T. 4 STANISH y COBEN - Mercados de Trueque en Los Andes Prehispánicos

 

Mar`fcds ca truaqua ag hds Fgcas praenspægn`ds6  @EF[HAP PSFGNPE ^ HF_[AG@A P. @DKAG

Hf parspa`tnvf trfcn`ndgfh ca qua hds snstamfs `dmar`nfhas gd axnstnardg ag hds Fgcas praenstðrn`ds sa bugcfmagtf ag ug hfrod `drpus ca avncag`nf enstðrn`f. F cnbarag`nf ca Mîxn`d @agtrfh, cdgca snstamfs ca mar`fcd efg sncd cas`rnptds `dg ah mfydr ca hds catfhhas ag cd`umagtds `dhdgnfhas tamprfgds, ah `dmar`nd y hds mar`fcds fpagfs sdg mag`ndgfcds ag taxtds sdkra Fgcas ca hf mnsmf îpd`f. Gd tagamds avncag`nf ca orfgcas mar`fcds, sngd as`fsfs rasaöfs ca `dmar `dmar`nfgtas `nfgtas ngcapagcnagta ngcapagcnagtas, s, ax`ap`ndgas ag hds mæroagas cah nmparnd, sng cns`usnðg sdkra hds macnds ca ngtar`fmknd, gn gngoúg catfhha sdkra astru`turfs hfs haofhas qua raouhfg hds gaod`nds. Ag huofr ca `dmar`nd y `dmphajfs mftrí`uhfs ca trnkutds, hfs buagtas fgcngfs efkhfg ca trnkutd ag trfkfjd (mnt„f). @dgd`ncd `dmd bfagf ag ah mugcd baucfh d``ncagtfh, asta frraohd as trfkfjd gd ramugarfcd ra`hutfcd ra`hutfcd raouhfrmagta pdr ugf futdrncfc f utdrncfc pdhítn`f. F pasfr ca astd, axnsta avncag`nf ca paquaöds mar`fcds ag hds Fgcas @agtrfhas praenspægn`ds. Bhdra`nardg barnfs hd`fhas y axnstnð ug pujfgta ngtar`fmknd ca vfrnfcds knagas, tfgtd ca mftarnfs prnmfs kæsn`fs `dmd ca prdcu`tds fhtfmagta aspa`nfhnzfcds. Ah ngtar`fmknd ngtarraondgfh ca hfrof cnstfg`nf ca gumardsds ítams bua ugf præ`tn`f `dgsdhncfcf a enstðrn`fmagta enstðrn`fm agta prdbugcf. Ag asta trfkfjd, trftframds ca rasdhvar fhougfs ca astfs fpfragtas `dgtrfcn``ndgas. Eframds usd ca ug `dgjugtd ca earrfmnagtfs taðrn`fs qua gds fyucag f `dmpragcar `ðmd ugd ca hds mfydras nmparnds ca hf enstdrnf ohdkfh, hds Ng`fs, bug`ndgfkf sng ma`fgnsmds ca mar`fcd ca bnjf`nðg ca pra`nds, mnagtrfs snmuhtægafmagta axnstíf ug pfgdrfmf a`dgðmn`d astru`turfcd pdr barnfs raondgfhas, ugf ngtagsf prdcu``nðg aspa`nfhnzfcff y ug vnodrdsd `dmar`nd ngtarraondgfh. aspa`nfhnzfc

Fgta`acagtas cahahcakfta Ag `nartf bdrmf, cakfta ampazð `dg hfs dksarvf`ndgas enstðrn`fs ca hds prnmards aurdpads raonstrfcfs ag hfs `rðgn`fs ca hds Fgcas. Ag Mîxn`d @agtrfh, hds `rdgnstfs cas`rnknardg catfhhfcfmagta mar`fcds y `dmar`nfgtas y efstf hhaofrdg f efkhfr ca `nartd tnpd ca mdgacf. mdgacf. @dmd Laggate Enrte (6>>5:316) fcvnrtnð, ‘ah mar`fcd mar`fc d arf ah `agtrd ca hf vncf a`dgðmn`f ag hf fgtnouf Masdfmîrn`f. Arf fhhí cdgca ng`dgtfkhas prdcu`tds arfg `dmprfcds y vagcncds, y cdgca hfs rnquazfs cah Guavd Mugcd arfg casphaofcfs”. Fpagfs ugds föds mæs tfrca, `dgqunstfcdras aspfödhas ca hf mnsmf `dgcn`nðg y prd`acag`nf qua hds ca Mîxn`d, rahftfrdg hf a`dgdmíf, astru`turf pdhítn`f, rahnonðg y dtrds fspa`tds ca hf vncf ngcíoagf ag hds Fgcas sucfmarn`fgds. Qgf ca hfs prnmarfs mag`ndgas cah `dgtf`td `dg ah mugcd fgcngd bua ugf kfhsf ca hfs `dstfs ca

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 Srfcu``nðg ca Hu`íf Pffvacrf pfrf Pnstamfs Pd`nd`uhturfhas ca Fmîrn`f NN, saougcd `uftrnmastra< ravnsnðg ca [. Kdnxfcðs. Mftarnfh ca `nr`uhf`nðg ngtargf pfrf astucnfgtas cah `ursd.

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A`ufcdr, hhagf ca mftarnfs prnmfs. Hds `rdgnstfs aspfödhas ngtarpratfrdg qua tfhas mfrngards arfg `dmar`nfgtas `dmd hds  pd`eta`f qua efkífg `dgd`ncd ag Mîxn`d (Ynzfrrd, 6>?5\61?6]:3;59). Png amkfrod, ag hds `dgsnounagtas masas y föds qua snounardg f hf `dgqunstf ngn`nfh, `dmar`nds y mar`fcds fpagfs buardg mag`ndgfcds ag hf hntarfturff enstðrn`f fgcngf. @dgtfmds `dg pd`ds d `fsn gngougf cas`rnp`nðg ca orfgcas  hntarftur mar`fcds d `dmar`nfgtas ngcapagcnagtas, y vnrtufhmagta fusag`nf ca mdgacf, macncfs ca `fmknd y snmnhfras. Hfs barnfs raondgfhas arfg d`fsndgfhmagta fvnstfcfs, pard `dmpfrfcd `dg hds taxtds sdkra Mîxn`d @agtrfh, fquahhfs arfg fga`cðtn`fs y `fsn ngvnsnkhas. Hf a`dgdmíf ng`f bua agdrma y prdbugcfmagta `dmphajf. @dgtfmds `dg cas`rnp`ndgas sdkra hf prdcu``nðg mfsnvf ca frtí`uhds kfjd ah astfcd ng`f, fsí `dmd cah mdvnmnagtd mdvnm nagtd ca knagas f hd hfrod cah pfnsfja. Aspa`nfhnzf`nðg frtasfgfh a ngtar`fmknd arfg hf pnacrf fgouhfr tfgtd ca hf a`dgdmíf hd`fh `dmd nmparnfh. Yard hf bdrmf ag qua astf f`tnvncfc a`dgdmíf tuvd huofr bua muy cnbaragta f hf cah nmparnd fzta`f. Hds Ng`fs, `dmd su `dgtrfpfrta ag Mîxn`d @agtrfh, arfg `fpf`as ca axtrfar ugf nmpdrtfgta `fgtncfc ca ra`ursds ca sus prdvng`nfs< sng amkfrod, ag huofr ca hf ngstntu`nðg ca mar`fcds y mftrí`uhfs ca trnkutds cah `agtrd ca Mîxn`d, gds ag`dgtrfmds ag`dgtrfmds `dg hf `uastnðg cah tr trnkutd nkutd ag trfkfjd ag hds Fgcas, tfmknîg `dgd`ncd `dmd mnt„f. Hf mnt„f as ug tîrmngd ngcíoagf qua snognbn`f ‘turgd” ag ah sagtncd ca `umphnr ugf dkhnof`nðg (as ca`nr, ag `fcf `dmugncfc hds trnkutfrnds cakífg `umphnr ug turgd ca trfkfjd nmpuastd pdr hfs futdrncfcas ng`fs). Cah mnsmd mdcd qua hf ngstntu`nðg cah mar`fcd pracdmngfkf ag hfs dksarvf`ndgass ca hds au dksarvf`ndga aurdpads rdpads ag ah Mîxn`d @agtrfh, hf ngstntu`nðg ca hf mnt„f cdmngfkf ag hf hntarfturf sdkra hds puakhds fgcngds. Hds `rdgnstfs aspfödhas cas`rnknardg ngcapagcnagtamagta ah ahfkdrfcd `dgtrftd hfkdrfh f pfrtnr cah `ufh sa prdcu`ífg tdcds hds knagas, casca `dgstru``ndgas efstf hf ahfkdrf`nðg ca hf `en`ef, tfgtd pfrf ah sumngnstrd ca trdpfs cah ajîr`ntd `dmd pfrf hhagfr hds ukn`uds fhmf`agas qua trfzfkfg ah orfg snstamf ca `fmngds. @ftearnga Juhnag (6>55:;23), ef`nîgcdsa a`d ca ugf oagarf`nðg ca axpartds sdkra hds Fgcas, sa muastrf bfvdrfkha sdkra asta pugtd: ‘Ah ‘ Ah snstamf ng`f ca axf``ndgas arf cnbaragta fh snstamf aspfödh ag qua tdcd hd qua sa avfhufkf ca hf pdkhf`nðg hd`fh arf su trfkfjd. \…] Hds prdcu`tds arfg ahfkdrfcds f pfrtnr ca prastf`ndgas ca trfkfjd, arfg `dgvartncds ag prdcu`tds arfg ratagncds rata gncds pdr ah Astfcd”.  Astfcd”.   pard hds ra`ursds qua Bua ag asta `dgtaxtd taðrn`d qua ah fedrf fodtfcd cakfta sustfgtnvnstfs  ‐  ‐ bdrmfhnstfs  bdrmfhnstfs ag fgtrdpdhdoíf a`dgðmn`f, f`fkð `dg hfs buagtas fgcngfs. Sfg tfrca `dmd fh `dmnagzd ` dmnagzd ca hf cî`fcf ca 6>59, sustfgtnvnstfs `dmd Oadroa Cfhtdg fúg froumagtfkfg qua hds mar`fcds gd pdcífg axnstnr sng cngard. ‘Hd qua astæ mfh \…] as prdpdgar \…] qua nmpdrtfgtas sa`tdras `dmar`nfhas axnstnardg fgtas ca qua axnstf ah cngard” (Cfhtdg, 6>5;:650)6. Hf mfydríf ca hds enstdrnfcdras y atgdenstdrnfcdras atgdenstdrnfcdras fgcngds sa prad`upfrdg pdr hf enstdrnf a`dgðmn`f y `dmd hf fgtrdpdhdoíf astfkf ngmarsf ag hf `drrnagta sustfgtnvnstf, sf`frdg ugf ugf `dg`husnðg dkvnf: `dmd gd ef efkíf kíf mdgacf praenspægn`f ag hds Fgcas, gd pdcíf efkar mar`fcd. Vunzæs hf úgn`f orfg bnourf ag astf hntarfturf bua ah atgdenstdrnfcdr fgcngd Jdeg Murrf (Murrf, 6>12, 6>2;, 6>51ª, 6>51k,6>>1< var tfmknîg Mfyar, asta vdhumag). Ah trfkfjd taðrn`d ca Murrf sa agbd`ð ag hf supuastf sngouhfrncfc cah pfnsfja ca hds Fgcas. Pu ;

 

