Sustainable Food Consumption in Thailand

ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD IN BANGKOK, THAILAND: PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION, AND COMMUNICATION

Aretha Aprilia

Wageningen, February 2005

Thesis research as part of the Urban Environmental Management studies at the Wageningen University, The Netherlands.

Thesis supervisors: Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc and Prof. Dr. Ir. Gert Spaargaren, MSc Environmental Policy Group Department of Social Sciences Wageningen University

SUMMARY Food safety plays an important role in the food chain, and the current issues pertinent to the problems in the food chain have generated a plethora of public awareness in Thailand. Many Thais begin to consider organic food produce that better ensure the quality and safety of products. The research questions posed in this research are pertaining to the stakeholders’ influence on sustainable food consumption in Thailand, availability of organic food, trends in consumer culture, and information about organic food and food issues in Thai newspapers. Organic food in this research is defined as the “food that is free of antibiotics, growth hormones, chemicals, and pesticides.” The method used in this research is diagnostic, practice – oriented research that analyze the current state of organic food consumption in Thailand, which consists of five steps involving literature review, consumer survey study, content analysis , retailer survey, informants interviews, and reporting. Through retailer survey it was found that there are organic food items available in Villa Supermarket and Big C superstore, but none in “Sri Sa Wad” traditional market. The organic food products and organic food consumers are mainly found in Villa Market which implies that the niche market has already taken place. The organic food consumers found the information about organic food mainly from newspapers and although Thairath is the mostread newspaper in Thailand, it provided the least coverage on food and organic food issues compared to the other surveyed newspapers. The conclusions of this research are as follows: 1. The stakeholders that play important roles in organic food consumption are the Thai government, certification body, trader, inter-governmental organization (UNEP), NGOs, and the media, with the mandates and roles of each actors further elaborated in this report. 2. There is a high level of willingness to shift preference to healthier and more sustainable alternatives of food produce by the non-organic food consumers. 3. Organic food niche market is already available in high-class targeted markets, yet the creation of new markets for the majority middle-class Thai people is the new challenge. 4. Public needs more information on organic food so that new niche market can be attained. The overview of articles about food and organic food in the newspapers are elaborated in this report. 5. The chain of organic food providers and consumers are aimed for exports and domestic consumption within Thailand as explained further in this report. The recommendations proposed to further advance organic food consumption in Thailand are: 1. A strong political will and policy consistency of Thai government for organic agriculture. 2. Thai government should be more open on the media exposure of epidemics within the country. 3. Government cooperation with NGOs and farmers’ organizations is strategically important and needs to be strengthened. 4. The existing private initiative of ACT should be further supported by the government so that it can facilitate organic food trade. 5. The markets should provide more organic food items to meet the needs of consumers. 6. Convenience stores could play an important role in promoting organic food consumption and to create new niche markets of organic food in Thailand.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY....................................................................................................................i TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................vi 1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1 1.1. General Background and Problem Description ..................................................1 1.2. Research Objectives............................................................................................1 1.3. Research Questions.............................................................................................1 1.4. Scope of Research...............................................................................................2 1.5. Method ................................................................................................................3 1.5.1. Literature review..........................................................................................3 1.5.2. Consumer survey study (Quantitative survey) .............................................4 1.5.3. Content Analysis (Scoring) ..........................................................................5 1.5.4. Retailer survey .............................................................................................5 1.5.5. Informants interviews (Qualitative Interview).............................................5 1.5.6. Reporting......................................................................................................6 1.6. Report Outline.....................................................................................................6 2. STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIC FOOD IN THAILAND...................................................................................................................7 2.1. Stakeholders of Organic Food in Thailand .........................................................9 2.1.1. Thai Government .......................................................................................10 2.1.2 Certification Body.......................................................................................11 2.1.3. Trader ........................................................................................................13 2.1.4. Inter-governmental Organization: UNEP .................................................14 2.1.5. NGOs..........................................................................................................17 2.1.6. Media .........................................................................................................17 2.2. Organic Food Production and Availability .......................................................18 2.2.1. Organic Food Production..........................................................................18 2.2.2. Organic Food Export.................................................................................18 2.2.3. Organic Food Availability .........................................................................21 2.3. Organic Food Standards and Labeling..............................................................21 2.3.1. Organic produce ........................................................................................22 2.3.2. Hygienic produce .......................................................................................23 2.4. Theoretical Model.............................................................................................24 3. ORGANIC FOOD AVAILABILITY, PURCHASING AND CONSUMPTION IN BANGKOK, THAILAND...........................................................................................26 3.1. Profile of the Thai Food Markets......................................................................26 3.1.1. Supermarkets: Villa Market.......................................................................26 3.1.2. Superstores: Big C .....................................................................................27 3.1.3. Traditional Markets: Sri-Sa-Wad ..............................................................28 3.2. Organic Food Products Availability in Surveyed Markets ...............................28 3.3. Organic Food Purchasing and Consumption ....................................................29 3.3.1. Personal Information of Respondents........................................................29 3.3.2. Eating Habits .............................................................................................29 3.3.3. The 'Social Organization' of the Eating Process .......................................31 3.3.4. Criteria for Purchasing Food and Organic Food .....................................31 3.3.5. Underlying Reasons for Purchasing Organic Food ..................................32 ii

3.3.6. Willingness to Consider Organic Alternatives by Non-Organic Food Consumers............................................................................................................33 4. THAI NEWSPAPER COVERAGE OF FOOD AND ORGANIC FOOD..............34 4.1. Media Coverage on Issues Pertinent to Food ...................................................34 4.2. Further Elaboration of Methods........................................................................35 4.3. Politics in Thai Media.......................................................................................35 4.4. Profiles of Thai Printed Media..........................................................................37 4.4.1. Thairath .....................................................................................................37 4.4.2. Ban Muang.................................................................................................38 4.4.3. The Nation..................................................................................................39 4.4.4. Bangkok Business.......................................................................................41 4.4.5. Bangkok Post .............................................................................................42 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................................44 5.1. Perspectives of Food Consumers’ Culture within Social Practices ..................44 5.2. Thai Media’s Discourse on Food and Organic Food ........................................46 5.3. Chain of Providers and Consumers of Organic Food in Thailand....................46 5.4. Recommendations.............................................................................................48 5.4.1. Policy Recommendations ...........................................................................48 5.4.2. Recommendations for Thai Markets ..........................................................48 5.4.3. Recommendations for Further Studies ......................................................49 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................50 Annex 1 List of Interviews Conducted for the Research.............................................55 Annex 2. Questions for Informants Interview .............................................................56 Annex 3. Questions for Consumers .............................................................................58 Annex 4. Outputs of SPSS Data Processing ................................................................62 Annex 5. Content Analysis on Newspapers.................................................................79 Annex 6. Pictures of the Markets and Presentation of Food Produce .........................99

