity and the participation to be made in the classroom. It indicates the questions to be asked, the problems to be solved, and the experimen experiments ts to be b e perormed. Flexible and psychological: An effective lesson plan is logical and flexible. It can be changed or modified according to the needs o the students in the classroom. It means that the teacher is ree to depart rom the lesson plan which they have already written. Functional format: Te ormat o an effective lesson plan is unctional. It is according to the nature o the subject content. It can be ollowed in the t he classroom step by step by the pupil–teacher. pupil–te acher. Tere should not be several columns in the presentation or learning experiences. Tere should be two columns: (1) teaching activities, (2) pupils’ activities, which should involve methods, devices, aids, and other supporting systems. It should be highly applicable in the classroom teaching. Memory to reflective level: An effective lesson plan indicates the developmental and thoughtprovoking questions to be asked to the students according to the need o the content in an effort to extend the teaching rom the memory level to the reflective lesson level. Evaluation exercises: An effective lesson plan indicates the evaluation exercises in the orm o o recapitulatory questions and questions and the problems relating to the application of knowledge. Duration of period and age of pupils: An effective lesson plan is made in accordance with the age level o the pupils as well as the duration o the period. Tere is a proper division o time to be devoted to various parts o the lesson. Besides this, it indicates the age and class o pupils, the duration o period, the subject, and the topic to be taught. Te size o the lesson plan should be such that it may be completed within the period o school duration. It should not be too large or too small. Summary: An effective lesson plan has an outline or a summary o the whole lesson. Te summary may be developed on the blackboard with the help o students.
Practice and remediation: An effective lesson plan has the t he provision or practice and remediation o students’ learning difficulties. Assignments: An effective lesson plan includes an assignment (homework) or the pupils. Reference books: An effective lesson plan indicates the reerence books or selected bibliography.
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Tus, in lesson planning, a teacher has to consider the ollowing:
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Considering the broader objectives o the subject. Defining the classroom objectives o the lesson. Organizing the subject matter to be covered in the lesson or achieving the stipulated objectives. Deciding the way o presenting the subject matter, the teaching strategies and tactics, and the classroom interaction and management. Providing appropriate provision or evaluation and eedback.
Prerequisites of Lesson Planning
Prerequisites o lesson planning are ollowing: Knowledge of subject matter: Te teacher must be master o their subject. Tey should have a thorough knowledge o the subject matter, the materials, and the activities which are to be used. Knowledge of child psychology: Te teacher must have the knowledge o child psychology, i.e., they should know the standard and individuality o the students and present the subject matter accordingly. Tis psychological insight on the part o teacher is very essential. Knowledge of methods and techniques: Te teacher should be conversant with the methods and techniques o teaching. Knowledge of aims: Te teacher should have a basic understanding underst anding o the aims and the objectives o education. Tey should have an ability and skill or writing the objectives in behavioural terms as well as the knowledge o various teaching skills.
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Approaches to Lesson Planning
Tere are various styles and approaches or planning and writing the lesson plans. In this chapter, we shall describe our important approaches:
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Herbartian approach. Unit approach (Morrison’s approach). Evaluation approach (Bloom (Blo om’’s approach). RCEM approach.
Herbartian Approach of Knowledge Lesson
For imparting knowledge in a systematic manner, a set procedure has to be ollowed. Various attempts have been made rom time to time by the psychologists and the educationists to evolve out the definite procedure or the teaching knowledge lesson. Herbar suggested the ollowing five steps or imparting the knowledge lesson: Preparation: Preparing means the preparation o learner’s mind to receive new knowledge. Just
as theknowledge. field is prepared to sow theoseeds, the children mind is also to be prepared to receive the new Te preparation students involves stwo steps: Previous knowledge testing: Trough the previous knowledge testing, the teacher becomes b ecomes amiliar with what the pupils already know relevant to the topic Herbart calls it ‘apperceptive it ‘apperceptive masses’. Te masses’. Te teacher’s unction is to find out the nature and the extent o apperceptive masses or the previous
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knowledge. Tey can do it by asking questions. It should be noted that the teacher should put only a ew questions. Besides asking questions, the teacher can tell a story or discuss some topics o relevant interest in order to connect the previous lesson with the new lesson. But this step must be brie, stimulating, and to the point. Sometimes this step is called ‘ called ‘ Introduction’ Introduction’ or ‘Motivation ‘Motivat ion’’. Here is a word o caution or the teacher: Te lengthy introductions should be avoided. Announcement of the aim: Te aim will automatically emerge out i the lesson has been effectively effe ctively introduced. Te announcement o the aim should be b e in clear, concise, and ree rom verbosity and unknown words. It should be a brie statement like. ‘oday, we shall study the uses o orests.’ o sum up the first step, we quote the words o J. J. Welton , , ‘o ‘o know where the pupils are and where they should try to be are the first two essentials o good teaching.’ Presentation: Afer the pupils have been motivated and the aim has been announced clearly, the teacher should proceed with the presentation o the new material. Tis step involves a good deal o mental activity on the part o the students. Here the lesson is divided into different sections or units which are interconnected. Te teacher imparts the new inormation in a proper sequence which is suitable to the level o the pupils. Tey utilize the various devices such as the
exposition, the explanation, the narration, the description, the questions, the illustrations, the demonstrations, and the sensory aids. Te teacher puts themselves into the shoes o the students to present things to them. Te order o presentation should be psychological and not logical. Te subject matter is to be selected and presented according to the needs, the interests, the abilities, and the developmental level o the pupils. Te teacher should keep in mind the ollowing principles in the presentation stage: Principle of selection and division: Te subject matter should be presented very wisely and judiciously judiciou sly according according to the level o the pupils. pupils. Principle of successive clearness: When the lesson is divided into different sections, the teacher should observe well connected and proper sequence, and successive clarity. Te teacher should assure themselves that the portions o the lesson taught become clear to the students. Tey should not proceed to the next part until the previous parts are properly understood by the pupils. Principle of absorption and integration: Each section or an item o new knowledge should first be separately dealt with and comprehended. Ten it should be integrated with what has been done beore. For example, when dealing with compound interest, it will be better b etter to integrate with simple interest which has been taught beore. Association or comparison: An association is the linking up o the new ideas with the old and with one another into a system. Te selected examples or acts are presented beore the pupils and they are asked to careully observe them and compare them with another set o acts and to arrive at some conclusion. Te comparison step is most important in a purely inductive lesson on a new topic such as a ormula in algebra, the definition o a part o speech in grammar, or the raming o a hypothesis in science. Sometimes an association or a comparison is regarded as a part a part of the presentation step. Its step. Its importance lies in establishing new relations rom a combination o the old and the new.
Generalization: Te comparison and the association help the children in finding out a certain conclusion which should enable them to rame a general law, a principle, or a ormula. Te teacher’ss unction is to enable teacher’ en able the pupils to draw out the generalization generalizati on rom the relevant data that are well collected and well arranged. Te teacher should encourage the students to draw out the
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conclusion themselves. I the generalization made by the pupils is incomplete or wrongly stated, the teacher should help them to complete and correct it. Te important thing is that the students should clearly understand the law that they have ound. Te generalization should be primarily the product o students’ thinking and experience. Application: Te knowledge that is not used will soon ade rom consciousness. It is said that knowledge is power, but it is true only when the mind can apply it to a practical situation. Tus, the principles ramed in the generalization step may be applied to the solution o a particular revision and the recapitulation o principles just learnt and may take a wide variety o orm such as the making o a model, the drawing o a map, and the writing o an essay. By application, the new acts get established in the mind o the pupils and become a part and parcel o the child’s mental make-up.
I the lesson is imparted according to the Herbartian steps, it should be ollowed by recapitulation. Generally, a recapitulation is the revision or the repetition o knowledge learnt in the lesson and the application is the use o knowledge learnt. Moreover, in the recapitulation the emphasis is on the memory and the retentivity o knowledge, while in the application the emphasis is on the higher mental processes. Te application requires the mental activity to apply the knowledge to the new situations. Te recapitulation is done at the end o a lesson, or it is done afer covering a part o it (sectional recapitulation).
Advantages of Herbartian Lesson Planning Te important merits o Herbartian’s five steps o the lesson planning are given below: Psychological: Herbartian’s five steps lesson planning approach is psychological, logical, and effective. It incorporates the principles o learning and each step is organized in a logical way. Useful in all subjects: It is used in the teaching o all the subjects—the languages, social studies, and sciences. Inductive and deductive methods: It employs both inductive and deductive methods method s o teaching. In the Herbartian approach, while presenting the new knowledge, the help o various examples is sought and at the ‘generalization’ step, rules are derived. It is an inductive method. At the application step, these rules are taught to be executed and it is called a deductive method. Achievement of cognitive objectives: It is useul or achieving the cognitive objectives o teaching. Use of previous knowledge: It uses the previous knowledge o the students or imparting the new knowledge. Simple and easy: It is a simple and easy approach o the lesson planning.
Limitations of Herbartian Approach Limitations o Herbartian approach are given below:
Not applicable to all lessons: Herbart s steps are not applicable to all lessons. Tey are suitable only or the knowledge lesson and not or the skill or appreciation lesson. In the skill lesson, there is a need or the demonstration o the skill by the teacher and the practice by the students. In such a type o the lesson, Herbartian steps such as the comparison and the generalization are not needed. Similarly in the appreciation lesson, Herbartian steps such as the comparison, the
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generalization, and the application do not serve any useul purpose. Tus, we find that Herbartian steps are suitable only to the academic subjects. More emphasis on teaching rather than learning: Troughout the lesson, there is more emphasis on the teaching rather than on the learning. Herbartian steps do not encourage the active
participation o the pupils. Tey do not provide opportunities to the students or sel-motivation, initiation, and discussion. It is only the teacher who decides what the pupils are to learn. Rigidity and uniformity: Te Herbartian scheme provides the rigidity and the uniormity in the lesson. Although the teacher finds it difficult to teach according to Herbartian steps, yet they try to teach according to these steps. Consequently, the lesson becomes stereotyped, and the students get bored and lose their interest. Moreover, the Herbartian steps deprive the ambitious teacher and the students o independen independentt thinking. Vagueness of the term ‘Preparation’: Te term ‘Preparation’ is vague. It is not clear whether preparation stands or the preparation o the pupils or the teacher or both. Presentation speaks for passivity: Te term ‘presentation’ is criticized on the ground that it speaks o the passivity on the part o the learning process. In act, the process o association or comparison is present throughout the presentation stage. Association or Comparison—not a separate step: Herbart was wrong to think that ‘association or comparison’ is a separate step in the learning process. In act, the process o association or comparison is present throughout the presentation stage. I the teacher starts associating or comparing acts afer the presentation is over, then it will involve much repetition. ‘Generalization’—a difficult process: Herbart thought that when the presented ideas are sufficiently clear and adequate, and the comparisons and associations are made, then it is very easy to arrive at generalization. But in reality, it is very difficult to establish generalization. Many tentative generalizations are made and discarded beore we arrive at the final generalization.
Alternative Scheme Age recommends an alternative scheme which A.H.. Glover in his book New eaching for New Age recommends is based on several modern concepts o the educative process. Te ollowing are the steps o his scheme: Questioning: Te lesson is introduced with the help o the questions. Te students should be encouraged to ask the questions reely. Tus, the teacher can ask the questions o all types— introductory, developing, and then the recapitulatory questions. Discussion: Te class should be divided into different groups or the sake o a healthy discussion. Te teacher should guide the students in the discussion. Tey should be encouraged to express their ideas and opinions. Te discussion should help the students in removing their doubts. Finally, the teacher should sum up the discussion. Investigation: Te discussion is ollowed by an investigation. Te investigation investigati on includes individual as well as group research. Te teacher guides the process o the investigation and provides the
necessary inormation. Expression: Te investigation is ollowed by an expression which may be written, oral, visual, and concrete. Te expression should preerably be in the orm o practical activities which Grover classifies under our main heads: Passive: Here the emphasis is on observing and listening.
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Active: Te practical activities o the active type include the handwork and the craf work, the drawing and design, and the activities such as running a shop or a post office, arranging school meals, and gardening. Artistic and recreative: Te artistic and recreative activities include dancing, music, games,
physical training, creative artwork, etc. Organizational: Each o the above activities may have an organizational aspect. It may be an individual or a group or a committee organization. Grover’s scheme is child centred. It ensures the active participation o the pupils. But this scheme does not appear to be useul or small children, as their knowledge about any relevant topic is always limited. Because o limited knowledge, it is difficult or them to take an active part in the questioning and the discussion. Even in case o higher classes, the scheme cannot work successullyy under the successull t he restrictions o the timetable and the curriculum curriculum.. Sometime S ometimess the discussion may lead into the irrelevant channels and it may be difficult difficu lt to preserve the logical logi cal sequence o the topics or the lessons. Moreover, in an usual class only bright students may monopolize the whole discussion. Te scheme is suitable only or the classes with a moderate and manageable size.
An Outline of a Lesson Plan on the basis of Herbartian Steps An outline o a lesson plan is developed on the basis o Herbartian steps in the ollowing orm: Subject, topic, class, and date: A teacher selects a topic or the teaching. A class with the section, the period, and the date are written while preparing the lesson plan. General objectives of teaching: Te teacher has to write the general objectives o their subject in accordance with the level o the students. Tese general objectives cannot be achieved by the lesson plan. Specific objectives: Te specific objectives can be achieved by organizing the teaching or a period o say 40-minutes lesson. Te specific objectives may be the knowledge, the skill, and the appreciation. appr eciation. Te social studies lesson is designed or achieving a knowledge objective, objective, the poetry lesson or an appreciation objective and language, and the craf lesson and some science lesson or a skill objective. Te specific objectives are decided according to the nature o topic and the level o the students. Introduction: Te introduction step is mainly concerned with the initiation o all teaching activities. Te teacher uses their insight and experiences or linking new knowledge with the previous knowledge o the students. Te priming and prompting devices may be used by preparing introductory questions. Te topic is usually emitted by the students’ responses or by creating the appropriate situation. Statement of the aim: At the introductory stage, the teacher makes the efforts or emitting the topic rom the students. Tey give the statement o teaching topic by incorporating the responses o the students. Presentation: Afer introducing the topic to be taught, the teacher writes developing questions. Te presentation is done with the help o developing questions. Te questions are arranged in a
psychological and logical order while keeping in mind the structure o the teaching unit. Explanation: When the students are not in a position to answer the developing questions, the teacher is supposed to explain the concept or the element by giving their statements (explanations). Blackboard summary: Te teacher has to prepare the blackboard summary o their teaching points and explanation. Te students should write down the blackboard summary.