mdcahd ca hf ‘vartn`fhncfc” d ‘`dmphamagtfrnacfc ‘`dmphamagtfrnac fc a`dhðon`f” a`dhðon`f” astfkf kfsfcd ag ah ea`ed ca qua hfs a`dzdgfs ca prdcu``nðg forí`dhf y pfstdrnh capagcífg capagcífg ca hf fhtntuc. Astf capagcag`nf cnd `dmd rasuhtfcd ug `dgjugtd fhtfmagta `dmpf`td y astrftnbn`fcd ca zdgfs ca ra`ursds f hd hfrod ca hf vfstf `fcagf fgcngf. Ca f`uarcd `dg Murrf, asta ea`ed a`dhðon`d prdmdvnð snstamfs sng mar`fcd pdr sdkra dtrds tnpds ca ngtar`fmknd. Ag huofr ca `dmar`nfgtas ngcapagcnagtas, hds puakhds fgcngds usfrdg hfs rahf`ndgas ca pfragtas`d pfrf astfkha`ar fsagtfmnagtds `dhdgnfhas ag múhtnphas zdgfs a`dhðon`fs. Ah ngtar`fmknd astfkf `dgsdhncfcd, pard arf ug ngtar`fmknd f trfvîs ca hf racnstrnku`nðg y hf ra`nprd`ncfc, gd macnfgta ma`fgnsmds ca mar`fcd. Murrf y sus `dhaofs usfrdg astf supuastf sngouhfrncfc gfturfh cah fmknagta fgcngd pfrf `rafr hd qua cagdmngfrdg ug ‘mdcd ca prdcu``nðg fgcngd”. Saðrn`ds qua gug`f efkífg trfkfjfcd ag hds Fgcas, ampazfrdg f `dmpfrfr hf raonðg `dg vfrnfs bdrmfs cah ‘mdcd ca prdcu``nðg fsnætn`d” (aj.: Odcahnar, 6>??). Murrf bua ug pfsd mæs fhhæ, fh magds ag nmphn`fg`nf: bugcfmagtfgcd bugcfmagtfgcd su trfkfjd taðrn`d sa efhhfkf hf ncaf ca qua hf vartn`fhncfc arf ugf bdrmf ra`nîg cas`uknartf ca astru`turfr sd`nacfcas gd `fpntfhnstfs. Yfrf Murrf, astf arf hf kfsa ca ug guavd mdcd ca prdcu``nðg ag hf fgtrdpdhdoíf a`dgðmn`f mfrxnstf. Yfrf bngas ca 6>?9 y prng`npnd ca 6>59, hf gd`nðg ca qua hds Fgcas arf cnbaragta ca dtrfs ærafs cah mugcd astfkf pfrfpatfcf ag orfg pfrta ca hf hntarfturf. Asta `dg`aptd ca hf vartn`fhncfc ef sncd `fcf vaz mæs `rntn`fcd (Ptfgnse, 6>5>< Rfg Kurag, 6>>2< var tfmknîg Kuroar, asta vdhumag< Mfyar, asta vdhumag). As nmpdrtfgta ra`drcfr qua hf dtrf orfg a`dgdmnstf a enstdrnfcdrf sd`nfh ca asta parídcd, Mfríf [dstwdrdwsln ca Cnaz @fgsa`d, sutnh pard bnrmamagta `rntn`ð hds ngtagtds taðrn`ds ca Murrf ca `rafr ug guavd mdcd ca prdcu``nðg f pfrtnr ca hfs buagtas fgcngfs (6>??, 6>56). [dstwdrdwsln `dgsnstagtamagta efkíf mfgtagncd qua hf aspa`nfhnzf`nðg frtasfgfh y ah ngtar`fmknd snmnhfr fh mar`fcd, arfg `frf`tarístn`ds fh magds ca hfs sd`nacfcas `dstarfs cah `agtrd cah Yarú praenstðrn`d. p raenstðrn`d. Pu rn`f ngbdrmf`nðg atgdenstðrn`f camdstrfkf ug `dmar`nd ca truaqua f hd hfrod ca hf `dstf y su trfkfjd -ah mæs castf`fcd ca sus hnkrds Atgnf y sd`nacfc: @dstf parufgf praenspægn`f  (6>??)- snampra bua f `dgtrf `drrnagta ca Murrf y ca hfs tadrífs ca vartn`fhncfc ca sus `dhaofs. Hf avncag`nf sdkra `dmphamagtfrnacfc zdgfh d vartn`fhncfc, ah `dg`aptd ca ‘hd fgcngd” (as hf sd`nacfc fgcngf `dmd ugfca rafhncfc sd`nfh ftampdrfh astætn`f), fedrf ef sncdca`nr, `uastndgfcd `dmd ug `fsd `hæsn`d tadríf ‘asag`nfhnstf” (varyYfarraoffrc, ;999). Astucnds `dmpfrftnvds noufhmagta efg suoarncd qua hds Fgcas gd arfg tfg cnbaragtas ca mu`efs dtrfs ærafs cah mugcd ag tîrmngds tîrmngds ca zdgnbn`f`nðg a`dhðon`f. a`dhðon`f. [aondgas `dmd hf @uag`f ca Mîxn`d tfmknîg cnspdgífg ca orfcds a`dhðon`ds ca astrftnbn`f`nðg kfsfcd ag fhtntuc. Snmdtey Afrha (6>??), dtrd `rítn`d tamprfgd ca hf tadríf ca Murrf, efhhð qua ugf cnvarsncfc fmknagtfh snmnhfr axnstíf ag Efwfnn, pard sng qua axnstf ug ngtar`fmknd axtagsd. Ng`husd ag hds Fgcas, hf fhtntuc gd as tfg ríoncf `dmd sa `raa. Ydr ajamphd, hf mfydríf ca hds orfgcas `uhtnvds fgcngds puacag `ra`ar ag ærafs casca 6199 efstf ;599 matrds sdkra ah gnvah cah mfr (msgm). Casca ugf parspa`tnvf a`dgðmn`f, efy mu`efs magds a`dzdgfs, snagcd qunzæs, hf `dstf y hf phfgn`na `dstarf, hfs snarrfs y hf sahvf hfs prng`npfhas ærafs `dg ra`ursds. Astd gd cnbnara ca mu`efs dtrfs pfrtas cah mugcd cdgca efy mdgtföfs d cnstrnku`nðg nrraouhfr ca hds ra`ursds. Bngfhmagta, ugf mnrfcf ftagtf fh raonstrd frquadhðon`d ngcn`f qua hds pftrdgas asparfcds ca fsagtfmnagtd sdg axtrföds 0

 

y pdcrífg axphn`frsa sng ah ra`ursd ca ug mdcd ca prdcu``nðg fgcngd úgn`d. Ca ea`ed, astds pftrdgas puacag sar agtagcncds `dg `dg`aptds oagarfhas ca `nag`nfs sd`nfhas `dmpfrfcfs, axtrfícds ca ugf fmphnf ofmf ca `fsds astucnfcds ca tdcd ah mugcd ag tnampd y aspf`nd (Ptfgnse, 6>>;< Rfg Kurag, 6>>2). Noufhmagta sa ef prdcu`ncd ug `fmknd snognbn`ftnvd ag hf parspa`tnvf ca hds `nagtíbn`ds sd`nfhas ag hfs úhtnmfs cds cî`fcfs fprdxnmfcfmagta, ag `ufgtd fh `dmar`nd ag ah mugcd gd d``ncagtfh. Astf ra`dgbnourf`nðg ef sncd pfrtn`uhfrmagta dpdrtugf pfrf hds frquaðhdods fgtrdpdhðon`ds. Hf ncaf ca qua hds snstamfs ca mar`fcd sdg ‘rf`ndgfhas” ag ug sagtncd a`dgðmn`d hhavf f fhougds f froumagtfr agbætn`fmagta qua hds puakhds gd d``ncagtfhas arfg, ag aba`td, ‘rf`ndgfhas” tfmknîg. Casca astf hðon`f, hds puakhds gd d``ncagtfhas tfmknîg astru`turfkfg su vncf a`dgðmn`f f pfrtnr ca prng`npnds ca mar`fcd. Ah prdkhamf `dmnagzf `dg hf pfhfkrf rf`ndgfh . Ag tîrmngds samægtn`ds, aspa`nfhmagta ag hfs hagoufs aurdpafs, rf`ndgfh   tnaga `dggdtf`ndgas mdrfhas y `dogntnvfs pdsntnvfs, mnagtrfs qua nrrf`ndgfh  tnaga  tnaga hfs nmphn`f`ndgas `dgtrfrnfs. @ufgcd usfmds ag ug sagtncd `dhdqunfh, `dmpdrtfmnagtd rf`ndgfh  as  as snmphamagta hd qua mæs aba`tnvfmagta ha parmnta f ugd hdorfr ug dkjatnvd pfrtn`uhfr. Ca`nr qua fhounag as nrrf`ndgfh nmphn`f qua `fra`a ca `nartf `fpf`ncfc `dogntnvf kæsn`f cah sar eumfgd. Qsfr asta sagtncd `dhdqunfh pfrf ugf `uhturf agtarf as ng`husd padr y raprasagtf ah apítatd cah atgd`agtrnsmd casngbdrmfcd. casngbdrmfcd. Ah froumagtd `dmpragca fcamæs qua hds puakhds gd d``ncagtfhas tagífg mar`fcds pdr f``nðg rf`ndgfh fugqua astds buardg macnfcds y astru`turfcds ca mfgarfs `uhturfhmagta aspa`íbn`fs. Aba`tnvfmagta, hf a`dgdmíf cah `dmpdrtfmnagtd mdcargd suronð pra`nsfmagta pdr astf rfzðg< hfs parsdgfs sa `dmpdrtfg d puacag sar ngcu`ncfs pfrf `dmpdrtfrsa ca bdrmf ngtahnoagta, pard ca mfgarf ‘nrrf`ndgfh”. ‘nrrf`ndgfh”.   Nrðgn`fmagta, gd bua ef`a mu`ed tnampd qua hds fgtrdpðhdods sa ngqunatfrdg `dg hf gd`nðg ca qua hds puakhds gd d``ncagtfhas tuvnardg  snstamfs ca mar`fcd. Hf dksarvf`nðg ca P`dtt @ddl (6>22) ca qua ah agbdqua sustfgtnvnstf raprasagtð ugf ‘magtfhncfc fgtnfgtn-mar`fcd” mar`fcd”   parmfga`nð væhncf pfrf hf tadríf ca hf vartn`fhncfc ag hf cî`fcf ca 6>59. Hf ncaf ca qua hds puakhds gd d``ncagtfhas tuvnardg mar`fcd mar`fcd bua vnstf `dmd atgd`îgtrn`f y taðrn`fmagta ngsdstagnkha, ug ngtagtd ca ngtarpratfr f hds gd d``ncagtfhas f trfvîs hds djds caastd hf a`dgdmíf d``ncagtfh. Ag pfhfkrfs ca [n`efrc Khfgtdg y Hfga Bfroearca(;969:;95), hhavd f mu`eds f ‘ug `dgsagsd fgtrdpdhðon`d casfbdrtugfcd y arrðgad sdkra qua ah f``ndgfr rf`ndgfh y ah ngtar`fmknd `dmar`nfh gd pdcífg efkar sncd fspa`tds nmpdrtfgtas ag hfs `dmphajfs sd`nacfcas sd`nacfca s pramdcargfs”. Fedrf ra`dgd`amds astf úhtnmf pdsn`nðg `dmd ngfca`ufcf f macncf qua hf atgdorfbíf y hf enstdrnf gds agsaöfg hds macnds fhtfmagta sdbnstn`fcds y vfrnfcds pdr hds qua hds puakhds ca tdcd ah mugcd astru`turfg sus vncfs a`dgðmn`fs. a `dgðmn`fs. Ah madhhd cah prdkhamf: ´quî as axf`tfmagta ug mar`fcd4 Cabngnr ah tîrmngd mar`fcds as prdkfkhamagta ah prdkhamf mæs ngtrftfkha fh qua sa agbragtf hf ngvastnof`nðg ca hfs a`dgdmífs fgcngfs. Hf hntarfturf ca fgtrdpdhdoíf a`dgðmn`f a enstdrnf a`dgðmn`f `dgtnaga ugf muhtntuc ca cabngn`ndgas qua vfg casca hf mæs oagarfh y fkfr`fcdrf f hf mæs rastrn`tnvf (var cakfjd). Sdcfs astfs `hfsnbn`f`ndgas `hfsnbn`f`ndgas puacag sar `dg`aptds útnhas, capagcnagcd ca hds dkjatnvds fgfhítn`ds qua ugd pratagca 3

 

fh`fgzfr. Hfs cabngn`ndgas oagarfhas sa `agtrfg ag hf ncaf ca qua ug mar`fcd as snmphamagta ug huofr   cdgca knagas y sarvn`nds sdg ngtar`fmknfcds. Qgf típn`f cabngn`nðg fmphnf ag asta sagtncd as ‘ugf ‘ugf raugnðg púkhn`f drofgnzfcf ca `dmprfcdras y vagcacdras ca prdcu`tds kæsn`ds raugncds ag ug huofr casnogfcd f ngtarvfhds raouhfras raouhfras”” (Edccar, 6>21:1?). @ntfgcd astf mnsmf cabngn`nðg ag su rasaöf cah `dmar`nd ca mar`fcd ag Hftngdfmîrn`f, [.J. Krdmhay y [n`efrc Pymfgsln as`rnkag: Astds mar`fcds sa ag`uagtrfg ag aspf`nds `dmar`nfhas f `nahd fknartd d phfzfs, ag `fhhas d huofras fknartds, `dmd ah `ru`a ca `fmngds, y ag huofras púkhn`ds, d acnbn`nds `dmar`nfhas `dmar`nfhas mugn`npfhas. Hd`fhmagta, hds mar`fcds sa cagdmngfg `dg gdmkras `dmd  barnfs,  phfzfs  d mar`fcds  pfrf hds enspfgdefkhfgtas hftngdfmarn`fgds<  banrfs  ag Krfsnh< tnfgouns  ag ærafs ngcíoagfs cah `agtrd ca Mîxn`d< `ftus ag fhougfs ærafs fgcngfs ca efkhf qua`euf< y mfr`eas ag pfísas brfg`ðbdgds. Oagarfhmagta Oagarfhmagta ukn`fcds ag ah macnd ca orfgcas fsagtfmnagtds, hds mar`fcds tfmknîg puacag ag`dgtrfrsa ag paquaöfs fhcafs, pfrtn`uhfrmagta fquahhds hd`fhnzfcds ag pugtds `hfvas ag racas ca `dmugn`f`nðg. Qg fsagtfmnagtd puaca puaca tagar ugd d mæs ukn`f`ndgas `dmar`nfhas cnstngtfs. Huofras `dg ugd d mæs mar`fcds sdg oagarfhmagta cagdmngfcds `dmd `agtrds `dmar`nfhas. `dmar`nfha s. (Krdmhay y Pymfgsln, 6>?3:0). Laggate Enrte as ugd ca hds prng`npfhas taðrn`ds sdkra mar`fcds ag Masdfmîrn`f y `dmar`nd ag astfcds fgtnouds. Ef`nagcd a`d ca ug `dgsagsd ag hf hntarfturf, `hfsnbn`f hds mar`fcds pfrf ng`hunr fquahhds huofras cdgca ah ngtar`fmknd d`urra macnfgta truaqua d `dg mdgacf. Îh gdtf qua ‘astds ngtar`fmknds \ag hds mar`fcds] puacag d`urrnr `dmd avagtds sngouhfras kfhfg`afcds kfhfg`afcds y ra`íprd`ds d ag orupds `dmd hd ef`ag ag ug mar`fcd” mar`fcd” (Enrte, 6>>5:316-31;). Ag astf parspa`tnvf, ug mar`fcd as tfgtd ug huofr `dmd ug snstamf cdgca knagas y sarvn`nds sdg ngtar`fmknfcds macnfgta vfrnds ma`fgnsmds (Enrte, 6>>2). Astf cabngn`nðg ca mar`fcd as kfstfgta útnh. Drnagtf guastrf ngvastnof`nðg ag hf vfrnacfc ca snognbn`fcds ag hfs qua knagas y sarvn`nds arfg ngtar`fmknfcds ag ah mugcd pramdcargd. Sfmknîg gds parmnta `dmpfrfr aba`tnvfmagta cnbaragtas sd`nacfcas `rafrdg ma`fgnsmds ca ngtar`fmknd y suparfrdg hf `ðmd nrraouhfrncfc ca ra`ursds, casfrrdhhfrdg orupds aspa`nfhnzfcds, trfshfcfrdg knagas f trfvîs ca cnstfg`nfs `drtfs y hfrofs, y fh`fgzfrdg abn`nag`nf a`dgðmn`f macnfgta cnvarsfs bdrmfs. Hd mæs nmpdrtfgta, guavfmagta `ntfgcd f Enrte, as qua hf axnstag`nf ca mar`fcds ‘ef tagncd ug aba`td tramagcd ag hf camfgcf ca ra`ursds, hf `fgtncfc ca frtí`uhds ngtar`fmknfcds y hf abn`nag`nf `dg hf qua arfg trfshfcfcds” (Enrte, 6>>55;:099) fcvnrtnð trangtf föds ftræs, cakamds cnstngounr agtra ah mar`fcd `dmd huofr, hf a`dgdmíf ca mar`fcd y ah mar`fcd (`dmar`nd). Axnsta, ca ea`ed, ag ah astucnd cah ngtar`fmknd ag ah mugcd pramdcargd dtrf trfcn`nðg qua ef`a cnstng`nðg agtra vfrnds tnpds ca mar`fcds. A`dgdmnstfs a enstdrnfcdras a`dgðmn`ds efg casfrrdhhfcd hfrofmagta astf trfcn`nðg. trfcn`nðg. Astf as ugf parspa`tnvf cah mar`fcd ‘`dmd ug `dgjugtd ngstntu`ndgfh ca raohfs” y gd ga`asfrnfmagta `dmd ug huofr cdgca sa rafhnzfg hds ngtar`fmknds. @raamds qua asta agbdqua gds parmnta agtagcar hf orfg praougtf catræs ca hfs cnbarag`nfs agtra Fgcas y Masdfmîrn`f. Cdgfc Lurtz pusd ca rahnava asta prdkhamf, ef`nagcd eng`fpnî ag Masdfmîrn`f, ef`a ugf oagarf`nðg ftræs: Hds mar`fcds `dg hds qua hds fgtrdpðhdods efg astfcd trfcn`ndgfhmagta agbd`fcds sdg hds sntnds y huofras ag cdgca hds knagas y sarvn`nds sdg `dmar`nfhnzfcds a ngtar`fmknfcds. Asta as ughds`dg`aptd `dgsncarfkhamagta cnbaragta cah mar`fcd sdkra ah qua sa d`upfg a`dgdmnstfs. Ah mar`fcd ca hds a`dgdmnstfs as ugf ngstntu`nðg aspa`nbn`f `dg raohfs prdpnfs `uyf bug`nðg as raouhfr hf dbartf ca knagas y sarvn`nds ag rahf`nðg f hf camfgcf y hf `dgsncarf`nðg ca hds pra`nds, pfrf qua hds supuastds casads ngbngntds ca hds saras eumfgds puacfg sar sftnsba`eds `dg hds ra`ursds bngntds cnspdgnkhas. (Lurtz, 6>?3:252) Astf fprdxnmf`nðg rafhnzf ugf cnstng`nðg agtra ah ‘mar`fcd `dmd ugf ngstntu`nðg” y ah ‘mar`fcd `dmd ug huofr `dg`agtrfcd pfrf ah ngtar`fmknd agtra `dmprfcdras y vagcacdras”. Astf cabngn`nðg mæs rastrn`tnvf sa `agtrf ag hfs bdrmfs f trfvîs ca hfs `ufhas sa astfkha`a vfhdr y hf gfturfhazf ca hds `dstds ca hf trfgsf``nðg (ag ah sagtncd cabngncd pdr Cduohfss Gdrte, 6>53). Sfh prdpuastf rafhnzf ugf cnbarag`nf`nðg agtra ah mar`fcd `dmd huofr  y  y ah mar`fcd `dmd ug `dgjugtd ca raohfs aspa`íbn`fs y/d astrftaonfs pfrf ah ngtar`fmknd. 2