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Characteristic of Eating Habits Figure 2. Scope of Research Figure 3. Stakeholders Covered by the Thesis Figure 4. The Structure of ACT and Roles of Each Actor Figure 5. Thai Food Exports 1997 – 2002 Figure 6: Organic logo of the Department of Agriculture Figure 7: Organic logo of International Federation of Organic Agriculture Figure 8: Hygienic logo by Department of Agriculture Figure 9: Hygienic logo of the Ministry of Health Figure 10. Analytical Framework Figure 11. Media Coverage of Organic Food, Non-Organic Food, Avian Flu Outbreaks and Food Safety Figure 12. Implementation of Content Analysis Research

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Key Actors and Their Roles in Organic Food Production in Thailand Table 2. Number of Farmers and Size of Area for Each Certified Body in Thailand Table 3. Land under Organic Farming in Thailand Table 4. Value of Organic food produce in Thailand Table 5. Supermarket Chains Table 6. Superstore Chains Table7. Retail food sales by major segment Table 8. Organic Food Products Available in Surveyed Markets Table 9. Types of Food items for Daily Consumption Table 10. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Food Table 11. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Organic Food Table 12. Purchase and Consumption of Organic Products by Organic Food Consumers Table 13. Willingness to consider purchasing organic food products

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Life is a journey and this thesis research has been part of my journey to attain my dreams of academic gratification. Along the way I have been accompanied and supported by those who had touched upon my life. It is therefore I would use this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation for everyone who takes part of making this master’s thesis possible. First of all I would like to extend my gratitude to my supervisors Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc and Prof. Dr. Ir. Gert Spaargaren, MSc. They are both prominent lecturers who truly dedicated on their work and therefore become my source of inspiration. I was also given the opportunity to take part in their on-going project and be involved in a workshop organized in Malaysia, of which I found the experience to be greatly rewarding. Special thanks are also due to Kanang Kantamaturapoj and Nawaporn Onkokesung who earnestly assisted me undertaking the empirical research in Thailand, as well as Stuart Bruce who kindly edited this thesis report. They showed me the true meaning of friendship and sincerity, without them this thesis will not be completed. I am also highly indebted Niclas Svenningsen of the Bangkok-based United Nations Environment Programme, for fully endorsing my intention to undertake internship while carry out substantial work of my thesis research in Thailand. I am also grateful for the genuine support provided by Sophie Punte, who taught me a lot about doing empirical research, particularly within environmental issues. I feel a deep sense of gratitude for my late grandparents, beloved father Prof. Ir. Eko Budihardjo, MSc, mother Ir. Sudanti, MSc and sister dr. Holy Ametati, for bestowing me with genuine blessings and all the supports that I need, taught me things that really matter in life: love and family. I am very grateful for my loving husband Nuki Agya Utama, MSc for his love, support, and patience during the MSc period. He completes me and never shy away from the ups and down of our life. We travel our life journey together and overcame the obstacles which hinder our steps along the way. I thank him for being there for me, turning gloominess into brightness. I furthermore appreciate the supports of my study adviser Ir. Dick Legger, the Environmental Policy Group, my colleagues at the Urban Environmental Management department and friends at the Indonesian Students’ Association of whom I can not mention each and every one. The sequence of my gratitude is finally topped with my gratitude to NUFFIC for awarding me the Nuffic Fellowship Programme (NFP) scholarship that fully supports me financially of which enables me to pursue a post-graduate study at Wageningen University.

Aretha Aprilia

February 2005 Wageningen, The Netherlands

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Analysis of Sustainable Food Consumption in Bangkok, Thailand

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAN

Alternative Agricultural Network

ACT

Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand

ASEAN

Association of South East Asian Nations

BP

Bangkok Post

CI

Consumers International

CED

Center for Environment and Development

CP

Cleaner Production

DOA

Department of Agriculture

EU

European Union

EC

European Commission

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

FLO

Fair Trade Labeling Organization

GMO

Genetically Modified Organism

IFOAM

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

MOA

Ministry of Agriculture

MOH

Ministry of Health

NAP

National Action Plan

NGO

Non Governmental Organization

OECD

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

POP

Persistent Organic Pollutant

PQMS

Plant Quality Management System

SC

Sustainable Consumption

SD

Sustainable Development

UN

United Nations

UNCTAD

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNEP DTIE

United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

UNEP ROAP

United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office of Asia and Pacific

WCED

World Commission on Environment and Development

WSSD

World Summit on Sustainable Development

WHO

World Health Organization

WTO

World Trade Organization

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1. INTRODUCTION ‘Organic agriculture is the most dynamic and rapidly growing sector of the global food industry. Its growth from a small-scale niche market to a $23 billion enterprise has made “organic” an international phenomenon’ (Rural Advancement Foundation International – USA (2003) Who Owns Organic? The Global Status, Prospects, and Challenges of a Changing Organic Market. Pittsboro, 2003.) Thailand’s ambition to become the kitchen of the world has had severe public relations setbacks. The epidemic of avian flu in Thailand has shaken up the country’s successful agribusiness sector: small farmers have lost out to big corporations because of the crisis. (Isabela Delforge – France (2004) Government and Business Connive Over Avian Flu Outbreak. Thailand: the World’s Kitchen. Le Monde Diplomatique, 2004.) 1.1. General Background and Problem Description People nowadays experience a growing awareness of health and environmental well-being and compared to the end of the 1980s, the flow of information about the environmental aspects of consumption has increased. The level of awareness about the “world behind the product” they buy and eat probably has never been as high as today (OECD, 2002). For this reason a thesis was undertaken to determine the “consumers’ preference for organic food in Bangkok, Thailand”. In relation to this the thesis analyzed (a) organic food production and promotion; (b) organic food availability, purchasing and consumption; and (c) media coverage of organic food. 1.2. Research Objectives The objectives of this research are: 1. To advance the knowledge about organic food consumption in Thailand by analyzing the extent to which Thai consumers want to incorporate organic food-items into their daily food consumption practices. 2. To analyze from a sociological point of view the extent to which Thai media are promoting organic food (as measured by the content of newspapers with respect to sustainable development in general and the consumption of organic food in particular). 3. To understand the attempts, mandate and roles of the inter-governmental organization (United Nations Environment Programme, hereinafter referred to as UNEP,) with respect to organic food consumption in Asia, specifically in Thailand. 1.3. Research Questions The research questions that are posed in this research are: 1. What are the mandate and roles of UNEP, Thai national government agencies and international linkages with respect to the promotion of organic food consumption in Thailand? - What are the available programmes / guidelines promoted by UNEP that relate to organic food consumption? - To what extent do these policies affect the government to motivate the preference for organic food consumption in Thailand? - What is the role of the government policy compared to other actors? - Who are the stakeholders of organic food in Thailand and what are their (a) mandates, (b) roles, and (c) influence? (Results are in chapter 2) 1

