T10 Lexico Prefijacion, sufijacion y composicion.pdf
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Madhatter Wylder 29/01/2009
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Table of contents
1. Introduction. _______________________________________________________ 3
2. Prefixation _________________________________________________________ 6 2.1. Groups of prefixes. _____________________________________________________ 6
2.1.1. Negative Prefixes. ______________________________ ____________________________ 6 2.1.2. Reversative or Privative Prefixes. _______________________________ _______________ 6 2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes. _________________________________________________________ 7 2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size. ______________________________ ______________________ 7 2.1.5. Prefixes of Attitude. ________________________________________________________ 7 2.1.6. Locative Prefixes. __________________________________________________________ 7 2.1.7. Prefixes of time and order. ___________________________________________________ 8 2.1.8. Number prefixes. _______________________________ ___________________________ 8 2.1.9. Conversion prefixes. ________________________________________________________ 8 2.1.10. Other prefixes. __________________________ _______________________________ __ 8
3. Suffixation._________________________________________________________ 8 3.1. Noun Suffixes _________________________________________________________ 9
3.1.1. Denominal Ns: Abstract _____________________________________________________ 9 3.1.2. Denominal Ns: Concrete_______________________________ _____________________ 10 3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abstract. _____________________________________________________ 10 3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete _____________________________________________________ 10 3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes_____________________________ _______________________ 10 3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns. _____________________________ ____________________________ 1 1 Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality. _____________________________________ 11
3.2. Verb Suffixes. ________________________________________________________ 11
3.3. Adjective suffixes _____________________________________________________ 11
3.3.1. Denominal Adjs. __________________________________________________________ 11 3.3.2. Denominal Adjs: borrowed and neo-classical in origin suffixes. _____________________ 11 3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs. ___________________________________________________________ 11
3.4. Adverb suffixes _______________________________________________________ 12
4. Compound words ___________________________________________________ 12 4.1. Kinds of composition in the Noun. _______________________________________ 13
4.1.1. Subject + Verb ___________________________________________________________ 13 4.1.2. Verb + Object. _________________________________ __________________________ 13 4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds______________________________________________ 13 4.1.4. Verbless compounds: N + N Compounds. ______________________________________ 14 4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds. _____________________________________________________ 15
4.2. Kinds of composition in the verb. ________________________________________ 15
4.2.1. Back-formation. __________________________________________________________ 15 4.2.2. Verb + Adverb ___________________________________________________________ 15
4.3. Adjective compounds. _________________________________________________ 15
4.3.1. Verb and Object compounds ____________________________ _____________________ 15 4.3.2. Verb and Adverbial Compounds. _____________________________________________ 15 4.3.3. Verbless compounds. ______________________________________________________ 16
4.4. Reduplicative or repetition compounds. __________________________________ 16
5. Brief Summary. ____________________________________________________ 17
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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1. Introduction.
It is common for speakers of a Language to define a word as an
element in the language that conveys 1 meaning. This basic common insight is essential to establish the basic unit of morphological analysis. It’s important to
bear in mind that, although words play an important role in linguistic analysis,
they do not correspond to the essential morphological unit. The reason for it is
that words may largely vary across languages (Humbold’s typologyi) and
Word is not the most basic meaningful unit
within one same language and a definition of an essential unit of linguistic
analysis based on an element that varies is not adequate. It is necessary to find a more basic unit.
Consider the words pencil, impossible and women . Only the first one can
be considered a unit of meaning. In the other two we can identify two
independent meanings: im (not) and possible , woman and plural. The fact that words may be made up of independent “bits” of meaning implies that we may identify other smaller units of analysis. Precisely, these independent “bits” of
Morpheme: “Minimal meaningful unit”
meaning are what we take to be the basic units of word analysis, called
morphemes. Bloomfield defined the morpheme as the “ minimal meaningful element” in a language .
To understand further the notion of “morpheme” consider the following
set of words: laugh, laughs, laughed, laughing . It’s clear that the four words are different, but also that each one shares an essential part of its meaning with the rest. The all share the essential morpheme {LAUGH}.
As just implied, we may distinguish between more and less essential
morphemes. The essential morpheme in a word, the one that carries the lexical meaning, is known as the lexeme or lexical morpheme. In books, nicer, cooking the corresponding lexical morphemes are {BOOK}, {NICE} and
{COOK}. The bits of meaning in these words which correspond to grammatical
notions such as {PLURA}, {COMPARATIVE} and {PRESENT PARTICIPLE} are known as grammatical morphemes.