 

Ah `dmar`nd `hæsn`d d`urra `ufgcd hds f`tdras qua rafhnzfg trfgsf``ndgas pfrtn`npfg ag gaod`nf`ndgas cas`agtrfhnzfcfs y ag `dgcn`ndgas ca phagf `dmpatag`nf, hfs pfrtas oagarfhmagta astæg drofgnzfcfs ca mfgarf ngbdrmfh y sa mfgtnagag futðgdmds, `fcf f`tdr pujf buartamagta pdr sus prdpnds ngtarasas y hf `dgtrftf`nðg as rahftnvfmagta `dmphatf. Hds f`tdras agtdg`as aspa`nbn`fg sus prabarag`nfs y pra`nds macnfgta `dgtrftds qua, ugf vaz `dmphatfcds, sdg futdhnquncfgtasnn y gd raqunarag mfydr ngtarf``nðg agtra hfs pfrtas `dgtrfyagtas. Fcamæs, hf ncagtncfc ca hfs pfrtas gd ngbhuya ag hds tîrmngds ag hds qua sa rafhnzf ah ngtar`fmknd \…] gd sa dksarvfg rahf`ndgas curfkhas agtra hds f`tdras a`dgðmn`ds, y ah úgn`d dkjatnvd ca hf raouhf`nðg `dmar`nfh as ef`ar trfgsf``ndgas `dearagtass a ngstfgtægafs ag ah huofr, sng gngoúg rnasod pdr astrftaonfs buturfs. `dearagta (Edhhngoswdrte y Kdyar, 6>>?:?) Astf ‘raohf” d cabngn`nðg ‘kfsfcf ag  ag  astrftaonf” ca ug mar`fcd, fcamæs ca fquahhfs mæs fmphnfs mag`ndgfcfs fgtarndrmagta, gds krngcfg hfs earrfmnagtfs taðrn`fs pfrf agtagcar hfs buagtas enstdrnfs cah snohd URNN sdkra hds mar`fcds ag ah `agtrd ca Mîxn`d y hds Fgcas `agtrfhas. Agbd`ægcdgds ag hf gfturfhazf ca hfs ngtarf``ndgas a`dgðmn`fs, pdcamds var qua axnstnardg cnbarag`nfs sustfg`nfhas ag hfs bdrmfs ag hfs qua ah ngtar`fmknd tuvd huofr ag vfrnds mar`fcds ag fmkfs ærafs. Fsnmnsmd, asta agbdqua gds fyucf f agtagcar hfs a`dgdmífs astftfhas qua casfrrdhhfrdg ag hds snstamfs nmparnfhas cah praenspægn`d tfrcíd ag fmkfs raondgas. @dmprfvagtf vs truaqua [n`efrc _nhl (6>>2:32>) fpugtf qua ‘hds mar`fcds prasagtfg ugf vfrnacfc ca bdrmfs y tfmföds, gd axnsta ug sdhd prng`npnd ca mar`fcd y hds mar`fcds puacag astfr ngtaorfcds f ugf ng`raíkha vfrnacfc ca snstamfs a`dgðmn`ds a`dgðmn`ds”. ”. Hf cabngn`nðg kfsfcf ag astrftaonf ca mar`fcd prdpdr`ndgfcf mæs frrnkf, cas`rnka hd qua hds a`dgdmnstfs cagdmngfg ‘mar`fcd `dg astfkha`nmnagtd ca pra`nds” d pra`nds” d a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf (Gdrte, 6>??), ag dpdsn`nðg f dtrds tnpds ca snstamfs ca ngtar`fmknd. Qg mar`fcd qua astfkha`a  prn`a-mflngo mfrlats) as fquah cdgca îstds sa catarmngfg f pfrtnr ca hf pra`nds ( prn`a-mflngo gaod`nf`nðg `dmprfcdras y vagcacdras sngbuarzf mu`ef `dgsncarf`nðg sdkra su `hfsaagtra d astftus sd`nfh. Dbartf y camfgcffutðgdmds as hf prng`npfh qua sukyf`a f hf gaod`nf`nðg y fh vfhdr ca `fmknd bngfh fh`fgzfcd, axprasfcd `fsn snampra ag ug "pra`nd" pdr fhoúg tnpd ca ugncfc ca `fmknd ngcapagcnagta d mdgacf. Ah cngard d fhoúg tnpd ca macnd ca `fmknd, ca ea`ed, as vnrtufhmagta ug prarraqunsntd pfrf ah bug`ndgfmnagtd abn`fz ca ugf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf. Mnagtrfs qua ag tadríf ug mar`fcd `dg pra`nds puaca axnstnr `dg vfrnds macnds `fmknd d ng`husd sng gngoúg tnpd ca mdgacf, ugf mdgacf efkntufhmagta ra`dgd`ncf suaha astfr fsd`nfcf `dg astds snstamfs. Hf prnmarf mdgacf f`uöfcf bua prdcu`ncf ag Srf`nf d Ngcnf ag ah snohd RN fgtas ca @rnstd, suronagcd rahftnvfmagta tfrca ag ah mugcd ca hfs a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf qua sa efkífg casfrrdhhfcd fh magds 6199 föds fgtas. Dtrds tnpds ca mdgacf ng`huyardg nn

 G. ca S.:kdgds, Hf futdhnquncf`nðg tîrmngd qua fcqunrncfs sa utnhnzf pfrf cas`rnknr `ufhqunar ngvarsnðgcaag hf qua hfs f``ndgas, prdpnacfcasasu ug dtrfs tagag`nfs tnagag hf `fpf`ncfc ngearagta `dmpagsfr hds ofstds ng`urrncds pfrf fcqunrnr fcqunrnr ah f`tnvd.

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`uagtfs, `f`fd, hngodtas, phumfs, fgnhhds ca matfh astfgcfrnzfcds, kuhhfa (cnspdsntnvds `dgtfkhas ca kdhfs ca fr`nhhf) y `dsfs pdr ah astnhd qua sa ramdgtfg f mnhagnds ftræs y qua efg sncd efhhfcds fhracacdr cah mugcd ag cnvarsds `dgtaxtds `uhturfhas, tfgtd ag ah Rnajd Mugcd `dmd ag Fmîrn`f (Pnhvar, ;969). Ah `dgtaxtd sd`nfh ca ngtar`fmknd tnagca f sar cnbaragta ag a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf qua ag dtrds tnpds ca snstamf ca mar`fcd. Enrte (6>>2:331) ef gdtfcd qua ‘`dmprfcdras y vagcacdras ngtarf`túfg cagtrd ca  ca   hds aspf`nds ca mar`fcd ngcapagcnagtamagta ca su rfgod sd`nfh”. Yfsf f `frf`tarnzfr asta snstamf `dmd ugd cdgca gd axnstag ‘rahf`ndgas curfcarfs” agtra `dmprfcdras y vagcacdras. Hfs ugncfcas cdmîstn`fs, hfs ugncfcas kæsn`fs ca prdcu``nðg, dparfg hnkras ca ngtarbarag`nfs ngtarbara g`nfs ca futdrncfcas pdhítn`fs d sd`nfhas. Sdcd astd `dgvaroa pfrf prdcu`nr ugf ‘rac ca fprdvnsndgfmnagtd `agtrfhnzfcf pard gd jarfrqunzfcf, qua dparf ngcapagcnagtamagta ca dtrfs dtrfs rahf`ndgas sd`ndpdhítn`fs ag hf sd`nacfc” (Enrte, 6>>2:311). Dtrd tnpd ca ngtar`fmknd ca mar`fcd qua dksarvfmds ag hfs buagtas atgdoræbn`fs a enstðrn`fs astæ kfsfcd ag ah truaqua, ugf bdrmf ca `dmar`nd ag`dgtrfcf ag tdcfs hfs sd`nacfcas. Ah truaqua as ug ngtar`fmknd cdgca knagas y sarvn`nds sdg parmutfcds cnra`tfmagta sng hf ga`asncfc ca usfr cnvnsfs. Astds `fgjas utnhnzfg aqunvfhag`nfs efkntufhmagta f`drcfcfs qua tfmknîg bhu`túfg, pard ds`nhfg mu`ed magds qua hds vfhdras ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf. Qgf `fgfstf ca mfíz pdr ug `ahamíg nnn  ca trnod, d ug ef`ef ca pnacrf pdr ugf `dg`ef mfrngf hfkrfcf, `frf`tarnzfg asta tnpd ca ngtar`fmknd. Efy ugf ngbngncfc ca vfrnf`ndgas ag astfs aqunvfhag`nfs ca `fmknd qua amphafg dtrds knagas, tdcfs sng usfr cngard. @dmd `dg tdcfs  hfs trfgsf``ndgas a`dgðmn`fs, dbartf y camfgcf fba`tfg hfs aqunvfhag`nfs rahftnvfs (Pmnte, 6>59:5?2), pard hd ef`ag cagtrd ca ug `dgtaxtd sd`nfh mfydr. Sfh `dgtaxtd sd`nfh ng`huya orupds ca pfragtas`d, futdrncfcas futdrncfcas pdhítn`fs y rahnondsfs, at`. Hf `hfva astæ ag qua ag fmkds tnpds ca ngtar`fmknd `dmar`nfh  ‐  ‐ hf  hf `dmprfvagtf y ah truaqua- hfs parsdgfs f`túfg rf`ndgfhmagta, ag ug sagtncd `dhdqunfh, pfrf mfxnmnzfr hfs utnhncfcas. Ag a`dgdmíf, ugf utnhncfc as snmphamagta ugf macncf ca sftnsbf``nðg qua ug foagta ra`nka pdr ah `dgsumd ca ug knag d sarvn`nd. Hfs parsdgfs kus`fg agrnqua`arsa, astftus sd`nfh agtagcamds y cnsputfr agtra fvagtfjfr`uhturfs ag `fcfvfhdrnzfg ugd ca astds snstamfs.fcqunrnr @dmd fgtrdpðhdods, qua síhfspdr cnbaragtas hds knagas y sarvn`nds ca bdrmfs cnstngtfs. As `fsn ugf pardoruhhfcf pfrf ah fgtrdpðhdod par`ftfrsa ca qua hf utnhncfc ca hds knagas y sarvn`nds ag tdcf sd`nacfc astf `uhturfhmagtaa catarmngfcf. Vunzæs magds dkvnf as hf dksarvf`nðg ca qua hd qua cnbnara `uhturfhmagt agtra astds cnvarsds tnpds ca snstamfs ca ngtar`fmknd sdg hfs raohfs ca `dmpatag`nf y hfs `drraspdgcnagtas astrftaonfs usfcfs pfrf mfxnmnzfr utnhncfcas, `uhturfhmagta catarmngfcf `dmd astæg. ^, pdr supuastd, fmkds snstamfs gd sdg mutufmagta ax`huyagtas: truaqua truaqua y `dmprfvagtf `daxnstag `dg bra`uag`nf, ng`husd edy ag cíf aag g ug mugcd mdcargd y ohdkfhnzfcd (Yragcarofst y Ptdha, ;999).

nnn

 G. ca S.: Ah `ahamíg as ugf macncf forfrnf qua sa utnhnzfkf ag fhougfs pfrtas ca Aspföf fgtas ca qua buarf dkhnoftdrnd ah snstamf mîtrn`d ca`nmfh.

