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* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * Tema 2: * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * *Teorías * * H * generales * N * * * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * sobre aprendizaje y * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * la adquisición de * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E * * I D * * * * una lengua * * * U * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * extranjera. El * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * concepto de * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * Interlengua. El * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tratamiento del * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * error. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * http://www.sarasuati.com
Madhatter Wylder
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
eorías generales sobre aprendizaj y la adquisición de una lengua ex ranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
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Topic :
Teorías g nerales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una len ua extran era. El conc pto de Interlengua. l tratamie to del err r.
T ble of contents
1. General p rspectives n SLA__ ________ ________ ________ ________ ____ 3 1.1. Lingui tics ______ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _____ 3
1.1.1. Structuralism ___ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _____ 3 1.1.2. Cognitivism____ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _____ 5
1.2. Socioli guistics: _ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _____ 6
1.2.1. The Labovian pa adigm ____ __________ __________ __________ __________ _____ 6 1.2.2. Speech accommodation theory (SAT). ____ __________ __________ __________ _____ 7 1.2.3. Motivation. ____ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _____ 8 1.2.3.1. Definition o Motivation __________ __________ __________ __________ _____ 8 1.2.3.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic M tivation____ __________ __________ __________ _____ 9 1.2.3.3. Motivation i SLA ____ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 10 1.2.3.4. Integrative otivation. _ otivation. _ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 10 1.2.3.5. Instrumental Motivation __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 10 1.2.3.6. Conclusion __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 11 1.2.4. Apt tude. ______ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 11
1.3. Neurol nguistics _ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ ____ 12 1.3.1. He isphere dominance _____ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 1.3.2. Age hypothesis._ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 1.3.2.1. Introduction __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 1.3.2.2. Critical peri d for first la guage acquisition _______ __________ __________ ____ 1.3.2.3. Critical peri d for second language acq uisition ____ __________ __________ ____
12 13 13 14 14
2. Treatment of errors _ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ___ 16 2.1. Introd ction ____ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ ____ 16 2.2. Error
nalysis (E ): its roots and develo ment ____ _________ _________ ____ 17
2.2.1. Contrastive Anal sis _______ __________ __________ __________ __________ ____ 18 2.2.2. Cor er (1967): Introduction of the Concept 'Error Analysis' ________ __________ ____ 18
3. Interlangu age ______________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ___ 20 4. Brief sum ary._____ ary._____________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ___ 23 5. bibliograp y _______ _______________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ___ 24
Iván Matella nes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
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1. General perspecti ves on SLA 1.1. Lin guis tics
There are two major linguistic theories that count for the Acq of the SL:
1.1.1. Structuralism Bloomfield’s work language (1933) stated than:
-
Structuralism
Lg consists of externally conditioned habits, so learning a Lg consists of
1. Lg is acq of a new set of habits
the acquisition of a new set of habits .
-
Habits are acquired through the formation of a paradigm of response conditioned to a particular stimulus and then generalized to other
2. Habits acquired through conditioned responses to stimulus
similar stimuli (behaviorism).
-
Learning a SL means displacing one set of habits or linguistic structure & replacing it with a new one.
Bloomfield sees the child as
acquiring
a
word
separately
in
comprehension and production, and only later connecting the two .
This view sees children as learning to imitate the speech of adults . Bloomfield claims that children do not ever invent words but have an imperfect exposure to the correct range of meanings. Bloomfield's theories are
3. Learning a SL is replacing a set of habits for new ones. st
Structuralism 1 Lg Acq a) Children acquire words separately in comprehension & prod.
b) Children imitate Adult s eech.
c) Children do not invent words
testable, however: we are able to observe infants with their mothers and
determine whether or not children imitate adult words with their own similar
utterances. Unfortunately, like many language acquisition researchers of his
time, Bloomfield tends to concentrate on early word use and pronunciation, and neglects the acquisition of grammar . He has no theory that explains how
syntax is acquired, but he does emphasise (possibly too enthusiastically) the role of correction by the parent. E.g. A response to "Daddy bringed it" would be "NO! Daddy brought it!"
Lado’s work linguistics across cultures (1957) introduced a new line of
Lado’s contrastive analysis
research based on structural contrasts between Lgs. Similar linguistic structures
Similar linguistic structures imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to another, while differences imply learning difficulty
imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to another, while differences imply learning difficulty due to contrast between two different
habits. This was the origin of the Contrastive analysis. CA is a branch of applied Linguistics introduced in the 1930's which is concerned with
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
"producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative)
4
two-valued
typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that languages can be compared ". CA theory claimed
that "speakers tend to hear another language and attempt to produce
CA theory claimed: Speakers tend to hear another Lg & attempt to produce utterances in it in terms of the structure of their own MT.
utterances in it in terms of the structure of their own language , thus
accounting for their accent 1 in L2,". In SLA-oriented CA, comparable features of L1 and L2 are identified and described, and mismatches are identified that are
likely to lead to error on the part of the learner; CA is said to be able to
predict and diagnose errors . This application is based on the concept of
CA is said to be able to predict and diagnose errors based on the concept of linguistic transfer
linguistic transfer , which is said to happen when knowledge about one
language is applied (correctly or not) to another and intuitively would seem to explain why language learners make the mistakes they do.
