Teaching Language in Context. Chapter 7 Summary

 

ULACIT Theory of Bilingual Education

Adriana Sandí  Cascante Teaching Language in Context. Alice Omaggio Hadley Chapter 7 Summary

Becoming Proficient in Writing  Learning to write is not simply “writing things down.” It can be a slow and painful process.  Rivers differs between speech and writing: “to write (…) communicating a message, (…) is an art which requires consciously directed effort and deliberate choice of language.  Bizzel distinguishes between composing (the process to write, reflect refl ection ion abo about ut the top topic, ic, gat gather hering ing of inf informa ormatio tion, n, tak taking ing not notes, es, wo worki rking, ng, on dra drafts fts,, re revi visin sing) g) and writing (transcription of the material itself. Writing is subsumed under composing.  Dvorak  subsumes transcription and composing under writing. Writing must be a continuum of activities, more than a mechanical writing down. In the second or foreign language context, students first struggle transcription before more complex written expressions, particularly in languages with a difficult writing system (Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, or Hebrew) even with the same alphabet it can be difficult for novice or intermediate levels.  Magnan said that at first, students write down or transcribe in the second language what they might say.

Writing is considered a support skill for speaking. The difference between writing as a support skill and it as a communicative art is paralleled to River’s distinction between skill-getting and skill-using activities. The first one helps to understand understand the language language and the secon second d one uses the code for expressi expressive ve writing a purpose purposeful ful communication. Skill-getting includes 2 categories of activities: 1.

Writing down: copying or reproduction, reproduction , spelling, punctuation, punc tuation, grammatical gr ammatical agreements. agre ements.

2. Writing in the language lang uage: grammar practice pract ice activities, activitie s, reinforcing growing knowledge Skill-using develops flexibility and creative language and includes: 1.

Flexibility Flexibility

measures:

writing framew framework, ork, transformati transformation on

exercises, exe rcises, sentences combining,

expansions, or idea frames. 2.

Expressive Express ive writing : guided and composition compo sition that tha t fulfill “ normal purposes” (practical things as notetaking, letter writing, to inform)

Rivers says that teachers must bridge the gap between skill-getting and skill-using. Activities might be contextualized, meaningful, or personalized, and include different creative writing activities, like journal writing or cinquain poetry. Tasks that elicit performance varying from “careful to vernacular style” ( Tarone) develop written proficiency at all levels.

A curricular planning for teaching writing  Writing begins with guidelines for planning, presented with the ACTFL proficiency descriptions in mind. Activities attempt to combine writing purposes: writing as a support for what is learned in class; assignments and exercises present language in context. As competence increases, assignments become less structured, less teacherdirected, and more creative. Students use the language to inform, narrate, describe, question, persuade, express feelings and attitude, discuss ideas, and support points of view. Writing instruction helps them understand it as a discourse(Kaplan). There are various conventions that distinguish it in style and tone from spoken discourse. Students learn more about composing process, recursive, problem-solving activity affects students’ writing and thinking skills. This chapter is divided into two sections: 1.

Appropriate activities activities for novice and intermediate intermediate levels, levels, and

2.

Approaches Approa ches to teac teaching hing writin writing. g.

Approaches to teaching writing at the lower levels of proficiency 

Techniques for teaching writing as a support skill

 

 

Writing isn’t practice in isolation it is an interdependent fashion. For example, dictation involves listening, fill out a form involves reading. To practice various skills approximate it to authenticity. Writing can be used to support learning. Students can also write in discourse-length frames for communicative purposes.