2. What organic food products are available in Bangkok supermarkets and traditional markets? - What types of organic food are available? - What information about organic food (labeling of product and on the shelves) is provided in the markets? (Results are in chapter 3) 3. What are the trends in consumer culture that affect the preference for organic food consumption in Bangkok? - What are the main characteristics including the eating habits of Thai people when it comes to the purchasing and consuming of food? Breakfast

Lunch

Dinner

Others (grazing/snacking in between meal times)

Figure 1. Characteristic of eating habits

- What is the 'social organization' of the eating process as part of eating habit characteristics and the criteria for purchasing food and organic food? - What criteria do Thai people apply when selecting food? - What are the underlying reasons for purchasing organic food? - Of the major types of food consumed, what organic alternatives are Thai people willing to consider? (Results are in chapter 4) 4. What information is provided in newspapers about organic food in Thailand? - Is there any information in the newspapers (news articles, opinion, features, advertisements, etc) about organic food in Thailand? - What are the characteristics of this information? - To what extent do the bird flu outbreak and food safety issues are exposed in Thai media? (Results are in chapter 5) 1.4. Scope of Research In line with the Brundtland report of Our Common Future (1987), sustainable food consumption is defined as a way of food consumption which guarantees the preservation of natural resources so that present consumers’ needs may be fulfilled without endangering the needs of future consumers. Sustainability, in a broader sense, can include three elements: (a) environmental protection, (b) social justice, and (c) economic prosperity (Elkington, s.a). It is important to note that organic food is only one aspect of sustainable food production, yet the two can sometimes be contradictory. For instance, organic food implies the absence of pesticides, antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemical substances, but this can also lead to a higher risk of diseases given that the antibiotics are initially applied with the intention as preventative measures. This condition in turn could be considered a risk to food safety. Another example is the use of preservatives to extend the shelf life of food which is part of food safety measure; hence despite the provision of health assurance of organic food, if not consumed immediately it would lead to higher food safety risk because it deteriorates quicker.

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What is “sustainable” for animals (i.e. animal friendly) such as free-ranged poultry and pigs, can be “unsustainable” for the environment, such as manure that runs off in the environment instead of it being collected in stables. This implies that sometimes animal friendly practices can have an adverse impact on the environment. Therefore giving a proper definition of sustainable food is rather difficult.1 More profoundly, organic food is the focus of the research. The organic food can be defined as: 1. The type of food that is produced by farmers who use renewable resources and who conserve soil and water and also ensure that food is free of antibiotics, growth hormones, and commercial pesticides (Michelletti, 2003). 2. The food derived from a system that is designed and delivered to produce agricultural products by the use of methods and substances that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products until they reach the consumer. 2(USDA, in Kisanwatch, 2002). In this research, organic food is the “food that is free of antibiotics, growth hormones, chemicals, and pesticides.” Furthermore it is certified as organic by the standardization and accreditation department of the Thailand Ministry of Agriculture. The food product focus for this research is derived from the available organic products in Thai market, based on the market survey. Sustainable Production and Consumption

Sustainable Consumption

Sustainable Food Consumption

Organic Food

Local Food Consumption

Non – GMO Food

Hygienic Food

Figure 2. Scope of Research

1.5. Method The method used in this research is diagnostic, practice – oriented research. This research intends to analyze the current state of organic food consumption in Thailand. The strategy of research consists of five steps described below: 1.5.1. Literature review The importance of literature review is to gain preliminary understanding for forming the succinct objectives of the research and to get background knowledge, as well as searching for 1

Punte, e-mail correspondence on February 17, 2005. This is accomplished by using, where possible, cultural, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using substances, to fulfill any specific fluctuation within the system so as to: maintain long-term soil biological activity; ensure effective peak management; recycle wastes to return nutrients to the land; provide attentive care for farm animals; and handle the agricultural products without the use of extraneous synthetic additives or processing in accordance with the act and the regulations in this part. 2

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prior researches that have dealt with similar issues. The literature review also contains the search for preliminary data to give an overview of the current state of organic food consumption in Thailand. This is done before and during fieldwork and includes reviewing institutional publications regarding the related issue, journals, websites, Thai Ministry of Agriculture documents, previous researches and UNEP policy documents. The literature review is also aimed at gaining understanding about the stakeholders involved in the promotion of organic food consumption. Below is the framework of the stakeholders covered in the thesis research. The green fonts indicated the items or points of which the investigation was conducted within this research.

Literature review Government: Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Health Ministry of Environment

Society: - Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) - Green Net - Greenpeace Southeast Asia - Thai Consumers’ Organization - University/ research institution - Other

Interview United Nations: UNEP FAO WFP

Retailer survey

Consumer Survey - Purchasers - Food preparers - Consumers

Food retailers: - Supermarket (Villa Market) - Superstore chain (Big C) - Traditional market - Local shops - Street vendors

Organic Food

Producers: - farmers - food processors

Media: - Newspaper - Radio - Television - Internet - Other

Literature review Content Analysis Figure 3. Stakeholders covered by the thesis

1.5.2. Consumer survey study (Quantitative survey) The consumers included in the research units are food purchasers in Bangkok, Thailand. These also include non-organic food purchasers in order to determine the typicality of Thai peoples’ food consumption patterns in general and furthermore to determine their openness and willingness to change their preference to organic food products. Quantitative research by means of survey is the core of this research, using consumers as the unit analysis of the research. The cluster sample is used to determine the units’ selections. The sample size is sixty purchasers of food, of which the study area was divided into three parts. Twenty respondents were interviewed using a 10-minute questionnaire (see appendix 2), from a major supermarket that sells organic food (Villa Market). Twenty questionnaires were 4

distributed in the superstore chain of Big C, and twenty respondents were interviewed from the traditional markets, to identify the consumers’ willingness to purchase organic food. The sample was taken randomly from a number of sub-groups. The interview was guided with closed and open questions to gather data from respondents. Then the data was analyzed with an SPSS software program. 1.5.3. Content Analysis (Scoring) The key concept is to determine the characteristics of organic food information in the newspaper media. The operationalization of this concept to measure the value of a newspaper in this variable is ‘the number of information items (news articles, features, opinions, advertisements, columns, etc) devoted to organic food in the newspaper’. As there are many different national daily newspapers issued in Thailand, the sources are restricted to the five national daily newspapers with the widest circulation: Bangkok Post, The Nation, Thairath, Ban Muang, and Bangkok Business. The population of research units consists of all copies of the five selected national daily newspapers issued from 1 August 2003 – 31 July 2004. Afterwards a sample of four issues for each month of each selected newspaper is drawn in a stratified random sample. Therefore, the total number of newspapers reviewed equals 4 issues x 12 months x 5 newspapers = 240 newspapers. 1.5.4. Retailer survey In order to identify the organic food products that are available in the Thai markets, a field survey of the markets is undertaken. A checklist is used consisting of: - the availability of organic food items. - the information provided in the market about the organic food products on both the packaging and the shelves. The same three market sites used for interviewing purchasers are included in this field survey. They are Villa Market, Big C, and a traditional market. 1.5.5. Informants interviews (Qualitative Interview) The research involves a series of key informants’ interviews as a data generation method, including the following four informants: ƒ

The UNEP Regional Office for Asia Pacific, Bangkok - based Industry Officer, Mr. Niclas Svenningsen, who is undertaking a sustainable consumption project in Asia Pacific. The project aims to help the governments of Asia and the Pacific meet their requirements related to sustainable consumption under the UN Guidelines on Consumer Protection.