The most serious arguments against CA were that its foundations were in
structuralism and behavioralism , which had begun to lose favour.
Furtheremore, CA was not an effective method for predicting errors that
learners actually make. Briere (1966) reported on an experiment in which
American students were played non-English sounds from Arabic, Vietnamese, and French and asked to reproduce them. While there were some cases of clear L1 transfer, Briere found that in other cases the students approximated one
non-English sound with another (/r/ for /fl/), which would not be predicted by CA. Furthermore, it was observed that some of the non-English sounds were easier than others for the American students to learn (Briere gives the example of a voiceless non-aspirated fortis dental stop as being easier than the
dentalized version), a phenomenon for which CA does not provide an explanation
1
where accent refers not only to phonological accent, but to all elements in the presentation of speech that mark the speaker as foreign (Ferguson, 1989, p.82)
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
There are some problems with CA Hypothesis:
1. Error s occur that are not due to L 1. 2. Errors don’t occur when they are predicted.
3. Paradigm shift from behaviorist to mentalist views in linguistics. 3.1. Errors in child language part of rule formation and not part of child’s linguistic environment. 3.2. Imitatio n and reinforcement/correcti on don’t seem to be important to Lg acquisition.
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Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
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1.1.2. Cognitivism Chomsky’s syntactic Structures (1957) supported Lg creativity against
Cognitivism
behaviourist positions. He developed a transformational-generative grammar & introduced new concepts in Lg structure:
-
The distinction between an infinite external behaviour ( performance) and a finite internal set of rules ( competence)2. Thanks to this innate
-Infinite external behaviour (performance) and a finite set of rules (competence)
set of rules, a human being can create an infinite number of sentences from a finite number of rules.
-
The existence of a specific cognitive mechanism for Lg acquisition: the
Language Acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is an innate device,
-Specific cognitive mechanism for Lg Acquisition: LA D.
just dedicated to Lg acquisition and only human beings have such a device. The child’s mind is a black box whose internal workings cannot be inspected. Into it go the Lg data, out of it comes grammatical
competence, Ss. The child LAD takes an input & produces output. If
Genetically conditioned: innate Species conditioned: Human beings
smthing is found in the output that cannot be derived from the input, it must have come from the LAD itself .
-
The presence of rules that are shared by all Lgs & consist of a set of parameters. This set of parameters constitutes a model of Universal
- Rules that are shared by all Lgs & consist of a set of parameters: Universal grammar .
Grammar (UG).
Let us look more closely at how children Acq settings for Parameters. -
The parameters in the child’s mind can be thought of as on/off switches,
each to be turned to suit the Lg that is heard. So, Acq the grammar of UK means setting all the UG parameters in the UK way .
-
Children learn either from positive evidence3 & from indirect
a) parameters in the child’s mind can be thought of as on/off switches, each to be turned to suit the Lg that is heard.
b) Children learn either from both:
negative evidence4.
-
Hearing a few sentences is enough to set the parameter one way or another.
Positive evidence: What the children actually hear
Indirect negative evidence: What children do no t hear.
2
What speakers know (competence) against what speakers actually do on some particular occasions (performance) 3 Occurrence of particular sentences in the speech children hear tells them which sort of Lg they are encountering. 4 The fact that certain forms do not occur in the sentence the children hear may be enough to set a parameter. Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
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c) 3 logical possibilities for parameters settings:
We can distinguish 3 logical possibilities for parameters:
1. The switch is in a neutral position ; F. ex.: the child is equally prepared for pro-drop5 or non-pro-drop.
Neutral position
2. The switch is set in one directio n; F.ex.: The switch is set to non-
One direction
pro-drop.
3. The switch is set in the contrary directio n; F.ex.: The switch is set
Contrary direction
to pro-drop, the reverse position.
The discussion of Acq is no longer concerned with what happens in one Lg; The interest lies in finding how the child’s UG can cope equally well with diff Lgs.
1.2. Sociolinguistics:
Sociolinguistics
Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behaviour. In
the normal transfer of information through language, we use language to send
vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and
We use Lg to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with.
who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we
may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon
the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word. Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one
strand of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society. Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of study, as certain cultures around the world expand their communication base
and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance. Three approaches to Sociolinguistics must be considered here:
1.2.1. The Labov ian paradigm William Labov has been more influential than any other researcher in
establishing the notion that Lg varies systematically in accordance with social characteristics of the speaker. Labov’s theories are based on five axioms:
5
Pro-drop: In some Lgs, the subject (small-pro) can be omitted. English, for example, is a nonpro-drop Lg, because the subject must be present always in a sentence.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
William Labov
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Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
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1. Style shifting: Speakers are able to shift their style in order to converge or diverge with their interlocutors.
2. Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals of convergence or divergence. Otherwise …
3. The vernacular (default style) is the style a speaker turns to when s/he is not paying attention to style shifting.
4. Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting. The more formal a conversation is, the more the speakers try to converge in style.
5. A good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant style shifting.
a) Style shifting in order to converge or diverge with their interlocutors
b) Att ent io n to style shifting is necessary
c) vernacular is the style a speaker turns to when s/he is not paying attention d) Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting e) good amount of data is necessary to shift style
As a poststructuralist approach Labov's approach demonstrates a new way
of doing research on language: the combination of structural elements
with sociological features , but ignoring the statics of structuralism. His way
to describe language change is independent of the variable of time ; it
refers to simultaneously existing differences in one language and searches for reasons why one speaker uses a certain variety.
L. Dickerson extended Labov’s claims for L1 to the L2 situation. She
claimed that: -
There are NO single style speakers .
-
The dimension of attention operates whether the Lg is native or non-
Extended Labov claims: - No single style speakers. - Dimension of attention works in non-native Lgs. - Vernacular vs. superordinate style.
native.
-
The style where there is the least amount of attention to speech is the
vernacular. When attention is focused on speech, we get the
superordinate style. The vernacular is the more regular & systematic,
the superordinate is the least regular and systematic.
1.2.2. Speech acco mmo dation t heory (SAT). SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people's speech
styles during social encounters (e.g., convergence 6 vs. divergenc e7), and some of the social consequences arising from them. One of the first
theoretical discussions of the relevance of SAT to SLA was offered by Beebe 6
Speakers adjust their speech to accommodate it to the speech of the interlocutor(s) Speakers adjust their speech to become less similar to the speech of the interlocutor(s)
7
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Speech accommodation theory:
SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people's speech styles during social encounters (convergence vs. divergence), and some of the social consequences arising from them
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Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
8
and Giles (1984). They discuss learning as occurring when the learner
converges toward the NS’s speech in order to achieve certain
communicative effects or gain social approval from the NS . These
concepts of SAT have been adopted in a few interlanguage pragmatics studies.
Accommodative shifts toward L2 norms of speaking, however, are not
always considered desirable by the learner, especially when it comes to pragmatic behaviour that reflects their beliefs about who they are. In this respect, Giles and Byrne’s (1982) Intergroup Theory (IT) of SAT offers a useful
framework for understanding how such factors facilitate or impede NS
proficiency in an L2. According to IT, a learner who perceives using an L2 as a betray to his/her ethnic identity is not likely to achieve NS
proficiency of the TL . On the other hand, a learner who regards L2 learning
as additive and who has integrative motivation and positive attitudes towards the outgroup culture is more likely to achieve NS proficiency
not only in vocabulary and grammar but also in sociolinguistic mastery of the
L2. Therefore, maximal convergenc e, Giles’ (1979) term, is not achieved in
Intergroup theory (IT): learner who perceives using an L2 as a betray to his/her ethnic identity is not likely to achieve NS proficiency of the TL
On the contrary, learner who has integrative motivation and positive attitudes towards the outgroup culture is more likely to achieve NS proficiency
Maximal convergence is not achieved because of two competing sociopsychological needs:
many cases of adult pragmatic acquisition because adults tend to have two
competing socio-psychological needs: the need to become proficient in the L2 versus the need to mark their own ethnic identity by preserving
Become proficient in the L2
Their own ethnic identity
some of the L1 privilege features. Consequently, most adult learners develop a unique intercultural system to resolve this conflict. 1.2.3. Motivati on.
Motivation:
1.2.3.1. Definit ion of Mot ivatio n
Gardner defined motivation in his social-psychological model as “ the
combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the
language plus favourable attitude toward learning the language ”. It is
an inner state or condition that power up behaviour and gives it direction, a
desire that energizes and directs goal-oriented behaviour, an influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behaviour, and the arousal,
direction, and persistence of behaviour. But it also concerns the reasons or
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Combination of effort plus desire plus favourable attitude toward learning the language
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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9
goals that underlie their involvement in academic activities. Although students may be equally motivated, the source of their motivation may be different. 1.2.3.2. Intrin sic and Extri nsic Moti vation
In general, motivation can be considered as either intrinsic (behavioural,
needs) or extrinsic (cognitive and humanistic, reinforcement). Intrinsic motivation is generally possessed by people having personal interest(s) in
doing something and helping to set their goals. People are intrinsically
- Intrinsic motivation: Personal interest(s) in doing something
motivated not because accomplishing the activity they do brings a reward, but
because doing the activity itself is a reward . Mark Lepper notes that a student with intrinsic motivation participates in his/her learning “for its own
sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes.” The feelings of competence and self-determination are significant factors of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation,
on
the
other
hand,
derives
from
an
anticipation of rewards such as praise, awards, prizes, and evaluation, and
- Extrinsic motivation: Derives from an anticipation of external rewards
fear for punishment. An extrinsically motivated student do the activity “in order
to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself”,
and this kind of motivation “refers to learning situations where the reason
for doing a task is something other than an interest in the task (or
broader learning endeavour) itself . In addition, undertaking the task may be something the person feels pressured to do rather than genuinely wants to do”.