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Recapitulatory questions: Te blackboard summary must be removed beore asking the recapitulatory questions. Te purpose o the recapitulatory questions is to practise the students’ learning and evaluate the students’ perormance to ensure that they could comprehend the teaching unit. Homework: Suitable homework is to be assigned assigne d to the students at the t he end o the lesson plan. Te purpose o homework is to practise, to organize, and to study the topic. Te homework provides the opportunities or assimilation to the students.
Herbartian Lesson Plan Model Roll No.: Subject: Geography/General Science opic: Solar and Lunar Eclipses
Date: Class: VIII B Period: II
General Objectives: Te lesson is prepared to achieve the ollowing specific objectives object ives o teaching:
o satisy the natural curiosity o the students about the physical objects and the
environment. o provide the awareness about the physical principles and acts. o create, an interest in the t he study o geography by illustrating the t he use o geography in their daily lie. o develop the eeling o international outlook and world brotherhood. o develop the eeling o national integration and emotional integration by giving the awareness o the economical, social, and political problems in the light o geographical background.
Specific Objectives: Te lesson is prepared to achieve the ollowing specific objectives o teaching:
o enable the students to state the solar and lunar eclipses. o enable the students to describe the causes o the solar and lunar eclipses.
o the dates o the solar lunar o enable enable the the students students to to recall explain the influences o theand solar andeclipses. lunar eclipses.
eaching Aids: Te ollowing teaching aids are required or teaching the proposed topic: Te model o the earth, the models o the sun and the moon, and a chart o the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse. Previous Knowledge: Te students are amiliar with the earth, the sun, and the moon. Tey are also aware about the rotation and revolution o earth. Tey know about the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse. Introduction: Q. Q. Why Why is the sun not visible partially or wholly or a ew minutes even in a clear sky on the mid-date o a month? Ans. It Ans. It is due to eclipse.
Statement of Aim: ‘oday we shall study the causes o the solar and lunar eclipses.’ Q. Why Presentation: Q. Why does the eclipse all? Ans. Te Ans. Te sun or the moon is caught by Rahu and Rahu and Ketu. Ketu. Q. o Q. o whom around does the moon revolve? Ans. Te Ans. Te moon revolves around the earth.
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Q. o whom around does the earth revolve? Q. o Ans. Te Ans. Te earth revolves around the sun. Tese questions are asked by showing the models o the sun, the earth, and the moon. Q. How Q. How do these motions influence the positions o the sun, the earth, and the moon? (By showing the model). eacher’s Explanation: Sometimes the earth comes in between the sun and the moon and sometimes the moon comes in between the earth and the sun. Q. From Q. From where does the moon receive the light? Ans. Te Ans. Te moon receives the light rom the sun. eacher’s Statement: Te earth and the moon receive the heat and the light rom the sun. Te moon comes in between the earth and the sun on the mid-date o a month, month, i.e., i.e., Amavasiya. Amavasiya. Q. What Q. What are the positions o the sun, the earth, and the moon on mid date o a month? Ans. Te Ans. Te moon comes in between the earth and the sun. Q. Which Q. Which is the date o ull moon? Ans. It Ans. It is the last date o the month, i.e., Purnima. i.e., Purnima. Q. What Q. What are the positions o the sun, the earth, and the moon on the last date o month?
(By showing positions on models). Ans. Te earth comes in between the sun and the moon on Purnima Ans. Te on Purnima or or on the last date o the month. eacher’s Statement: By demonstrating the positions o these objects on the model, sometimes on Purnima on Purnima or or the last date o month, the earth, the sun, and the moon come in a straight line. Te earth’s shadow alls on the moon or the sunrays do not reach on the moon or ew minutes partially or wholly, then. Q. What do we call this situation? Ans. It Ans. It is known as the lunar eclipse. Q. Why Q. Why does the lunar eclipse all? Ans. Te Ans. Te earth’s shadow alls on the moon. Q. How Q. How does the solar eclipse all? Statement of the eacher: By showing the positions o the earth, the sun, and the moon on the model. Sometimes on the mid-date o the month, the sun, the earth, and the moon come in a straight line and the moon comes in between them. Te moon’s shadow alls on the earth or a while then. Q. What Q. What do we call this situation? Ans. We Ans. We call it the solar eclipse. Q. Why Q. Why does the solar eclipse not all on every mid-date o a month? eacher’s Explanation: E xplanation: Te sun, the earth, and the moon do not all on a straight line in every month. Te earth axis is inclined 23(1/2) rom north. Te moon does not complete one round o the earth completely within 30 days. Q. Why Q. Why does the lunar eclipse not all on every last date o the month or on Purnima? on Purnima? Ans. Te Ans. Te sun, the earth, and the moon do not all on a straight line on every last date o °
the month. Review Questions Questions:: Q.(l.) From where does the moon receive the light and the heat? Q.(2.) When does the lunar eclipse all? Q.(3.) When does the solar eclipse all?
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Q.(4.) What are the causes o the lunar or solar eclipse? Q.(5.) Why does the lunar or solar eclipse all on every month? Homework: Describe the causes o the solar and lunar eclipses with the help o a diagram.
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Preparation of Unit Lesson Plan: (Morrison’s Approach)
Proessor H.C. Morrison o Chicago University is the exponent o this approach. His approach is known as unit approach because he emphasizes on the unit method or planning the teaching– learning activities. In words o Morrison , , ‘Unit ‘Unit is a comprehension and significant aspect o the environment o an organised science and art.’ art.’ Wesley writes, ‘Te unit is an organised body o inormation and experience designed to effect significant outcomes o the learner.’ Morrison advocates the division o the subject matter into small but meaningul units. Each unit is derived rom the previous knowledge o the units. While teaching, the teacher presents the subject matter related to a particular unit and deals with it thoroughly. Tey move to the second unit when they find that the students have acquired mastery over the subject matter o the unit and are able to generalize and apply the ideas o the learnt material.
Features of Unit Lesson Plan (Unit Approach) Te ollowing important eatures are associated with Morrison’s unit lesson plan (approach) o the lesson planning: Part of syllabus: A unit is a part o the syllabus consisting o the coherent and the correlated small wholes. Units and sub-units: Te contents o a subject prescribed or a class are first split into large units and then these large units are divided into small but meaningul teaching units and sub-units. Each sub-unit appears as a whole. Writing the objectives and the specifications: A teacher has to understand and write down the objectives and specifications which they to develop or a particular unit or a sub-unit while planning their lesson. Identifying the activities: A teacher has to identiy the activities which they have to undertake Identifying in order to realize the predetermined instructional objectives o a particular unit or a sub-unit. Listing the material and the aids: Te teacher has to list out the teaching–learning material and aids, required or teaching the unit or the sub-unit. Mentioning the evaluation procedure: Te teacher has to mention the evaluation procedure and devices which they would use to assess the educational outcomes afer completing the task o teaching a unit.
Steps of Unit Lesson Plan (Unit Approach)
Morrison has given us the ollowing five steps in the unit lesson plan (approach o lesson planning): Exploration: Te exploration step matches the preparation or the introductory step o the Herbartian approach. Here the teacher has to:
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 171
(1) Explore the previous knowledge o o the students (with regard to the learning material to be taught) by questioning. (2) Explore the interests, the general abilities, and the aptitudes o the students. (3) Explore the available environmental environmental situations and the resources or or teaching the unit. (4) Explore the decision about the strategies, and the tactics tactic s o methods o presenting the subject matter o the unit in a psychological sequence. Presentation: At this stage, the teacher remains more active. Tey perorm the ollowing activities acti vities or the presentation o the contents:
(1) Presenting the content in the small units in the sequence and maintaining a continuous rapport with the class. (2) Diagnosing the areas o weakness. (3) Repeating the content until most o the students acquire the understanding. Assimilation: Afer presenting the contents, the teacher provides opportunities or the assimilation. Te assimilation has the ollowing characteristics:
Opportunities or generalization so that the students get the mastery o the concept. Opportunities to stress upon the depth o the content. Opportunities o perorming individual activities. Students work themselves in laboratories and libraries. Home assignments are given. Te pupils perorm individual activities. Supervised study occurs. Te teacher guides the pupils according to the need during supervision. supervi sion. Doubts o the students are clarified. In a supervi supervised sed study, there is a high interaction between the teacher and the student. Te teacher tests whether the pupils have achieved mastery over the contents or not. I the pupils do not pass the mastery test, they are provided with reopportunities or urther assimilatio assimilation. n.
Organization: he period othe theperiod assimilation is o the mastery test. Ater succeeding mastery test, test , the pupils enter o the organization or the recitation according in to the the nature o contents. During the organization, the pupils are provided with the occasion or the representation. he pupils write the contents in their own language. he representation in the subjects such as grammar and mathematics has no importance. Hence, the pupils enter into the recitation rather to the organization. Recitation: It is the oral presentation o the unit (contents) in ront o the teacher or their classmates. It is called the mastery recitation. In the mastery recitation (ull understanding, permanent insight), the pupils may use the blackboard and the demonstration apparatus. Te recitation may also take the orm o written paper.
Advantages of Unit Lesson Plan
Advantages o unit lesson plan are ollowing: Psychological: Te unit lesson plan is psychological in the sense that it is based on Gestalt psychologyy. Te importance psycholog importan ce is given to the t he ‘whole’ instead o the ‘part’ ‘par t’. Te contents o a syllabus syll abus are divided into suitable broader units, teaching units, and sub-units as complete wholes in themselves.
172 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 172
Child centred: Te unit lesson plan is child centred. In this approach, the capacities and needs o the pupils are prioritized. Interesting: In this lesson plan, the interests o the pupils are emphasized. Te distribution o the learning material into small units and sub-units makes the teaching–learning process easy,
simple, and interesting. Self-study: Te init lesson plan encourages the habit o sel-study and independent learning among the students. Active participation: Te unit lesson plan provides opportunities or active participation in various teaching–learning teaching–learning activities to both the teacher and the students. It provides a healthy interaction. Specificity: Te teaching–learning process becomes more objective and specified on account o the delimitation o the learning contents and the specification o unit objectives. Understanding: Te unit lesson plan undertakes the teaching–learning teaching–lear ning process at an understanding level. Te students do not memorize mechanically and they learn with ull understanding. Mastery: Te unit lesson plan aims at the complete mastery over the learning material presented
in a particular unit. All the steps are directed to achieve the desired mastery. Motivation: Te assimilation, the understanding, and the mastery o a unit motivate the students to learn the next teaching or learning unit. Tus, the learning becomes sequential, systematic, organized, and effective.
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Bloom’s Evaluation of Lesson Planning
Bloom’s evaluation approach to the lesson planning is a new innovation in the field o education. It has revolutionized the teaching, the learning, and the testing process. According to Bloom, education is a tri-polar process which involves: (1) ormulating the educational objectives, (2) creating the learning experiences, and (3) evaluating the behavioural changes or the learning outcomes. Tus, the evaluation approach involves these three main steps or phases (Figure 11.1). Educational Objectives
Learning Experiences
Evaluating Learning
Outcomes
Figure 11.1
Tri-polar process of Education
Formulation of educational objectives: Te educational objectives are identified and ormulated in relation to the entry behaviour, the desired behavioural changes, and the learning experiences
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 173
to be provided to the students. Tese objectives are clearly specified and written in the behavioural terms as explained in the chapter on ‘Instructional Objectives’. Creating learning experiences: A suitable learning environment and the learning experiences are provided or the realization o the stipulated educational objectives. Te ollowing points
should be considered while planning or this step: (1) Te selection and the organization o o a suitable learning material material (learning experiexper iences). (2) Te selection o the appropriate appropriate teaching–learning strategies, the tactics, or the devices or creating the environment or providing the learning experiences to the students. (3) Te selecti selection on o suitable resources. (4) Te plann o the activities and the classroom interaction o the teachers and the students. Evaluating the learning outcomes: Te learning experiences bring desirable changes in the behaviour o the students. Te changes o the behaviour are evaluated to take a decision de cision regarding the effectiveness o the learning experiences. Te teaching–learning outcomes are evaluated. Te
cognitive, affective, and conative (psychomotor) objectives require different types o teaching– learning strategies and experiences experiences.. Te different evaluation techniques such as essay writing, objective and short answer type tests, practical examinations, etc., are needed or their evaluation. Tis significant aspect should be considered in a proper planning. It should select an appropriate criterion or assessing the behavioural changes.
Steps of Evaluation Approach of Lesson Planning Content: Te subject matter or content (teaching points) to be taught to the pupils should be written in the first column o the lesson plan. Te content should be selected rom the prescribed textbooks. In this column, the contents should not be written in detail. Te main acts and thoughts regarding the topic should be very precise. Objectives with specification specific ations: s: In this column o the lesson planning, the instructional instruct ional objectives should be written in clear and concise behavioural terms. eacher’s activities: In this column o the lesson planning, all those t hose activities which a teacher perorms or the realization o the stipulated objectives are mentioned. Tese activities are: to ask questions, statements, to describe, to illustrate, to use material aids, to deliver model lessons, and to clariy the terms and the concepts. In this column, the teacher should also indicate the learning experiences and the efforts put in to achieve these goals in the short term. Students’ activities: In this column o the lesson planning, the students’ activities or the realization o the teaching–learning objectives should be mentioned. For example, to listen to the teacher, to answer the questions, to participate p articipate in the discussion, to prepare the material, and to study it.
eaching aids: In this step o the lesson plan, the teaching aids used or providing the desirable teaching–learning experiences are mentioned. Tese material aids make the contents clear, understandable, andinteresting. Evaluation: In this step o the lesson planning, we mention the evaluation techniques or the devices used or finding out the extent to which the stipulated objectives have been achieved
174 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 174
through the teaching–learning process. It enables the teacher realize the success and the ailure o the strategies and tactics used bythem and they can modiy the teaching. Students can also bring a desirable improvement in the process o learning.
Merits of Bloom’s Approach of Lesson Planning Merits o Bloom’s approach o lesson planning are ollowing: Psychological and scientific: Te approach is based on the sound psychological and scientific principles and theories o the teaching and learning. Objectives in behavioural terms: Te objectives are written in the behavioural terms. Summary of contents: Te contents are properly presented in a summary orm through the teaching points. Content analysis: Te content analysis is done and the two-dimensional charts are prepared or speciying the objectives. Students’ and teachers’ activities: Te students’ and teachers’ activities activit ies are mentioned separately s eparately.. Tey are essentially related, organized, and integrated or the realization o the stipulated objectives. Tey are related to the teaching and learning structures. Specific strategies, methods, and aids: Te specific strategies, the methods, and the teaching aids used or the realization o the predetermined objectives are properly mentioned. Purposeful teaching: Tis type o lesson plan makes the teaching purposeul and objective centred. Evaluating changes: It duly emphasizes the evaluation o the desired changes in the behaviour. Improving teaching–learning experience: It has greater scope or improving and modiying the learning experience or the teaching activities.