ƒ

The director of the Sri Lanka-based NGO Center for Environment and Development, Mr. Uchita de Zoysa; the project partner of UNEP who is in charge of carrying out the Asian review of the sustainable consumption Asia project.

ƒ

The UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) Paris Regional Officer, Mr. Bas de Leeuw, who is undertaking a sustainable consumption project in Europe. He was interviewed to capture the idea of organic food consumption implementation in Europe (a reflection of developed countries). Derived from this knowledge, the implementation of organic food consumption in Asia (developing countries) is estimated.

ƒ

The UNEP DTIE Programme Officer, Ms. Wei Zhao, who is in charge of a project in developing organic agriculture in Guiyang, China. 5

Other stakeholders, e.g., a representative of the Thai Ministry of Agriculture, could also be interviewed depending on the time availability and upon recommendation by the above interviewees. As part of the interviews, stakeholder identification is carried out to pinpoint the stakeholders that are involved in influencing and promoting organic food consumption in Thailand. 1.5.6. Reporting The data and information gathered are reported in a document as an output of the research. The Wageningen University thesis supervisors, Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc and Prof. Dr. Ir. Gert Spaargaren, reviewed the research report as well as the UNEP Bangkok-based Industry Officer, Mr. Niclas Svenningsen, and UNEP ROAP Project Coordinator, Mrs. Sophie Punte. The report will be used as a complementary recommendation for the development of National Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption. 1.6. Report Outline The outline of the research report is as follows: Chapter 1. Introduction This chapter includes the problem description, research questions, and methods of research. Chapter 2. Stakeholders and Their Influence on Organic Food in Thailand It introduces the background information and methods used in the research, as well as the elaboration of the theories and conceptual framework. Chapter 3. Organic Food Availability, Purchasing and Consumption in Bangkok, Thailand The empirical research findings are presented in this chapter, also further elaboration on the methods used in the research. Chapter 4. Thai Newspaper Coverage of Food and Organic Food This chapter is mainly comprised of the research empirical findings on the content analysis of the five newspapers in terms of news coverage of organic food issues, the types of news presented and the profile of each newspaper. Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations This includes the summaries of empirical and theoretical findings, and answers of all research questions. The recommendation is for further research and tangible measures to deal with the problems as investigated in this research.

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2. STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIC FOOD IN THAILAND This chapter is the result of literature which provides the background information and elaboration on theories pertaining organic food issues. Consumers in contemporary societies tend to have a level of consumer sovereignty, in which consumers’ preferences determine production, thus production of goods is justified by demand and not by itself. In other words, consumers are directly involved in the decision to purchase, of what and how much is purchased, and the use of disposal of products. (Hake and Jolivet, 2002). The notion of consumers as the major actor of organic food consumption relates to Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which states that the environmental issues are best, handled with participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level (UNEP, 1992). There are three forms of influence that affect the preference of consumers. First, the normative (utilitarian) influence which occurs when an individual fulfills others’ expectations to gain a direct reward or to avoid a sanction. Second is the value – expressive influence, which occurs when individuals use others’ norms, values, and behaviors as a guide for their own attitudes, values, and behaviors. Third, informational social influence occurs when an individual uses the values, norms, and behaviors of others as credible and needed evidence about reality (Arnould, Price, and Zinkhan, 2002). Realistic policies of organic food consumption should combine elements from all three scenarios, which are 1) the encouragement of market forces, 2) consumers’ education and information about the consequences of their current consumption patterns and the way in which these should be changed, and 3) government regulations to control the consumption process (Meulenberg and Schifferstein, 1994). In this consumer driven food market, food safety plays a key role. There are reasons to concentrate on food safety, as in a demand-led food market; hence the issue of food safety is crucial. Food safety should incorporate product oriented qualities (freshness, shelf life, additives) and in terms of process-oriented qualities (growth hormones, GMOs, organic farming) as well as process-oriented consumer concerns (the way the products are produced, e.g. environmentally and / or animal- friendly). There has been evidence that global environmental institutions have made an effort to transform widespread consumption practices (Cohen, 2003). These include the determination of governments and institutions or organizations to establish policies to regulate organic food consumption. Yet this watering-down process should be endorsed also with a bottom – up approach: namely citizen – consumers, who are the major actors in daily food consumption. This research has the importance to determine the current preference of consumers on selecting, purchasing and consuming a range of organic food that is available in Thailand’s market. The question to pose is: to what extent is there a demand for organic food in Thailand? Thai organic agriculture currently remains in its infancy, although there are signs that the movement may be in the take-off stage. Organic farming in Thailand continues to grow at a slow pace, with export volume of just 200 million baht and only a handful of sites operating on a commercial scale (Bangkok Post, 2004). Yet it is important to note that the history of organic agriculture is not a recent phenomenon as local farmers have practiced traditional farming for hundreds of years. The re-emergence of organic farming can be traced back to the collapse of modern agriculture in the early 1980s. Incidents of health hazards to farmers and