There are some negative aspects of extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan state
that learners will lose motivation and reason to do something when rewards are no longer available , and that giving external rewards to them
Learners will probably lose motivation when rewards are no longer available
previously with intrinsic motivation can harm the good effect of it. However,
researches show that extrinsic motivation is effective for those with no motivation, and when it is a positive feedback.
Comparing these two types of motivation in a classroom, it becomes
clear that intrinsic motivation produces more potential benefits than does the extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated students tend to try harder and think more
deeply. It is also found by researchers that they tend to prefer Comprehensible input (i+1 ) when others tend to choose easier tasks.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
- Extrinsic mot ivation: Derives from an anticipation of external rewards
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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1.2.3.3. Motivation in SLA
The most dominant work in SLA studies of motivation has been done by
Gardner and his associates. In his socio-cultural approach, attitudes play an
important role. He stated that “ motivation to learn a second language is influenced
by
integrativeness
group and
related
attitudes
and
context
toward
the
related
attitudes,
learning
situation
respectively”. A person who has positive attitudes to the target culture and
people is thus considered well-motivated. In general, Gardner’s model of
integrative/instrumental motivation precisely describes the particular features of motivation in SLA.
1.2.3.4. Integrative Motivation.
Gardner’s idea was developed from Mower’s idea that to be like a valued
person is important in individual development. Gardner and Lambent described
the motivation as wanting to be respected and identified in a foreign setting, to be like the foreign people, to understand the culture and
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target society.
Motivation in SLA
participate in it , and called this concept “integrative motivation”.
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target society in a foreign setting but it also includes a motivation coming from just
an interest or a favourable feeling to a target culture or people. McDonough
noted that there are two types of integrative motivation; “assimilative
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target society.
motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group, and
“affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social contact with target language speakers. Dickinson notes that Learners who are
Assimilative motivation.
Affiliative motivation
integratively motivated seems to have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn a language.
1.2.3.5. Instrum ental Moti vation
Gardner and Lambert described “ instrumental motivation” as a
motivation to acquire some advantages by learning a second language . A learner with instrumental motivation regards language as an
instrument to get a reward. Though “instrumental motivation” also influences
second language learning, to the extent that an instrumental motive is tied to a specific goal, its influence tends to be maintained only until that goal is
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Instrumental motivation: Motivation to acquire some advantages by learning a SL.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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achieved. On the other hand, if the goal is continuous, it seems possible that an instrumental motivation would also continue to be effective . 1.2.3.6. Conclusion
Motivation is one of the crucial factors which determine the success of
language learning. Intrinsic motivation is the most fundamental motivation,
which is derived from the feeling of being competent and self-determinant. People are motivated to be approved by others and to feel competent.
Whereas intrinsic motivation is essential for successful language learning, it does not seem sufficient itself, and intrinsic motive is mediated by “cognition”
and “society”, which is when motivation occurs within self. Some ideas to foster motivation to learn in the classroom are suggested: (1) teachers should view
learners as “active socialization agents capable of stimulating...learner motivation to learn”, (2) classroom climate should be valued, (3) various task
dimensions work, tasks should be moderately challenging and yet achievable, (4) tasks with specific, short-term goals can help learners to success, (5)
Sociolinguistics
teachers should offer extrinsic rewards with caution.
1.2.4. Ap tit ude. Even though the relationship btw aptitude (= aptitudes ) & SL learning
success is a very important one, it has largely been ignored. J.B. Carroll is the
name associated most with studies of SL learning aptitude. He is the originator of the standard “four component” view of language aptitude.
1. Phonemic coding ability: Ability to code sounds so that they can be retained for more than a few seconds.
2. Grammatical sensibility: Ability to identify the functions that words fulfil in sentences
3. Inductive Lg learning ability : Ability to take some data from the TL and make generalisations from that material.
4. Memory & learning : Ability to form links between native and foreign language .
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Apti tu des :
Carroll’s Standard “ four component” view of language aptitude: a) Phonemic coding ability: Ability to code sounds
b) Grammatical sensibility: Ability to identify the functions that words fulfil in sentences
c) Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to make generalisations
d) Memory & learning: Ability to form links between the MT & the FL.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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These four abilities seem to be a reasonable predictor of SL learning success in that a person who is excellent in one or more of these abilities would seem to be at an advantage in learning a SL.