5

 

Hfs cnbaragtas astrftaonfs ca `dmpatag`nf ag a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf y ag ah truaqua @dmd mag`ndgfmds, hf ncaf ca qua hds puakhds ca sd`nacfcas gd d``ncagtfhas gd parsaouífg bngas ca hu`rd as ngoaguf y ug pd`d pftargfhnstf. Mæs knag hd `dgtrfrnd, hf mfydríf ca hds `nagtíbn`ds ca `dmpdrtfmnagtds sd`nfhas `dmpfrfcds dksarvfrdg asta prdkhamf y puacag fbnrmfr qua hds f`tdras ca tdcds hds snstamfs ca ngtar`fmknd kus`fg mfxnmnzfr sus utnhncfcas. F`drcfmds `dg ah orfg [fymdgc Bnrte, ag su `rítn`f f Mfhngdwsln, qua ah casad ca mfxnmnzfr hf vagtfjf ngcnvncufh as ug rfsod ugnvarsfh eumfgd (var P`egancar, ;99;:22 pfrf ugf ngtarpratf`nðg cnbaragta ca asta supuastd ‘gad--bdrmfhnstf”). ‘gad bdrmfhnstf”).   Yard, `dmd fgtrdpðhdods, gds cfmds `uagtf qua hfs vagtfjfs ca mfxnmnzfr (hfs utnhncfcas) gd sdg ugnvarsfhas: cnbaragtas `uhturfs vfhdrfg cnbaragtas `dsfs, y asta ea`ed bugcfmagtfhmagta fgtrdpdhðon`d snampra caka bdrmfr pfrta ca `ufhqunar fgæhnsns sdkra `ufhqunar a`dgdmíf. As mæs, `dmd hds `dgtaxtds ag hds qua tnagag huofr hds ngtar`fmknds sdg cnstngtds tfgtd ag ah truaqua `dmd ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf, hfs `drraspdgcnagtas astrftaonfs ca mfxnmnzf`nðg sdg noufhmagta fca`ufcfs f `fcf snstamf pfrtn`uhfr ag cdgca sa cnstrnkuya hf rnquazf. Ag hfs a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf, hf `dmpatag`nf agtra hds `dmar`nfgtas `dmar`nfgtas ngcnvncufhas as cnsputfcf macnfgta hf gaod`nf`nðg cah pra`nd. Hds vagcacdras ngcnvncufhas mfxnmnzfg sus vagtfjfs vagcnagcd mæs prdcu`tds kæsn`ds f pra`nds fca`ufcds qua bhu`túfg saoúg hf dbartf y hf camfgcf. Hds `dmprfcdras, ag `fmknd, kus`fgcd kfjfr ah pra`nd hd mæs pdsnkha. Ag A g tîrmngds a`dgðmn`ds, ah pra`nd ag`uagtrf su aqunhnkrnd aagtra gtra hf dbartf y hf camfgcf. Hds mar`fcaras sa agrnqua`ag fh ag`dgtrfr ah pra`nd justd qua mfxnmn`a sus ofgfg`nfs, vagcnîgcdha f ug `dmprfcdr sng tagar ag `uagtf dtrds bf`tdras. Hds prng`npnds ca asta tnpd ca `dmar`nd sdg tfg `drrnagtas ` drrnagtas ag hfs a`dgdmífs d``ncagtfhas d``ncagtfhas qua gd raqunarag ca mu`ef axphn`f`nðg ag asta trfkfjd. Png amkfrod, ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua, hds pra`nds sdg mæs astfkhas. Hfs bhu`tuf`ndgas ag hfs aqunvfhag`nfs ca `fmknd sdg mu`ed mæs hagtfs f hd hfrod cah tnampd, fugqua ag úhtnmf ngstfg`nf, dbartf y camfgcf fba`tfg hds vfhdras noufhmagta. Ag `fsn tdcfs hfs atgdorfbífs ca hfs qua cnspdgamds, hf mfydríf ca hfs ugncfcas cdmîstn`fs varcfcarfmagta, fhcafs sdg ag pfrtaa`dgðmn`ds, futdsubn`nagtas pfrf prdcu`nr hfs y, mftarnfs prnmfs kæsn`fs ca agtarfs, suksnstag`nf. Ag orfg tîrmngds cnrífmds qua asf dbartf as rahftnvfmagta ahæstn`f pfrf hf mfydríf ca hds knagas kæsn`ds (fugqua gd tdcds), ng`huyagcd fquahhds qua astæg gfturfhmagta cnspdgnkhas. Qg mfydr vfhdr foraofcd f pfrtnr ca hf f`tnvncfc a`dgðmn`f astæ cfcd gd sdhd pdr ra`dha`tfr d prdcu`nr fhod pd`d `dmúg, sngd tfmknîg pdr ah trfgspdrta  ca asds knagas cah prdcu`tdr fh `dmprfcdr. Ca ea`ed, `dmpfrfcd `dg hfs a`dgdmífs d``ncagtfhas mdcargfs, hds `dstds ca ugf trfgsf``nðg pdr ah trfshfcd sdg axtramfcfmagta fhtds ag ug `dgtaxtd pramdcargd. As pdr astd qua hf dbartf ca mftarnf prnmf tnagca f sar magds nmpdrtfgta qua ah `dstd ca trfgsf``nðg ca rafhnzfr ug ngtar`fmknd (ug ajamphd pdcríf sar hf dksncnfgf, vnrtufhmagta axnsta ug sumngnstrd ngf`fkfkha y sng `dstd ca drnoag vdh`ægn`d, pard fcqunrnr ah mftarnfh `rucd f pfrtnr ca hf buagta tnaga ug orfg `dstd pfrf hds `dgsumncdras, aspa`nfhmagta aspa`nfhmagta sn efy `dgbhn`tds raondgfhas). Ydr supuastd, hds fhtds `dstds ca trfgsf``nðg hhavfg f ugf as`fsaz qua fba`tf hf dbartf ng`husd ag astfs sntuf`ndg s ntuf`ndgas. as. Png >

 

amkfrod, `dmpfrfcd `dg ah ngtar`fmknd ca dkjatds axðtn`ds ag hfs a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf ag `dgtaxtds pramdcargds, pramdcargds, hf a`dgdmíf cah truaqua sa castf`f ag qua ah vfhdr ca `fmknd ca hds knagas tnagca f sar mæs astfkha. Dtrf bdrmf ca axphn`frhd as qua astf ahfstn`ncfc ag hf dbartf y hds fhtds `dstds cah trfshfcd `dgcu`a f pra`nds rahftnvfmagta astfkhas ag hds truaquas bragta f gaod`nds ca `dmprfvagtf,, as ca`nr, hds pra`nds sdg ‘efkntufhmagta” `dmprfvagtf ‘ef kntufhmagta” f`aptfcds f`aptfcds y hfs gd`ndgas ca ‘‘hd hd qua as justd” y hf rap raputf`nðg utf`nðg sa mfgtna mfgtnaga ga ríoncfm ríoncfmagta. agta. Pu`acag nmpdrtfgtas ax`ap`ndgas y `ufgcd as`fsaf `nartd frtí`uhd ca vfhdr hfs parmutfs tnagcag f tdmfr ftrnkutds ca hf `dmprfvagtf pdr asa knag ag pfrtn`uhfr. Ah mnsmd Mfhngdwsln fcvnrtnð qua asa tnpd ca gaod`nf`nðg tagíf huofr ag ah truaqua ca knagas `dmugas, ug gaod`nd hhfmfcd onmwfhn , ‘cdgca ug frtí`uhd as ngtar`fmknfcd `dg dtrd, `dg vfhdrf`nðg cnra`tf ca su aqunvfhag`nf a ng`husd `dg raoftad” raoftad” (Mfhngdwsln, 6>;6:60). 6>;6:60). Yard îh ræpncfmagta `fhnbn`f astd fh dksarvfr qua ‘ag tdcds hds `fsds ah ngtar`fmknd prdsnoua raohfs `dgsuatucngfrnfs, `dgsuatucng frnfs, qua catarmngfg quî y `uægtd cakaríf sar `fmknfcd pdr `fcf dkjatd cfcd” (Mfhngdwsln, 6>;6:60). 6>;6:60). Hf `dg`husnðg dkvnf ca îstf y mu`efs dtrfs dksarvf`ndgas dksarvf`ndgas ca hds atgðorfbds `dmd Mfhngdwsln, bua qua hds trd`fcdras gd raoftafkfg sdkra hds vfhdras astfkha`ncds pdr hf `dstumkra, qua pdr hd oagarfh sdg ngbhaxnkhas, sngd qua, gaod`nfkfg sdkra hf `fhncfc y gfturfhazf ca hds dkjatds ngtar`fmknfcds mnsmds, ag ug ngtagtd ca `dgsaounr ug majdr trftd fh ‘ra`hfsnbn`fr” ug dkjatd ag ugf `ftaodríf cnstngtf. Ydr raohf oagarfh, hds f`tdras ca ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua efkntufhmagta agtnagcag agtnagcag ah vfhdr ca `fmknd ca hds knagas y sarvn`nds: ‘Sdcf trfgsf``nðg a s aba`tufcf ca hf mnsmf mfgarf, cfcd ah frtí`uhd y hfs `dmugncfcas agtra hfs qua sa `dmar`nf, `ufhqunarf sfkríf su aqunvfhagta, astrn`tfmagta pras`rntd pdr hf `dstumkra” `dstumkra ” (Mfhngdswsln, 6>;6:63). Ag Ag huofr ca pra`nds qua `fmknfg ræpncfmagta catarmngfcds pdr gaod`nf`ndgas ngcnvncufhas, hds pra`nds ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua sdg ah rasuhtfcd ca ug `dgsagsd sd`nfh mæs fmphnd, qua ng`huya vagcacdras, `dmprfcdras, prdcu`tdras y futdrncfcas pdhítn`fs. Hf as`fsaz ca ug frtí`uhd qua ca dtrd mdcd pdcríf dktagarsa, d`urra `ufgcd ugf agtncfc pdhítn`f rastrngoa ah f``asd f ug knag gfturfh, d `ufgcd hds knagas kæsn`ds sdg ahfkdrfcds pdr ugf tfraf fhtfmagta aspa`nfhnzfcf qua gd puaca sftnsbf`ar hf camfgcf. Ag astfs ngstfg`nfs, hf dbartf `hfrfmagta magdspdr bhaxnkha. Png amkfrod, ag hf astfs cds ngstfg`nfs, hf camfgcf as f as magucd `dgtrdhfcf agtncfcas cagtrd ca ugncfc cdmîstn`f. Ah ncafh ca ugf a`dgdmíf ca hnkra mar`fcd ag cdgca hfs pfrtas ca ug ngtar`fmknd `dmar`nfg `dg pd`f `dgsncarf`nðg f hf `fstf d `hfsa sd`nfh sa pnarca cdgca hf dbartf as cnra`tfmagta mdgntdrafcf mdgntdrafcf pdr futdrncfcas pdhítn`fs. Yfrf vdhvar f guastrd ajamphd ca hf dksncnfgf, `ufgcd ugf agtncfc pdhítn`f `dgtrdhf ugf buagta vdh`ægn`f, puacag rastrngonr su f``asd f vfrnds sukorupds ca ugf sd`nacfc. Hfs ugncfcas cdmîstn`fs qua gd tnagag f``asd f astf buagta gd puacag parmutfr gn vagcar ag ah mar`fcd< ag su huofr, cakag trfkfjfr cagtrd ca ug `dgtaxtd sd`nfh mfydr pfrf qua hf dktag`nðg (prdcu``nðg) a ngtar`fmknd tagofg huofr. Ag hf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua, hds sd`nds ca ngtar`fmknd sdg sdstagncds macnfgta ahfkdrfcfs raohfs sd`nfhas, astf as dtrf cnbarag`nf `dg hds `dmar`nds ca `dmprfvagtf. Hds ngtar`fmknds a`dgðmn`ds astæg fhtfmagta rntufhnzfcds, mu`eds mæs qua ag hfs a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf. Ah `nr`untd cah Luhf ca hfs nshfs Srdkrnfgc as ugd ca hds 69