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consumers occurred frequently. Against this backdrop, alternatives to conventional agriculture, in order to break away the vicious circle of health risks, were sought (United Nations, 2002). The Thai government announced national standards for organic farming and organic food production in 2001. National standards were established such as a certification system and a state logo for organically grown products. Furthermore, state support was provided in the form of research and development. A National Research Institute of Organic Agriculture was set up and research programs were launched. The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) provided free certification for organic farmers. State support for organic farming served two purposes. The first purpose was to limit the use of pesticides in the country. Secondly, the government foresaw economic benefits in developing the organic food industry. It encouraged Thai farmers and producers to capitalize on the export potential of the organic food industry. The world market for organic foods had grown exponentially in the last decade (Organic Monitor, 2001). The Department of Agriculture of MOA set up a pilot program of safe food in 1983, most of which focused on setting national standards and certification services with a main objective to facilitate organic exports. For instance, the Organic Crop Institute (OCI), initiated by the Department of Agriculture, has raised organic crop production standards. They emphasized only on fruit and vegetables in both fresh and processed forms. The original purpose was to reduce chemical use in fruit and vegetable cultivation by providing educational support for the farmers. (Kantamaturapoj, 2004) In 1991, the program was improved and the maximum residue limit was set according to FAO and WHO standards, namely the Codex Alimentarius. These guidelines were used for the production of, processing, labeling and marketing of organically produced foods. The Codex is an international body who set international health, labeling and other food standards and thereby increase food safety and promotes fair practices in food trade on the basis of scientifically sound standards (FAO/WHO, 1999; Hooker, 1999; in Oosterveer, 2004). There are various kinds of safe fruit and vegetable standards in Thailand – hygienic, organic, and Plant Quality Management System (PQMS). Each standard is unique in its cultivation method, inspection method, inspecting agency, and logo (Department of Agriculture, hereinafter referred to as DOA, 2002). The Division of Food in Medical Sciences department of Ministry Of Health (MOH) is responsible for investigation, analysis and development of the analytical method for foods, water, beverages, food additives and food packaging to ascertain their quality and safety regarding the relevant laws of the Ministry of Public Health on the consumer protection program of foods (MOH, 2001). The UNCTAD/WTO International Trade Center estimated at US$ 13 – 13.5 billion the world market value for organic retail sales in 1998, with an annual growth rate from 5% to 40% (International Trade Centre 1999:4, in UN, 2002). The major markets are Europe, the United States and Japan. Despite the growing demand, Thailand currently encounters several problems in the organic food chain. Thailand has confirmed that the ‘bird flu’ virus has attacked its chicken farms. The avian influenza virus is a highly pathogenic A virus subtype H5N1 which is found in poultry. In 2004 there were 44 confirmed human cases of H5N1 flu in Thailand and Vietnam that resulted in 32 deaths. Experts fear that the H5N1 virus could acquire genes from human influenza viruses that will transform it into a ‘superflu’ allowing rapid spread among people.

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Influenza pandemics evidently occur on a regular cycle, with one every 20 or 30 years. The next pandemic outbreak could be of avian flu. The Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative have declared dangerous zones in 31 provinces and 39 districts. One approach to preventing a pandemic has been to eliminate the virus from its animal reservoir by killing millions of chickens. But this is economically devastating to countries like Thailand which is the fourth largest producer and exporter of chickens (Lovgren, 2004; Trivedi, 2004). The avian flu outbreak in a worst-case scenario is expected to trim between 0.1 and 0.5 percentage points from the country's 2004 economic growth (Thaiprasithiporn, 2004). Thai officials, especially at the highest levels, are now taking the threat seriously. Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra pledged to wipe out avian influenza in the country by the end of October 2004 (Walsh, 2004). In addition to the threat of avian flu outbreak, Thailand also faces problems regarding possible genetically modified organism (GMO) contamination in their food products. Major organic food importers, including Japan, European countries and the US, would avoid importing Thai organic food products for fear that they could contain GMOs (Samabuddhi, 2004). The problems in the food chain triggered consumer concern and awareness about the importance of food safety. There are numerous and continuous debates in the media with respect to food safety issues, and many of them appeal to the government for a more stringent organic labeling system that not only ensures consumers that the food is free of pesticides but also of GMOs and avian influenza contamination (BP, 2004). The debates related with food issues perpetuate, partly because the Thai government set aside the year 2004 as “Food Safety Year” and furthermore introduced the campaign for the new government policy as the “Kitchen of the World”. This course of action generates reaction from the public to ensure that the campaigns will really be implemented and not merely remain rhetoric. In addition to this, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives urge Thai farmers to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides so that a fiveyear master plan to make the nation a global center for organic food can be put into place (Nutraingredients, 2002). The plan, which will be in place from 2002 to 2006, will meet the requirements of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticide, with a view to implementing further research on alternatives to chemicals used in farming. The identified problem underlined in this research is that Thai people are as yet unaware of the benefits of organic food, both for health and environment. In short, this research largely deals with organic food consumption from a sociological point of view. It is interesting to perceive organic food consumption from the perspective of the consumers themselves as important actors in the food chain. 2.1. Stakeholders of Organic Food in Thailand Consumer preference is defined as the feelings and beliefs associated with a consumer’s like and dislike (Arnould, Price and Zinkhan, 2002). Hence for this reason it is very important to understand the stakeholders who are involved in organic food production in Thailand that affect the consumer behavior. Thai government

Key Actors Department of Agriculture

Roles Completing a national guideline for organic crop standards and attempting to set up organic inspection and certification.

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Certification body

Trader

Inter-government organization

NGOs

Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) Foreign certification bodies: Bioagricoop (Italy) Soil Association (UK) Capital Rice Co. Ltd River Kwae Green Net Cooperative UNEP

Media

NGOs under Alternative Agriculture Network, including: - Sustainable Agriculture Foundation - Sustainable Agriculture Pilot Project - Earth Net Foundation - Surin Farmer Support - Nature Care Club Yasothon Electronic and printed press media.

Producers and producer organizations

Individual and organized farms as producer groups

Thai certification body providing organic certification services Foreign certification bodies certifying organic farms in Thailand Exporting almost all of the certified organic products (only a few products are locally sold). Providing consultancy and lobbying government to take appropriate measures on organic food endorsement. Providing support services for organic conversion and internal control

Providing all the necessary information about organic food. Producing various crops

Table 1. Key actors and their roles in organic food production in Thailand (Source: UN, 2002)

The different stakeholder groups are discussed on these following subchapters. 2.1.1. Thai Government It is worthy to note that since Prime Minister Taksin’s rule of the administrative government in March 2001, organic agriculture is promoted as one of the main target policies for the agriculture department. Several government agencies, mainly in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, are preparing several large-scale projects for the promotion of organic agriculture. The Thai government is currently showing a growing interest in organic food after decades of promoting the green revolution package. For the first time, the 8th National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001) recognized sustainable agriculture, including organic farming. This is the result of years of campaigning and mobilizing by farmers’ movements and NGOs. The plan sets an ambitious target of converting 20% of arable land to sustainable agriculture, but no concrete actions have been taken to meet this goal. As for transnational companies, the Thai authorities’ interest in safe food and organic agriculture is largely driven by the attraction of foreign markets. One of Thailand’s main strategies to remain competitive despite the opening of its agricultural markets to giant producers like China is to increase food safety standards – notably under the “Good Agricultural Practice” and “Good Manufacture Practice” concepts. It is also revealing that one of the few strictly organic projects currently implemented by the authorities is the Department of Export Promotion’s “Pilot Project on the Export of Organic Farm Products” initiated in 1999. Besides this project, the Department of Agriculture set up organic standards guidelines and a certification body. To date, most of the producers certified are large exporters.