1.3. Neuro ling uist ics
Neurolinguistics
The most interesting lines of research in this field are based on clinical
examinations of aphasics. The most important objectives have been the establishment of hemisphere dominance & finding a critical age in Lg learning.
Hemisphere dominance:
1.3.1. Hemis phere do min ance Early research attempted to offer support for hemisphere dominance:
-
The left hemisphere of the brain is the one where most linguistic
Left hemisphere is where most linguistic skills are found.
skills are found.
-
Though Broca's Area function has
not been strictly limited, most studies
agree that this area of the frontal lobe, in
the
dominant
individual,
speech
production.
Broca's
area
is
is
hemisphere
primarily
usually
of
an
related
to
associated
Broca’s Area
Related to speech production: list of words & their associated meanings
with
maintenance a list of words and parts of words used in producing
speech, and their associated meanings . It has been linked to
articulation of speech, and to semantic processing, or assigning meanings to words we use.
-
Wernicke's area is a semantic
processing area. It is associated with
some memory functions, especially the short-term memory involved in
speech recognition and production , as
well as some hearing function and object identification. Wernicke's area is most often associated with language comprehension, or
processing of incoming language , whether it be written or spoken.
This distinction between speech and language is key to understanding
the role of Wernicke's area to language. It does not simply affect spoken
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Wernicke’s Area
Related processing area: Associated to Lg comprehension, or processing of incoming Lg.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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language, but also written and signed language. Wernicke's area works with Broca's area, Wernicke's handling incoming speech and Broca's handling outgoing speech .
-
It has been also defended that the left hemisphere is specialized for 1st Lg Acq, whereas the right hemisphere is specialized for SLA.
Right hemisphere is s ecialized for SLA
In SLA, during the first phases of the process, children have shown right
hemisphere dominance, while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.
According to the manner of SLA, informal learning is related to right hemisphere activity, while the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning. 1.3.2. Age hypo thesi s.
Ag e hypo th esi s:
1.3.2.1. Intro duct ion
The Critical Period (CP) Hypothesis in essence states that the ability to
learn a language is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12 years old) after
which, most probably as a result of maturational processes in the brain, this
ability disappears. Since Penfield & Roberts (1959), and especially since Lenneberg (1967), this has been one of the most hotly debated issues in psycholinguistics and, generally, in neurolinguistics.
Nowadays there seems to be a wide acceptance that there is a CP for
first language (FL) acquisition , with compelling evidence that, unless they are exposed to language in the early years of life, humans lose the
ability to learn a language, especially its grammatical system . The
situation with (adult) SL acquisition however appears to be far less clear.
While it is true that very few adult SL learners achieve native
competence in the SL, some competence is nevertheless acquired,
which seems to go against the notion of a biological constraint on language learning.
The issue of CP is closely related to the issue of access to UG in SL
learning: a CP hypothesis would entail that after a certain age (e.g. early teens) UG is no longer available.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Critical Period Hypothesis states that the ability to learn a Lg is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12 y.o.)
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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1.3.2.2. Critical period for first language acquisition
Nowadays there appears to be a wide acceptance of the idea that FL
acquisition is subject to maturational constraints. As it has been pointed
out, the homogeneity of the process in terms of onset, rate, sequences, age of
completion, level of ultimate attainment, etc. across cultures and environments suggests that it is biologically scheduled. In addition, there is an increasing
body of evidence from a variety of sources, such as FL acquisition by
linguistically isolated children (the so called feral children , among whom the tragic Genie is the best documented case), acquisition by hearing children of
deaf adults, by deaf children of hearing adults, late acquisition of American Sign Language, etc. all of which lend support to the CP hypothesis for FL acquisition. 1.3.2.3. Criti cal period fo r second l anguage acquisi tio n
The issue of CP for SLA is considerably less clear and remains among the
most hotly debated issues in SL research. It should be noted that a CP for SL
acquisition does not necessarily follow from a CP for FL acquisition. The latter means that there is a limited period in the early years of life when individuals
can exercise a (special) language learning ability, and if this ability is not
exercised (e.g. as a consequence of linguistic isolation during this period), it
dies away and can never again be exercised. In the case of SL acquisition, we have individuals who have successfully exercised their language ability during the CP and have attained the normal high level of
competence in their FL. The crucial question here is: does the language
ability die away after the CP without taking into account whether it has been exercised during the CP or not? For many, the fact that, in contrast to late FL
starters, adult SL learners can achieve a very high level of competence
in the SL can be seen as evidence favoring such a position. Others have
pointed to the highly variable success rate in SL learning and the widely known fact that native competence in the SL can only be achieved by
very young starters, suggesting that maturational constraints apply to SL learning as well . The crucial question then seems to be not so much