Demerits of Bloom’s Approach of Lesson Planning Demerits o Bloom’s approach o lesson planning are ollowing: Highly structured: Bloom’s approach o the lesson planning is highly structured. It is dominated by the teacher’s role in the teaching–learning process. No consideration to mental abilities: Tis approach does not take into consideration the mental processes or the mental abilities or writing the objectives in the behavioural terms. Rigid and mechanical: Bloom’s approach makes the task o the lesson planning quite rigid and mechanical. Tus it kills the initiative, originality originalit y, and creativity o both the teachers and the students. More than one domain: One teaching activity does not confine to one domain; it concerns with
more than one domain. Greater responsibility: Te task o the integration among the objectives, the learning experiences, experienc es, and the evaluation devices demands a greater responsibility on the part o the teacher and the students.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 175
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Bloom’s or Evaluation Lesson Plan Model
Roll No Roll No.:.: ....... ............... ............... ............... .............. ...... Subject: General Science/Ge Science/Geography ography
School: Schoo l: Class: VIII B
Date: Da te: ......... ................... ..........
opic: Te Solar and Lunar Eclipses Period: V Specific Objectives: Te lesson is designed to achieve the ollowing teaching objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4.
o enable the students to describ describee the solar and lunar eclipses. o enable the students to state the causes o the solar and lunar eclipses. o enable the students to recall the dates o the solar and lunar eclipses. o enable the students to explain the influence o the solar and lunar eclipses.
Presentation: (Learning Experience Experiences) s) Teaching methods and aids
Objectives
Q. Why is the sun visible for a while Due to eclipse Q. Why in clear sky? ‘We shall study the – causes the of eclipse.’
Question–Answer –
Knowledge –
Q. W Q. Wh hy does an eclipse fall?
The sun or the moon is caught by Rahu Rahu and and Ketu
Question– n–A Answer
Knowledge
Q. To Q. T o whom around does the moon revolve?
The moon revolves around the earth
Question– n–A Answer
Knowledge
Q. To Q. T o whom around does the earth revolve? By demonstrating the models of the earth, the sun, and the moon.
The earth revolves around the sun. Observation
Question–Answer
Knowledge
Teaching aids
Knowledge
Q. How do these motions inuence Q. How the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon.
No response
Teaching aids
Explanation: Sometimes the earth Explanation: Sometimes comes in between the sun and the moon and sometimes the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.
Listening
Teaching aids
Q. From where does the earth Q. From receive the light and the heat?
From the sun
Teaching aids
Q. From where does the moon Q. From receive the light and the heat?
The moon receives the light and the heat from the sun
Question–Answer
Teacher’s Statement: The earth and the moon both receive the heat
Listening
Showing the model
Teacher’s activities
Students’ activities
Knowledge
Comprehension
and the light from the sun. The moon comes in between the earth and the sun on the mid-date of the month, i.e., month, i.e., Amavasiya. Amavasiya.
(continued )
176 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 176
Teacher ’s activities
Students’ activities
Q. What is the date of the full Q. What moon?
The last date of the month, i.e., Purnima. month, Purnima.
Q. What are the positions of the Q. What earth, the sun, and the moon on Purnima?
(Full moon) The earth comes in between the sun and the moon
Teaching methods and aids
Objectives
Que ues stion–Answer
Knowled edg ge
With the help of model
Teacher’s Statement: Sometimes on Purnima, Purnima, the the earth, the sun, and the moon fall on a straight line. The earth’s shadow falls on the moon or the sunrays do not reach on the moon for a few minutes partially or wholly, then
Listening
With the help of model
Comprehension
hat do we call this situation? Q. Wh Q. W
Lunar eclipse
Question–Answer
Knowledge
Q. How does the solar eclipse Q. How fall?
No response
–
–
Explanation: Sometimes on the Explanation: Sometimes mid-date of the month, the sun, the earth, and the moon fall on a straight line and the moon comes in between them. The moon’s shadow falls on the earth or the sun rays do no reach on the earth for a while, then
Listening
Showing the model
Comprehension
Q.
What do we call this situation?
Solar eclipse
Question–Answer
Knowledge
Q. Why does solar eclipse not fall Q. Why on every mid-date of a month?
No response
–
–
Teacher’s Statement: Statement: The The sun, the earth, and the moon do not fall on a straight line in every month.
Listening
–
Comprehension
The earth’s axis is inclined 23 1/2 from the north. The moon does not complete one round of the earth completely within 30 days.
Listening
Presentation
Comprehension
Q. Why does the lunar eclipse not Q. Why fall on every last date of a month or on Purnima? on Purnima?
The sun, the earth, and the moon do not fall on a straight line on every on every Purnima Purnima of a month
Que uest stio ion– n–An Answ swer er
Com ompr preh ehen ensi sion on
°
Evaluation: 1. doesthe thelunar lunareclipse eclipsenot all? 2. When Why does all on every Purnima o Purnima o a month? 3. When does the solar eclipse all? 4. Why does the solar eclipse not all on on every every Amavasiya o Amavasiya o a month? Homework: Describe the solar and lunar eclipses with the help o a diagram.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 177
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RCEM Approach to Lesson Planning
Te RCEM approach is developed by the Indian educationists at the Regional College o Education, Mysore (RCEM) and hence it is known as RCEM approach.
Features of the RCEM Approach Features o the RCEM approach to lesson planning are ollowing: Improvement: Te RCEM approach is an improvement over the earlier approaches. It also considers Bloom’s taxonomy o educational objectives in identiying the objectives o teaching with certain modificatio modifications. ns. Te RCEM approach o writing objectives in the behaviour terms has already been discussed in the chapter o ‘Instructional ‘Instructi onal Objectives’ Object ives’. It involves 17 mental abilities or writing writ ing the objectives object ives in a unctional orm. Use of system approach: Te RCEM approach makes use o the concept o the system approach to education. Tree steps: Te RCEM approach has three aspects, elements, or steps, namely, (1) input, (2) process, and (3) output. Te structure str ucture o the lesson plan is developed develop ed with the help o the input, the process, and the output aspect o teaching. Tese aspects resemble the introduction, presentation, and evaluation phases on a used lesson plan. Input: It includes the identification and the specification o objectives. Tey are also known as Expected Behavioural Outcomes as Outcomes (EBOs). Tese objectives are broadly classified into our categories: (1) knowledge, (2) understanding, (3) application, and (4) creativity. Tese objectives are written in the behavioural terms by employing 17 mental abilities. Te entering behaviours o the learners are also identified. Te sequence o the instructional procedure is determined with
the help o these objectives. Process: he process resembles the presentation step o Herbartian approach or the stage o learning experiences o Bloom’s approach. he communication strategy is used or the eective presentation o the content. It implies the interaction interact ion o the teacher and the t he students. he participation o the teacher and the students is essential. he crux o the process is to create the learning situations or providing the appropriate learning experiences to the students. It includes teacher’s and students’ activities, the teaching strategies and tactics, the audiovisual aids, the techniques o motivation, the ways o securing suitable classroom interaction, etc., or the eective presentation o the content and the realization reali zation o stipulated objectives. Output: Te output includes the real learning outcomes outcomes (RLOs). In the process aspect, the learning experiences are provided or the desirable behavioural change among the students.
Te change o the behaviour is known as the real learning outcomes. Te various measuring devices are used or evaluating the real learning outcomes. Te teacher usually measures the real learning outcomes by using the oral and written questions. It is an evaluation phase o the lesson.
178 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 178
Theoretical Rationale Rationale of the Lesson Te ollowing table illustrates the theoretical rationale o the lesson plan: Output Input (Instruction) Expected behaviour outcomes
Process (Communication strategy) Learning experiences
(Evaluation) Real learning outcomes
Teacher ’s activities
Student’s activities
1. Kno now wle ledg dge e ob obje ject ctiv ive e
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2. Understanding objective
(i) Discussion (ii) Problem solving (iii) Question–Answer technique
Lecture Demonstration Charts and maps Explanation Question–Answer technique
Listening Observation Taking notes Interaction
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
Review questions Dene State Describe Name List
(i)
Participation in group discussion (ii) Listening
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Interpret Translate Explain Discriminate
(iv) Demonstration
(iii) Observation (iv) Initiation
(v) Problem-solving
3. App ppllic icat atio ion n obj objec ecttiv ive e
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(i) Experiment (ii) Using knowledge for solving problems
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Practical tests Situation tests Essay type tests Observation
4. Creativity objective
(i) Individual work (ii) Group discussion (iii) Problem-solving
(i) Analysis (ii) Synthesis of elements (iii) Establish new relationship
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
Essay type test Oral test Situational test Problem-solving Observation
Group discussion Laboratory work Question–Answer Problem-solving
Te above table shows that three aspects, namely, the input, the process, and the output can be implemented in organizing teaching. (1) Te input aspect is concerned with expected behaviour outcomes (EBOs). It also includes the entering behaviour o the learners. (2) Te process aspect involves the interaction between the teacher and the students. Te teacher’s and students’ activities are determined. (3) Te output aspect deals with the real learning outcomes (RLOs). Te evaluation devices are specified or measuring the criterion behaviours.
RCEM Lesson-Plan Model Roll No No.:.: Subject: Geography/Gen. Science opic: Te Solar and Lunar Eclipses
School: Class VIII B Period II
Date:.....................
Teaching Points Te speed o the earth and the moon. Te positions o the sun, the earth, and the moon on Purnima.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 179
Te causes o the lunar eclipse. Te positions o the sun, the earth, and the moon on Ama on Amavasiya vasiya. Te causes o the solar eclipse. Te causes or not alling eclipse on every month.
Te influence o the solar and lunar eclipses.
Te paradigm o RCEM lesson plan or the topic ‘Te Solar and Lunar Eclipses’ has been illustrated in the table given on the next page: Presentation Expected behavioural outcomes (EBOs)
Learning experiences or Interaction Teacher’s activities
Students’ activities
The new topic is introduced on the basis of the previous knowledge
Q. From where do we Q. From receive the heat and the light? Q. From Q. From where do we receive the light at night?
We receive the heat and the light from the sun and the moon
Knowledge: Recall and recognition
Q. Why is the sun not Q. Why visible for a while in clear sky? Q. T Q. To o whom around does the moon revolve?
Due to eclipse fall
Understanding: Seeing relationship
Knowledge: recognition
Understanding: Seeing relationship
Real learning outcomes (RLOs)
Around the earth
By showing the model of the solar system. Q. T Q. To o whom around does the earth revolve? Q. How Q. How do these motions inuence the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon? (By showing the
Around the sun
model). Q. From Q. From where does the moon receive the light? Explanation: The Explanation: The earth and the moon receive the light and the heat from the sun.
the sun and the earth From the sun
Q. When does the moon Q. When shine fully? Teacher’s Statement: Statement: Sometimes on Purnima on Purnima, the earth, the sun, and the moon fall on a straight line. The earth’s
On Purnima On Purnima (full (full moon)
Sometimes the earth comes in between the sun and the moon. In another phase, the moon comes in between
What are the positions of the sun, the earth, and the moon?
shadow falls on the moon. Q. What Q. What do we call this situation?
Lunar eclipse
How does the lunar eclipse fall?
(continued )
180 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 180 Presentation Expected behavioural outcomes (EBOs)
Teacher’s activities
Students’ activities
Knowledge recall,
Q. From Q. From where does the
From the sun
recognition, understanding: seeing relationship
earth receive the light and the heat? Q. When Q. When does the solar eclipse fall? How does the solar eclipse fall? Explanation: Sometimes on the Amavasiya the Amavasiya the sun, the earth, and the moon fall on a straight line. The moon’s shadow falls on the sun.
Understanding: Reason out
Learning experiences or Interaction
Q. What do we call this Q. What situation? Why do the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse not fall in every month? Explanation: These objects fall on straight line in every month. The earth has its axis at 23 1/2 N. (By showing the model).
Real learning outcomes (RLOs)
On Amavasiya. No On Amavasiya. No response
What are the positions of the earth, the sun, and the moon on Amavasiya?
Solar eclipse No response
How does the solar eclipse fall?
What are the causes of the solar and lunar eclipses?
°
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Types of Lessons
Modern education is child centred. It aims at the development o all the three aspects aspects (i.e., the cognitive, the affective, and the t he conative) o the children or bringing about their harmonious development. Cognitive aspect corresponds to the knowing, the affective aspect to eeling, and the conative aspect to doing. Corresponding to these aspects, we have three types o lessons: Knowledge Lesson: It aims at the acquisition o the knowledge o the inormation. For example, the learning o history and geography constitutes the knowledge lesson. Skill Lesson: It aims at the acquisition o a skill. For example, specific activities such as writing, sewing, tailoring, spinning, painting, drawing, and woodwork constitute a skill lesson. Appreciation Lesson: It aims at the development o aesthetic sense in the t he children. For example, learning to appreciate poetry, music, dance, and art constitutes the appreciation lesson.
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Skill Lesson
A skill is learnt by student in the skill lesson. Te term ‘skill’ covers a wide range o activities. Walking, jumping, reading, writing, counting, speaking, singing, dancing, drawing, painting,
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 181
sewing, tailoring, spinning, gardening, woodwork, etc., are various types o skills. Te main objective o the skill lesson is to help the pupils to do something and not merely to learn something.