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2.1.2 Certification Body Currently only organic crops are produced in Thailand, which are predominantly organic rice and vegetables, unlike other countries which are already capable of producing organic canned goods and beverages. An estimated 0.013% of the total farmland is under organic management. It is worth noting that since Prime Minister Taksin’s rule of the administrative government began in March 2001, organic agriculture has been promoted as one of the main target policies for agricultural department. Several government agencies, mainly in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, are preparing several large-scale projects for the promotion of organic agriculture. In terms of the organic food regulations in Thailand, the organic food standards can be roughly divided into two channels: the state and private agencies. State standards for organic products are enforced by DOA while private standards are made by Alternative Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT). The following table shows the number of farmers and size of area for each certified body in Thailand (2002). The details of the agencies are described below the table: Certification Bodies DOA IFOAM Other private agencies* Total

Number of farmers 113 300 727 1,140

Size of area (rai) 3,245 5,814 12,369 21,428

Table 2. Number of Farmers and Size of Area for Each Certified Body in Thailand (Source: Agriculturist newspaper, 2004) * Other private agencies including Soil Association, SGS, Splendid, Skal international, BSC EKOGuarantee GMBH (EU 2092/91 standard), and so on.

The Thai government has realized the importance of organic crops in the global market. They believe that it is necessary to set a national standard which is relevant to the international standard. In 1999, the national standards for organic crop production in Thailand were set by three government agencies; Scientific and Technology Research Institute, Department of Export Promotion of Ministry of Commerce, and Department of Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture. The organic methods of cultivation, transformation, packaging, transportation, and selling were established. The notification of national standards for organic crop production in Thailand was officially declared in October 2000. The farmers have to submit an application form to DOA (national or regional agency). Some details are required: • Name and address of the farmer(s) • Location • Detail of product and production process (the farmer(s) has to record duration of area transforming, transformation plan and chemical analysis) • Signature After this, inspectors will evaluate, record, and/or analyze the samples. If the evaluation is passed, DOA will provide an organic certificate to the farmer(s). Also, the farmer(s) will get permission to use the organic logo of Thailand. Another type of standard is an international standard for organic crop production called International Federation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM). IFOAM is a worldwide-accepted 11

standard suggested by Codex Alimentarius. The IFOAM standard has been set since 1980 and more than one hundred countries are members of IFOAM. The IFOAM standard is accepted by the World Trade Organization (WTO). In Thailand, ACT is the certified agency accredited by IFOAM. Their organic standards started from simple standards on the basis of practicability by Thai farmers and progressively developed to a level equivalent to international standards, especially IFOAM Basic Standard which is employed as a framework. The ACT General Assembly first officially approved ACT standards in 1999. In 2000, the ACT Standard Committee revised the standards again to cover more categories of certification. Now ACT has the organic standards of crop production, processing and handling, and wild production standards. ACT has established a mechanism to inspect and certify organic production, from farming to processing to handling to the sale of organic products in green shops. ACT has competent independent inspectors well trained by ACT, and the certification system is ready to serve all operators who want or apply for certification in the following categories: 1. Crop production and on-farm processing 2. Processing and handling 3. Wild production 4. Input manufacturing 5. Aquaculture (Shrimp) Operators who have been certified by ACT are granted the use of the ACT seal on their packaging; therefore, consumers can be confident that organic products with this seal are genuine organic ones. In addition, ACT has been accredited by IFOAM since January 1, 2002. ACT currently is ready to serve operators and traders exporting organic products to other countries. Furthermore, ACT is providing the system to offer inspection and certification services overseas. The structure of ACT and each role is indicated below.

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Associate Member

Full member GENERAL ASSEMBLY • Approve Standard • Elect GB GOVERNING BOARD • Policy decision • Appoint EB, SC, CC • Certification appeal

EXECUTIVE BOARD • Oversight of ACT Administration and finance

STANDARDS COMMITTEE • Recommend standards revision and clarification

CERTIFICATION COMMITTEE • Certification decision

ACT SECRETARIAT • General Manager • Certification Officer • Inspection Officer ACT INSPECTOR • Independent • Trained by ACT • No conflict of interests Figure 4. The Structure of ACT and Roles of Each Actors

2.1.3. Trader There are currently five major producer groups that produce organic rice, most of which is jasmine rice. Two producers are in Chiang Rai, one in Surin, one in Yasothon and another in Khon Kaen. Organic rice is sold mainly through three traders; Capital Rice Co. Ltd., Siam Basmatic Co. Ltd., and Green Net Cooperative. Most of the rice is exported mainly to European markets and only a small quantity is sold domestically. Vegetable production is the second most important organic crop category. Fresh vegetables and baby corn are grown. Several organic producers are engaged in this production. In terms of land, an estimated 16,761.375 rai of farmland is now under organic management. This represented around 0.01356 per cent of the total farmland. (UN, 2002)

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2.1.4. Inter-governmental Organization: UNEP The priorities of UNEP are mainly to carry out environmental monitoring, assessment, information-gathering and research including early warning, enhanced coordination of environmental conventions and development of environment policy instruments, freshwater; technology transfer and industry, and support of less developed countries. In liaison with other UNEP divisions, the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics has developed its approach and focused its activities to respond to these priorities.3 Together with the support by the European Commission’s Asia Pro Eco Programme, UNEP Regional Office of Asia and Pacific Sustainable Consumption Programme was established in 1998. The programme includes components on advertising, youth, eco-design, life cycle assessments, product-service systems, sustainable procurement, and so forth. UNEP’s work with the UN Consumer Guidelines is an integrated part of this programme. Relevant work so far includes a number of national/regional expert meetings (aimed at better understanding the national and regional conditions for sustainable consumption), a global review of the status of implementation of the guidelines, and supporting resource materials. The objective of the Sustainable Consumption (hereinafter referred to as SC Asia) project is to transfer knowledge and experience from European countries to Asian countries and from Asian countries to other Asian countries about the measures (i.e. policies, campaigns, instruments and other tools) that may be applied to successfully implement sustainable consumption in accordance with UN guidelines on consumer protection. The project responds to the call from countries in the region to receive support in promoting sustainable consumption, and is part of the UNEP 10-year framework programme on sustainable production and consumption. The main activities are: 1. Studies of the best practices in Europe and conditions in Asia for sustainable consumption 2. Asia-Europe cross learning seminar where findings from the studies of the best practices in Europe and conditions in Asia for sustainable consumption are synthesized 3. Development of guidelines on sustainable consumption implementation, published in five languages 4. Assistance for participating Asian countries to develop implementation plans for sustainable consumption in accordance with UN consumption guidelines Based on the Guidance Manual, support will be given for participating Asian countries to draft national action plans for implementation of the guidelines (on sustainable consumption). The action plans will include identification of national stakeholders, a programme of information dissemination, training and monitoring needs at a national level. The aim of the action plans is to achieve national level endorsement and commitment to a comprehensive approach to address sustainable consumption issues. The specific characteristics, needs and priorities of the individual countries will be taken into account. A summary report of the action plans will be prepared by UNEP. Finally, the project closure and evaluation according to EU and UNEP standard procedures will be carried out at the end of the project (UNEP, 2004). In 2003 the United Nations published UN Guidelines for Consumer Protection which has become the base of the SC Asia project. One of the most important parts of these guidelines is section G which highlights the promotion of sustainable consumption. With regards to