whether children are more successful SL learners than adults, but rather
whether it is impossible for adult SL learners to achieve native
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
SLA: native competence in the SL can only be achieved by very young starters.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * I * * * * * * * * O * B * * * * I * T * * * * * N * * * * * * * H * * N * O * * * * I O E * * * * * * * S * * * R * M * * * * * * * E U * * * * * * P R * * * * * C A * * * * * P * * * * * D O * * * * * M * * * E I D * * * * U * * * * * * * * A E * * * * * * * Q * L T * * * * * * * * * * * * S * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * E * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * D * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Topic 2:
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competence in the TL, because, as Long puts it, "[t]he easiest way to falsify
[the CP hypothesis] would be to produce learners who have demonstrably
attained native-like proficiency despite having begun exposure well after the closure of the hypothesized sensitive periods". There have been several
experimental studies in recent years in which the researchers identified–usually after rigorous screening - some highly proficient SL learners whose exposure to
the SL had only begun in adulthood, and using various experimental techniques (more often than not, grammaticality judgements) compared their competence in the SL to that of native speakers. The results from these studies appear to
indicate that achieving native competence by adult SL learners , while extremely rare, is not impossible , thus arguably proving that the CP
Ach iev in g n ati ve competence by adult SL learners, while extremely rare, is not impossible
hypothesis does not hold for non-primary languages .
Many studies have given evidence that young children are more likely to
attain a native-like proficiency in a SL than are teenagers or adults.
Nevertheless, adults often learn certain parts of a new Lg more
quickly (morphological & syntactic development ). The evidence is much
more solid for an advantage for young children in the acquisition of phonology.
To sum up, young children are more successful SL learners than adults.
Why is this case? -
Psychological reasons: Adults do not want to give up the sense of
identity their accent (1st Lg) provides.
-
Cognitive factors: Adults have greater cognitive abilities than children.
- Psychological reasons - Cognitive factors (LAD)
Ironically, these abilities have ended up in a less successful learning of the SL, probably due to the LAD.
-
Neurological changes that prevent adults from using their brains the
same way children do.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
- Neurological changes.
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Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
2. Treatment of errors
ERRORS
In the late 1970s, several researchers conducted comparative studies on
first and SLA with an emphasis on the L2 acquisition process. Researchers analyzed the speech of second-language learners and, based on their analyses,
many concluded that there are similarities between the two processes. Among the first to speculate about a possible relation between first- and SLA were
COOK (1973), CORDER (1967) and SELINKER (1972). CORDER stresses the
importance of differentiating between “ mistakes” that are the products of chance circumstances (e.g., memory lapses, physical states and strong
emotion) and “errors” which reveal the learner’s underlying knowledge of the language to date , or the learner’s transitional competence.
He
mistakes that are the products of chance circumstances (performance) & errors which reveal the learner’s underlying knowledge of the language to date (Competence)
recommends a linguistic study of a second-language learner’s errors as an indicator of the learner’s testing of the only question that he or she needs to
ask: “Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those of the language I know?”
2.1. Intr oduc tion
Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language
learning was prevailing, learner errors were considered something undesirable and to be avoided . It is because in behaviourists perspectives,
Behaviourism: Learner errors were considered something undesirable & to be avoided
people learn by responding to external stimuli and receiving proper
reinforcement. A proper habit is being formed by reinforcement, hence learning takes place. Therefore, errors were considered to be a wrong response
Errors were a wrong response to the stimulus
to the stimulus, which should be corrected immediately after they were
made. Unless corrected properly, the error became a habit and a wrong behavioural pattern would stick in your mind.
This viewpoint of learning influenced greatly the language classroom,
where teachers concentrated on memorisation of target forms and tried
to instil (=inculcar ) the correct patterns of the form into learners' mind. If learners
made
any
mistake while
repeating
words,
phrases
or
sentences, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately. Errors were
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
If learners made any mistake, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately
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regarded as something you should avoid and making an error was considered to be fatal to proper language learning processes.
This belief of learning was eventually discarded by the well-known
radically different perspective proposed by N. Chomsky (1957). He wrote in
his paper against B.F. Skinner, that human learning , especially language
Cognitivism: Ag ain st stru ctur ali sm. Human Lg learning cannot be explained by simply starting off with a tabula rasa state of mind.
acquisition, cannot be explained by simply starting off with a "tabula
rasa" state of mind . He claimed that human beings must have a certain kind
of innate capacity which can guide you through a vast number of sentence generation possibilities and have a child acquire a grammar of that language
until the age of five or six with almost no exception. He called this capacity "Universal Grammar" and claimed that it is this very human faculty that linguistics aims to pursue.