Orderly Steps for Teaching Skill Lesson Preparation: Te preparation is sometimes known as motivation as motivation or introduction. Tis introduction. Tis should be a very brie step. Te teacher can prepare or motivate the students: (a) by showing the pupils a model o some work already done and by asking them to imitate it, (b) by placing the children in such a situation that they find necessary to acquire some kind o skill, e.g., the execution o a project requires the perormance o certain skills. Similarly, taking the students to the art-room or the craf-room will provide a situation where the pupils eel an inner urge to learn that activity. Aferwards, a good teacher should announce the aim o the lesson. Presentation: Te teacher can present the lesson in two ways: (1) Demonstration: Te teacher demonstrates the skill and the pupils observe it careully
and then try to imitate it as accurately as they can. But demonstration should not be used in excess, as excess o everything is bad. (2) Verbal explanation: In the skill lessons, the verbal instructions are also used. Te verbal instructions may be accompanied by the illustrations and sketching o diagrams. Te pupils may wrongly imitate the teacher unless they explain each step. For a mechanical or uniorm skill, where there is usually no scope or variation, the teacher may demonstrate the best way along with verbal explanations, and the pupils should imitate it aithully. But in subjects such as fine arts, variations should be encouraged, in which lie the seeds o originality. Statement of rules: Ten the rules or the perormance o the skill should be stated. Rules save the time and energy o the learner. Tey are useul or the learner in learning certain skills. Te
rules should serve as an aid. Tey are said to be temporary expedients or the beginners. In the mechanical skills, such as spelling, rules may be helpul. In the fine arts, rules are o little use because the artist’s own outlook plays an important role. A ree and spontaneous art breaks through the shackles o rules, the ormulas, and the conventions. In the words o Raymont, ‘Tere is a sense in which rules are the death o true art.’ Practice: Practice makes a man perect. o become perect in a skill, practice is necessary. Te children repeat the activity that the teacher has demonstrated and thus acquires skill step by step. Practice takes a longer time than other steps. Practice may be done in two ways: (1) by imitation and (2) by repetition. Te children may imitate the demonstration given by the teacher, they may repeat it again and again and then practise the t he activity. activity. During practice, the teacher is to supervise and guide the t he students. Tey should pay individual attention.
Correction: At this stage, the teacher points out the mistakes o the students and shows the right ways o perorming the activity. In order to do so, the teacher can redemonstrate the skill i they necessary or they may explain the important points again. It is essential that correction should be made immediately otherwise wrong habits will be ormed.
182 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 182
Second practice: Afer the rectification o the mistakes, the students should again practise the skill and acquire improvement in the perormance in the activity. Te two steps o correction and practice should be repeated until the mastery is achieved. Application: Te acquisition o a certain skill would not be justified unless it is ollowed by the
application. Hence, the skill learnt should be applied practically in lie. Te application will make the lesson useul useu l and real. I a pupil pupil has prepared painting, they the y should be asked to prepare similar paintings or the art-room.
Important Points for Skill Lesson In order to achieve success in the skill lesson les son the teacher should keep in mind the t he ollowing points: Motivation: Te pupils should be motivated to acquire the skill. Tey should be interested in the activity that they are going to do. Level of the pupils: Te skill selected should be according to the level o the pupils. I the skill selected is very difficult or the pupils then they will get easily discouraged. discouraged. ime factor: Te task selected should not take up an undue length o time, because the pupil’s interest is likely to waver. For small children, the task selected should be o a short duration. Opportunity for self-expression: Te children should be given the opportunity or selexpression. In the words o Hughe and Hughe, ‘Any orm o practical work in which skill has been acquired becomes vehicle or the expression o beauty; it provides scope or the highest type o selsel - expression. ex pression.’ eacher’s patience: Te children are slow in learning any new skill. Hence, the teacher should show patience and sympathy to the children.
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Appreciation Lesson
Te appreciation lesson is not concerned with the t he acquisition o knowledge or skill. It is concerned with the emotional aspect o pupils. It aims at the aesthetic development o the pupils, i.e., to appreciate beauty and to enjoy beauty b eauty through orm, colour, and sound. Well-balanced emotional lie is essential or appreciating and enjoying beauty.
Steps of Appreciation Lesson It is very difficult to lay down some definite rules and regulations or the steps or the teaching o the appreciation lessons. Such lessons are to be caught and not taught. Tey are to be elt and enjoyed. Tey require stirring and eelings o emotions. eaching the appreciation lessons with certain ormal steps is an inadequate treatment. Anyhow, the ollowing steps may be adopted with modifications as and when desired:
Preparation: First o all, the students should be properly motivated. For this purpose, the teacher should create an appropriate appropriate atmosphere. Te atmosphere should be calm, quiet, and undisturbed. Te distractions distracti ons should be reduced to the minimum. Proper temperature, ventilation, and interior decoration should be properly attended. Nothing should be allowed to break the continuity o the lesson. Te teacher should select the contents o the lesson according to the age, the abilities,
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 183
the needs, and the interests o the pupils. Te Appreciation lesson should be ree rom language difficulties. Tus, the preparation implies:
o motivate the children or enjoyment. o provide suitable environment. o select proper contents o the lesson.
Presentation: Te second step is the presentation o the subject matter or appreciation. Te teacher should make use o various devices or arousing the imagination o the pupils. An appreciation lesson cannot be delivered well unless there is a real enthusiasm and appreciation in the teacher themselves. Tey cannot do ull justice to the lesson unless they have made the work o art a part o themselves. For teaching literature, a teacher should have the ability to read well, or teaching music, a teacher should possess the ability to play or sing, and or teaching art, the sense skill with a brush or a pencil is mandatory. Te teacher should put themselves into the author’s place on one hand and into pupil’s place on the other. Te author’s eeling must be produced in the minds o the pupils. Te appreciation lesson should not be divided in parts. Te first presentation should be uninterrupted and i possible, completed in one sitting. Pictures, poems, and music cannot be presented in pieces. Tey are whole and must be enjoyed as whole beore any analysis takes place. Appreciation is subjective and personal. It cannot be orced. It is only through intelligent presentation, i.e., through a proper atmosphere, a good expression, and their own interest the teacher can lead the children to appreciate and enjoy the lesson. Contemplation: Afer the presentation, some pause should be allowed or the children to eel, think, and contemplate on the material presented. Ten the aesthetic discussion should be taken. It primarily consists o the aesthetic eelings and values. As ar as the critical appreciation or the intellectual discussion is concerned, they should only be attempted in case o senior pupils. It does not all within the purview o schoolc s choolchildren. hildren. Practice and creation or application: Smith Smith and and Harrison in their book Te Principles of Class eaching write write that at this stage ‘the child passes rom enjoyment to action; he tries to write in
imitation o an author who had made a vivid appeal.’ Tus, the children should be encouraged to compose a poem, to write poetry or a short play, to draw a picture, or to paint a scenery, etc. Te younger children may be encouraged to reread a poem on a musical instrument and sing a chorus. Such practice in the art activities will promote the aesthetic sense o the pupils.
Factors Inuencing Success of an Appreciation Lesson Factors influencing success o an appreciation lesson are ollowing: Selection of material: Te teacher should select the material or appreciation according to the age, the abilities, and the interests o pupils. eacher’s enthusiasm: Te teacher should possess a real enthusiasm and an appreciation or the orm o art which they are to present to the class.
eacher’s preparation and mastery: eacher’s own presentation and the mastery o the material are important actors in the lesson. Appropriate atmosphere: Te teacher should create an appropriate atmosphere. Te atmosphere should be calm, quite, and undisturbed and nothing should be allowed to break the continuity o the lesson.
184 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 184
Contemplation, practice, and application: Te presentation should be ollowed by the contemplation, the practice, and the application.
Each type o the above-mentioned lesson involves one o three aspects o consciousness, i.e., the cognitive, the conative, or the affective. But these three aspects cannot be completely separated. All o them may be present to some extent in any single lesson, e.g., in history i the acts are learnt, it is acquisition o knowledge; when the pupils draw a map, it is the acquisition o skill; and when they appreciate the history o their country, their aesthetic sense is involved. Hence, it should be remembered that it is the emphasis that will make it a distinct type o lesson.
Yearly Plan of Social Studies Teaching
y
In the yearly plan, inormation about the content and the learning objectives are shown or the whole year. Te yearly plan table provides the inormation about: (1) the outline o the content o the course, (2) the teaching objectives objectives to be realized, and (3) the total period o teaching assigned to the course. For example, a teacher is assigned to teach social studies to the ninth class students. Te course content is to be taken rom the prescribed syllabus. Te objectives o teaching are also determined in view o the (1) need o the pupils and (2) nature o the content. Tus, a yearly plan table is prepared:
Knowledge
Skill
Knowledge application
1. History
6
1
2
3
12
2. Civics
7
1
2
5
15
3. Geography
5
1
2
4
12
4. Economics
6
1
1
3
11
24
4
7
15
50
Teaching co content
Total
Interest and attitude
Total periods
Yearly Plan able (Social Studies eaching) eaching) Te yearly plan table shows that the social studies course content is to be completed in a total o 50 periods. Te table urther reveals that the major emphasis has been given to knowledge objectives, as 24 periods are allotted to these objectives. Te second main objective is the t he interest and the attitude, as 15 periods are assigned to these objectives. Te knowledge application has the third and the skill objectives have the ourth place.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
What is lesson What lesson plann planning? ing? What What are are the the princip principles les o o lesson lesson plannin planning? g? State State the preprerequisites o lesson planning.
2.
Discuss the imp Discuss importa ortance nce o o writing writing a lesson lesson plan. plan. Expla Explain in briefly briefly the variou variouss steps steps o the the knowledge lesson.
3.
Why is it importa Why important nt to write write a lesso lesson n plan? plan? Write Write down down the the differen differentt steps steps in prepar preparing ing a lesson plan. (continued )
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 185
4.
What is the importa What importance nce o o plannin planningg a lesson? lesson? Select Select a topic topic o o your your choice choice and and prepar preparee a lesson plan.
5.
Whatt are Wha are Herba Herbartian rtian step steps? s? Give Give a crit critical ical estim estimate ate o He Herbarti rbartian an steps steps..
6.
Discuss the ord Discuss orderl erlyy steps steps or or teaching teaching a skill lesso lesson. n. What What are are the the actors actors that that influe influence nce the success o this lesson?
7.
What are the order What orderly ly steps steps or an an ‘app ‘apprec reciatio iation n lesson lesson’? Explain Explain the actor actorss which influe influence nce the success o the appreciation lesson.
8.
Explain Expl ain Mo Morriso rrison n’s unit unit app approa roach ch o lesso lesson n plann planning. ing.
9. Describe Bloom Bloom’’s evaluation evaluation appr approach oach o lesson planning. 10. Desc Describe ribe RCEM app approa roach ch o lesso lesson n plann planning. ing.
y
LESSON PLANS 1. Student–teachers should ollow the guidelines as suggested/recommended by their super visors and teachers. teachers. 2. In very rare circumstances, to meet the extraordinary situation in the class, the pupil– teacher may totally make a departure rom the lesson plan while taking the class. 3. A revision lesson will have a different plan. 4. A lesson plan based on instruct instructional ional behavioural objectives will be quite different.
Lesson Plan No. 1 Roll No. o the pupil–teacher... Class VI opic: Primitive Man Average A verage age age of the pupils: pupils: 11–12 years years Duration of the lesson: 40 minutes Subject: Social Studies
Teaching Aids Series o pictures depicting 1. different phases o the lie o early man; 2. houses in trees; 3. man wrapped in bark trees; 4. striki striking ng stones to produce fire; and 5. primitive weapons such as bow and arrow. arrow.
Aims of the Lesson
I. General 1. o give some knowledge o the past history to the student in order to understand the present and to develop their sense o reasoning and judgement. 2. o amiliarize the students with the changes in their social environment with the march march o time.
186 186 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
II. Specific o give the history o the all round development o the early man beore acquiring the present social status. P.K. (Previous Knowledge) Assumed. Te students are expected to know about the lie o the modern man. Introduction. Te ollowing questions will be put to the students in i n order to introduce the lesson:
(1) What is the difference between the village and city lie? (2) How did the early man live? Statement of the Aim. Well students, today we shall study ‘How did the primitive man live and eed himsel beore he reached the modern era.’ Presentation. Te student–teacher will divide the whole lesson into two or three units. Correlation. Te lesson will be correlated with social environment o the pupils. Questions relating to the everyday lie o the students will be put to the students. Matter Appearance
Method
The early man was very ugly and clumsy. They used to wander lonely and had little sense of society.. They were naked, because they had society no sense from where to obtain the clothes for themselves. They had neither home nor ways of livelihood. They used to live in the caves and hide themselves in the leaves of the trees. They were very much afraid of the wild animals. They used only wooden sticks for their defence as a weapon.
The student–teacher will follow the story method. The following developing questions will be put to the students: (1) What was the facial appearance of the early man? (2) Why did they not use the clothes? (3) Why did they hide themselves in the trees and the caves? (4) What sort of weapons did they use for their defence? The pictures showing the different stages of the development of the man will be pasted on the Flannel graph, side by side and shown to the students. B.B. Summary will be developed side by side. Early man was ugly and clumsy clumsy.. They were naked and used to live in the caves and the trees. They were afraid of the wild animals.
Food and Clothes To satisfy their hunger, h unger, they used to eat the leaves of the trees, the herbs, the raw vegetables, and the un-cooked meat. To avoid the heat and the cold, they used to wrap the bark of trees and the skin of the animals, round their body. By and by, they felt the need of re in order to avoid themselves from the heat and the cold and
(1) What does the present man eat? (2) How do we protect ourselves against cold and heat? (3) Why do we feel the necessity of re? (4) How do we obtain re?
for cooking the food. Necessity is the mother of invention. Thus, they gained from the experience and came to the conclusion that re can be produced by striking the stones against each other and by rubbing the dry wooden pieces. Then they used the re obtained for roasting animals.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 187
Sectional Revision Te ollowing questions will be asked in order to revise this unit:
(1) How did men live in their earliest days?
(2) How did the primitive men satisy their hunger? (3) How did they deend themselves against the heat and the cold? (4) How did they produce the fire?
Second unit
(Pictures will be shown)
Houses. Gradually Gradually,, they felt the necessity of houses and learnt to construct huts. These huts were made of mud with thatched roofs. With the passage of time, they began to make bricks of mud. When bricks were available, they constructed houses out of them. In those days, there were no windows and ventilators, but at the later stage they
(1) (2) (3)
Why do we feel the necessity of the houses? Why do we construct pucca houses? Why do we construct houses with windows and ventilators?
constructed windows. the houses with enough doors and Modern Man. It Man. It is due to the improvement in the construction work and other new things that nowadays we live in the beautiful and airy buildings. Professions The man in the earliest days was primarily a hunter, because they had to get meat to satisfy their hunger. They used bow and arrow, as the hunting weapon. Other weapons were sword and spear etc. Gradually, they tamed the wild animals for his work. During that period, their main profession was to tame the sheep and goats. They got the idea of weaving the cloth from the wool, which they got from the sheep. The experience gave them the knowledge of cotton and so they began to grow cotton. For their daily work, they made iron and wooden instruments. They felt the need of utensils and posts. So, they began to make brass vessels and clay pots. In this way, the man improved gradually and entered the new era. Now they are producing many good things according to their needs. Modern man is more scientic and they have produced many scientic equipments such as radio, television, cinema, aeroplanes, motors, and wireless.