 

ng`dgtfkhas ajamphds ca ngtar`fmknd rntufh ag ug snstamf ca truaqua. Yfrtn`npfgtas ngcnvncufhas tnagag `dmpföards `dmpföards ca pdr vncf `dg qunagas cakag ngtar`fmknfr. @dmd [dhb Znaohar (6>>9:630) gdtð, rabhajfgcd ug trfkfjd fgtarndr ca J. Y. Pngoe Qkardn (6>?6): ‘Ah ‘Ah ngtar`fmknd ca Luhf gd sa hhavf f `fkd ag ug mar`fcd fgðgnmd, sngd agtra fsd`nf`ndgas astfkhas, oagarfhmagta ca pdr vncf, qua sa trfgsbnarag f hds earacards macnfgta rntds mdrtudrnds qua snmkdhnzfg hf astfknhncfc ca hf rahf`nðg rahf`nðg””. Hds mnamkrds cah Luhf puacag tagar múhtnphas sd`nds, capagcnagcd ca su astftus sd`nfh. Ah astftus ca ug fsd`nfcd puaca vfrnfr f hd hfrod cah tnampd kfsfcd ag hf `fhncfc y `fgtncfc ca hds frtí`uhds cah Luhf qua `fcf edmkra fcqunara (krfzfhatas y `dhhfras). Axnsta ug cakfta ag hf hntarfturf sdkra sn ah `dmar`nd cah Luhf astæ `dga`tfcd `dg ah `dmar`nd pfrfhahd ca frtí`uhds cdmîstn`ds (efg, ;992:;69< Ptrftearg y Ptawfrt, ;991). Eamds vnstd f hds cds `dmd ngsapfrfkhas y dksarvfcd ah astftus ca hds mnamkrds cah Luhf `dmd cnra`tfmagta rahf`ndgfcd `dg su îxntd ag ah `dmar`nd hd`fh, fh magds curfgta ah `fmknd ca snohd, `ufgcd Mfhngdwsln `dmphatð sus bfmdsds astucnds atgdoræbn`ds;. Ah astftus puaca suknr d kfjfr capagcnagcd ca sn sa prdpdr`ndgfg knagas ca `fhncfc curfgta hfs axpacn`ndgas `dmar`nfhas. Casca hf parspa`tnvf qua va fh Luhf `dmd ah mfr`d rntufhnzfcd pfrf ah ngtar`fmknd cdmîstn`d, hf `fhncfc ca hds frtí`uhds cah Luhf rabhajfg ah vfhdr qua `fcf mnamkrd foraof fh ngtar`fmknd hd`fh. Ah `nr`untd cah Luhf tfmknîg gds muastrf qua fhougds mnamkrds sa vuahvag rn`ds mnagtrfs dtrds sa ef`ag pdkras y astf `dgcn`nðg astæ noufhmagta vng`uhfcf f sus astftus. @dmd hf dbartf as bhaxnkha, ah pra`nd efkntufh ca hds knagas kæsn`ds sa mfgtnaga rahftnvfmagta astfkha astfkha (mæs knag, as hf `fgtncfc ca mnamkrds qua catarmngfg ah îxntd rahftnvd ca `fcf ngtar`fmknd cah Luhf). Ah pugtd taðrn`d mæs nmpdrtfgta fquí as asta: Hf astrftaonf `hfva ca ug mnamkrd pfrf vdhvarsa rn`d ag ug snstamf ca truaqua gd as vagcar mæs f ug pra`nd qua sa gaod`nf `dgstfgtamagta (`dmd ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf), sngd mæs knag ng`ramagtfr sus racas sd`nfhas y pdr hd tfgtd ng`ramagtfr ah gúmard ca sd`nds `dmar`nfhas. Sagnagcd

ag `uagtf qua hds vfhdras ca `fmknd ag ug snstamf a`dgðmn`d ca truaqua tnagcag f mfgtagarsa rahftnvfmagta rahftnvfmagta astfkhas `dmpfrfcd `dg ugf a`dgdmíf `dg astfkha`nmnagtd astfkha`nmnagtd ca pra`nds, cdgca hfs bhu`tuf`ndgas sdg ga`asfrnfs pfrf oagarfr ofgfg`nfs, hfs parsdgfs ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua sa agrnqua`ag dktagnagcd mæs sd`nds ag sus bf``ndgas y gd ra`drtfgcd hf `dmpatag`nf. Sdcfs hfs astrftaonfs pfrf hf `dgstru``nðg ca bf``ndgas qua hds fgtrdpðhdods efg astucnfcd agtrfg ag juaod ag astds `dgtaxtds. Hds fgbntrndgas fofsfjfg f sus sd`nds, kus`fg fhnfgzfs astrftîon`fs `dg dtrfs bfmnhnfs d bf``ndgas, sa `dmprdmatag `dg astrftaonfs ngtar-mftrnmdgnfhas, `dgbnourfg sus ugncfcas cdmastn`fs `dg pfragtas`ds rafhas y bn`tn`nds, trftfg ca f`umuhfr caucfs cnbarncfs pfrf `dgvartnrhfs ag avagtds av agtds mæs orfgcas (`dmd hds  pdthft`eas), y mfgtnagag f sus `dmpatncdras f rfyf macnfgta hf buarzf d ugf buarta parsufsnðg. Ag ah `nr`untd cah Luhf, vamds ah snounagta prd`asd ag f``nðg: Ah ngtar`fmknd ca raofhds `raf d rabuarzf rahf`ndgas ca fhnfgzf agtra hds ngcnvncuds y hds orupds ca hds qua sdg raprasagtftnvds. \…] Ag ah `nr`untd cah Luhf, hf fsd`nf`nðg astfkha`a ugf fhnfgzf `dg mftn`as pdhítn`ds. \…] Fkra `fgfhas ca

ngtar`fmknd sukstfg`nfh sukstfg`nfh y hf ngtarf``nðg sd`nfh. Yard hf pdsn`nðg ca ug edmkra ag ah `nr`untd gd astæ pracatarm pracatarmngfcf ngfcf gn as astætn`f. Qg pfrtn`npfgta `dmnagzf casca 66

 

ugf pdsn`nðg ca rahftnvf vagtfjf d casvagtfjf ca `fpntfh. \…] casca astf pdsn`nðg, sn as fmkn`ndsd, puaca mfgndkrfr pfrf ng`ramagtfr ah gúmard y hf as`fhf ca hfs fhnfgzfs, y ca feí su cdmngnd sdkra ah bhujd ca rnquazf y ah orfcd ag qua sa kus`f su kuagf vdhugtfc, y pdr hd tfgtd su astftus y prastnond (@yrnh Kahsefw, 6>21:6>) 0. Ag dtrfs pfhfkrfs, f macncf qua hfs racas sd`nfhas fumagtfg, tfmknîg hd ef`ag ah gúmard ca ‘sd`nds” `dmar`nfhas. `dmar`nfhas. Hf mfxnmnzf`nðg ca vagtfjfs as fh`fgzfcf fh fumagtfr ah gúmard ca `dmpföards `dmar`nfhas macnfgta ng`agtnvds gd a`dgðmn`ds, gd sdhfmagta pdr dktagar ugf ofgfg`nf ca hf cnbarag`nf ca pra`nds. Astf as hf prng`npfh cnbarag`nf agtra ah truaqua y hf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf. Hfs barnfs fgcngfs `dmd mar`fcds ca truaqua ‘Ag tdcd asta rangd  rangd  cah Yarú \…] eukd orfgcas tnfgouas,  qua sdg mar`fcds cdgca hds gfturfhas `dgtrftfkfg sus `dsfs” (@nazf `dsfs” (@nazf ca Haðg, 6>2? \6110], @fpítuhd @U). Hfs buagtas enstðrn`fs sdg pd`d `hfrfs sdkra hf axnstag`nf ca fhougds pd`ds mar`fcds ca `dmprfvagtf, pard prng`npfhmagta prng`npfhmagta `dmar`nds ca truaqua, ag hds Fgcas. Ag ug ajamphd `dgtugcagta ca hf avncag`nf enstðrn`f, ah cn``ndgfrnd fymfrf-aspfödh ca Hucdvn`d Kartdgnd ca 626; camdstrð qua axnstíf ugf cnstng`nðg amn` agtra hfs bdrmfs aurdpafs a ngcíoagfs ca ngtar`fmknd. Qgf agtrfcf as ‘mar`fcar f guastrd mdcd: mnr`ftdrn vas Sngtfgn” a ngmacnftfmagta fkfjd dtrf agtrfcf cn`a ‘mar`fcar f mdcd ca ngcnds, Efgru`u, Fhfsnrn”. Hf pfhfkrf pfrf ah prnmard as dkvnfmagta ugf fymfrnzf`nðg pfrf ah mar`fcd aspfödh (hds efkhfgtas fymfrf edy ag cíf cí f tdcfvíf d`fsndgfhmagta prdgug`nfg hfs a `dmd hfs N). Cn`ed ca dtrd mdcd, cds oagarf`ndgas caspuîs ca hf `dgqunstf, gd axnstíf fúg ugf pfhfkrf ngcíoagf pfrf ah ah ‘mar`fcd” fh ‘astnhd aurdpad”, y, pfrf axprasfr tfh `dg`aptd, cakífg tdmfrhd prastfcd ca hf hagouf aspfödhf. Astfs cds mdcastfs agtrfcfs cah cn``ndgfrnd ag `nartd sagtncd `dmpragcag ugf ca hfs prnmarfs cas`rnp`ndgas fgtrdpdhðon`fs raonstrfcfs sdkra hfs a`dgdmífs fgcngfs: cds `uhturfs, `daxnstnagcd ag ah mnsmd aspf`nd, astru`turfg sus vncfs a`dgðmn`fs ca mdcd tfg cnbaragta qua hntarfhmagta raqunarag ca vd`fkuhfrnds ngcapagcnagtas pfrf cas`rnknr y `dmpragcarsa. Ah `fpítuhd ca Enrte ag asta vdhumag, rabuarzf astf cnstng`nðg agtra Masdfmîrn`f y hds Fgcas. Asta futdr prdvaa gumardsfs rabarag`nfs ca mar`fcaras qua tnagag ‘ofgfg`nfs”, ca ugf bdrmf ngmacnftfmagt ngmacnftfmagtaa ra`dgd`nkhas pfrf hds aspfödhas qua raonstrfkfg astfs præ`tn`fs. Asa vd`fkuhfrnd cnstngoua agtra hds `dg`aptds aspfödhas (y hds ca Mîxn`d `agtrfh) ca mar`fcd ca `dmprfvagtf y ah `dg`aptd fgcngd ca truaqua. Astds mar`fcds ca truaqua buardg mag`ndgfcds `dmd  barnfs, mar`fcds, d tnfgouas ag hf hntarfturf atgdoræbn`f a enstðrn`fs (pdr aj.: @nazf @nazf ca Haðg, 6>2? \6110]:0;,>2,669< @dkd, 65>9->5 \6210]: Hnkrd 6, `fpítuhd 5) y `dmd Hf Hdga (6>5;:;>>-099) (6>5;:;>> -099) fcvnrtnð, îstds gd cakag sar `dgbugcncds `dg hds mar`fcds ca `dmprfvagtf `dmd hds ca Aurdpf d Masdfmîrn`f. Yfrf fquahhds `dmd gdsdtrds qua eamds trfkfjfcd mu`eds föds ag hfs tnarrfs fhtfs ca hds Fgcas, hfs barnfs `dmar`nfha `dmar`nfhass parnðcn`fs (samfgfh, magsufh d ffgufh) gufh) as ug bagðmagd `dmúg. Hfs barnfs tdcfvíf sa ag`uagtrfg ag hfs snarrfs ca bdrmf raouhfr, y `dmar`nfgtas 6;

 

ca huofras hajfgds casphnaofg sus mar`fg`ífs fhhí. Ag hf raonðg ca Sntn`f`f, pdr ajamphd, hfs barnfs ofgfcarfs sdg ugf orfg amprasf. Oagta ca tdcfs pfrtas ca hf raonðg sa `dgoraofg ag ugf fhcaf d `nucfc aspa`íbn`f pfrf `dmar`nfr ofgfcd, dvajfs, `fkrfs, `fmîhncds y dtrds fgnmfhas. Barnfs mæs paquaöfs pard snmnhfras, sa hhavfg f `fkd samfgfhmagta vnrtufhmagta vnrtufhmagta ag tdcds hds pdkhfcds. Vua gds tdpamds `dg mar`fcds ca truaqua ag hds Fgcas gd as gngougf sdrprasf. Hf gfturfhazf ca hf sd`nacfc fgcngf dkvnf hf ga`asncfc cah casfrrdhhd ca ugf a`dgdmíf ca `dmprfvagtf majdrfgcd hf caknhncfc ca taðrn`f ca ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua. Hfs cds caknhncfcas prng`npfhas prng`npfhas (Javdgs, 65?> \65?6], bfhtf ca `dng`ncag`nf y bfhtf ca ugf macncf ca vfhdr, sdg rasuahtds, ag orfg pfrta, pdr hf astru`turf ca hf sd`nacfc fgcngf y sus mar`fcds, y fyucf f axphn`fr hfs cas`rnp`ndgas atgdenstðrn`fs ca hfs barnfs fgcngfs. @dgsncaramdss hf caknhncfc mæs `dmúgmagta fcs`rntf f hf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua, hf bfhtf @dgsncaramd ca `dng`ncag`nf, d hf cdkha `dng`ncag`nf ca casads. Astf gd`nðg rabnara f hf pdsnknhncfc ca qua fquahhds qua pdsaag hds knagas pdr hds `ufhas ugd qunsnarf ngtar`fmknfr, gd casafg guastrds frtí`uhds, d qua qunagas qunarag guastrds prdcu`tds gd pdsafg hd h d qua casafmds ngtar`fmknfr. Gd dkstfgta, astf bdrmuhf`nðg taðrn`f nogdrf hfs rahf`ndgas sd`nfhas agtra hds pfrtn`npfgtas cah `dmar`nd fgcngd. Hf mfydríf ca ahhds vnvag `ar`f cah mar`fcd fh qua fsnstag< `dgd`ag f `fsn tdcds, sn gd tdcds, hds dtrds pfrtn`npfgtas ca asa huofr y sdg `dgs`nagtas ca hfs `dmphajfs rahf`ndgas ca pfragtas`d qua vng`uhfg f hds ngcnvncuds. Fúg mæs, hfs parsdgfs sdkragtnagcag quî, `uægtd y `uæh as hf `fhncfc ca hds prdcu`tds cnspdgnkhas. Ydr hd tfgtd, ah `dgd`nmnagtd y hf prf`tn`f sd`nfh efrífg pd`d prdkfkha hf bfhtf ca `dng`ncag`nf, d `fsn nmpdsnkha, ax`aptd pfrf fhounag ngaxpartd d ug vnsntfgta ngbra`uagta cah mar`fcd. Asta vnsntfgta `fra`aríf ca cn`ed `dgd`nmnagtd. Ag ah `fsd ca ugf as`fsaz fgdrmfh, mnagtrfs qua ug fjusta ca pra`nds su`acaríf ag ug mar`fcd `dg pra`nds, hds trd`fcdras `dg hds knagas as`fsds, pdr su pfrta, prdkfkhamagta bfvdra`arífg f sus rahf`ndgas mæs `ar`fgfs d sus `hnagtas mæs bnahas. Cah mnsmd mdcd, ag a`dgdmífs `nr`uhfras `dg pfrtn`npfgtas qua `dmpfrtag ugf `dmugncfc, `dmd fquahhds qua `dmúgmagta `frf`tarnzfg `frf`tarnzfg f hds Fgcas praenspægn`ds, hf `dgbnourf`nðg ca macncfs ca vfhdr y ca `fmknd sdg prd`asds sd`nfhas y `dgsuatucngfrnds qua gd raqunarag `dmphajfs hnstfs ca pra`nds, `dmd suonarag hf hntarfturf taðrn`f sdkra ah truaqua. Ah `hæsn`d trfkfjd ca _nhhnfm P. Javdgs supdga s updga qua hfs a`dgdmífs ca truaqua ‘hf hnstf ca pra`nds pra`nds caka sar ug cd`umagtd sumfmagta `dmphn`fcd, yf qua `fcf prdcu`td caka sar `dtnzfcd ag tîrmngds ca tdcds hds camæs prdcu`tds, sn gd saríf ga`asfrnf ugf `dmphajf sumftdrnf `dg raohf ca tras. Agtra mnh frtí`uhds cakag axnstnr gd magds ca 3>19 pdsnkhas rftnds ca `fmknd y tdcfs astfs rftnds cakag sar fjustfcfs `uncfcdsfmagta pfrf qua safg `dgsnstagtas agtra sí, ca hd `dgtrfrnd, ug `dmar`nfgta parspn`fz pdcríf sf`fr prdva`ed `dmprægcdha f ugds y vagcnîgcdha f dtrds” (Javdgs, 65?> \65?6]: N.?). F pasfr ca tdcd, mar`fcds ca truaqua mdcargds axnstag ag hds Fgcas sng hf ga`asncfc ca `dmphn`fcfs hnstfs y fpfragtamagta sng sfof`as aspa`uhfcdras qua  juaouag `dg ah snstamf, y gdsdtrds prdpdgamds qua hds mar`fcds praenspægn`ds prdkfkhamagta bug`ndgfkfg ca noufh bdrmf. Ag ugf sarna ca mdcargds mar`fcds ca truaqua ca fhnmagtds ag ah Rfhha ca Hfras ag Yarú, `dgd`ncd `dmd `efhfyphfsf, ‘hds prdcu`tds sdg macncds ag ugncfcas ca puöfcds, ca f`uarcd `dg hds f`uarcds sd`nfhas 60