Novice-level activities Simple description with visuals A picture is given to the students in order they identify and list the objects in a room, complete a descriptive paragraph, use prepositions and locative expressions, or write a short description from questions. Sentence-Builders Students are asked to describe a daily routine using a guide with different columns, each one for every part of the sentence structure: time adverb + subject + verb + object. Each column has a question mark that invites students to add their own ideas. Dictation and variation It can be based on familiar material, students are stimulated to use listening a writing skills. At least a paragraph in length is best. Partial dictation should be contextualized. Filling in forms Students are provided with an incomplete menu or a personal information form. They must complete them with information they have learned, or their real information. Cinquain poetry Students create simple five-lines poems within a very structured framework, using learning vocabulary. It is constructed according to this sheme: Line 1: States a subject in 1 word (noun) Line 2: Describes it in 2 words Line 3: Describes an action in 3 words Line 4: Expresses an emotion in 4 words

Tree Green branches Growing, living, reaching Your shade protects me

Line 5: Restates the subject in 1 word (another noun)

Peace

Intermediate-level activities: preparing for advance-level writing They are a bridge between the structured writing and more advanced ones. Students can grate with the language in very familiar context, using simple vocabulary, limited narration and description in present tense, and very basic grammatical structures. Topics should coincide with their level of proficiency or to prepare them for the next one. In order to move toward advance level, students need practice using past and future time in more extended narration and description. Slash sentences (Intermediate) Students write short narrative from the sentences cues given, and complete them according to the example: 

The LeBlanc/to spend/summer/in the country



The LeBlanc spend the summer in the country

(Preparing for advance) Students write the paragraph in past, adding details. Telegraphic sentences As intermediate level, students describe the events using present tense; as preparation for advance, students

 

 

narrate events as a reporter would, by using past tense. Partial translation Students apply learned vocabulary and grammatical structures. It can serve as a model for letter writing in a subsequent activity. Sentences combining It helps students to link simple propositions into more complex sentences. They must join them to write paragraph, or compositions. This technique teaches principles of paragraph construction, connectors, qualifiers, and other discourse features. Paragraph completion Students complete the description of the person in a given picture. This task improves the ability to describe someone in detail.

Guided compositions: a bridge to free expression The following activities have characteristics of   Hillocks’ environmental mode and  Applebee’s structured   process approaches. Teacher organize tasks to help students in the composing process and practice writing using

model texts, small-group interaction, and evaluative checklists. Composition tasks are guided through the use of  prewriting and semi-structured writing activities. Multiple tasks based on a picture  Raimes suggests writing tasks around a picture moves students to a higher level of difficult as they add vocabulary,, structural sophistication, and organizatio vocabulary organizational nal skills. Tasks can be  prewriting for intermediate intermediate lev level el (wo (words, rds, or ques question tionss tasks) tasks),, description (intermediate), narration (intermediate), and narration in the past , for preparing for advance level.

Elaboration Students write fuller descriptions and narrations using cues supplied by the teacher. Elaboration includes adjectives, adverbs, relative clauses, or whole sentences. By providing cues related to the content and style, the teacher encourages students to enhance their creative expression. Guide composition based on oral interview Students interview a partner by choosing a topic from several categories (can be present, past, or future tenses). They take notes on what their partners say. Then, they write a composition of three paragraphs about the interview. Students practice skills needed at advance level in oral and written aspects. Guide and free composition: writing letters and notes  Intermediate level

Short essays of 2 or 3 paragraph are expected. Topics elicit personal information and simple statements about preferences, experiences, and likes. Preparing for advance level

In this case topics are more specific as, writing a Christmas card, a page of your personal diary, planning on getting married, getting a job, moving to another town, etc.

Dialogue journals (Novice through advance levels) They are appropriate for beginning and intermediate students (Staton, Peyton and Reed ). ). They provide a written conversation between teachers and students that can continue during the entire course. Topics are interesting to students (questions, promises, apologies, complaints). The teacher then reads the journals and responds to them.

 

 

One concern some teachers have is that journals are not corrected for structural errors; it depends on the attitudes of students. However, Cathcart, Olsen, Leki, Jones, Fathman, and Whalley have revealed that ESL students want all their errors corrected. Jones found that adult ESL students wanted correction in their journals. Peyton and  Reed  suggest teachers can talk to students about the purposes of journal’s correction. It can provide students with

fluency without worrying about form. It is important offer options to teach students different strategies, but respect their right to choose the kind of feedback they think will enhance their learning.