Sectional Revision
(4)
Which kind of houses do we nd nowadays?
(5)
What was needed for the early man to satisfy their hunger? Why do we feel the need of taming the animals? Why do we make implements? What kind of things does the man use nowadays for recreation?
(6) (7) (8)
Te ollowing questions will be put to the students in order to revise the unit: (1) What kind o houses had the early man? (2) What were the main proessions proessions o the early man? (3) How did they invent the clothes?
188 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 188
Recapitulation. Te ollowing questions will be put to the students in order to revise the whole lesson:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
How did the early man get their ood? Why did they eel the need o the houses? What do you know about the proessions o the early man? What is the difference between the early man and the modern man?
Home Assignment. Te students will be asked to write the story o the primitive man in their notebooks at home.
Lesson Plan No. 2 Dramatized Lesson Plan Class VI Aims
opic: Indus opic: Indus Valley Civilization in India
o help the pupils (1) to come to know the most significant objects which have been ound by excavation at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, (2) to appreciate the high standard o civilization which existed in India in the remote past, and (3) to take pride in being born in such a country with such an ancient civilization.
Aids (1) A map o India, showing Mohenjodaro and Harappa Harappa and also the river Indus. (2) A time line (with 100 years as unit), showing the dates o the ollowing civilizations: Te Babylonia Babylonian, n, the Egyptian, the Chinese, the Indian, the Greek, and the Roman civilization, the time line would be brought to the present date. (3) Te pictures pictures o the most important finds are are pasted on the cardboard and astened with string, so that they can be hung on the chest o the pupils.
Preparation (1) Te teachers should nominate a pupil (rom volunteers) to play the role o o the commencommentator. Tey should come to the stage (space in ront o the class). Another pupil, standing behind the teacher’s desk should produce a metallic sound (by striking one iron piece with another). Te time line and map should hang on the wall. (2) Te commentator commentator should look at at the paper handed over to them by the teacher and say— Hark! Listen to the sound. Tey are excavating Mohenjodaro (point to it on the map). Excavation is going on in Harappa as well (point to it on the map), we are in 1921 (point on the time line). Hark! Listen to the sound again. wo great cities have been unearthed. People lived there more than 5,000 years ago (shows it on the time line). Now, with my
magic wand (moves the wand), I can make the people and objects in the cities come alive and bid them to give evidence beore you. Tey will tell you about themselves—about the great civilization they developed—we shall call it the Indus Valley civilization (shows the Indus valley on the map). Tis is the announcement o the lesson; the teacher should write the lesson head on the blackboard.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 189
Presentation Te commentator now calls a House to give evidence. A pupil, selected by the teacher plays the role (the paper with the role written on it is handed over to him). ‘I am a house at Mohenjodaro. Can you imagine age? I am more made than 5,000 years old! But Ibricks. am notI different rom too. the houses in which you live.my I am very strong, o large well-burnt am very high I you climb the stairs, you can go to the second floor—you would find a large hall with a well-paved floor. You may rest there; i you desire to take a bath, you would find the bathroom nearby.’ (Te teacher should make a blackboard summary simultaneously as given below): Dwelling houses—buildings made o well-burnt bricks, having baths, paved floors, etc.— houses o varying sizes—wide roads—public bath.
Application A ew pupils should be called call ed in to play some o the important roles. Tey Te y should not be given any paper to read out the part but may look at the blackboard and play the role.
Homework Te pupils should be asked to write a short account o what they know o the Indus Valley civilization. (Source: Effective eaching of History in India, NCER, NCER, 1975)
Lesson Plan No. 3 Lord Buddha and His Teachings Subject: Subject: opic: opic: Period: Period:
Social Studies Studies Buddha and His eachings eachings III
Class VI [Duration: 40 Minutes]
Illustrative Aids (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Te ordinary classroom apparatus. Te our charts showing our our scenes which changed changed the lie o Buddha. Te chart showing Buddha leaving his wie and son. Te map map o o India or showing places associate associated d with Buddha. Te time Chart.
Specic Objectives Knowledge o help the pupils acquire the knowledge k nowledge o acts regarding the t he impact o Buddhism Buddhis m on Indian lie
in order to develop the understanding o the ollowing major ideas: (1) Te superstitions and the rituals needed a change. Buddhism was antipriest in its outlook and opposed to ritualism. (2) Te rigid caste system leading to persecuti persecution on o the people o the lower castes was rejected by Buddhism.
190 190 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
(3) Te our Noble ruths and the Eight-Fold Path constituted the main teaching o Buddha. (4) Te simplicity o Buddha’s teachings contributed to its popularity. (5) Buddhism denied the efficiency o the Vedic rites and practices or the purpose o salvation. (6) Buddhism helped the Indian people in the development o art and culture. (7) Te principle o ‘Ahimsa’ Ahimsa’ permeated every walk o lie o the Indian people. (8) Buddhism served serve d as a religion and philosophy o the developing empires, both native and oreign in Ancient India. (9) Buddha’s emphasis o Pali made it an all-India language. (10) Buddhism by throwing a challenge stimulated the revival o Brahminical religions.
Skills (1) Locating places associated with Buddhism in the map o the world. (2) Preparing an album containing photographs photographs and pictures pictures o Buddha and Buddhist remains.
(3) Comparing and contrasting Buddhism with other other religions. (4) Establishi Establishing ng cause–effect relationship relationship between the acts and the events relating to the spread and influence o Buddhism. Attitudes o help the pupils develop attitudes o the ollowing:
(1) humanitarian outlook towards other living beings; (2) promptness or the eradication o all types o social discriminations; discri minations; and (3) interest in the study o our national heritage. Previous knowledge assumed. Students have already read Buddha. Introduction. Te ollowing questions will be asked rom the students to test their previous knowledge:
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Name the religions o India. Who was the ounder o Islam? Who was the ounder o Christi Christianity? anity? Who was the ounder o Sikhism?
Announcement of the aim. Well students, today, we shall read something about the lie and teachings o Buddha, the ounder o Buddhism.
Matter
Method
Sub-Unit—I
1. The picture of Buddha will be shown.
Early life, all kinds of facilities for a prince, education of Buddha, all luxuries of life, man of contemplation, social and cultural life of the people, marriage of Buddha.
2. The place of birth will be shown in the map of India. 3. The time chart will be shown to the students to give some idea of time. 4. The matter will be narrated to the students.
(continued )
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 191 Sub-Unit—II Buddha’s desire to see the mysteries of life, four scenes, decision to leave the life of a prince, and search for truth.
Sub-Unit—III His wanderings from place to place, life of austerity and penance, contemplation under a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of a river near Gaya. His teachings, ‘The Middle, Path, and ‘Eight-Fold Path’.
Recapitulation 1. What were the social and cultural conditions of India when Buddha was born? 2. What kind of nature did Buddha possess? 1. Four scenes will be shown to the class 2. The chart showing Buddha leaving his wife and child will be shown. Recapitulation 1. What was the effect of the four scenes on his life? 2. Why did he leave his home? 1. A chart showing lean and thin Buddha sitting under a ‘Peepal’ tree will be shown? 2. A chart depicting the Eight-Fold Path Path will be shown. Recapitulation 1. What did Buddha do after leaving home? 2. Where did he nd out the truth? 3. What were the eight principles of his teachings?
Blackboard summary. Te early lie o a prince, the world ull o miseries, and the principal
teachings o Buddha.
Teaching Hints and Activities 1. Te teacher should emphasize these points that the teachings o Buddha led to the growth o universal brotherhood, public welare, and simple and moral lie. 2. A map o India should be used and places such as Kapilavastu, Bodha Gaya, Sarnath, Rajgriha, Patliputra, Kosambi, and Ujjain should be located on it. 3. Stories rom the Jalkas illustrative o Buddha’s teachings may be narrated in the class. 4. Te pupils pupils should be asked to collect sketches, photos, photos, etc., o Buddha and his prominent disciples, stupas, and temples. 5. Te advanced students may be asked to meet in groups and make a comparative comparative study o different religions. 6. Te pupils may be given the assignment o studying various aspects o Buddhism and they should individually report these to the class. 7. Te scenes rom Buddha’s lie may be dramatized. 8. Some o the pupils should be asked to prepare maps indicating the gradual spread o Buddhism in India and abroad. 9. Te films on the lie and teachings o Buddha may be shown to the students and afer that they may be asked to write an essay on the main teachings o Buddha. 10. Te teacher may suggest a suitable biography o Buddha in regional languages to the pupils or reading at home. 11. Te teacher may organize organize historical excursions to nearby places associated with Buddhism.
Evaluation
Below are given a ew specimen test items which might help the teacher tea cher to evaluate the effectiveness effectivene ss o their teaching, and the extent o students’ comprehension o the unit. Te questions may be supplemented by some other items prepared by the teacher. 1. Explain the contribution o Buddhism to the development o Indian art and culture. 2. What were were the actors responsible or the popularity o Buddhism?
192 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 192
3. Answer the ollowing questions in five to eight lines. (i) What are the Four Four Noble Noble ruths? ruths? (ii) Enumerate the elements o the Eight-Fold Path. Path. (iii) Explain the main moral moral teachings o Buddhism. 4. In an outline outline map o India, India, show the places which were associated with the lie o Buddha. 5. ick off the most appropriate appropriate answer. answer. For salvation, according to Buddha, one must (i) visit viharas and stupas. (ii) practise the Eight-Fold Path Path as suggested by Buddha. (iii) undergo penance (tapasya) or or several years. 6. Which o the ollowing is in keeping with the teachings o Buddha? (i) Indiscriminate sacrifices o animals to different gods are the means to get salvation. (ii) Good law (Dharma) (Dharma) is to be taught taught to all. (iii) Special consideration or higher class and caste is to be shown by the sangha. 7. In what respects did Buddhism differ rom the principles principles o other religions? ick off the correct answers. (i) Te virtues o o pacifism and non-violence should be accepted by all. (ii) Idol worship is necessary. (iii) rue religion consists consists in the ormal ormal observance o rituals. 8. Choose the appropriate words words given below and fill up the blanks. (i) Gandhiji adopted the method o...... o............ ...... to prosecute the national movement movement (Violence, Non-violence, Cooperation) (ii) Te Harijans were converted to Buddhism under the leadership o................. (Ambedkar, Anagarik Dharmapala, Dharmanand, Kosambi) (iii) Buddha first preached preached at............. (Bodh Gaya, Rajgriha, Sarnath) Sarnath) (iv) Ashoka depicted depicted the teachings o Buddha on............ (walls, pillars, copper copper plates) (Source: ‘Improving Instruction in History’, NCER).
Lesson Plan No. 4 Class VI
opic: Propagation of Buddhism by Ashoka
Illustrative Aids 1. 2. 3. 4.
An outline outline map o India India A picture o o a great stupa at Sanchi Outline sketches o the pillar and rock edicts A picture o Dharma Dharma Mahamatra.
General Aims: As in other topics
Specic Aims
1. o enable the students understand the measures adopted by Ashoka Ashoka to promote promote principles and teachings o Buddha. 2. o enable the students understand the lesson less on o tolerance and ellow eeling rom the lie o Ashoka.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 193
Previous Knowledge (1) Te students have studied about the early lie o Ashoka. (2) Tey have also studied about the conquest o Kalinga Kalinga and its effects. (3) Tey have learnt about the lie o Buddha. Introduction. Following Introduction. Following questions will be asked to test the t he previous knowledge o the students: 1. What are are the main teachings o Buddha? 2. Why did Ashoka invade Kalinga? 3. What was the effect o this war on on the mind o o Ashoka? Statement of the Aim. Well Aim. Well students, today we shall study the measures adopted by Ashoka or the propagation o Buddhism.
Presentation What are the modern methods of propaganda? (Cinema, Radio, Press, TV)
Matter Method Step 1. 1. Ashoka appointed certain male and female ofcers for the propagation of o f Buddhism. They were also required to look to the morals of the people and see that the law of piety was followed by them. These ofcers were called Dharma Mahamatras (censors of morals).
(Correlation) Were these methods available during the time of Ashoka?
Step II. Building of Monasteries and Endowing them He built many monasteries and stupas at different places in the country. Stupa at Sanchi is very famous. Buddhist monks got help from the royal purse. °
The height of the stupa at Sanchi is 77 1/2 . It has a diameter of 12 1/2 . It has a triple umbrella of stone at the top. There is a Pradakshna-path all round it. There are many monasteries attached to it. °
These stupas and monasteries became the centres of the diffusion of Buddhism. Keeping in view these steps, Prof. Mojumdar has rightly remarked: ‘He (Ashoka) appeared as the torch-bearer torch-bearer,, who led the gospel of Buddhism from village to village, from city to city city,, from province to province, from country to country and from continent to continent.’ Step III. Ashoka Caused Edicts to be Engraved
1. Why do people build temples? 2. Why were the stupas built so big in size? (The construction of a stupa will be explained by showing the picture of the stupas and monasteries at Sanchi) Recapitulation 1. Why did Ashoka appoint Mahamatras? 2. Where did the monks live?
He caused edicts on the main teachings of Buddhism—‘Ahimsa’ (non-injury to animals), obedience to parents, reverence for the teachers, politeness to all, telling the truth, to be engraved on pillars, rocks, and barks of trees for the moral and religious advancement of the people. They
1. Why do people put up big hoardings at prominent places? 2. What type of languages should be used in the posters? 3. What was the language of the masses during the time of Ashoka?
(continued )
194 194 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies
Matter Method
What are the modern methods of propaganda? (Cinema, Radio, Press, TV)
were placed at the crossing or at the most frequent places so that everybody might read. They
4. What were the the means of transport in the early times?
have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Lauriya, Nandangarh, etc. Their height is about 50 –60 . Their weight is about 50 tons. The polished surface of these pillars sometimes surprises the people. In connection with the Asoka’s pillar at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi which was brought from ‘T ‘Topra, opra, Bishop Herbert remarked, ‘It was a high black pillar of cast metal.’ These pillars are found at far-off places. ‘It is a mystery as to how they would had been moved to those places.’
5. Which language did Ashoka choose for his edicts? 6. Why did he choose this language?
′
′
(The construction of the pillar and rock edicts will be explained with the help of pictures.) (The teacher will narrate how Topra Topra edict was removed to Delhi by Ferozeshah Tughlaq A.D. 1356; 8,400 men were required to place it on cart having 42 wheels.)