 

trfcn`ndgfhas” (Froumacd y Ynmkart, ;969:031). @dmd ag ah `nr`untd cah Luhf, ‘astds prng`npnds efg astfcd ngstntu`ndgfhnzfcds ag hds ngtar`fmknds y hfs raohfs ca pfrtn`npf`nðg macnfgta `dstumkras rntufhnzfcfs rntufhnzfcfs qua axprasfg oagardsncfc y sdhncfrncfc” (Froumacd y Ynmkart, ;969:031). Gngougf mdgacf as ngtar`fmknfcf, gd axnstag hnstfs ca pra`nds y, fug fsí, hds mar`fcds bug`ndgfg knag. Froumacd y Ynmkart fbnrmfg qua hfs a`dgdmífs ca truaqua prdpdr`ndgfg saourncfc fhnmagtn`nf y gutrn`nðg, fsí `dmd tfmknîg cnvarsncfc forí`dhf, mnagtrfs mfgtnaga mfgtnaga ah `dgtrdh hd`fh sdkra hf dbartf ca fhnmagtds. Qgf supuastf vagtfjf ca hf mdgacf as hf pdsnknhncfc ca fhmf`agfr y trfgspdrtfr vfhdr. Ag dtrfs pfhfkrfs, sa puaca vagcar ug prdcu`td ag ug mar`fcd F y hhavfr ah cngard, ag huofr ca knagas, fh mar`fcd K pfrf rafhnzfr ugf `dmprf. Hf cnvnsf tfmknîg parmnta ah fhmf`agfmnagtd fhmf`agfmna gtd ca vfhdr pdr `nartd tnampd efstf qua ah prdpnatfrnd ca`ncf ofstfrhf, hd qua saríf nmpdsnkha, fh magds ag ah `fsd ca prdcu`tds para`acards. Png amkfrod, hf `fpf`ncfc ca fhmf`agfr y trfgspdrtfr vfhdr gd as ga`asfrnf ag ugf a`dgdmíf ca suksnstag`nf `dmd hf qua pracdmngfkf hf vncf ca hds Fgcas praenspægn`ds. Ah vfhdr fúg pdcríf f`dpnfrsa y trfgspdrtfrsa sn sa trftf ca knagas curfkhas, `dmd hf dksncnfgf y hds taxtnhas, y tfh vaz ng`husd prdcu`tds fhnmag fhnmagtn`nds tn`nds fhmf`agfkhas `dmd ah `euöd y ah `efrln . Srfgspdrtfr vfhdras tfmknîg capagca ca qua astds knagas astîg cnspdgnkhas ag ugf `fgtncfc subn`nagta pfrf qua vfhof hf pagf ug ngtar`fmknd ca hfrof cnstfg`nf, trfgspdrtfkha f ug `dstd rfzdgfkha y casafcd. Astd ef`a qua astds knagas safg `dmar`nfkhas ag dtrds mar`fcds. Ah `dmar`nd ca hfrof cnstfg`nf, agtdg`as, as ugf prdbasnðg fhtfmagta aspa`nfhnzfcf, yf qua hds `dmar`nfgtas cakag mdvar prdcu`tds `dgstfgtamagta, ag ah mdmagtd justd ef`nf hds mar`fcds fca`ufcds, y tagar ah `dgd`nmnagtd y hds ra`ursds ga`asfrnds pfrf ef`arhd. Cakncd f asta `dgstfgta mdvnmnagtd, gd as ca axtrföfr qua efyf muy pd`f avncag`nf cd`umagtfh d cas`rnp`ndgas sdkra fhougd ca astds `dmar`nfgtas. Cfcd hds ra`ursds ga`asfrnds, ´as sdrpragcagta qua ug `dmar`nd ca hfrof cnstfg`nf abn`fz saf majdr fcmngnstrfcd pdr ugf agtncfc astftfh, `dmd ah prdorfmf ca racnstrnku`nðg dksarvfcd ag ah Nmparnd ng`f4 Png d fcamæs cah pftrd`ngnd cah odknargd, ah `dmar`nd ca hfrof cnstfg`nf pdcíf dparfr macnfgta ugf sarna ca barnfs ngtarraondgfhas qua tagífg huofr pdr ug krava parndcd ca tnampd ag cnstngtds huofras, `dg su knag `dgd`ncd ntngarfrnd prdvayagcd ug mfpf pfrf hds `dmar`nfgtas ca hfrof cnstfg`nf. Ajamphds ca barnfs fgcngfs Qgf rahf`nðg ca 61?0 ca Vuntd (Mfr`ds Jnmagaz ca hf Aspfcf, 6>21 \65>?]:;;9, G¹ 661), 66 1), ef prdpdr`ndgfcd ugf prdkfkha ouíf cas`rnptnvf ca ug mar`fcd ca truaqua y agbftnzf hf cnbarag`nf `dg hds snstamfs ca ngtar`fmknd mdgatnzfcds aspfödhas: ‘Agtra ‘ Agtra hds ngcnds ef`ag sus mar`fcds ag sus puakhds, ca mfgarf qua edy sa ef`a ag ug puakhd y mföfgf ag dtrd mæs `ar`fgd \…] \…] Agtrahhds  Agtrahhds gd tnagag pasd gn macncf, sngd su `dgtrftf`nðg as trd`fr ugf `dsf pdr dtrf \…] \Ag \…] \Ag `dgtrfsta], hds aspfödhas sa rnoag pdr ah pasd y ah mfr`d ca Fvnhf”3. Ag huofras `dmd Yu`frf, hf barnf fgufh ca juhnd as ug avagtd aspa`tf`uhfr. Ng`husd edy ag cíf, hf bfmf ca asta mar`fcd sa axtnagca efstf pfísas hnmítrdbas `dmd Froagtngf, @enha y Kdhnvnf. Yuakhds ca hf `dstf y cah sur cah fhtnphfgd cnsputfg `dg hds `usquaöds, puakhds ca @frfkfyf, Nhfva y mu`eds dtrds huofras, pfrf vagcar sus prdcu`tds. Mdcargds 63

 

Lfhfwfyf `dgtngúfg su `dmar`nd fg`astrfh ag macn`ngf. hds justfmagta bfmdsds fhbfrards ca Yu`fræ sf`fg hd majdr ca sí. Sdcd tnpd ca knagas fkugcfg ag astds mar`fcds. Mnagtrfs qua aspa`tf`uhfras aspa`tf`uhfras pfrf ah djd m mdcargd, dcargd, fpfragtamagta fpfragtamagta hds mar`fcds sdg u ug g pæhncd rabhajd ca hf ohdrnf cah pfsfcd. Pngtatnzfgcd hfs dksarvf`ndgas ca vfrnds vnfjards ca`nmdgðgn`ds, aurdpads y parufgds, (tfhas `dmd Fgtdgnd [fnmdgcn, @hamagts Mfrlefm, Jdroa Kfsfcra y Yfuh Mf`dy), O. M. _rnohay pdîtn`fmagta as`rnka qua hf `nucfc ca ‘Yu`frf, '`nag '`nag `edzfs ca kfrrd fsagtfcfs ag ah snhag`nd ca hf Yfmpf' ca Yugd, tfmknîg curfgta ugf qung`agf cah föd sa trfgsbdrmð ag 'ugf Kfkah `dmar`nfh a ngcustrnfh'”” (_rnohay, ngcustrnfh' (_rnohay, 6>6>:?5). F pasfr ca qua Yu`frf bua ug nmpdrtfgta mar`fcd, gd bua ah mæs orfgca gn ah mæs bfmdsd. Ah edgdr ca sar hf mfydr barnf parnðcn`f cah gdrta ca hf `uag`f ca Sntn`f`f fpfragtamagta fpfragtamag ta bua ca, hf fedrf ag`fgtfcdrf pard fgðcn`f, `nucfc ca Rnhqua. Ag ah snohd UNU, Rnhqua sa trfgsbdrmð ag ug ngmagsd mar`fcd curfgta cds samfgfs fh föd: ‘Hf barnf ca Rnhqua, edy fkfgcdgfcf pard fhougf vaz hf mæs bfmdsf ca tdcd ah Yarú, as ug kuag ajamphd. Rnhqua as ug paquaöd y trnsta pdkhfcd ag hf casdhfcf pugf, sans haoufs fh dasta ca Yugd, ah puartd ca Sntn`f`f. Curfgta hf mfydr pfrta cah föd hd mæs prdkfkha as qua ug vnfja ag`uagtra ah huofr præ`tn`fmagta casprdvnstd ca ra`ursds, ¡pard ag Yagta`dstîs! Fbuarf ca hf `nucfc efkíf `nagtds ca muhfs ca Su`umæg< \…] ag hf phfzf p hfzf efkíf puastds hhagds ca td`f `hfsa ca prdcu`tds ca Mfg`eastar y Knrmngoefm< ag huofras mæs fhajfcds sa efhhfkf pdhvd ca drd y `fbî ca @frfvfyf, phftf ca hfs mngfs, hfjfs ca `ed`dhfta ca Kdhnvnf, fhamfgas `dg `rnstfharíf y tajncds ca hfgf, mdcnstfs ca Brfg`nf, Ntfhnf, ngcnds Vua`euf y Fymfrf \…] hfgf ca fhpf`f y `ng`edgf arfg dtrds frtí`uhds nmpdrtfgtas ag vagtf. Ah gúmard ca fsnstagtas ef fh`fgzfcd hds 61.999” 61.999 ”. (_rnohay, 6>6>:?5) Hfs barnfs cd`umagtfcfs sa hhavfrdg f `fkd f hd hfrod ca hds Fgcas curfgta ah parndcd `dhdgnfh y prng`npnds ca hf rapúkhn`f. Ag hf orfg barnf ca Eufrn, `ar`f ca hf `nucfc mngarf ca Ydtdsí ag Kdhnvnf, _rnohay as`rnka qua hf oagta bua sf`fcf ca ug æraf mæs orfgca qua tdcd ah tarrntdrnd ca Brfg`nf pfrf astf barnf ba rnf fgufh, trfyagcd tdcds hds knagas nmfongfkhas pfrf vagcar: ‘Curfgta hf mfydr pfrta cah föd Eufrn `dgcu`a f ugf axnstag`nf casdhfcf y mdgðtdgf, pard pfrf hf qung`agf qua snoua f hf Pamfgf Pfgtf hf trfgsbdrmf`nðg as `dmphatf. Eufrn as ug mar`fcd `dg`urrncd< ugf fohdmarf`nðg ca 69.999 parsdgfs gd as usufh” (_rnohay, 6>6>:2>). Hf barnf ca Eufrn bua cnogf ca mag`nðg pdr hf fmphnf vfrnacfc ca prdcu`tds y pdr hds gumardsds huofras casca hds qua hds `dmar`nfgtas vagífg pfrf vagcar sus mar`fg`ífs ag astf raonðg mngarf: Hds vnsntfgtas ca hf barnf prd`acag ca ugf fmphnf zdgf y trfag `dgsnod ugf orfg cnvarsncfc ca prdcu`tds. Casca hfs pfmpfs froagtngfs, víf Pfhtf y Hf Vunf`f, vagífg muhfs, kurrds, tdrds `fstrfcds y prdcu`tds ca `uard. Mæs kastnfs, qua efg astfcd agodrcfgcd curfgta ah varfgd fgtarndr ag hds prfcds ca fhbfhbf cah fhtd vfhha ca hds Fgcas ca hf Yugf ca Ftf`fmf. ^ edy asds gd vagcnkhas ag hds 61