Writing and the computer Smith’s experiment: Students use 2 typess of computer-based writing tools.

1.

A computer conference conferen ce system. Students engaged in discussions discus sions and collaborative collab orative writing activities ac tivities with other in the course. These students paid more attention to meaning than accuracy.

2.

A word-processing word-processi ng program. Students worked on composing and rewriting compositions, compos itions, producing produ cing more accurate writing samples.

3.

A third group had had no computer computer-assisted -assisted writing opportunities. opportunities.

Smith found that computer users improved their ability to read and express oral and written ideas. The

control group didn’t develop the same level of expressive skill in writing as who had worked with the computer. He concludes concl udes that combi combining ning creat creative ive con conver versatio sational nal writi writing ng (com (computer puter conference) conference) and atte attention ntion to for form m (wo (wordrdprocessing) develops writing proficiency. Greenia estimates that students with computer-based instruction can produce 3 to 7 times more writing in a

semester than working without a computer. Tolliver  uses e-mail to provide practice for her Spanish composition class. There are other way to use the computer in writing like specially designed software programs such as syst ème-D: writing assistant for French (  Noblitt and Pet ). Students receive structure and direction for their assignments, but some of them feel that the tasks limit their creativity. “comprehensible output hypothesis” suggested that tasks should be designed to student’s current level of competence (Higgs and Clifford)

Expressive writing at the Intermediate and advance levels: approaches to teaching the  composing process 

What do we know about writing? Insights from first language research Although Althou gh there are simi similarit larities ies between first and secon second d langu language age writing, the diff differenc erences es shoul should d be recognized. Kroll says that writing in a second language in more complex. Direct transfer of literacy skills from the native to the foreign language can’t be assumed. First and second language learners may not to approach a writing task in the same way nor attend to feedback in the same way. Characteristics of good writers Writing in any language involves knowledge of standards of written discourse in that culture, as well the ability abil ity to choos choosee synon synonyms yms or syntac syntactic tic structures, structures, and adopt a sty style le with the mos mostt posit positive ive rhetorical rhetorical effect. effect. Instruction in rhetoric emphasizes writing at paragraph level and beyond. Developing outlines and plans, paragraph with topi topicc sente sentences, nces, supporting supporting deta details, ils, comp comparison arison and contr contrast, ast, and smoo smooth th trans transitio itions. ns. Experi Experienced enced writers proceed differently in different genres or types of writing. None outlines before writing poetry. The stages of writing are not real in a chronological sense. They have a plan for writing in mind before beginning to write:  prewriting ( Emig). Krashen distinguish good writer from poor writer in: 1. 2.

Planning : much more than less proficient prof icient writers wr iters and flexible f lexible plans Rescannin Rescanning g: stopping to reread rere ad what they have written writ ten

 

 

3.

Revising : making changes ch anges in content co ntent

 Recursively: to interrupt writing because a discovery, and back to reformulate their original idea.

Good writers understand that composition is a “messy process that leads to clarity” (Shaughnessy) and they have awareness of their audience and reader’s point of view.  Hillocks suggests that instruction should concentrate on planning, organization, or content. Applebee says that different strategies can be taught, some writing tasks require only routine production, others require more complex problem-solving strategies. Research in the composing process: first language studies Conlcusions of  Hillocks  Hillocks’ studies: 1.

Teaching grammar in iso isolation lation : there is not positive po sitive effect on writing. wr iting.

2.

Sentenc Sentencee combining practice pra ctice : positive results, but b ut it is not reinforced, the effects disappear. disa ppear.

3.

Using model modelss of good writing writi ng: mixed results (benefits, (benef its, and no differences differenc es between groups). groups) .

4.

Using crit criteria/checkl eria/checklist ist for peer evaluation: positive effects, more effective effect ive revisions and superior superi or first drafts. drafts .

5.

Free writ writing ing practice practic e: very few positive effects in children. child ren.

6.