This swing-back of pendulum toward a rationalistic view of language
ability lead many language teachers to discredit the behaviouristic language
learning style and emphasize cognitive-code learning approach. Hence, learners were encouraged to work on more conscious grammar exercises based on certain rules and deductive learning began to be focused again. This application of new linguistic insights, however, did not
bear much fruit since Chomsky himself commented that a linguistic theory of
the kind he pursued had little to offer for actual language learning or teaching (Chomksy 1966) .
In the school of applied linguistics, however, this shift towards the innate
human capacity raised a growing interest in the learner's powers of hypothesis formation as he moves towards the bilingual competence sufficient for his
communicative needs. One major result of this shift of attention was an
increasing concern in the monitoring and analysis of learner language .
The concepts of 'interlanguage' and 'approximative system' presented challen
2.2. Error A nalysis (EA): its r oots and development
As we look into the roots and development of error analysis, let us first
overview contrastive analysis so as to gain better insight into how error analysis became more popular among SLA researchers.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
UG
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2.2.1. Contrastive Analysis Before the SLA field as we know it today was establised, from the 1940s
to the 1960s, contrastive analyses were conducted, in which two languages were systematically compared . Researchers at that time were
motivated by the prospect of being able to identify points of similarity and
Contrastive analysis: Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result
difference between native languages (NLs) and target languages (TLs). There was a strong belief that a more effective pedagogy would result when these
were taken into consideration. Robert Lado, expressed the importance of
contrastive analysis in language teaching material design: Individuals tend to
transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture.
This claim is still quite appealing to anyone who has attempted to learn
or teach a foreign language. We encounter so many examples of the interfering
effects of our NLs. Lado went on to say a more controversial position, however,
when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult ". This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to
predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis
hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result. "
2.2.2. Corder (1967): Introdu ctio n o f the Concept 'Error Analysis ' It was S.P. Corder who first advocated in applied linguistics community
the importance of errors in language learning process. In Corder (1967), he mentions the paradigm shift in linguistics from a behaviouristic view of
language to a more rationalistic view and claims that in language teaching
one noticeable effect is to shift the emphasis away from teaching towards a study of learning . He emphasises great potential for applying
new hypotheses about how languages are learned in L1 to the learning of a second language.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Error analysis: Corder & Selinker In L1 acquisition child's 'incorrect' utterances are usually interpreted as being evidence that he is in the process of acquiring Lg. These can also be applicable to SLA.
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Corder goes on to say that in L1 acquisition we interpret child's
'incorrect' utterances as being evidence that he is in the process of acquiring language and that for those who attempt to describe his
knowledge of the language at any point in its development, it is the 'errors'
which provide the important evidence. In SLA, Corder proposed as a working
hypothesis that some of the strategies adopted by the learner of a second language are substantially the same as those by which a first language is acquired. (It does not mean, however, the course or sequence of
learning is the same in L1 and L2.) By classifying the errors that learners made, researchers could learn a great deal about the SLA process by inferring the strategies that second language learners were adopting. It is in this Corder's seminal paper that he adds to our thinking by discussing the function
of errors for the learners themselves. For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn . (Selinker 1992: 150)
For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to l earn.
Selinker (1992) pointed out the two highly significant contributions
that Corder made: "that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are (a) not random, but are in fact systematic, and are (b) not 'negative' or
'interfering' in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a
The errors of a learner are:
necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypotheses. Such
contribution in Corder (1967) began to provide a framework for the study of
Systematic
A necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypoth eses.
adult learner language.
It is generally agreed that the central learning process for Acquiring a Lg
is hypothesis testing. This process follows some steps: -
Identify a particular characteristic of the TL (by transfer or
generalization)
a) Identify a particular characteristic of the TL
b) Forming a hypothesis based on that identification
-
Forming a hypothesis based on that identification.
-
Testing the hypothesis by means of the receptive skills.
c) Testing the hypothesis.
-
Receiving feedback by means of the productive skills.
d) Receiving feedback.
-
Delay decision until more feedback is provided, or either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
e) delay, accept or reject the hypothesis.
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Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when the rule is
critical (in conditions to be tested ) for the learner. Linguistic instruction depends upon learners’ sensibility to explicit correction
according to their stage of IL. Rules become critical according to some
logical sequencing (Natural order hypothesis ) which is not derived from
Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when the rule is critical (in conditions to be tested) for the learner .
the L1, but it is part of a creative construction of TL knowledge that seems
to be controlled by universal cognitive principles.