So far we have only analyzed words in terms of the bits of meaning that
they contained their identifiable independent morphemes. We will now 1
transporta
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Lexical and grammatical morphemes
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introduce another aspect or level of word analysis, the level of realization of meaning. An abstract analysis of words provides morphemes and a less
abstract analysis, the one which directly considers which parts of words correspond to the independent bits of meaning, will provide different units called morphs. Therefore,
morphs
are
the
actual
realization
Morphs are the actual realization of morphemes
of
morphemes. It is important to take a step further and refine the notion of
morph into its possible allomorphs (Different realizations of the same
One morph can have several allomorphs
morpheme). For example:
MORPHEMES
Books = {BOOK} + {PLURAL} Pens = {PEN} + { PLURAL } Matches = {MATCH} + { PLURAL }
ALLOMORPHS Books = book + /s / Pens = pen + /z / Matches = match + /Iz /
As with morphemes, we can also distinguish morphs of different
importance in a word: The root or Stem2 is the morph that realizes the essential meaning and the affixes are morphs which are added before or after the root. There is also a term to refer to the root plus all the derivational affixes
Different kind of morphs: Root, Base and affixes.
in the word: Base. For example, the word writers is formed from the word
writer , thus the base of writers is writer even though when writer is a complex
morphological word ({write3} + {-er}). Roots are usually found alone 4, whereas affixes are never found in isolation.
Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules
which are used in order to create new English words. Even though there are
many processes which enrich the English language, as for instance loans from
other languages and historical transfers, the Word formation rules are the most active and common structures used in order to create new words.
Before getting into more detail with the WFR, I think that we must first
discuss some basic concepts which might be of interest to this paper. We need
to make a distinction between open and close classes of words. The first group are classes to which new members can be added, for examples nouns, 2
The part of the word remaining alter every part has been removed. Root or Stem 4 There is a number of roots that always occur with affixes, we call them bound roots: -ceice, 3
-vene – Ex.: Conceive, Intervene, …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Open and close classes of words.
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verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Closed classes are those whose members are
relatively fixed in number, for example articles, pronouns and prepositions.
Obviously, word-formation processes affect to open classes of words in a language. We can create new words without changing the grammatical class.
Word formation processes (WFP) of this type are known as classmaintaining . In all other cases, the processes are known as class-changing.
Class-changing & class-maintaining
The process by which the word is formed from another is called wordformation rule.
+
→
Normally, rules such as this are aid to have an input, on the left side of the arrow, and an output on the right.
Input and output in a WFR
There are several processes employed in English to form new words.
These processes can be divided in two groups: The
MAJOR PROCESSES,
which
are the most frequently employed and account for the greater part of the
Major processes: -Affixation -Compounding -Conversion
English lexicon, and the minor processes which are of more limited
application. The Major processes are Affixation, compounding and Conversion. Affixation is a WFP which adds an affix to the base , with or
without changing the word class. Prefixes are usually class-maintaining ( author →
co-author ), whereas suffixes are usually class-changing (drive
→
driver ).
Assigning the base to a different word-class without changing its form
is known as conversion (drive –V-
→
drive –N-). The most common WFP of
all is the compounding, which adds one base to another in order to create a new word. (tea + pot → teapot ). The
MINOR PROCESSES of
WF are:
Reduplication → tick-tack Clipping → ad (from Advertisement ) Blending → brunch (from breakfast and lunch ) Acronyms → NATO (From North Atlantic Treaty Organization )
Once a base has undergone a rule of WF, the derived word itself may become the base for another derivation:
(friend) …………………....….…….…..noun (friend)-ly………………..….….……….noun→ Adj Un-[(friend)-ly]…………...…….…….Adj → Adj “un-[(friend)-ly]-ness”....…….…….Adj → Noun
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Minor proc esses: -Reduplication -Clipping -Blending - Acronyms
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2. Prefixatio n
Prefixes are such particles as can be added before full words but they
are not words with an independence existence (bound morphemes) [Marchand] Most prefixes in English are of foreign origin (Latin, Greek or French), except a -, be - fore -, mis - & un- , which are German in origin.
Some characteristics of the English prefixes are:
a. All prefixes have some stress, though light , in the first syllable, with the exception of a- . However, the main stress of the word falls on the base.
b. Prefixes do not normally alter the stress pattern of the word.
c. Prefixes do not generally alter word class of the base ( class-maintaining).
d. English prefixes, following Quirk et al., can be grouped according to their meaning
2.1. Grou ps of prefix es. 2.1.1. Negative Prefixes.
Meaning
UN-
NON-
IN-
-IL / __i -IM /labils /__r →-IR → →
DIS-
A(N)-
-Not, the opposite. -Most common negative pref -Used with Native UK words -Not -Can be derived from a negative clause -Not, the opposite. -Preferred to –UN in words of Latin or French origin.