Teacher comments: no significant significa nt effects, positive feedback feedba ck is preferred than negative negati ve or none.  Hillocks concludes that combining treatments is indicated to improve writing instruction in native language.

Research on writing in the second language It is limited, and much of it relates to advance ESL learners. It is focused on feedback. Research in the composing process: second language studies Krapels: there are commonalities in their designs: 1.

Studies are based on native languag language. e.

3.

Mostt subj Mos subjects ects we were re fem female. ale.

2.

Studies inv involv olved ed very small number of subjects.

4.

Students were hardly eve everr chosen chosen randomly randomly..

He reported contradictory findings as results to the second language context. Krapels and Silva agree that second and foreign language researchers should begin with the differences between L1n L2 writing rather than on the similarities. Research on evaluation and feedback: second language studies Some researchers recommend that we respond to content and not to form. Others say that we respon res pond d to bo both. th. A ge gener neral al con consen sensus sus in invo volv lves es st stude udents nts in the their ir ow own n corr correct ection ion is hel helpfu pful, l, and a combination of teacher, peer, and self-evaluation might yield the most successful results. Empirical studies indicate that corrective feedback on form is not helpful. In Semke’s study with no corrective feedback on form responded more favorably. The effects of feedback are divorced from variables presented in the study, and are not entire clear. Studies Stud ies by   Lalande, Lalande, Fathma athman, n, Whall Whalley, ey, and Rieke Rieken n sho showed wed benefi beneficial cial resul results ts from teac teachers hers’’ corrective feedback on compositions of second language learners.  Lalande concludes that the combination of awareness of one’s errors and rewriting with problem-solving techniques is beneficial for developing writing skills. Fathman and Whalley found that when teachers underline errors in students’ texts, thay made fewer errors in rewriting.  Rieken investigate the interaction between feedback type and cognitive style. She mention 3 levels of feedback: 1) no corrective feedback, 2) indirect correction, and 3) direct correction. Also the teacher’s attitude toward correction has an effect on students.

Approaches to teaching writing as creative communication  Hillocks identifies 4 modes of writing instruction in native language composition:

1.

The prese presentati ntational onal mode: clear and speci specific fic objec objectiv tives, es, teac teacher her-cent -centered, ered, and imita imitation tion and analysis of models of writing assignments.

 

 

2.

The natural process mode : free writing, positive feedback, cooperative learning, low structured assignments, and non-directional.

3.

The environmental environmen tal mode : clear and specific specif ic objectives, group g roup work, and peer evaluation. evaluatio n.

4.

The individual mode : tutorials, programmed materials, and instruction oriented to student needs.  Raimes reviews 6 writing approaches:

1.

The controlled-to-free controlle d-to-free approach ap proach : accuracy over fluency fluen cy or originality. origina lity. It is sequenced.

2. 3.

The free-writing free-wr iting approach : vast amounts of fluency-based fluency-base d writing. The paragraph-patt paragr aph-pattern ern approach approa ch: organization over fluency fluen cy or accuracy. Students copy, analyze, or imitate.

4.

The grammar-syntax-organiz grammar-syn tax-organization ation approach appro ach: works on various formal features at the same s ame time.

5.

The comm communica unicativ tivee appro approach ach: str stress ess purpos purposee and audie audience, nce, inte interacti raction on among stud students ents and teacher.

6.

The process proces s approach : writing process over product. produ ct. Silva describes the 4 most influential approaches in ESL writing (1945-1990)

1.

Controlled Controlle d composition compositi on: similar to t o controlled-to-free.

2.

Current-traditional rhetoric : product-oriented, focus on paragraph contruction, and essay development. Writing styles.

3.

The process approach ap proach: prewriting, multiple mu ltiple drafts, draf ts, and peer editing. edi ting.

4.

English for academic academi c purposes purpose s: write for an academic audience. au dience.

Advance -level activities: preparing for superior-level writing Students need to learn the composing process, composition tasks involve working to improve discourse skills, and this can be achieved in some ways: 1.