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UNEP DTIE, 2003 Activity Report. 14

sustainable food consumption, in section H article 57 and 584 emphasized particularly on food and sustainable agriculture, as presented below. “57. Food. When formulating national policies and plans with regard to food, Governments should take into account the need of all consumers for food security and should support and, as far as possible, adopt standards from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius or, in their absence, other generally accepted international food standards. Governments should maintain, develop or improve food safety measures, including, inter alia, safety criteria, food standards and dietary requirements and effective monitoring, inspection and evaluation mechanisms. 58. Governments should promote sustainable agricultural policies and practices, conservation of biodiversity, and protection of soil and water, taking into account traditional knowledge.” (UN DESA, 2003: 8) Other than the above-mentioned programme, UNEP organized a workshop about National action on measures to reduce or eliminate the releases of by-product from unintentional production as requested by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)5. This regional workshop was held on 13 to 15 March 2002 in Bangkok, Thailand. The aim of the workshop was to discuss how to develop regional and national action for reducing or eliminating releases of unintentionally produced by-products6, when implementing the Stockholm Convention on POPs. This workshop is pertinent to the attempt for bringing about sustainable agriculture, especially in developing countries, including Thailand. It is perceived that the total release of dioxins to the environment is not declining, but may be rapidly rising year after year. Dioxins, one of those unintended by-products, are a group of highly toxic chemicals that affect the health of animals and people at exposure levels to which people are exposed in their daily lives. The danger is cumulative because the chemicals are not easily excreted due to their poor solubility in water. Instead, dioxins are stored in body fat and concentrate up through the food web. Wildlife and people are exposed primarily via food, particularly meat, fish, and dairy products. It is therefore deemed important to prevent toxication, particularly of food products (German Federal Environmental Agency, 2002). In line with the attempts of the UN to endorse and promote sustainable consumption on food and agriculture, although not directly associated with the UN initiatives the Thai National Government Agencies have undertaken several measures to endorse sustainable food consumption by launching year 2004 as the “Food Safety Year” in which agricultural and food producers were encouraged to adopt a food chain approach to food safety; namely the Good Agricultural Practices and the Good Manufacturing Practices. As a future projection, the government is in the process of restructuring the agricultural sector to deal with the global competitiveness among trading partners. In so doing, a number of agricultural commodities with promising potential have been selected for further development. This program includes the improvement of organic products as one of the key agricultural sectors in Thailand.

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Referred by Uchita de Zoysa in an interview in London, October 1, 2004. Interview with Niclas Svenningsen, August 19, 2004. 6 Such as PCDD/PCDF (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans), HCB (hexachlorobenzene) and PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) which are released as unintentionally emitted by – products from industrial and non – industrial sources contribute substantially to a contamination of environmental media, biota and food and consequently of man with persistent organic pollutant (POPs). 5

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Furthermore the Thai national government has introduced the campaign “Kitchen of the World” as government policy. In response to the government policy of developing Thailand as the “Kitchen of The World”, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration has launched a “clean food and good taste” project by presenting certificates to various food establishments with hygienic and sanitary conditions for the health benefits of tourists and the general public. Aiming to achieve the “Kitchen of the World” status, the Department of Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has worked out strategies for food safety, implemented from 2003 to 2004. The strategies involve quality control of fruit and vegetable exports and food processing. Emphasis is placed on the reduction of chemical use and hygienic conditions. Food safety also involves the improvement of soil quality (Thailand Board of Investment, 2001). There are several requirements needed to achieve a status for Thailand as the “Kitchen of the World”, which involve the application of a single standard of food for both domestic consumers and foreign markets. It is also pinpointed that logistics and the supply chain must be considered, since problems in delivery could lead to food safety hazards. One of the most important things for Thailand’s food export industry is the issue of transportation, as food can become unsafe during delivery (Benjaprut, 2004). In addition to this, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives urge Thai farmers to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides so that a five-year master plan to make the nation a global centre for organic food can be put into place (Nutraingredients, 2002). The initiation of organic farming projects, most of which focused on setting national standards and certification services with a main objective of facilitating organic exports, is also implemented by the government. For instance, the Organic Crop Institute (OCI), initiated by the DOA, put up an organic crop production standard, based on Codex Alimentarius’s Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labeling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods. The domestic market for health food is estimated to be close to Euro 60 million per year. Growing concern about safe and healthy food and environmental awareness among Thai consumers further contributed to an expanding demand for organic foods and environmentally friendly products. Also, there is a role for non-governmental organizations to stimulate organic production and consumption in Thailand. Green Net Cooperative is a social business organization dedicated to fair trade and organic business. Founded in 1994, Green Net offered market access services to Thai small-scale organic producers and other fair trade benefits. The trading operation included home-delivery, wholesale distribution and export. Green Net has received internationally recognized organic and fair-trade certification from Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) and Fairtrade Labeling Organization (FLO). The range of products offered by Green Net includes fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, rice, grain, eco-textiles, and herbs. Its business benefited more than one thousand farming families all over Thailand. / Despite the interpersonal influence of consumers’ preference, this research also deals with the influence of the UNEP which is undertaking a sustainable consumption project, most specifically the establishment of the UN Guidelines on Consumer Protection to assist the governments of Asia and the Pacific. UN is an inter-governmental organization that acts as an advising and coordinating body. UNEP in this case neither has the mandate nor the resources to enforce any legislation and policies. Instead they provide technical advice, conduct