Added to
Examples
Adjs & advs -ed/-ing particles
Unfair, unexpected, …
Adjs, Ns of action V-stem
Non-aggression, Non-stop …
Adjs
Insane, illegible, irrelevant, impolite
-Not, the opposite.
Adjs, Vs Abstract Ns -Denotes absence of a quality Adjs, Ns -Found in borrowed neoclassical words
Disloyal, dislike, …
Amoral, anarchy
2.1.2. Reversativ e or Pri vativ e Prefixes. Meaning
UNDE-
Reverse action + V Deprived of + N To reverse action, to undo
/di:/ /dI /
DIS-
Reverse action, Deprived of
Added to
V & Ns
Vs Abstract Ns Vs & Ns Participles
Examples
Undo Unhorse Defrost, deforestation
Disconnect, discolored
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Prefixes: Particles that can be added before full words but which cannot occur in isolation.
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2.1.3. Pejorative Prefixes. Meaning
MIS-
MAL-
PSEUDO-
Added to
Wrongly, bad Normally unstressed Bad 2nd element is usually a non Germanic origin word False, imitation
Vs, Abstract Ns Participles Abstract Ns
Ns & Adjs
Examples
Misinform, misconduct, … Malfunction, …
Pseudo-intellectual, …
2.1.4. Prefixes of degree or size. Meaning
ARCHSUPEROUTSURSUB-
OVER Vs.
UNDERHYPERULTRAMINIMICRO Vs.
MACRO-
Added to
Supreme, highest Better, more than To do something better, faster, longer, … Over, above Under, lower than
Ns [+Human] Ns & Adjs Vs [-Transitive]
Too much
Vs, ed-participles, Adjs
Too little
Extremely, extra specially. Extremely, beyond excessively Little Recent prefix (MINI-)
Ns Adjs
Adjs Adjs
Archduke, arch-enemy Superman, supernatural Outrun, outgrow
Surcharge (=sobrecargar ) Substandard, subhuman (=infrahumano ) Overconfident underprivileged
Hypercritical. Ultra-violet, ultra-modern. Mini-skirt
Ns
On a large scale
Examples
Macro-symbiotics
2.1.5. Prefixes of Att itu de.
Meaning
COImplies accompanying *COUNTER- In opposition, against *ANTI Against, enemy of Vs.
PRO-
For
Added to
Vs, Ns & Adjs Vs, Abstract Ns Ns, Adjs, Advs. Vs (rare) Ns and Adjs
Examples
Cooperate, co-pilot Counteract Antichrist, anti-social, … Pro-communist
*ANTI- suggests simply a state of mind, an attitude of opposition, while COUNTER- suggests action in opposition, an activity. A counterattack can only take place if there has already been an attack.
2.1.6. Locativ e Prefixes. Meaning
SUPERSUBINTERTRANS-
Over Under Between across
Added to
Ns Ns, Adjs, Vs Denominal Adjs, Vs, Ns Denominal Adjs, Vs
Examples
Superstructure Subway International, interwar Transatlantic, …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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2.1.7. Prefix es of t ime and o rder. Meaning
FOREPRE Vs.
POSTEXRE-
Before Before
Added to
Examples
Vs & Abstract Ns Attributive Ns, Adjs, V
Foretell, foreword. Pre-war, pre-marital, …
After
Attributive Ns, Adj, Vs (rare)
Post-war, post-classical
Former Again
Ns [+HUMAN] Vs, Abstract Ns
Ex-husband Rebuilt, recollect
2.1.8. Numb er prefix es.
Meaning
UNI- or MONOBI- or DITRIMULTI- or POLY-
One Two Three Many
Examples
Unilateral, monorail Bilingual, dichotomy. Trident Multiracial, polygamy, …
2.1.9. Conv ersion prefixes. In contrast with other prefixes, their main function is to convert the base into a different grammatical class . Thus, they are class-changing prefixes. Added to To form Examples a) Ns b) Vs, Adjs & Ns Ns Vs
BE-
EN A-
a) Participle Adjs b) Transitive Vs Vs Predicative Adjs
a) Bewigged (=empelucado ) b) bewitch (=embrujar ) Endanger (=comprometer ) Afloat (=flotante )
2.1.10. Other prefixes.
Meaning
AUTONEOPANPROTOSEMI VICE-
Self Now, Revived World.-wide First, original. Half Delegate
Examples
Autobiography Neo-gothic Pan-American Proto-type. Semicircle vice-president
3. Suffixation.
A suffix is a derivate final element which is productive in forming new
words [Marchand]. We must distinguish between suffixes with semantic value
(derivational suffixes) and inflections with grammatical value ( Inflectional
Suffix: Final element which is productive in forming new words.
suffixes).