Attention focused in prewriting and writing stages

2.

Peer-editing Peer -editing help to impro improve ve composition rewriting.

3.

Analyze the writing style style of experts experts and attempt attempt to use elements of that style. style. When designing writing practice for advance level it’s important to include the composing process

in the instructional sequence, Cooper identifies the following: 1.

Prewri Pre writin ting g

6.

Reform Ref ormula ulatin ting g

2.

Plan Pl anni ning ng

7.

Stop St oppi ping ng

3.

Star St arti ting ng

8.

Contem Con templa platin ting g

4.

Making Mak ing dec decisi isions ons

9.

Revi Re visi sing ng

5.

Revi Re view ewin ing g

The steps of composing process are taught, discussed and practiced. The typical writing lesson involves 3 phases: 1.

Prewriting: choose type of writing, analysis of the model’ model’ss organizati organization on and style, reader’ reader’ss and writer’ss pur pose. writer’

2.

Composing : preliminary preliminar y outlines, organizational organiza tional framework.

3.

Revision: checklist with w ith questions questio ns for reviewing. This process is illustrated in outline form from Vald és:

  I.

Step one: bef before ore writ writing. ing.   A.   B.

Definition of the funct Definition function ion narr narration ation.. Students Stude nts cho choose ose model of writi writing. ng.

 

 

C.

Exercises to distinguish narration from other types of writing.

  II. Step two two:: writing writing the dra draft. ft.   III. Step three: three: revision.   A.

Review Revie w struc structur turee and org organiz anization ation..

  III. Step three: three: revision   A.

Review Rev iew st struct ructur ure. e.

  B.

Review Revie w gr grammat ammatical ical fea featur tures. es.

C.

Review Revie w gramm grammatica aticall fea featur tures es secon second d time. time.

  D.

Review Rev iew spe spelli lling. ng.

  E.

Writing Wri ting the final ver version sion..

Prose style analysis and pastiche Gaudiani makes students study various styles of writing and analyze them. When they are ready to

do it, Gaudiani reads the excerpt that will be used for the pastiche (parody). In groups they write a prose in fashion that resemble the model. Refining the written draft Peer editing Gaudiani suggests “class editing process”; students help one to another improve their drafts with a

series of “passes”. The steps in this process are: 1.

Comprehen Comp rehension sion of meani meaning. ng.

2.

Correction Correc tion of gramm grammar ar..

3.

Analysi Anal ysiss of pros prosee sty style. le.

4.

Analysi Anal ysiss of org organiza anization. tion.

5.

Overvie Ove rview/syn w/synthesi thesis. s.

Self editing using teacher-developed teacher-developed guidelines

Barnett outlines a self-editing approach to writing that requires advanced students to write 2 drafts before turning in their compositions for a grade. It encourages student to focus on meaning. Teacher’s comments incorporate feedback. It yields far more satisfying results for teacher and students. Evaluation and grading of student writing Teacher response has 2 forms: 1) corrective feedback on the micro-level and 2) overall evaluation in the form of a grade (macro-level). Perkins outlined the assumptions, procedures, and consequences of  using 3 principal scoring types: 1.

Holistic scoring: one or more reader assigns a single grade (rating). The criteria criter ia for producing this impression include:

2.



Clarity of the thesis.



Effectiveness of the issue.



Support and development of the thesis.



Degree of grammatical and lexical cohesion.



Rhetorical devices.

Analytical scoring: separation of features of a composition into components for scoring purposes. pur poses. Perkins point out several disadvantages:   

It isolates text features Highest score represent a standard, but is too much to expect. Scoring weights have to be adjusted, to reflect writer’s role or conception of the audience.

 

 



3.

The procedure is time consuming.

Primary trait scoring : Teachers need to decide what extent the writing sample exhibit exhibitss certain cer tain characteristics (primary traits) that are essential to accomplishing a given writing purpose. It focuses on the purpose of the writing task directly, but ignores other important aspects of writing composing process.