3. Interlanguage
Interlanguage
The study of the characteristics of the learners’ language output led
researchers to point out the dynamic and ever changing nature of the learners’
competence. Corder (1967) calls it “ transitional competence” 8, while
Nemser (1971) refers to it as “ approximate competence” 9. These terms attempt to communicate the incomplete nature of the L2 acquisition process, as well as the learner’s progression along an acquisition continuum
(Seliger, 1988) from zero competence to near native competence in the TL.
Selinker (1972) proposes the notion of interlanguage (IL) , meaning the
language that a learner uses in communication that is neither his or her native language (NL) nor the target language (TL), the language that the learner is
attempting to acquire. It is actually a third system that is employed while the learner is progressing in the acquisition of the L2 toward native
speaker competence in the target language . The learner attempts
utterances to express ideas in a target language which are not identical to the
utterances that would be produced by a native speaker expressing an identical idea. In developing this hypothesis, His main points are: -
Learners develop an IL system
-
This IL is a unique grammar not belonging to either the NL or the TL.
- A particular learner’s IL system is formed by the L2 rules he has already acquired and the rules he is checking for validation or rejection.
8
Transitional Competence Characteristics : (1) L2 learners develop dynamic knowledge
system, (2) This system is constantly changing as new L2 knowledge is added & (3) This addition requires adjustment in the competence already acquired. 9 Approximate competence Characteristics: (1) L2 learners progress along a continuum, (2) this continuum runs from zero to a level close the NS’s linguistic proficiency.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
Corder → transitional competence. Nemser → approximate competence.
INTERLANGUAGE: Separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from the learner’s attempt production of a TL norm
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Selinker also addresses the concept of fossilization . Fossilised linguistic
phenomena are linguistic items, rules & subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL (relative to a particular TL), no
matter what amount of instruction they receive in the TL. These fossilised
Fossilization: linguistic items, rules & subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL no matter what amount of instruction they receive in the TL
structures are also “errors”. Fossilization supposedly occurs in the IL when the learner’s acculturation into the society who speaks the TL ceases.
Selinker clearly conceived IL as being a continuum . IL continuum is a
dynamic, goal-oriented (towards a TL) language system of increasing complexity. Note that this definition does not specify that this continuum is
IL continuum is a dynamic, goal-oriented (towards a TL) language system of increasing complexity.
institutionalized in any Lg community. IL is not normally used for communication among themselves, but just as an individual step towards
It is not institutionalized in any Lg community
the TL. Many studies strongly agree in the fact that the IL of learners, whatever their mother tongues, in certain circumstance does go through a similar sequence of development (at least, in early stages). In fact, IL is a dynamic
system similar to that of a child acquiring his MT and may follow the same sequence stages (to some extend).
He also explicitly recognized the process of regression , which he called
backsliding , when he spoke of reappearance in IL of linguistic structures
which were thought to be erased. He noted that this regressions are not random or towards the MT norm, but towards the IL norm.
IL is a dynamic system similar to that of a child acquiring his MT and may follow the same sequence stages (to some extend). Backsliding: reappearance in IL of linguistic structures which were thought to be erased. These regressions are normally towards the IL norm
Selinker identifies five processes central to second language learning
and acquisition, these can both result in error and can prevent them. These
processes are responsible for the development of IL systems:
1. Language Transfer: Errors from native language. Can be from pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary. Can mean using native words in
Five processes central to SL learning & acquisition: a. Lg Transfer: Errors from native language
place of SL ones, replacing SL phoneme with one from NL, calquing, etc
2. Transfer of training: These are errors due to the language learning
process itself . These can be due to problems in the textbook ,
teacher’s mistakes, uncorrected mistakes made by the students, etc. Once these mistakes are "fossilised" in the IL, it can be difficult to correct them.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
b. Transfer of training: These are errors due to the Lg learning process itself (problems in the textbook)
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3. Stra egies of 2nd Lg learning: Some erro s produced by SL l arners are d e to the ctual stra egies tha the learners use. T ese can e such
n
c. Strategies of 2 Lg l arning: Error s produced by strategies t at the l arners use.
techniques as i itating others, guessing, hyp rregulariz tion, etc.
4. Stra egies of 2nd Lg
ommuni ation: L nguage learners
ill find
them elves in FL situatio s for which they do not know all the ne essary
d. Strategies of SL communicatio
voca ulary, phrases, gra mar, etc. This will force th m to im rovise. They will have to circuml cute, coin words, a proximate, gestures, etc
5. Overgeneralization: These are errors resul ing from he applic tion of com only occurring gra matical r les impro erly. Thu , a rule t at the
student knows to be tru in some situations is overgeneralized to new
situations where it does not apply. The constant emphasis on amiliar forms in the lan guage lea ning proc ss is partially to blame for thi .
Iván Matella nes’ Notes
e. Overgeneralization: pplication of commonly occurring gra matical r ules improper ly
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