Unlike prefixes, suffixes are usually class-changing elements.
Prefixes, though not used as separate words, mostly have distinct meaning of
their own. Suffixes rarely have meaning if their own and, as a rule, they only
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Inflectional and derivational suffixes.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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serve to modify the meaning of the main element ( red → reddish ) or to change its category (clean
cleanness ).
→
There are certain words which are half way between a full word and a
suffix: Semi-suffixes [Marchand]. They are basically free forms, which are
almost used as suffixes (same position and semantically empty) as in craft in
Suffixes rarely have meaning of their own and, as a rule, they only serve to modify the meaning of the main element or to change its category
witchcraft, statecraft , - proof in fireproof, waterproof, - wise in lengthwise , monger in ironmonger, fishmonger, scandalmonger , - wright in playwright , like in childlike , -man in walkman, -burger in cheeseburger , fish burger etc.
Native suffixes combine only with a native base , and there is no
change of stress: hopeful, goodness. Foreign suffixes, however, can combine
with a foreign base as in utterance or with a native base as in eatable, beautiful . These are called hybrids .
Here, following Quirk, I shall group suffixes not only by the class of
the word they form, but also by the class of the base they are added
(de-nominal, i.e. from nouns, de-adjectival, i.e. from adjectives, …)
3.1. Noun Suffixes
3.1.1. Denom inal Ns: Abs trac t -AGE
Added to Ns
-DOM
Ns
-ERY
Ns
-FUL
Ns
-HOOD
Ns
-ISM
Ns
-OCRACY
Ns
-SHIP
Ns
To form Ns
Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns Noncount abstract Ns
Meaning
Measure of, collection of
Examples Baggage, frontage
Perjorative overtones
Kingdom
(i) condition or behavior associated with (ii) Location of The amount N contains
Slavery, druggery
Nursery, rookery Mouthful, spoonful (=cucharada )
Status
Brotherhood, …
Doctrine of
Calvinism, impresionalism … Democracy
System of government Status condition
Friendship, dictatorship, …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Semi-suffixes are basically free forms, which are almost used as suffixes
Words with a native base & a foreign suffix is called hybrid .
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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3.1.2. Denom inal Ns: Concrete -EER -ESS -ETTE*
-LET -LING -STER -ER
Added to Ns Ns[+ANIMATED] Ns
Count Ns Ns[+ANIMATED] Ns Ns
To form Ns
Meaning
Concrete Ns Ns[+ANIMATED] Diminutive Ns
Concrete Ns Ns Concrete Ns Concrete Ns
Examples Pamphleteer, … Waitress Cigarette
Skilled in Female people (i) small, compact (ii) Imitation (iii) female
Flannelette (=imitacion franela ) Usherette (=acomodadora )
Small, unimportant Minor, offspring of Involved in (i) Person of a profession (ii) Maker of (iii) Inhabitant
booklet Duckling, princeling, ... Gangster … Banker, … Hatter, … Londoner, …
* Stressed on the last syllable
3.1.3. Deverbal Ns: Abs tract . To form NS
-ANT -ATION -MENT -AL -ING -AGE
Meaning
(im-) personal Ns Abstract/collective Ns Abstract Ns Abstract Ns Abstract Ns Non-count abstract Ns
Examples Agentive and instrumental Inhabitant, Process or state of Exploration, starvation … Result of Amazement, arrangement … Action of, result of Trial, refusal, … Activity / state Building, opening … Action of, instance of Drainage (=desague ), coverage
3.1.4. Deverbal Ns: Concrete -ANT
Added to Vs
-EE*
Vs
-ER, -OR
Vs
To form Ns
Concrete count Ns Concrete count Ns Concrete count Ns
Meaning
passive
Examples Participant, lubricant …
Appointee, payee …
(i) personal (ii) Non personal
Singer, writer
Computer, thriller …
* Stressed on the last syllable
3.1.5. Noun/Adjective Suffixes A number of suffixes yield ítems that can be used both a Ns and as nongradable Adjs. Added to
-ITE
-(I)AN
Ns (names) Ns
-ESE
Foreign countries
-IST
Ns, Adj, some Vs
To form Ns/Adjs
Ns and nongradable adjs Ns and nongradable adjs Ns and nongradable adjs Ns and nongradable adjs
Meaning
Member of: a community, tribe, sect … (i) Relating to (ii) Citizen of Member of, the Lg of Skilled in …
Examples Israelite, socialite, …
Republican, lutheran Indonesian … Chinese, Portuguese, ... Violinist, socialist, ...