This method proved very useful in popularizing Buddhism within his empire. Step IV. Personal Example of Ashoka His personal example produced a very powerful effect. He practised all those virtues which he wanted to preach to others. He became a vegetarian after the Kalinga war. He had now no attraction for hunting or enjoying dances. He began to lead a pious life. He loved peace and hated war, violence, and bloodshed. His practical life made a deep impression on the minds of the people.
How can we mould others to our own way of life? What principles did Ashoka accept and practise in his life to achieve this goal? Name the organization which is trying to establish peace in the world. (Correlation with UNO and its other organizations.)
Step V. Buddhism as State Religion Ashoka Religion Ashoka made Buddhism the State religion of his empire. Asoka’s successors were also Buddhists and Buddhism continued to be the State religion for a long time in India.
Recapitulation 1. What is an edict? 2. Which is the State religion today?
Step VI. Third Buddhist Council He called the third Buddhist Council at Patliputra in 252 B.C. to revise Buddhist scriptures and to remove certain abuses that had crept into monastic order.
(Narration method will be adopted). Patliputra will be shown on the map.
Step VII. Works of Public Utility These measures were supplemented by practical measures which won the goodwill of the people. These works of public utility are best described in his own words in Pillar edict VII.
How can a government win the hearts of the people?
‘On the roads I have had banyan trees planted to give shade to men and beasts. I have had groves of mango-trees planted, and at every half ‘Kos’. I have had well dug, rest houses have been created
What did Ashoka do to make the lives of the masses happier?
and numerous water plants have been prepared here and there for the enjoyment of both men and beasts.’
State some works of public utility which a government undertakes for the welfare of the people.
Step VIII. Buddhist Sacred Books were Written in Pali
(continued )
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 195
Matter Method
What are the modern methods of propaganda? (Cinema, Radio, Press, TV)
Under his orders, the Buddhist sacred books were written in Pali, which were then in popular po pular use.
Which language is more effective e ffective for public communication?
Since Pali was widely understood, it helped a good deal in the spread of Buddhism. Step IX . Religious Missions to Foreign Countries He sent out missionaries to preach Buddhism in the independent kingdoms of the far south Ceylon, Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia.
(Countries where Buddhism is found will be shown in the map).
Final Recapitulatio Recapitulation n 1. 2. 3. 4.
What were were the duties o the Dharma Mahamatras? What part did the edicts play in the propagation propagation o Buddhism? Why did Ashoka call the Buddhist Council? What measures did Ashoka adopt to spread Buddhism in other countries? countries?
Home Assignments 1. What were the methods adopted by Ashoka or the spread o Buddhism? 2. List five duties o the rulers
Lesson Plan No. 5 Class VI
opic: Life under the Mauryas
Aids: (1) (2) (3)
A map o India showing the extent o Mauryan Empire. A picture o Sanchi Stupa. A time reeze o Mauryan Age.
A people. A picture picture showing showing prosperous the unctioning o a Municipality.
(4) (5)
General aim—o aim—o enable the students understand that
(1) A vast and powerul empire under the Mauryas was establishe established. d. (2) Economic progress and prosperity through a strong central rule and unification o large areas under the administration, was an important aim o the rulers. (3) Te rulers worked or promoting the cultural lie o the people. (4) For the first time, there was a successul attempt at evolving a common language or the whole o India.
Specific aim. o aim. o amiliarize the pupils with the social, economic, and religious lie o people under the Mauryas.
Introduction. o motivate the pupils or the lesson, the teacher may ask the ollowing Introduction. questions: (1) Who was the ounder o o the Mauryan Empire? (2) What is his greatest contribution to Indian Indian History? (3) Who is a popular ruler?
196 Teaching of Social Social Studies Studies 196
Announcement Announ cement of the aim. aim. oday, we shall study how the establishment o a vast and powerul empire under the Mauryas resulted in the economic progress, prosperity, and cultural advancement o the people. Presentation. Various Presentation. Various activities will be undertaken or enlisting the cooperation o the pupils. Blackboard summary will be developed along with the lessons.
Section I Social Condition (a) Society divided into four Varnas and other castes
(The teacher may initiate the lesson by presenting the following extracts from Megasthenes’s INDICA)
(b) Family life—joint family system—position of women. Women scholars
(1) ‘People never drink wine except in sacrices.’ (2) ‘They have no suits, no litigation about pledges of deposits.
Evaluate Yourself 1.
‘Care ‘Ca reul ul lesson lesson Plann Planning ing is the the ounda oundation tion o o all good good teaching teaching’’ Examine Examine the the stateme statement. nt.
2.
‘A lesson lesson plan is is a servant servant and not not a master master.’ Explain Explain this statem statement ent with with examples examples..
3.
Prepa Pr epare re a less lesson on Pla Plan n o o hist history ory o orr clas classs VIII. VIII.
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Summary
1. Te outline o lesson is based on the principles pri nciples o learning. It is called the t he ‘lesson plan’. 2. Te lesson plan is the smallest unit o the proposed teaching material o the teacher. 3. lesson plan o is actually a plan o action as itstatement helps avoiding needlessthe repetiti repetition. on.presentation, 4. A Te principle writing the lesson plan, the o objectives, orderly the correlation, the teaching techniques, the use o blackboard, the flexibility, and the evaluation exercises are the Principles o lesson planning. 5. Te characteristics o an effective lesson Plan are—written, objective based, based on previous previous knowledge, selection o subject matter, and suitable aids. 6. Te approaches to lesson Planning are ollows: Herbartian, unit or Morrison’s, Evaluation, and RCEM approach. 7. Herbartian approach lesson plan is known as knowledge lesson plan. 8. Herbart suggested five steps, i.e., preparation, presentation, comparison, comparison, generalization, and application. 9. Psychological, Inductive, and deductive methods. Simple and easy and use o previous
knowledge are the advantages o Herbartian lesson Planning. 10. Rigidity, vagueness, passivity, and difficult process are the limitations o Herbartian lesson Planning. 11. Te main eatures o o a unit lesson plan are unit and subunit, material and aids, etc. 12. Exploration, presentation, assimilation, organization, and Recitation are steps involved in unit lesson Plan.
Lesson Planning in Social Studies 197
13. Psychological, scientific, summary, content analysis, methods and aids, evaluation are the merits o Bloom’s approach o lesson planning. 14. Te eatures o RCEM approach approach are improvement improvement and the use o system approach,. 15. Input, Process, and output output are the three steps o RCEM approach to lesson Planning. 16. Te types o lessons are are knowledge lesson, skill lesson, and appreciation lesson. 17. Te yearly plan o social studies teaching plays a very important role in teaching–learning process and proper management.
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References
Walia, J.S. 2005. School Management and Pelagicus of Education. Education. Jalandhar: Paul Publishers, pp. 465–475. Aggarwal, J.C 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach Approach.. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 288–306. Pathak, R.P. 2003. New Dimensions of Educational echnology . New Delhi: Radha Prakashan, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, pp.195–205. Mehra, V.1993. 1995. Educational Educational echnology—A echnology . Delhi: S.S. Publishers, P.110. Publishers, pp. 80–85. Das, R.C. echnology—A Basic ext . Delhi: Sterling
Additional Readings Huseum, . . and Postleth Waite, .N. 1994. Te International Encyclopedia of Education. Education. London: Pergamon. Perspective . Delhi: Prentice Hall. Clayton, .E. 1995. eaching and Learning: Psychological Perspective. Kochhar, S.K. 1990. Te eaching eaching of Social Soci al Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Ltd. Moffatt, M.P M. P. 1965. 19 65. Social Studies Instruction. Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall Inc. Bhattacharya, S. and Dorji, D.R. 1996. eaching o social studies in Indian Schools. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot.
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Evaluation in Social Studies
12
Evaluation is an important component of teaching—learning process. It is a concept that has emerged as a prominent process of testing, measuring, assessing, and appraising. Its main objective is qualitative improvement. In the other words, evaluation is a process of making value judgement over the level of performance or achievement. It is not only concerned with the appraisal of achievement, but also concerned with its improvement. Evaluation is a continuous process, all pervasive and dynamic in a situation where the objectives of a course or a programme relating to total development call for a variety of cognitive and non-cognitive experiences.
Evaluation is an important part of the whole programme of education. Te teaching–learning process will not be completed without evaluation. For every programme, education is necessary. It gives us information about what we have achieved so far and what yet to be achieved. achi eved. Terefore, it is an important aspect of social studies. In the teaching–learning process, some instructional objectives are fixed. By evaluation, we can know whether these instructional objectives are being achieved or not? Terefore, evaluation is an integral process of teaching and learning situation.
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Meaning and Concept of Evaluation
Evaluation is a broader term. When we ask what does evaluation mean, then many may not be able to explain. Different people may give different answers. We can define evaluation as one of the following:
Conducting examinations. Assigning the division or grade for students based on their marks in different subjects. Organizing various competitions. Preparing question papers for examinations.
Evaluation means:
A systematic process. Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data. Assignment of symbols. Achievement of instructional objectives. It answers the question ‘how good’.
200 200 Teaching of Social Studies Studies
y Denition of Evaluation Wiles—‘Evaluation is a process of making judgment that are to be used as a basis for planning.
It consists of establish establishing ing goals, collecting evidence ev idence concerning lack of growth towards goals, goals, making judgmen judg ments. ts.’ It It is a proce procedur duree for for imp impro roving ving the prod product, uct, the proce process, ss, and and even even the the goals goals themse themselves lves.. Clara M. Brown—‘Evaluation is essential in the never-ending cycle of formulating goals, measuring progress towards them and determining the new goals which merge as a result of new warning.’ Evaluation involves measurement, which means objective quantitative evidence. However, it is broader than measurement and implies that considerations have been given to certain values, standards and that interpretation of the evidence has been made mad e in the light of the particular situation. National Nation al Curriculum Framework (NCF) ‘For School Education 2005’ —‘ —‘Evaluation is a
systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting evidences of students’ progress and achievement both in cognitive and non-cognitive areas of learning for the purpose of taking variety of decisions. decisions.’ In order to understand the term ‘evaluation’, it is important to understand the term ‘measurement’. Both the t he terms are not synonyms. Tere is a slight slig ht differencebetween differencebetwe en them. When we say that a newborn baby has a weight of 3 kg, it refers to measurement. However, when we say that the weight of the newborn newb orn baby is good, it refers to evaluation. ake another example, suppose a student secured 40 marks out of 50 in an examination, it refers to measurement; however, if we say that the students has secured above first class mark, then it refers to the term ‘evaluation’. Measurement is the process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which an individual possesses particular characteristics (e.g., answers the question ‘How much?’). Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to determine the extent to which the pupil pupilss are achieving the instructional objectives (e.g., answers the question ‘How good?’). Schematically, the concept of educational evaluation may be presented by showing the relationship among objectives, content (subject-matter), learning activities and evaluation procedures (testing) (Figure 12.1). Content
(Curriculum, Syllabus, Courses, Textbooks) Textbooks)
Objectives
Evaluative Procedure
(Well defined purposes of instruction)
(Oral test, Written test, observation)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Methods, Experiments, Discussions, Questions, Demonstrations, etc.)
Figure 12.1
Aspects of educational evaluation
Evaluation in Social Studies 201
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Difference Between Measurement and Evaluation
From the above paragraphs, we might have understood the meaning of evaluation and measurement. able 12.1 12 .1 explains e xplains how ‘evaluation’ ‘evaluation’ differs di ffers from f rom ‘measurement’. Table 12.1
Differences Between Measurement and Evaluation
Measurement
Evaluation
1. It is narrow in concept.
1. It is much more comprehensive term than measurement.
2. It It is limi limited ted to to quantitat quantitative ive descri description ptions s of pupils pupils..
2. IItt include includes s both both quantita quantitative tive and qualit qualitative ative descriptions.
3. It It does does no nott alw alway ays s inc inclu lude de val value ue ju judg dgem emen ent. t.
3. It al alwa ways ys inc inclu lude des s valu value e jud judge geme ment nt..
4. It answers the question ‘how much?’
4. It answers the questions ‘how good?’
5. It deals with numbers.
5. It deals with degree.
6. It is a means not an end.
6. It is a means to an end.
Te role of evaluation is depicted in Figure 12.2. Evaluation Measurement
and/or
Non-measurement
(e.g. Testin Testing) g)
(e.g. Informal Informal Observation)
Plus
Plus Value judgements (e.g. Good learning progress)
Figure 12.2
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Role of evaluation
Principles of Good Evaluation
In the previous sections, we have defined the term ‘evaluation’ and also differentiated the term ‘evaluation’ from ‘measurement’. Now, Now, what principles should we follow for the evaluation? Let us discuss the principles of good evaluation as follows:
Evaluation must be done in terms of the purpose of the programme—all of them. Evaluation should be related to the total learning situation. Evaluation should look beyond the learning situation. Evaluation must be carried on as continuing process.
Evaluation should be carried on as an integral part of instruction. Evaluation should take into consideration the th e dynamic quality of growth and development. Evaluation should be carried on as a co-operative (teachers, students, parents, head master, and officers). Selections of appropriate evaluation techniques.
202 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 202
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Developing an Effective Programme for Social Studies
For the development of an effective programme of social studies, the teacher must be acquainted with the following:
Te objective of social studies in respect to the subject as a whole, in general, and the consistent subject and specific unit, in particular. Te relationship among objectives, learning experiences, and evaluation. Te different purposes of evaluation, i.e., diagnosis, guidance, grading and classifying, etc. Te elementary theory and practice of measurement. Te techniques and tools of evaluation—their preparation and uses. Te following procedure (Figure 12.3) to utilize the ‘feedback’ in the classroom.
Formulate objectives
Anal An alys yse e lear learni ning ng ta task sk
Develop tests
Implement and evaluate output
Feedback loops
Modify, Change, Improve
Figure 12.3
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Decis De cisio ion n lear learni ning ng sy syst stem em
A System Flowchart
Evaluation in Social Studies
Te subject of social studies aims at helping the child to develop social skills as are necessary for the effective participation in social life and ultimately to become enlightened citizens, which means that it is a subject which is concerned with introducing changes in the behaviour of the pupils naturally; therefore, the evaluation in social studies is the process of determining the kind and extent of changes in the behaviour of children that result from experiences designed to promote social learning. In view the special nature of the subject, the evaluation of the work of the pupils should comprise theoffollowing:
esting knowledge of facts. esting powers of intellect—such as the powers of critical thinking and arriving at judgments. judgmen ts. esting the various skills necessary for realizing in full the aims of social studies. esting attitudes and interests.