 

`fmpds ca sfhntra tfmknîg sa hhavfg f Eufrn. Ah orfgd prdvnaga ca Supnzf y Pu`ra y ca hfs raondgas cah fhtd vfhha< ah vngd ca @ngtn< hf brutf y hf `d`f ca hds vfhhas `æhncds, `dmd Mnzqua< fzú`fr, frrdz, `döf` ca Pfgtf @ruz. Cah fhtnphfgd mnsmd vnagag taxtnhas ca hfgf, phftf hfkrfcf, `euöd (pfpf casencrftfcf) casencrftfcf) y pnah ca vn`uöf y `eng`enhhf ca hf casdhfcf raonðg ca Hnpaz, fh sur ca Kdhnvnf. Ah `dmar`nd cah úhtnmd frtí`uhd mag`ndgfcd, racu`ncd racu`ncd edy ag cíf, ef sn sncd cd pdr mu`ed tnampd ugf ca hfs `frf`tarístn`fs prng`npfhas cah mar`fcd ca Eufrn. Hfs orfgcas `nucfcas (Hf Yfz, Drurd y Ydtdsí) agvífg knagas aurdpads. Ef`nf ah sur, cdgca hf ngbhuag`nf ca hf barnf sa axtnagca hfrofs cnstfg`nfs, su ftrf``nðg sa snagta fh magds ugfs 199 mnhhfs ―`dmd ah `ðgcdr qua phfgaf.„ (_rnohay, 6>6>:2>-?9). 6>6>:2>-?9). Hfs mfydras barnfs cah sur `agtrfh ca hds Fgcas sa hhavfrdg f `fkd ag dtrfs `nucfcas  ‐ ^ugouyu (fodstd), Pfu`as (fodstd), Md`dmd`d (saptnamkra) y Hf Vunf`f (d`tukra)(_rnohay, 6>6>:?9). Fhougds pdkhfcds qua astfkfg præ`tn`fmagta fkfgcdgfcds y casdhfcds hf mfydr pfrta cah föd, vdhvífg f hf vncf pdr cds samfgfs `dg ugf orfg `dgoraof`nðg ca parsdgfs qua vnfjfkfg casca tdcfs pfrtas. Dtrfs `nucfcas `dmd ^ugouyu (qua fúg `dgsarvf ug nmpdrtfgta mar`fcd raondgfh samfgfh) arfg orfgcas mugn`npnds `dg ærafs rasncag`nfhas `dgsncarfkhas. Fugqua astfs dksarvf`ndgas buardg rafhnzfcfs f `dmnagzds cah snohd UU, rabhajfg pftrdgas ca tnampds fgtarndras y astæg raspfhcfcfs pdr buagtas enstðrn`fs y frquadhðon`fs. Hf axnstag`nf ca hf ngstntu`nðg ca hfs barnfs fgcngfs `dmd ugf a`dgdmíf ca truaqua as, f guastrd pfra`ar, hf `hfva pfrf rasdhvar hf `uastnðg ca mar`fcds ag hds Fgcas praenspægn`ds. praenspægn`d s. Fkugcfrdg hds mar`fcds cdgca hf oagta nkf f ngtar`fmknfr ugf ngbngncfc ca prdcu`tds. @dmd ag hfs a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf, hfs parsdgfs f`tufkfg rf`ndgfhmagtaa y kus`fkfg mfxnmnzfr sus vagtfjfs ag ug mar`fcd cdgca ah pra`nd rf`ndgfhmagt p ra`nd ca hds knagas arf rahftnvfmagta astfkha, `dg ugf dbartf ahæstn`f qua sftnsbf`a hf camfgcf `dg kfstfgta rfpncaz pfrf hf mfydríf ca hds frtí`uhds. Vunzæs ah mfydr vfhdr foraofcd ag ah ngtar`fmknd fgcngd efyf sncd ah trfshfcd ca hds prdcu`tds ca ugf raonðg f dtrf. Sagamds buarta avncag`nf cah parndcd `dhdgnfh tamprfgd ca hf vnsntf ca hf `drdgf cah fcmngnstrfcdr Ofr`n Cnaz ca Pfg Mnouah ag 612? (6>23). Ydr supuastd, astd bua ugf îpd`f ag ah parndcd `dhdgnfh, y hfs astrftaonfs ca a`dgdmífs ca `dmprfvagtf yf astfkfg axpfgcnîgcdsa mnagtrfs hds ngcíoagfs ag hds Fgcas sa fcfptfkfg ræpncfmagta ræpncfmagta f hf ngtrdcu``nðg ca hf mdgacf. @dmd sa va ag hf tfk tfkhf hf 6?.6, hds `dstds ca trfgspdrta arfg kfstfgta fhtds, fh magds ag ah `agtrd-sur ca hds Fgcas. Sfkhf 6?.6 Yra`nds ca prdcu`tds saha``ndgfcds ag hf vnsntf ca Cnaz ca Pfg Mnouah (ag pasds y tdmngas). AG HF @QAG@F CA SNSN@F@F

Qgf bfgaof ca efrngf Qgf bfgaof ca mfíz Qgf bfgaof ca `euöd Qg `fmîhncd Qg `arcd Qgf bfgaof ca pfpfs

1-5 p. 1-2 p. 3-? p. 1-? p. 0.1-3 p. ; p.

62

 

Qgf parcnz

9.1 t.

AG AH RFHHA CA PFMF

Qgf mfgtf ca fhodcðg Qgf jfrrf ca vngd Qgf bfgaof ca trnod Qgf bfgaof ca mfíz Qgf paquaöf `fgfstf ca fhodcðg

3 p. 3 p. 6.1-6.?1 p. ? t. 0 t.

p. = pasd, t. = tdmngas (5 tdmngas/pasd) Gdtf: ugf bfgaof as ugf macncf ca pasd sa`d qua aqunvfha f ugds 11 hntrds fprdxnmfcfmagta.

Ah trfshfcd cah mfíz pdr fpagfs ;99 lm fumagtð ah vfhdr ca snata tdmngas f `ng`d f sans pasds, ug sfhtd mfsnvd ag ah vfhdr foraofcd pdr ah trfgspdrta. Ag hf raonðg, ah mfíz arf, y fúg as, ug `uhtnvd sumfmagta vfhdrfcd qua sa usfkf `dmd fhnmagtd, pard fúg mæs nmpdrtfgta, pfrf hf barmagtf`nðg ca hf `en`ef, ugf kakncf `aramdgnfh. Ah vfhha ca Pfmf as ugf raonðg ca `uhtnvd ca mfíz, mnagtrfs qua hf `uag`f ca Sntn`f`f tnaga ugf prdcu``nðg ngcíoagf ca mfíz kfstfgta paquaöf. Ydcamds supdgar qua asta aqunhnkrnd dbartf-camfgcf dbartf-camf gcf axnstnð tfmknîg ag ah parndcd praenspægn`d y qua hfs aqunvfhag`nfs aqunvfhag` nfs cah truaqua rabhajfrdg astf rafhncfc. Pdstagamds qua hfs barnfs ca truaqua buardg ah macnd pdr ah `ufh mu`eds prdcu`tds buardg `dmar`nfcds ag hds Fgcas fgtas a ng`husd curfgta ah Nmparnd ng`f. Eukd, sng cucf c ucf fhougf, ugf a`dgdmíf cah Astfcd nmparnfh qua prdcu`íf y trfshfcfkf orfgcas `fgtncfcas ca knagas buarf ca `ufhqunar truaqua truaqua d `ufhqunar dtrd tnpd ca mar`fcd. Yard ag ah cíf f cíf, f gnvah cdmîstn`d, hfs parsdgfs prdkfkhamagta prdcu`ífg a `dmar`nfkfg prdcu`tds, fh magds hd`fhmagta, a ng`husd qunzæs raondgfhmagta, pdr buarf ca hf a`dgdmíf astftfh. Png amkfrod, ah Nmparnd gd `dgbnourð ugf a`dgdmíf astftfh kfsfcf ag ug snstamf `dmar`nfh ca truqua. As mæs prdkfkha qua ah snstamf ca hf mnt„f puaca varsa `dmd ugf `dgsa`uag`nf hðon`f ca asta `dgtaxtd enstðrn`d. [aqunara ca ugf ahfkdrfcf kurd`rf`nf `dg tdcf hf pdkhf`nðg ca trnkutfrnds f hd hfrod y fg`ed cah nmparnd, taðrn`fmagta drofgnzfcd sdkra ug snstamf ca`nmfh. As prdkfkha qua ah `dmar`nd ca truaqua `dgtngufrf axnstnagcd curfgta ah parndcd ng`f, mnagtrfs ah astfcd suparpusd ah snstamf ca trfkfjd. Ag rasumag, hds puakhds ngcíoagfs ca hds Fgcas aba`tnvfmagta pfrtn`npfrdg ca ug pujfgta `dmar`nd, raugnîgcdsa ag mar`fcd a ngtar`fmknfgcd prdcu`tds macnfgta ah truaqua. Hfs aqunvfhag`nfs, astfkha`ncfs pdr hf `dstumkra, arfg ngcnra`tfmagta fba`tfcfs pdr hf dbartf y hf camfgcf. Hfs mdgacfs gd axnstífg, gn arfg ga`asfrnfs. @dmar`nfgtass ngcapagcnagtas pdsnkhamagta axnstnardg, `dmpntnagcd agtra ahhds pdr ugf @dmar`nfgta ‘mfydr `udtf ca mar`fcd” gd rakfjfgcd hds pra`nds, sngd ng`ramagtfgcd sus racas pdhítn`fs y ca pfragtas`d. Ah ajamphd fgcngd gds prdpdr`ndgf ah astucnd ca ugd ca hds `fsds mæs bfs`ngfgtas ag hf enstdrnf a`dgðmn`f, ugd qua camuastrf hf agdrma fcfptfknhncfc a ngoagndsncfc ca hds puakhds fhracacdr cah mugcd m ugcd pfrf fcqunrnr, prdcu`nr a ngtar`fmknfr knagas.

6?

 

GDSFP 6

  Hf `ntf `dmphatf: ‘Gd efy cucfs ca qua `ufgcd mu`eds prdcu`tds cnbaragtas sdg `dtnzfcds ag cngard, hds ngtar`fmknds `dmar`nfhas sa vag buartamagta bf`nhntfcds pdr hfs vagtfjfs ca `dmprfcdras y vagcacdras. Hd qua astæ mfh ag ah ajamphd as pdstuhfr qua fhougf vaz axnstnð ag hfs a`dgdmífs cah mugcd rafh, ag tnampd y aspf`nd, ugf sntuf`nðg ca truaqua oagarfhnzfcd< qua hds ngtar`fmknds ag ah mar`fcd snampra buardg bra`uagtas, `ufgtntftnvfmagta nmpdrtfgtas d qua trfmntfrdg ugf ofmf fpra`nfkha ca ra`ursds gfturfhas, mfgd ca dkrf, knagas d sarvn`nds fgtas ca qua ah cngard agtrfrf ag usd< qua nmpdrtfgtas sa`tdras cah mar`fcd axnstífg fgtas ca qua axnstnarf ah cngard” cngard” (Cfhtdg, 6>5;:650).  6>5;:650).  ;  Fggatta _angar (6>55) cas`rnka ah Luhf huaod ca hf ngtrdcu``nðg ca hfg`efs y a`dgdmífs ca mar`fcd. Ah trfcn`ndgfh ngtar`fmknd cah Luhf sa fcfptð f astf trfgsbdrmf`nðg ca hfs `dgcn`ndgas. 0  Ca Gdrt (6>??:?6;), `ntfgcd ug ra-fgæhnsns sdkra buagtas ca Mfhngdwsln, pdr Kahsefw (6>11) ag Qkardn (6>?6). 3  Ah pfsfja `dmphatd: ‘Agtra hds ngcnds ngcnds ef`ag sus mar`fcds ag sus puakhds, ca mfgarf qua edy sa ef`a ag ug puakhd y mföfgf ag dtrd mæs `ar`fgd, y fgsí fgcfg pdr su ruacf. Agtrahhds gd tnagag pasd gn macncf, sngd su `dgtrftf`nðg as trd`fr ugf `dsf pdr dtrf, y astd as f djd. Hds aspfödhas sa rnoag pdr ah pasd y mfr`d ca Fvnhf y hf efgaof as mfydr qua ag astds rangds”.  rangds”. 

KNKHNDO[FBÍF F[OQMACD, FHAJFGC[D y MN@EAH YNMKA[S, (;969), Kypfssngo Ohdkfhnzftndg: Kfrtar Mfrlats fs f Gaw Ngcnoagdus N gcnoagdus A`dgdmy A`dgdmy ng Yaru. Cavahdpmagt 10 (0):030-03>. KAHPEF_, @^[NH P., (6>11), Ng Pafr`e db _afhte.  Fmarn`fg Fgterdpdhdonst Fgterdpdhdonst 1? (pfrt ;). Mamdnrs db tea Fmarn`fg Fgterdpdhdon`fh Fssd`nftndg, g¹ 59. _fsengotdg, C@. KHFGSDG, [N@EF[C A. y HFGA B. BF[OEA[, (;969), Avfhuftngo @fusfh Bf`tdrs ng Mfrlat Cavahdpmagt ng Yramdcarg Ptftas: F @dmpfrftnva Ptucy, wnte @rntn`fh @dmmagts dg tea te a Enstdry db Ncafs fkdur Mfrlats. Ng  Fr`efadhdon`fh Fpprdf`eas td Mfrlat Ax`efgoas ng  Fg`nagt Pd`natnas P d`natnas, acntac ky @ernstdpear Y. Ofrrfty fgc Kfrkfrf H. Ptfrl, pp. ;9?-;;2. Qgnvarsnty Yrass db @dhdrfcd, Kduhcar. K[DMHA^,, [. J. y [N@EF[C P^MFGPLN, (6>?3), Mfrlatphf`a Srfca ng Hftng Fmarn`f. K[DMHA^ Hftng Fmarn`fg [asafr`e [avnaw >(0):0-05.