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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3.1.6. De-adjectival Ns.
Form abstract Ns expressing state or quality. Added to
To form Ns
-NESS* Neoclassical Adjs -ITY Adjs
Meaning
Abstract Ns Abstract Ns
State / quality State / quality
Examples Happiness sanity
* Very productive suffix.
3.2. Verb Suf fixes.
There are very few in English: -(I)FY -IZE
Added to Ns & Adjs Ns & Adjs
To form Vs
Vs mainly trans Vs mainly trans
Ns Adjs
Vs Vs (in-)Trans
Meaning
Causative Causative
Examples Simplify … Popularize …
Causative
Orchestrate … Deafen (=ensordecer ),
(-ISE)*
-ATE -EN
quicken
* British English
3.3. Adj ective suf fix es
Adjectives forming suffixes may be divided into three groups: 3.3.1. Denomin al Ad js. -FUL
Added to Abstract Ns
-LESS
Ns
-LY -LIKE -Y -ISH
Personal Ns Concrete Ns Concrete non-count Ns Count Ns
-IAN
Proper Ns
To form Adjs
Gradable Adjs
Meaning
Examples
Gradable Adjs Adjs Gradable Adjs
Providing: Full of: Without Not giving Having the quality of Having the quality of Like…
Helpful Forgetful Childless Penniless Cowardly, daily, … Ladylike Creamy, hairy, …
(non) gradable Adjs Adjs
(i) Somewhat like (ii) Names of peoples In the tradition of
Monkeyish, foolish … Turkish, Swedish … Darwinian
Adjs
3.3.2. Denominal A djs: borr owed and neo-classical in origin suffixes. To form Adjs
-AL, -IAL, -CAL Primarily non-gradable Adjs -IC Gradable / non gradable Adjs -ESQUE Adjs -OUS, -EOUS, -IOUS Primarily gradable Adjs
Examples Criminal, editorial, musical, … Heroic, Arabic … Burlesque, arabesque ... Virtuous, courteous, ambitious …
3.3.3. Deverbal Adjs. Added to
-ABLE -IVE
Vs Vs
To form Adjs
Adjs Adjs
Meaning
Passive
Examples Readable, forcible … Attractive, possessive …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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3.4. Adv erb suf fix es Added to
-LY -WARDS -WISE
Adjs Advs & Ns Ns
To form Advs
Advs Advs Advs
Meaning
In a manner Manner & direction In the manner of, as far as concerned
Examples
Happily Backwards weather-wise
4. Compound words
A compound may be defined as a combination of two words so as
to function as a word, as a unit [Jespersen]. English has a great number of
examples of lexical items which, though felt and used as simple words, are
made up of two or more elements each of which may also be used as a separate word. Such items are called compounds. Quirk also gives us another
Compound: -A combination of 2 words so as to function as a unit -A unit consisting of 2 or more bases.
definition of compounds as a unit consisting of 2 or more bases . Compounds may be
written in
three ways: firstly, as
two
independent words , as in washing machine . Secondly, joined by a hyphen,
as in tax-free . Finally, as one word, as in toothache . There is no rule about
Diff ways of writing a compound: -2 independnt words -Joined by a hyphen -As one word
how compounds should be spelt.
Compounds usually have main stress on the first element and
secondary stress on the second element. For example: ‘black,bird
(compound: species of birds) and ,black’bird (a bird that is black).
Stress:
‘Black,bird
The meaning of a compound cannot always be deduced from the
separate meaning of its individual elements. For instance, the compound hotdog is not a dog which is hot, but a sausage in a sandwich [Quirk].
Following Quirk, we are going to concentrate our classification on the
productive types of compounding and will indicate the syntactic relation of the compounding element by paraphrases.
The categorization of the different compounds has been done following
the Quirk et al clause-structure functions of the compound elements. As an
example of this approach, I will take two compounds daydreaming & sightseeing , which are superficially similar (N + - ing ), yet the relations of their
constituents, & the grammatical meanings of the two compounds are different: X dreams during the night → V ERB + ADVBL X sees sights → V ERB + OBJ
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
classification of compounds: Syntactic relation of the compounding element by paraphrases
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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4.1. Kinds of co mpositio n in the Noun. 4.1.1. Subject + Verb
a) Subject + Deverbal N. This is a very frequent kind of compound.
sunrise (The sun rises). Other examples: headache, rainfall, daybreak .
b) Verb + Subject. This is a weakly productive type. Playboy (the boy plays)
c) Verbal noun –ing + Subject.