Techniques of Evaluation in Social Studies Information about students’ growth in various areas of educational development can be collected through different techniques. For testing knowledge of facts, comprehension, critical thinking,
etc., the following types of tests are used. Oral tests. Essay-type tests. Short-answ Short-answer-type er-type tests. Objective-type tests.
Evaluation in Social Studies 203 Oral Tests Tese tests can be used for individual testing. In social studies, oral testing offers opportunity to test in depth, especially, a student’s independent thinking. On the spot correction is possible if the pupil given an incomplete answer. In addition to the day-to-day classroom testing, oral
tests can be used at least twice a year for testing the promptness promptness in knowledge of facts or express ideas coherently on a topic. Limitations of Oral Tests
It is time consuming. It may subjective. Judging on the spot is comparatively an imperfect measuring device.
Essay-type Tests In this type of tests, the pupils are asked to write the answer for about three to four pages or 300–400-words. Attempt is made to test student’s ability to recall, organize, integrate ideas, apply principles, princip les, and describe events, persons, and places. Examples of Essay-type Tests (1) Describe the causes of education backwardness of India. What steps can be taken to eradicate this problem? (2) What is globalizat globalization? ion? Discuss the impact of globaliz globalization ation in India since it is introduced. (3) Discuss the contribution of M.K. Gandhi to the Indian freedom strugg struggle. le. Merit of Essay-type Tests
It measures complex learning outcomes. It emphasizes on the integration and application of thinking and problem-solving skills. It is easy to construct.
Limitations of Essay-type Tests
Unreliability of the scoring. Subjectivity in scoring. ime-consuming to score the answers. Limited sampling of topics to be measured.
Short-Answer-type Tests Short-answer-type questions are set to which pointed answers have to be given. Answers may vary var y from one word to 50 words. Te main purpose is to test a large amount of knowledge, abilities, abilit ies, and understandings within a short time. Language does not play a predominant part in the answers.
Example of Short-answer-type Tests (1) Write one of the fundamental rights of Indian constitution. (2) Name the first President of India. (3) What is the scripture of Jainism? (4) What is standard time? (5) What is WHO?
204 204 Teaching of Social Studies Studies Merits of Short-answer-type Tests
It is easy to construct. It provides large sampling of topics to be measured.
It easy tothe score. It is reduces possibility of guessing.
Limitations of Short-answer-type Tests
Unsuitable for measuring complex learning outcomes. Language ability of the students can not be measured. It gives emphasis upon note learning.
Objective-type Tests A thorough and precise exploration of the mind of each child is the central purpose of objectivetype tests. A variety of items can be employed for the testing. Tere is subjectivity of scoring these tests. Large sampling of topics can be provided on these tests. Examples of Objective-type Tests (1) Gautam Buddha was died at ……………. (2) First Battle of Panipet was held in …………. (i) 1215 (ii) 1530 (iii) 1526 (iv) 1506 (3) Write Write ‘’ if the statement is true and write ‘F’ if the statement is false. Te President of India always works on the advice of the cabinet. Merits of Objective-type Tests
Objectivity of scoring. Tey can cover a great deal of subject matter. Tey are easy to score. Tey require minimum use of language. Tere is no chance for teacher to show favouritism or personal bias. Tese eliminate bluffing. Tese tests are easy to administer. Tese tests give greater satisfaction to the pupils.
Limitations of Objective-type Tests
Pupils do not have an opportunity to show their liability to organize their thought. Tese tests do not diagnose the students students’’ difficulties.
Tey fail to check cramming. Tey encourage guessing. Tey fail to test abilities such as language, analyzing, comparing, interpreting, interpreting, and reasoning.
Types of Objective-type Tests Tere are different types of objective-type tests. Tey are discussed in the following sections.
Evaluation in Social Studies 205 Multiple choice A multiple-choice item consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions. Te problem may be stated as a direct question or an incomplete statement and is called the stem alternatives.. Te correct alternative in each of the item. Te list of suggested solutions is called alternatives distracters.. item is called the answer and and the remaining alternatives are called distracters Example of Multiple Choice of Objective Test (1) Buddha was born at …… (i) Patliputra (ii) Sarnath (iii) Lumbini (iv) Nalanda (2) Te main characteristi characteristics cs of the climate in Mediterranean land is (i) Hot wet summer and cold dry winter. (ii) Hot dry summer and cold wet winter. (iii) Hot dry summer and warm dry winter. True or False or Yes or No
Te alternative response test item consists of a declarative statement
that the pupil is asked to mark true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, agree or disagree, and the like. In each case, there are only two possible answers. Te most common use of true–false is in measuring the ability to identify the correctness of statements of fact, definitions of terms, statements of principles, and the like. Tese items also measure the ability to recognize cause-and-effect relationships. Examples of True or False or Yes or No Put ‘’ against the statement if it is true and put ‘F’ if the statement is false. (1) Mahavi Mahavirr is call called ed ‘Jina’. (2) Buddha preached his first sermon at Kushinagar Kushinagar.. (3) Te President of India is elected directly by the people. (4) Adam smith defined economics as ‘the science of wealth’. Matching Test Te matching test consists of two parallel columns with each word, number, or symbol in one column being matched to a word, sentence, or phrase in the other column. Te items in the column for which a match is sought are called premises and the items in the column from which the selection is made are called respon responses. ses. Te pupil’s task to identify identif y the pairs of the items that are to be associated associ ated on the basis indicated. indic ated. Examples of Matching Test column ‘B’ ‘A’
15 1 526
AD
Match the items of column ‘A’ with the appropriate items of the ‘B’
The Quit India Movement
BC
261 AD 1 19 942
Accession of Harsha the throne Kalinga War
60 6 06
The First Battle of Panipat
19 1 920
Dandi March Non-Cooperation Movement
AD AD
206 Teaching of Social Studies Studies 206 Sequence Test Some items are given. Te student’s task is to arrange the items in a chorological order. Example of Sequence Test
Q. Arrange the following in sequence: Cripps Mission Minto-Morley reforms Te ragedy of Jalianwala Bagh Te Dandi March Battle of Palassey First War of Indian Independence Tird of Battle of Panipat Classication Test Items are presented. One of these items does not belong to the class to which all other items belong. Te pupil’s task is to find that item. By classifying these items, the student has to recognize that item which does not belong to the same group or class. Examples of Classication Test Q. Underline the name which is different from the other. (1) Chaitanaya, Gurunanak, Buddha, Kalidas (2) Babar, Humayun, Akbar, Ashoka Completion-type Test Hence, questions asked only involve the filling in of a proper name, date, significant facts, etc. Te task of the student is only to fill the gaps by appropriate words either given in the brackets or by recalling. Such type of questions test the knowledge facts. Examples of Completion-type Test (1) A person holding the office of the … is eligible to become the President of India. (collector, governor, commissioner, commissioner, major general, genera l, army contractor) contract or)
(2) …is the father of Mahabir Mahabir Vardhaman. Vardhaman. Recall-type Test In this test, simple and small answers have to be given for the given questions. Tey mainly test knowledge. Examples of Recall-type Test (1) Which is the leading country in jute jute production in the world? (2) Which country’s country’s per capita income is the highest in the world? (3) What percentage of of people is literate in India according to 2001 census?
Evaluate Yourself
1. Exp Expla lain in the the conce concept pt of of evalu evaluati ation on.. 2. Define Define the evaluatio evaluation n and differen differentiat tiatee measurem measurement ent and and evaluation evaluation.. 3. Discu Discuss ss the tech techniqu niques es of eval evaluati uation on in social stud studies. ies. 4. Eval Evaluat uatee the merit meritss and limita limitation tionss of objecti objective-ty ve-type pe tests. tests. 5. Expla Explain in the meri merits ts and limi limitatio tations ns of of essay-type essay-type tests tests..
Evaluation in Social Studies 207
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Summary
1. Evaluation is an important component of teaching–learning process. 2. It gives us information about what we have achieved so far and what yet to be achieved. 3. Evaluation is a broader term than measurement. 4. Measurement is the process of of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information to determine the extent to which the pupils are achieving the instructional objectives. 5. Measurement is limited to quantitative descriptions whereas evaluation includes both quantitative and qualitative descriptions. 6. otal learning situation, continuing process, integral part of of instruction and dynamic quality of growth and development are the main principles of good evaluation. 7. echniques of evaluation in social studies are oral tests, essay-type tests, tests , short-answer-type tests and objective-type test, etc. 8. Each test has its own merits and limitations.
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References
Aggarwal, J.S. 2006. eaching of Social Studies—A Practical Approach. Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., pp. 399–401. yagi, G. 1989. eaching of Social Studies. Studies . Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, pp. 217–220. Mehrotra, P.N. and Sidana, A.K. 2006. Social Study eaching . Jaipur: Shiksha Prakashan, pp. 317–320. Bais, N.S. 2006. eaching of Social Science Science.. Jaipur: Jain Prakashan Mandir, pp. 121–123. Pathak, R.P. 2010. eaching of Social Studies. Studies. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, pp. 80–81.
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Additional Readings
Bhattacharya, Bhattach arya, S. and Darji D.R. 1966. eaching Social Studies in Indian Schools. Schools . Baroda: Acharya Book Depot. Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International ext Book Company. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans Ltd. Highet, G. 1951. Te Art of eaching . London: Methuen and Company Ltd. NCER, National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005), MHRD, Government of India.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aggarwal, J.C. 1992. eaching eaching of Social Studies: Studies : A Practical Approach. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. Barr, A. et al . 1977. Te International Encyclopedia of Education . New York: Penguin Press. Bhattacharya, Bhattacha rya, S. and Darji D.R. 1966. eaching of Social Studies in Indian Schools . Baroda: Acharya Book Depot. Bining, A.C. and Bining, D.H. 1985. eaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools. Toronto: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Brubaker, D.L. 1969. Social Studies in a Mass Society . Pennsylvania: International Text book Company. Clark, L.H. 1973. eaching eaching Social Studies in Secondary S econdary Schools: Schools : A Handbook. New York: York: Macmillan Macmi llan Publishing Co., Line. Dale, E. 1969. Audio-Visual Method in eaching . New York: Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Dhand, H. 1991. A Ha Handbook ndbook for eachers: Research in each eaching ing of Social Studie Studiess. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House. Forrester, J.F. 1948. Introducing Social Studies. Bombay: Orient Longmans Publishing Co. Ltd. Hass, K.B. and Packer, H.Q. 1955. Preparation and Use of Audio Visual Aids . New York: Prentice Hall. Hemming, J. 1990. Te eaching of Social Studies in a Secondary School . London: New York, Longmans, Green & Co. High, J. 1962. eaching Secondary Schools Social Studies . New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Horn, E. 1937. Met Methods hods of Instructio Instruction n in the Social Social Studies Studies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Kochar, S.K. 1990. Te eaching of Social Studies. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Mac Nee, E.A. 1950. Instruction in Indian Secondary Schools. London: Oxford University University Press. Michaelis, J.V. 1962. Social Studies for Children in a Democracy . New York: Prentice Hall Inc. Morrison, H.C. and Sharma, R.A. 1934/1993. echnology of eaching . Meerut: International Publishing House. Moffatt, M.P M. P. 1990. 1990 . Social Studies Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. National Curriculum Framework for School Education NCERT (2000), Govt. of India New Delhi.
Stones, E. and Morris, S. 1972. eaching Practices, Problem and Prospective. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. Nesiah, K. 1954. Social Studies in the Schools. London: Geoffery Cumberlege, Oxford University Press. Wesley, A. and Adams, M.A. 1952. eaching Social Studies in Elementary Schools . Boston: DC, Health and Co. Wittch, W.A. and Schullar, C.F. 1957. Audio-Visual Materials. New York: Harper and Brothers.