@NAZF CA HAÐG, YAC[D, (6>2?) \6100], Ah saödríd ca hds Ng`fs: Paougcf pfrta ca hf `rðgn`f cah Yarú . Acntac ky @frhds Frfgnkfr. Ngstntutd ca Astucnds Yarufgds, Hnmf. @DKD, KA[GFKÎ, (65>9-65>0) \6210], Enstdrnf cah guavd mugcd, pdr ah Y. Kargfkî @dkd, Acntac ky Mfr`ds Jnmîgaz ca hf Aspfcf. A. [fs`d, Pavnhha. @DDL, P@DSS, (6>22), Sea Dksdhata Fgtn-Mfrlat Magtfhnty: @rntnqua db tea Pukstfgtnva Fpprdf`e td A`dgdmn` Fgterdpdhdoy.  Fmarn`fg Fgterdpdhdonst  Fgterdpdhdonst 25(;):0;0 ‐  ‐031. 031. CFHSDG, OAD[OA, (6>5;), Kfrtar. Jdurgfh db A`dgdmn` Nssuas Nssuas 62(6):656-6>9. 65

 

CNAZ CA PFG MNOQAH, OF[@N, (6>23) \612?], Rnsntf ea`ef f hf Yrdvng`nf ca @eu`uhtd  pdr Ofr`n Cnaz ca Pfg Mnouah Mnouah ag föd 612?  612? . @fsf ca hf @uhturf cah Yarú, Hnmf. AF[HA, SNMDSE^ L., (6>??), F [afpprfnsfh db [acnstrnkutndg: @dmphax Efwfnnfg @enabcdms. Ng Ax`efgoa Pystams ng Yraenstdry , acntac ky Snmdtey L. Kfrha fgc Jdgftedg J dgftedg A. Arn`sdg, pp. ;60-;0>. F`fcamn` Yrass, Gaw ^drl. ODCAHNA[, MFQ[N@A, (6>??), Yarspa`tnvas ng Mfrxnst Fgterdpdhdoy . @fmkrncoa Qgnvarsnty Yrass, @fmkrncoa. EFGG, @E[NP, (;992), Sea Onbt fgc [a`nprd`nty: Yarspa`tnvas bdrm A`dgdmn` Fgterdpdhdoy. Ng Efgckddl db tea A`dgdmn`s db Onvngo, On vngo, Fhtrunsm fgc [a`nprd`nty , vdh. 6, acntac ky Paroa-@ernstdpea Ldhmfgc Jafg Mar`nar ^nenar, pp. ;95-;;0. Ahsavnar K.R., 8`nty7. EN[SE, LAGGASE O., (6>>2), Ydhntn`fh A`dgdmy fgc Fr`efadhdoy: Yarspa`tnvas dg Ax`efgoa fgc Yrdcu`tndg. Jdurgfh db Fr`efadhdoy [asafr`e 3(0):;90 ‐  ‐;0>. ;0>. EN[SE, LAGGASE O., (6>>5), Sea Cnstrnkutndgfh Fpprdf`e: F Gaw _fy td Ncagtnby Mfrlatphf`a Ax`efgoa ng tea Fr`efadhdon`fh [a`drc. @urragt Fgterdpdhdoy  0>(3):316  0>(3):3160?2. EDCCA[, K._., (6>21), Sea Cnstrnkutndg db Mfrlats ng ^drukfhfgc. P`dttnse Oadorfpen`fh Mfofznga 56:35-15 EDHHNGOP_D[SE, J. [DOA[P y [DKA[S KD^A[, (6>>?), @ddrcngftndg db A`dgdmn` F`tdrs EDHHNGOP_D[SE, fgc Pd`nfh Pystams db Yrdcu`tndg. Ng @dgtampdrfry @fpntfhnsm, acntac ky J.[. Edhhngoswdrte fgc [. Kdyar, pp. 6-35. @fmkrncoa Qgnvarsnty Yrass, @fmkrncoa. @fmkrncoa. JARDGP, _NHHNFM PSFGHA^, PSFGHA^, (65?>) \6 \65?6], 5?6], Sea Sntadry db Ydhntn`fh A`dgdmy: Mf`mnhhfg, Hdgcdg. JNMÎGAZ CA HF APYFCF, MF[@DP, (6>21) \65>?], [ahf`ndgas oadoræbn`fs ca Ngcnfs cah Yarú, vdh. 0. Knkhndta`f ca Futdras F utdras Aspfödhas 53. Fthfs, Mfcrnc. JQHNAG, @FSEA[NGA, (6>55), Edw Ng`f Ca`nmfh Fcmngnstrftndg _drlac. Ategdenstdry 01:;1?-;?>. LQ[SZ, CDGFHC R., (6>?3), Yarnpearfh fgc Srfgsntndgfh Mfrlatsn Sea Fzta` @fsa. Fmarn`fg Ategdhdonst 6(3):251-?91. HF HDGA, CF[[AHH A., (6>5;), Sea Ng`f fs f Gdgmfrlat A`dgdmy: Pupphy dg @dmmfgc varsus Pupphy fgc Camfgc. Ng @dgtaxts bdr Yraenstdr Yraenstdrn` n` Ax`efgoa, acntac ky Jdgftefg A. Arn`sdg fgc Snmdtey L. Afrha, pp. ;>6-062. ;>6- 062. F`fcamn` Yrass, Gaw ^drl. MFHNGD_PLN, K[DGNPHF_, K[DGNPHF_, (6>;6), Sea Yrnmntnva A`dgdmn`s db tea Srdkrnfgc Nshfgcars. Sea A`dgdmn` Jdurgfh ;6:6-62. 6>

 

MQ[[F, JDEG R., (6>12), Sea A`dgdmn` Drofgnzftndg db tea Ng`f Ptfta. Ng Fgterdpdhdoy, acntac ky 8acn. tdr7, 8pfoa gumkars7. Qgnvarsnty db @en`fod Yrass, @en`fod. MQ[[F, JDEG R., (6>2;), Fg Fr`eadhdon`fh "[astucy db fg Fgcafg Ategdenstdrn`fh F``dugt, Fmarn`fg Fgtnqunty ;5(6):6-3. MQ[[F, JDEG R., (6>51f), "Ah Fr`enpnîhfod Rartn`fh" [avnsntac. Ng Fgcafg A`dhdoy fgc @nvnhnzftndg: Fg Ngtarcns`nphngfry Yarspa`tnva dg Fgcafg A`dhdon`fh @dmphamagtfry, acntac ky Pedzd Mfsucf, Nzumn Penmfcf, fgc @rfno Mdrrns, pp. 0-60. Qgnvarsnty Yrass db Sdlyd, Sdlyd. MQ[[F, JDEG R., (6>51k), Sea Hnmnts fgc Hnmntftndgs db tea "Rartn`fh Fr`enpahfod" ng tea Fgcas. Ng Fgcafg A`dhdoy fgc @nvnhnzftndg: Fg Ngtarcns`nphngfry Yarspa`tnva dg Fgcafg A`dhdon`fh @dmphamagtfry, @dmphamagtfry, acntac ky Pedzd Mfsucf, Nzumn Penmfcf, fgc @rfno Mdrrns, pp. 61-;9. Qgnvarsnty Yrass db Sdlyd, Sdlyd. MQ[[F, JDEG R., (6>>1), Cnc Srnkuta fgc Mfrlats Yravfnh ng tea Fgcas kabdra tea Aurdpafg Ngvfsndg4 Ng Ategn`nty, Mfrlats, fgc Mnorftndg ng tea Fgcas: Ft tea @rdssrdfcs db Enstdry fgc Fgterdpdhdoy, acntac ky Krddla Hfrsdg fgc Dhnvnf Efrrns, wnte Agrnqua Sfgcatar, pp. 1?-?;. Cula Qgnvarsnty Yrass, Curefm, G.@. GD[SE, CDQOHFPP @., (6>??), Mfrlats fgc Dtear Fhhd`ftndg Pystams ng Enstdry: Sea @efhhagoa db Lfrh Ydhfgyn. Jdurgfh db Aurdpafg A`dgdmn` Enstdry 2:?90-?62. GD[SE, CDQOHFPP @., (6>53), Srfgsf`tndg @dsts, Ngstntutndgs, fgc A`dgdmn` Enstdry. Jdurgfh db Ngstntutndgfh fgc Seadratn`fh A`dgdmn`s 639:?-6?. YFA[[AOFF[C, LF[PSAG, (;999), Yrd`asds mnorftdrnds y astrftaonfs `dmphamagtfrnfs ag hf snarrf parufgf. Aurdpafg [avnaw db Hftng Fmarn`fg fgc f gc @frnkkafg Ptucnas 2>:2>59. YNZF[[D, YAC[D, (6>?5) \61?6], [ahf`nðg cah cas`ukrnmnagtd y `dgqunstf cah Yarú. Bdgcd Acntdrnfh, Ydgtnbn`nf Qgnvarsncfc @ftðhn`f cah Yarú, Hnmf. Y[AGCA[OFPS, @FGN@A y HF[P PSDHA, (;999), Kfrtar [ahftndgsenps. Ng Sea Rfgnsengo [dukha: Kfrtar Gatwdrls fgc Gdg-Mdgatfry Srfgsf`tndgs ng Ydst-Pdvnat Pd`natnas, acntac ky Yfuh Pafkrnoet, pp. 01-?9. @fmkrncoa Qgnvarsnty Yrass, @fmkrncoa. [DPS_D[D_PLN CA CNAZ @FGPA@D, MF[NF, (6>??), Angbf y sd`nacfc: @dstf parufgf praenspægn`f. Ngstntutd ca Astucnds Yarufgds, Hnmf. [DPS_D[D_PLN CA CNAZ @FGPA@D, MF[NF, (6>56), [a`ursds gfturfhas ragdvfkhas y pas`f< Pnohds URN y URNN< @urf`fs y su`asndgas, `dstf gdrta, Ngstntutd ca Astucnds Yarufgds, Hnmf. P@EGANCA[, JFGA, (;99;), _drhc Mfrlats: Fgterdpdhdon`fh Yarspa`tnvas. Ng Axdtn` Gd Mdra: Fgterdpdhdoy dg tea Brdgt Hngas, acntac ky Jaramy Mf`@hfg`y, pp. 23-51. Qgnvarsnty db @en`fod Yrass, @en`fod. PNHRA[,

MD[[NP,

(;969),

Fg`nagt

A`dgdmnas.

Aha`trdgn`

cd`umagt,

ettp://sdgcmdr.trnpdc.`dm/ngcax-?.etmh, ettp://sdgcmdr.tr npdc.`dm/ngcax-?.etmh, f``assac Juga 5, ;969. ;9

 

PMNSE, MN@EFAH A., (6>59) Sea [dha db tea Mfrlatngo Pystam ng Fzta` Pd`naty fgc A`dgdmy: [aphy td Avfgs, Fmarn`fg Fgtnqunty 31(3):5?2-550. PSFGNPE, @EF[HAP, @EF[HAP, (6>5>), Fg Fr`efadhdon`fh Avfhuftndg db fg Ategdenstdrn`fh Mdcah ng Mdquaouf. Ng A`dhdoy, Patthamagt fgc Enstdry ng tea Dsmdra Crfngfoa, acntac ky Cdg [n`a, @efrhas Ptfgnse Ptfgnse fgc Y. P`frr, Yp. 090 ‐0;9.  ‐0;9. KF[, Dxbdrc. PSFGNPE, @EF[HAP, (6>>;), Fg`nagt Fgcafg Ydhntn`fh A`dgdmy. Qgnvarsnty db Saxfs Yrass, Fustng. PS[FSEA[G, FGC[A_, FGC YFMAHF J. PSA_F[S, (;991), @aramdgnfh Ax`efgoa. Ng F Efgckddl db A`dgdmn` Fgterdpdhdoy, acntac ky Jfmas @frrnar, pp. ;09-;31. Acwfrc Ahofr, @eahtagefm, Qgntac Lngocdm. QKA[DN, J. Y. PNGOE, (6>?6), Ydhntn`s db tea Luhf [ngo: Fg Fgfhysns db tea Bngcngos db Krdgnshfw Mfhngdwsln. Sea Qgnvarsnty Yrass, Mfg`eastar. RFG KQ[AG, MF[^, (6>>2), [atenglngo tea Rartn`fh Fr`enpahfod: Ategn`nty, Ax`efgoa, fgc Enstdry ng tea Pdute @agtrfh Fgcas. Fmarn`fg Fgterdpdhdonst >5(;):005-016. _ANGA[, FGGASSA, (6>55), Sea Srdkrnfgcars db Yfpuf Gaw Oungaf. Sedmsdg, Kahmdgt, @fhnb. _NHL, [N@EF[C, (6>>2), A`dgdmnas fgc @uhturas: Bdugcftndgs db A`dgdmn` Fgterdpdhdoy. _astvnaw Yrass, Kduhcar, @dhd. _[NOHA^, O. M., (6>6>), Bfnrs db tea @agtrfh Fgcas. Oadorfpen`fh [avnaw ?(;):21-59. Znaohar, [dhb 6>>9 Sea Luhf: Pd`nfh Drcar, Kfrtar, fgc @aramdgnfh Ax`efgoa. Ng Pd`nfh Ngstntutndgs: Seanr Amaroag`a, Mfngtamfg`a, fgc Abba`ts, acntac ky Mn`efah Ea`etar, Lfrh-Cnapar Dpp, fgc [angefrc _npphar, pp. 636-61?. Fhcnga ca Oruytar, Efwtedrga, G.^.

;6