Washing machine (the machine washes). Other examples: firing squad …
4.1.2. Verb + Obj ect.
a) Object + Deverbal Noun. Blood test (X tests blood)
This kind of compounds may be formed by count Ns and mass Ns: Count Ns
Mass Ns (Primarly)
Crime report
Birth-control
Haircut
Steel-production
Book review
Dress-design
b) Verb + Object.
Pushbutton (X pushes the buton).
c) Verbal N in –ing + Object.
Chewing gum (John chews gum). Others: drinking-water, reading-materials.
d) Object + Verbal N in –ing . This type is VERY productive
Story-telling (John tells stories). Others: book-keeping, oath-taking, …
e) Object + Agential N in –er . This is also VERY productive and refers to concrete (usually human) agents.
Cigar-smoker (John smokes cigars). Others: songwriter, radio-operator .
4.1.3. Verb and Adverbial Compounds
a) Verbal N in –ing + Adverbial. This is a VERY productive type of compound.
Swimming-pool (Mary swims in the pool). Others: typing paper, walking stick.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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b) Adverbial + Abstract Verbal N in –ing. Moderate productivity. This group consist of:
TIME: Sleepwalking , daydreaming (Mary dreams during the day).
c) Adverbial + Agential N in –er . Fairly productive. Baby-sitter (Mary sits with the baby)
d) Adverbial + Deverbal N. moderately productive.
PLACE: home-work (Mary works at home), boat-ride
e) Verb + Adverbial.
Dance-hall (Mary dances in a hall). Others: Springboard, workbench, …
4.1.4. Verbl ess compo und s: N + N Compo unds.
- SUBJ AND OBJ
a) N1 operates N2.
Windmill (The wind operates the mill) , motorcycle, …
b) N2 produces/yields N1
Toy factory (The factory produces toyd) , water pistol
c) N1 produces/yields N2
Gas Light (The gas produces light) , sawdust (=suciedad de sierra - serrín)
d) N1 has N2.
Window-pane (=mirror), arrowhead …
- SUBJ AND COMPLEMENT
a) N2 is N1. This group contains animate and inanimate Ns.
Animate Ns: drummer boy, woman writer, girl friend (The friend is a girl) … Inanimate Ns: Rose bush, pine tree
b) Adj + N:
Darkroom (the room is dark), blackboard, …
c) N2 is like N1 . VERY productive
Frogman, goldfish (The fish is like gold)
d) N2 consists of N1.
Apple pie (A pie that consist of apple) , rice pudding …
e) N2 is for N1.
Hand-towel (Towel for the hands), fire engine, coffee time, tearoom …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tema 10: Léxico. Características de la formación de las palabras en Inglés. Prefijación, sufijación y composición.
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4.1.5. Bahubrihi Compounds.
These compounds names an entire thing by specifying some features of
it, as for instance paperback (A book which has a paper back) . They may be formed in two ways: NOUN+NOUN, as in birdbrain (=cabeza de chorlito) and
butterfingers (=torpe); ADJ + NOUN, as in paleface (=rostro palido) and heavyweight (=persona de influencia).
4.2. Kinds of co mpositio n in the verb. 4.2.1. Back-fo rmati on.
Back-formation is said to occur when a compound Verbal N is shortened
to form a V, as in housekeeper → housekeep . There are two types of syntactic relation in these verb compounds: a) Object + Verb.
Fire watch, house-hunt, lip-read (X reads the lips) , brain-wash …
b) Adverbial + Verb.
Bottle-feed, spring-clean, sleep-walk, baby-sit …
4.2.2. Verb + Adv erb
The principal advs used in these compounds are: out, over and under.
For example: outrun, overcome, underestimate …
4.3. Adj ective compo unds .
4.3.1. Verb and Object c ompoun ds
a) Object + -ing Participle .
Man-eating (Peter eats men) , breathtaking, self-governing …
4.3.2. Verb and A dverb ial Compo und s.
a) Adverbial + -ing particle.
Ocean-going (Laura goes across oceans) , lip-sucking, mouth-watering
b) Adverbial + -ed participle .
Home-made (Laura makes it at home) , self-employed …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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c) Adjective / Adverb + ing participle.