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Index
A
B
A.H.. Glover, 166 Additional legitimation, 2 Adult approach, 3
B.K. Passi (1976), 129, 136, 146 Bal bhawan, 113 Bandura, 149, 151
Advantage Advanta ge of deductive deductive method, method, 83 Advanta Adv antage ge of inductive inductive method, 81 Advantage Advan tage of micro-teaching, 143 Advantage Advan tage of problem-solving method, 79 development of initiative and self-dependence, 79 development of self-expression, 80 development of social quality quality,, 79 intellectual development, 79 Advantage Advan tage of unit lesson plan, 171 Agency of project method, 91 Agricultural crop, 8 Akbarr, 14, 206 Akba All India Radio, 42 Allen and Eve, 142 Allen and Ryans, 135 Amavasiya, Ama vasiya, 169, 175–176, 179, 180 Amazon rain forest, 112 Amidon, Amid on, 17 Analytic method, 84–85 Applicatio Appl ication n of knowledge, knowledge, 162 Appreciation App reciation lesson, 182 Step pf, 182 Art of storytelling, 71
Basic principle of problem-solving method, 77 Basic principle of project method, 88 Battle of Palassey, 206 Beautification work, 92 Bhagat Singh, 13 Biography of Buddha, 191 Biography of national hero, 13 Bloom’s evaluation, 172, 185 Bloom’ss axonomy, 152, 177 Bloom’ Bodha Gaya, 191 Buddhism by Ashoka, 192 Bulletin board, 35–36, 110, 117 precaution for use, 36 use of, 36 Burton’ss view, Burton’ vi ew, 87 Bush, 130
C Carl Rogers, 57 Carter V. Good, 159 Central and State Government, 110 Chandragupta Maurya, 102 Characteristic of model of teaching, 150 Characteristic of good questioning, 103 Characteristic of good teaching method, 57
Arthur C. Bining, 72 Artistic and recreative, 167 Atlas, 41, 58, 66, 73, 110 Atlas, Audio aid, 32, 43 Audio-visual aid, 32, 43 Australia, 144
Characteristic of social studies teacher, 119 personality, 5, 17, 45, 63, 65, 88, 91, 100, 114, 120, 127, 153–154, 155, 158 scholarship,, 119–120, 127 scholarship teaching skill, 120–121, 127, 130–137, 141–147, 154, 163, 181
212 Index Child psychology, 51, 163 Child’s activity, 160 Child’s mental make-up, 165 Children psychology, 46
David Warwick, 154 D.D. iwari, 129 Deductive method, 59, 81–84, 86, 107, 165, 196 advantage of, 83
Children-centred curriculum, 46, 51 Classroom interaction, 20, 132, 142, 163, 173, 177 Clear-cut goal, 88 Closed-circuit television, 130 Collection of data, 24, 78, 115 Comenius, 53–55 Communication media, 26, 29 oral, 26 written, 26–27 Communication model, 139 Communication system, 14, 50 fax, 14 internet, 14, 42 mobile phone, 14 telephone, 14, 68, 113–114 Community survey, 51, 68, 115 Community-centred curriculum, 47, 51 Comparison between analytic method and synthetic method, 86 Comparison between inductive method and deductive method, 84 Comprehensivee term, 11, 201 Comprehensiv Computer, 42, 44, 57 Concept of evaluation, 199, 206 Concept of social studies, 1, 3, 5, 7–9 Concept of teaching, 17, 29, 146 Congenial and co-operative environmen e nvironment, t, 78
limitation of, 83 Defect in method of note dictation, 75 Defining educational process, 4, 8 Demerit of Bloom’s Approach, 174 Democratic citizenship, 5, 17, 115 Democratic value, 6, 9, 45–47, 51 Demonstration apparatus, 171 Demonstration, 14, 33, 111, 121, 131, 134, 144, 164, 171, 178, 181, 200 Department of teacher education, 144 Developing interpersonal relationship, 17 Development of effective programme, 202 Dewey, 56, 86–87 Diagrammatic representation, 37, 43, 133 Differences between measurement and evaluation, 201 Difference between micro-teaching and traditional teaching, 132 Difference between problem method and project method, 76 Difference between social science and social study study,, 3 Different teaching method of social study study,, 58 Dignity of labour, 93 Din-E-Elahi, 14 Disadvantage of homework, 62
Constitutional obligation, 7 Controversial issue, 24–25, 42 Co-operative effort, 90 Core curriculum, 6, 9 Core training programme package, 121 Correction method, 64 C.P. Ramaswamy, 14 Crow and crow, c row, 45 Cultural and seasonal festival, 116 Cultural heritage, 4, 7, 11 Cultural preservation, 7
Discussion method, 58, 64, 68, 107 limitations of, 65 merit of, 65 organization of, 64 Division of method, 57 Dorothy Tompson, 12 Dr. Cox, 99 Dr. E.A. Pires, 153 Dr. J.A. Stevenson, 87 Dr.. Kilpatrick, 90 Dr Dr.. N.L. Dosajh, 129 Dr Dr. Sampurnanand, 14 Dramatization method, 59, 73, 75
D Dalton Plan, 18, 58, 96–100, 107 difficulty of, 99 limitation of, 99 merit of, 98 David H. Bining, 72
Duggal and Sharma, 132 Duty of teacher in dalton plane, 97 keeping equipment up-to-date and in proper order, 97 keeping full record, 97 preparing assignment, 97
Index 213
E Edgor dale, 32 Educational philosophy, 53–54 Educational psychology, 53 Educational trip, 89 Educational value, 77, 90, 106 Effective lesson plan, 159, 161–162, 196 Emile, 54 Environmental and seasonal factor, 91 Equipment of social studies laboratory, 110 Essential of good project, 91 Esprit de corps, 74 Evaluation in social studies, 199, 201–203, 205–207 Expected Behavioural Outcome, 177, 179–180
Guru Nanak, 12 Gyan-darshan, 42
H
Gage, 18 Gandhiji, 42, 50, 56, 74, 192 Gautam Buddha, 12, 204
H.C. Hill, 66 H.N. Rivilin, 69 H.R. Douglass, 59 Hampton curriculum, 2 Harappa, 41, 188 Harsha, 14 Harmonious development, development, 45, 51, 180 Harvard University, 155 Helen Parkhurst, 96, 107 Herbart Ward, 55 Herbartian Approach, Approach, 163, 165, 170, 177, 196 Herbartian lesson plan model, 168 lunar eclipse, 168, 169, 170, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180 solar eclipse, 168, 169, 170, 176, 179, 180 Herbartian method, 87 Herbartian scheme, 166 Herbartian step, 54, 165–167, 185 Herbartian theory, 54 Heuristic attitude, 85 Heuristic spirit, 85–86 Historic event, 13 dandi march, 13, 205, 206 jallianwala bagh tragedy, tragedy, 13 non-cooperation movement, 13, 205 quit india movement, 13, 205
G.H. Betts, 59 General education, 1, 8 Geographical environment, 4 Geographical knowledge, 74 Germany, 54, 66 Glaser basic teaching model, 151 Globe, 28, 32, 41, 44, 109, 110, 117 Good communicator communicator,, 126–127 Good teaching diagnose, 20 Good’ss dictionary of education, 31, 75 Good’ Government central pedagogical institute, 129 Great didactic, 53
History of festival, 12 diwali, 13, 43 holi, 13 mohram, 13 onam, 13 History of national flag, 14 Home assignment, 61, 171, 188, 195 Hughe and Hughe, 182 Human affair, 2–3 Human behaviour, 2 Human environment, environment, 2, 4, 5, 8 Human relationship, relationship, 2, 3, 8, 17, 45, 51, 125
F Fa-Hein, 14 Fascist Italy, 66 Film, 28, 32, 41–43, 69, 115, 133, 141, 144, 160, 191 F. Teodore Struck, 100 Frank Roscoe, 55 Fruitful discussion, 80
G
Great stupa, 192 Group discussion, 48, 51, 65, 97, 178 Group dynamic, 20, 22 Group interaction, 93 Group psychology, 22 Grover’s scheme, 167 Gur Govind Sing, 12
Hydro electricpower station, 114
I I.B.Berkson, 125 Impact of globalization in India, 203 Importance of community resource, 113, 116
214 Index Importance of lesson planning, 160 India’s foreign policy, 24 Indian civilization, 7, 49 Indian education, 2, 177
limitation of, 67 merit of, 67 significance of, 66 Lester B. Sands, 158
Indira Gandhi national open university, 42 Inductive method, 81, 82, 84, 86, 165 Step in, 81 Indus Valley Valley civilization, 188–189 Instructional material, 19, 130, 138, 149–150 Intellectual horizon, 20 Interaction of group life, 98 Interactive process, 17, 29 Internet, 14, 42 Isha Masih, 12
Life insurance corporation, 19 Life of Buddha, 41, 74, 92, 95, 189, 192, 193 Life under Maurya, 195 Limitation of lecture method, 67 Limitation of analytic method, 85 Limitation of herbartian appr approach, oach, 165 Limitation of inductive method, 82 Limitation of micro-teaching, 143 Limitation of oral test, 203 Limitation of project method, 94 collateral reading, 94 expensive material, 94 haphazard teaching, 94, 161 lack of competent teacher, 95 Limitation of source method, 70 Limitation of synthetic method, 86
J James Welto James Welton, n, 56 Jawaharlal Jawaha rlal Nehru, 13 Johann amos comenius, 53 Johann Friedrich Herbart, 54 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, 54 John Adams, 97 John Dewey’s philosophy philosophy of education, 86 John V. Michaels, 17
K Kabir, 12 Kalinga war, war, 72, 194, 205 Kapilavastu, 191 Kargil war, 13 Kashmir issue, 24 Kindergarten stage, 54 Kind of project, 89 consumer type, 89 drill type, 89 problem type, 89 producer’s type, 89
L L.C. Singh, 130, 136, 144, 146, 149
M M.K. Gandhi, 203 M.L. Jacks, 126 M.P. Moffatt, 109 Madam Mad am Montes Montessori, sori, 56 Mahatma Gandhi, 13 Mahaveer Mah aveer,, 12 Map,, 40 Map type of, 40 Mastery test, 171 Mauryan Empire, 195 McDonald, 142 Mean of communication, 95 Meaning of integration, 11 Meaning of project method, 87 Mechanical art, 74 Mechanical device, 55 Mechanical gadget, 145 Meeraba Mee rabai, i, 12 Mental engine, 21 Meritt of analytic Meri analytic method, method, 85
Laboratory method, 58, 66, 68
Merit of bloom’s approach, 174
Learning by doing (activity method), 55 Learning by experience, 56 Learning by play way method, 55 Learning by self-education, 56 Learning condition and structure, 28 Lecture method, 57–58, 66–68, 107
Merit of Herbartian’s step, 165 Merit of project method, 93 Merit of source method, 70 Meritt of synthetic Meri synthetic method, method, 85 Method Met hod of dictatin dictatingg note, 75 Michael Mic hael J.J. Apter Apter,, 154
Index 215
Michael, 2, 9, 17 Michael, Micro-teaching procedure, 129, 133–134, 144 Micro-teaching supervisor, 140 Military spirit, 20
Philosophy of idealism, 66 Physical activity, 18, 80 Physical environment, environment, 2, 5, 17, 20 Physical geography, 8
Miniature of discipline, 92 Modern methodology, 53 Mohanjdaro, 41 Montessori method, 98 Morrison’s approach, 163, 170 Municipal committee, 48–49
Play selection, 74 Possibility of correlation, 82 Preliminary question and introductory question, 101 President of India, 203–206 Preston, 12 Principle of activity, 18, 88 Principle of correlation, 18, 95, 160 Principle of flexibility, 19, 46, 160 Principle of good evaluation, 201 Principle of micro-teaching, 135 Principle of teaching, 18 type of teaching principle, 18 general principle, 18 psychological principle, 18 Principle of assigning homework, 63 Problematic act, 87–88 Problem-solving method, 58, 75–81, 86, 107 advantage of, 79 aim of, 76 characteristics of, 76 limitation of, 80 major approach in, 81 principle of, 77 role of teacher in, 79 step in, 78 Professor H.C. Morrison, 170
N Nagar-Palika, 113 Nalanda university, 64 National anthem, 14 National council, 2 National curriculum framework, 7, 200 National integration, 6, 9, 11–15, 42, 168 definition of, 12 meaning and concept of, 11 need of, 12 National song, 14 National unity, unity, 11, 14–15, 49–50 Nazi Germany, 66 NCER,, 2, 121, 129, 144, 146, 148, 189, 192, 207 NCER Neglecting physical activity, 80 Netherland, 129 Newspaper clipping, 36 Newspaper, 14, 36, 43, 44, 69, 70, 110, 111, 113, 114, 120 N.L. Bossing, 69, 75 Non-physical Non-ph ysical 59, characteristic, 2, 8 Note dictation method, 59, 74–75 NSS and NCC programme, 115
O Observation method, 58, 68 technique of observation method, 68
P P.C. Wren, 61
Professor William Kilpatrick, 87 Programme of teaching, 4 Project method, 49, 57–58, 76, 86–89, 91–95, 100, 107, 109 meaning of, 87 principle of, 88 kind of, 89 Psychological law of learning, 93 Psychological principle of learning, 88 Psychological principle of teaching, 18 Psychologically sound, 18, 81 Psychologies instruction, 54
Panel discussion, 14 Parents teacher association, 116 Parliament, 13, 42, 70 Payne, 45 Phase of micro-teaching, 134 knowledge acquisition, 134, 147 skill acquisition, 134, 147
Purnima, 169, 176, 178, 179 Purpose of home task, 62 Purpose of question, 100, 107
R Rahu and Ketu, 168, 175 Rascoe, 105
216 Index RCEM lesson-plan model, 178 Real learning outcome, 177–180 Red Cross, 18, 78 Regional College of Education, 177
Story of Asoka, 72 Storytelling method, 59, 71, 75 Study of social studies curriculum for different stage, 48
Religious festival, 116 Review method, 59, 69, 75 purpose of, 69 Revolution of China, 13 R.L. Stevenson, 158 Robert Glaser, 151 R. Strang, 72 Rousseau, 53–55 Routine affair, 21 Rusk’s, 75 Russian revolution, 13 Ryburn, 72, 87, 100
middle stage, 49 primary stage, 48–49 senior secondary stage, 50–51 Study of society, 1 Subhas Chandra Bose, 13, 104 Successful teaching, 19–21, 109 Suggested assignment procedure, 61 Supervised study method, 59, 72, 75 Symbolic modelling, 144 Synthetic method, 85, 86, 107
T
Sardar Patel, 104 Science laboratory, 60 Scope of social study, 4 Secondary education commission, 2, 54, 58, 111 Seminar, 14 Sense of rhythm, 73, 153 Short-answer-type Short-answer -type test, 202–204, 202– 204, 207 Significance of instructional aid, 32, 43 Skill of stimulus variation, 136, 142 Smith, 18, 183, 205 Social education center, center, 56
eacher’s Act, 121 eacher-Pupil Act, 122 eaching variable, 23 dependent variable, 23 independent variable, 23 intervening variable, 23 eaching–learning objective, 27, 173 eaching–learning process, 19–22, 64, 73, 80, 104–105, 107, 109, 127, 152, 154, 161, 172, 174, 197, 199, 207 echnique of evaluation in social soc ial studies, 202 ype of test, 202 essay-type test, 202, 203, 206, 207 objective-type test, 202, 204, 206, 207
Social scientist, 17, 23 Social studies curriculum, 7, 32, 45–51, 80 Social studies laboratory, 109, 110, 112, 117 Social studies museum, 111–112, 117 Socialized recitation, 73, 109 Socio-economic development, 1 Sociological laboratory, 96 Source method, 50, 59, 69, 70, 71, 75, 107 category of, 69 primary source, 69 secondary source, 69, 70 Stanford eacher Competence Appraisal
oral test, 178, 200, 202, 203, 207 echnique of questioning, 103 echnological development, 14 Te education commission of India, 5 Te secondary education commission, 2, 54, 58, 111 Te southern workman, 2 Teoretical discussion, 146 Tomas Jesse Jones, 2 Tree-dimensional representation, 37, 41, 43, 44 ragedy of Jalianwala Bagh, 206
S Sansad Bhawan, 114
Guide, 141 Stanford University, 129, 147 Status of core curriculum, 6, 9 practical reason, 6, 9 psychological reason, 6 sociological reason, 6 Step of evaluation approach, 173
ransform education, 5 .S. Avinashilingam, 55
U UNESCO, 110 Unit approach, approach, 163, 170, 185
Index 217
United States, 2 Unity in diversity, 11, 12 University Universi ty of Chicago, 66, 154, 155 Unnatural Unna tural and unpsychological, 83 USA, 1, 2, 129, 144, 145, 155 Utilizing community resource, 112, 116
V V.D. Ghate, 74 Valuable community resource, 113 Verbal description, des cription, 32 Verbal memorizing work, 62 Village panchayat, panchayat, 57, 92 Village survey, 92, 95 Visual representation representation of numerical data, 39 Visyesaraya, 14
W W.N. Drum, 59 Webster dictionary , 38 Whole educational system, 14 Whole-hearted purposeful activity, 87 Wilhelm August Froebel, 54 Wilson and Wilson, 76 Witch and schullar , 37, 39 Women’s reservation bill, 24 World trade organization, 24
Y Yearly plan of social so cial studies teaching, 184, 197 Yokam and Simpson, 75, 79
Z ZEE V, 42
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