Hard-working (Laura works hard) , everlasting, good-looking …
d) Adjective / Adverb + Past Participle.
New-laid, widespread, quick-frozen (X is quickly frozen)…
4.3.3. Verbl ess compo und s.
a) Noun + Adjective. VERY productive.
Tax-free (free with respect to taxes) , air-tight, homesick, waterproof …
b) Other Noun + Adjective. Other compounds of this kind have tow meaning:
- AS + Adj + AS + N - Adj + LIKE + N
→
bottle-green (as green as a bottle)
snow-white (white like snow).
→
c) Contacts: (adj 1 + Adj 2) . Many compounds of this type have a first element ending in “-o” which does not form an independent word, as for instance socio-economic, Anglo-American …
4.4. Redup licativ e or repetiti on com pou nds.
These compounds are formed by two elements which are either
identical or slightly different . They are very common in very informal
speech and some derive from the nursery. The most common ones are: a) To imitate sounds (onomatopoeia). Tick-tock, drip-drip …
b) Alternating movements. Ping-pong, flip-flop
c) Vacillation, insincerity …
Riff-raff, wishy-washy, tittle-tattle (=chafardear ) …
d) Intensification.
Tip-top, teeny-weeny …
- CEDE publications (Madrid) - Jespersen, O. 1993, The essentials of English grammar . London. - Marchand, H. The categories and types of present day English word formation . Wiesbaden, 1960. - Reeves, A & Llinàs, M, 1995 English grammar: An introductory description . Serveis de publicacions UAB: Cerdanyola; Chapter 2.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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5. Brief Summary. 1.Introduction:
-Word is not the most basic meaningful unit (pencil, impossible, women) (laugh, laughs, laughing …) -Morpheme: Minimal meaningful unit → Lexical and grammatical morphemes -Morphs are the actual realization of morphemes → One morph can have several allomorphs. -Different kind of morphs : Root (free), Base and affixes (bound).
- Word-formation processes (WFP) are a set of grammatical rules which are used in order to create new English words. -Basic con cepts: Open & closed words classes; Class-changing & class-maintaining; Input & output in WFR. -Major WF processes: AFFIXATION, COMPOUNDING, CONVERSION. -Minor WF processes : REDUPLICATION, CLIPPING, BLENDING, ACRONYMS.
2.1.Prefixes are particles that can be added before full words but which cannot occur in isolation.
Characteristics: - Foreign origin (except a-, be- fore-, mis- & un- [German origin]) & Class-maintaining - Light stress; no change of overall stress pattern; Prefixes groupedaccording meaning .
n o i t a x i f f A . 2
NE RE PE DE
Groups of pr efixes: SEMANTICAL ORGANIZATION [Quirk] -Negative: In an anarchy, unexpected non-stop parties dislike just to in sane men. -Reversative: I disconnected the defrost mechanism to un do the problem. -Pejorative: We realized that the pseudo-intelligent robot was mal-functioning because of his misconduct. -Degree/Size: arch-, super-, out-, sur-, sub-, over- vs . under-, hyper-, ultra-, mini- & micro- vs. macro-
A LO TI CO NU O
- At ti tu de: Anti christ and pro-communists citizens co operated to counter act the Pope. -Locative: I got the super sonic su bway to catch the inter national transatlantic on time. -Time/order : My ex-husband foretold that he will rebuild his house both in the pre and post-war . -Conversion: Bewitched, endanger . -Number : mono-, uni-; bi -,di-,tri-; multi-,poly-Others: The vice-president of Pan- America described in his autobiography t last neo-gothic prototypes.
2.2. Suffixes : Final element which is productive in forming new words → Inflectional & Derivational.
Characteristics: - Suffixes rarely have meaning of their own and, as a rule, they only serve to modify the meaning of the main element or to change its category. - Native suffixes combine only w/native base; Hybrid: Words w/a native base & a foreign suffix.
Classification: GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION [Quirk] - NOUN SUFFIXES: - Denominal Ns (abstract): In a democracy, friendship, a spoonfu l of Calvinism and brother h ood are essential in a kingdo m, not slavery. - Denominal Ns (concrete): An engineer weakling waitr ess burnt a Londoner banker booklet with a cigar e tte. - Deverbal Ns (abstract ): The drivin g inhabitant refusal of the anal explor a tion was an amazement to my gay friend. - Deverbal Ns (con crete): The participants to the writer ’s contest were appointee in NY. - Noun/Adjective suffixes: Israelit e and Chinese violinists are Luther an. - De-adjectival Ns: Happiness and sanit y: all I want..
- VERB SUFFIXES: To deaf en and popular ize at some time simplifies your life. - A DJECTIVE SUFFIXES:
- Denominal Adj s: The most cowardly & childless un-forgetfu l event that I have ever seen was when a diny foolis h ladylike doc tried to contradict the darwian theory. - Denominal Adjs (foreign origin suf fs): The ambitious criminal had an grotesque Arabic air. - Deverbal Adjs: attractiv e, readable.
- A DV SUFFIXES: Weather w ise, we will happily move backwards in time.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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3. Compound Words : Two different definitions: a) A combination of 2 words so as to function as a unit [Jespersen] b) A unit consisting of 2 or more bases [Quirk].
Characteristics: - Diff ways of writing a compound : 1) Two independent words, 2) Joined by a hyphen & 3) As one word. -Stress: ‘black,bird (main stress on the first element and secondary stress on the second element) -In a NP it moves, as in ,black’bird (a bird that is black). -Meaning : It cannot always be deduced from its different elements.
Classification: Syntactic relation of the compounding element by paraphrases.
Kinds of compos ition in the Noun
Verb Compounds
Ad jecti ve Compounds
a) Subject + Verb: - Subject + Deverbal N
Sunrise
- Verb + Subject
Playboy
THE SUN
Washing machine
- Verbal N in –ing + Subj
RISES THE BOY PLAYS THE MACHINE WASHES
b) Verb + Object:
Story-telling
- Obj + Agential N in –er
Cigar-smoker
STORY JOHN SMOKES A CIGAR JOHN TESTS BLOOD JOHN PUSHES THE BUTTON JOHN CHEWS GUM
Blood test
- Obj + Deverbal N
Push button
- Verb + Object
Chewing-gum
- Verbal N in –ing + Obj
c) Verb + Adv erbial (Advl) compounds - Verbal N in –ing + Advl
Swimming pool
- Advl + Agential noun in –er
Baby-sitter
- Advl + Abstract verbal N in -ing
Daydreaming
- Advl + Deverbal
home-work
- Verb + Advl
Dance-hall
d) Bahuvrihi Compounds N+N
Adj + N
Birdbrain Paleface
b) Verb + Object > Obj + -ing Particle: man-eating
JOHN TELLS A
- Obj + verbal N in –ing
M ARY SWIMS IN THE POOL
M ARY SITS WITH THE BABY
M ARY DREAMS
(PETER EATS MEN)
c) Verb + Adv (out, over, under, up) Underestimate
DURING THE DAY M ARY WORKS AT WORK M ARY DANCES IN THE HALL
d) Back Formation: - Object + brain-wash Noun - Advl + V
baby-sit
c) Verb and Adverbial compo unds OceanL AURA GOES Advl + -ing ACROSS THE OCEAN going HomeL AURA MAKES IT AT Advl + -ed HOME made HardLAURA WORKS Adj/Adv + -ing working HARD QuickCHICKEN WAS Adj + -ed FROZEN QUICKLY frozen
d) Vless compound s N + Adj Tax-free
TO TAXES
As [adj] as [N] [adj] like [N]
Contacts: Adj1 + Adj2
e) Noun + Noun compounds - N1 operates N2 Windmill - N2 produces N1 Toyfactory - N1 produces N2 Gaslight - N1 has N2 doorknob l - N2 is N1 Girl friend p m - Adj + N Darkroom o C - N2 is like N1 Goldfish & j b - N2 consists of N1 Apple pie u S - N2 is for N1 Hand-towel j b O & j b u S
FREE IN RESPECT
bottlegreen snowwhite Anglo American
AS GREEN AS A BOTTLE
WHITE LIKE SNOW
THE WIND OPERATES THE MILL THE FACTORY PRODUCES TOYS THE GAS PRODUCES LIGHT THE DOOR HAS A KNOB
THE FRIEND IS A GIRL THE ROOM IS DARK THE FISH IS LIKE GOLD A PIE THAT CONSITIS OF APPLE A TOWEL FOR THE HAND
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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i
Having mentioned the essential units in word analysis, we can now introduce a language typology which is widely referred to as Humboldt’s language typology . Humboldt established three types of languages: Firstly, isolating languages are those with only morphologically simple words (Chinese), secondly agglutinating languages are those with morphologically complex words in which morphemes and morphs can be easily identified (Turkish), thirdly inflecting languages are those with morphologically complex words in which constituent morphs cannot be easily identified (Latin, Spanish). It is important to bear in mind that most languages are a mixture of two or three of this types.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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