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research and development, training, fact finding, and most importantly try to assist different stakeholders in society to work together, for instance between the authorities and civil society or between different countries.7 2.1.5. NGOs The Alternative Agriculture Network NGO in cooperation with the Natural Resources and Biodiversity Institute under the Ministry of Agriculture are supportive of the participatory approach for policy development. They have just completed a research on the concept and practice of sustainable agriculture in which organic farming is seen as one system in sustainable agriculture. The institutional framework for a national body to be responsible for coordinating different official projects related to sustainable agriculture is also developed through this cooperation. In terms of organic production, in NGO-supported organic projects, producers are organized as farmer organizations. Only a few organizations are registered as farmer cooperatives or farmer groups. The organization provides technical training, input credits as well as acting as a coordinated marketing mechanism for the members. Most NGOs continue to advocate for local knowledge as the main source for competencies on organic farming and praise farmer-to-farmer extension as the most appropriate form of organic conversion. Several NGOs furthermore have tried to develop specific organic competencies for their members. The largest network of organic competencies are coordinated by Green Net and Earth Net Foundation where a comprehensive organic conversion programme has been developed and implemented in several provinces with over 500 farming families (UN, 2002). 2.1.6. Media Fred S. Siebert’s classic thesis of the press describes the media as always influenced by "the form and coloration of the social and political structures within which it operates" (Siebert in Suriyasarn, 1997). The media reflects the system of social control whereby the individual and institutional relations are linked. Along this line an understanding of these aspects is key to any systematic understanding of the media in any given society. Attitudes play a major role in shaping consumer behavior. Marketing communications such as advertising represent a significant means for persuading consumers. (Engel, Blackwell and Miniard, 1993). The modern systems of production, publicity and communication such as television, newspaper or advertising, may affect an individual’s participation in this process of making judgments and being judged (Lury, 1996). Other writers believe that products are designed to meet existing needs, and advertising only helps to communicate their availability. Advertising is an important source of consumer information. This view emphasizes the economic cost of the time spent searching for products. Accordingly, advertising is a service for which consumers are willing to pay, because the information it provides reduces search time (Solomon, 2002). Therefore advertising gives information to a consumer about a certain product while persuading the consumer to have a preference for the advertised product. The role of newspapers in comparison to other media is significant, as newspapers provide information on local and national events, establish a platform for discussion on issues in the public eye and provide access to a variety of sources (Bierhoff, van Dusseldorp, Scullion, 2001). In Thailand, it was noted that the influence of the press played a significant role in 7

Svenningsen, e-mail correspondence on June 7, 2004. 17

creating Thai public opinion. The event was a commencement point for a greater role of media in democratizing the form of government in Thailand since it also led to a “literature explosion” during which many independent newspapers and publications emerged thereafter. (Pongpanich, 1996). For these reasons, the research is limited to newspapers research. 2.2. Organic Food Production and Availability 2.2.1. Organic Food Production In terms of the production of organic food in Thailand, currently the organic crops which are produced in Thailand are predominantly organic rice and vegetables, unlike other countries which produce organic canned goods and beverages. An estimated 0.013% of the total farmland is under organic management. Organic products in Thailand can be divided into two categories: fresh products and processed products. For fresh products, most organic producers focus on rice production. There are also a small number of vegetable and fruit growers. Field crops are also expanding quite fast. However, there are very few organic chicken farms and there is no organic farm animal production. For processed products, food processing is strategically important for the development of organic agriculture and alternative marketing. Organic food processing adds value to raw materials, leads to an increase in product variety, provides additional income for women producers and builds up grass-roots community enterprises. It can also lead to developing new ways of processing perishable fresh products, thus increasing the profitability of marketing operations, and can create opportunities for foreign-exchange earnings. In Thailand, local producers only use simple processing technologies such as sun-drying, heating, jamming and pickling. There seems to be a large market for processed products but quality must be improved. The Alternative Marketing Network, a network of NGOs working for fair-trade of organic products, decided to focus its development efforts on twelve selected varieties with good market prospects. These products are strawberry jam, dried longan, sesame oil, soy sauce, sesame snacks, palm sugar, shrimp paste, canned water chestnut, local herb tea, dried chilli, wild honey and rice (Panyakul, 1998). 2.2.2. Organic Food Export Thai food exports in general are presented below. Since the financial crisis in 1997, even as food exports have been rising, farmers have become increasingly vulnerable. While food export volumes increased by 49% between 1997 and 2002 (from 19,421 thousand tons in 1997 to 28,926 in 2002), the total value has decreased slightly (from 10,552 to 9,997 million dollars). Thailand is producing more for less. Under the current neo-liberal system, because of the constant decline in commodity prices on the world market, the country needs to keep increasing its production only to maintain the same revenue. This obviously puts a growing pressure on farmers’ income and on natural resources such as land and water (Delforge, 2004). ‘

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Figure 5. Thai Food Exports 1997 – 2002 (Source: National Food Institute/Customs Department in Delforge, 2004)

The organic food produce that is exported overseas accounts for approximately 25% of the whole production of organic vegetables and fruit, and 75% of the whole organic rice and field crops produce.8 The rest of the products are sold on the domestic market. The total number of land under organic farming in Thailand is presented in the table below.

Table 3. Land under Organic Farming in Thailand (in rais), as of 30 June 2004. (Source: Organic Statistics by Green Net / Earth Net, 2004).

In terms of the value of organic produce in Thailand is presented in the table below.

Table 4. Value of Organic food produce in Thailand (in million baht), as of 30 June 2004. 8

Vitoon Panyakul of Green Net, via e-mail contact on January 24, 2005. 19

(Source: Organic Statistics by Green Net / Earth Net, 2004).

In terms of international linkages of organic farming, they occur on both bilateral and multilateral levels. The International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) represents the largest umbrella network of organic agriculture in which, for Thailand, two member organizations are Green Net and Sekai. Green Net has been the most active in developing international linkages through IFOAM (Kantamaturapoj, 2003). The idea of organic agriculture has always been to progress towards an entire organic production chain, which is both socially just and ecologically responsible. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), which represents the world-wide movement of organic agriculture, has aims that relate to workers' rights, their basic needs, adequate return and satisfaction from their work and a safe working environment (IFOAM, 1997). They also aim to encourage organic farming associations to function along democratic lines and uphold the principles of division of power. However, issues of social justice are only now beginning to be part of IFOAM's accreditation procedures (Browne, 2000). On the bilateral level, there have been several exchange activities, research projects and cooperation between Thai and foreign organizations. Thailand is well known for its welldeveloped organic agriculture compared to other Asian countries, therefore often becomes the destination of exposure and study tours as well as a training ground for organic farming. Thai organizations also provide technical consultation for local organizations in the Southeast Asian region. Apart from production-related linkages, Thailand also exports organic products internationally. In order to facilitate organic export, ACT has established several international linkages, such as a partnership with a Swedish certification body KRAF, allowing ACT inspected and certified organic products to enter the European market. Currently, through cooperation with KRAF, ACT inspection and certification is recognized by certification bodies in several European countries, including Bio Swiss in Switzerland, Blink in Belgium and Bio in Austria. ACT is the first IFOAM accredited organic certification body in Asia. Current information from the International Organic Conference in 2003 shows that only crops are produced organically in Thailand and the main organic products are rice and vegetables. There is one organic shrimp farm that has recently been certified. An estimated 24,956.39 rais of land (3,993.02 hectares) are now under organic management, representing around 0.019% of Thailand’s total area of farmland. Pioneers in organic farming are non-governmental organizations, mostly under the Alternative Agriculture Network (AAN), where support for organic conversion has been offered to small-scale producers since 1984. The Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) which was established by AAN in 1995 helps to facilitate market access and export. The ACT received IFOAM Accreditation in 2001 that further contributed to the advancement of the Thai organic movement. There are several foreign private certifiers currently certifying Thai organic producers as well. In the past decade, a number of environmental certificate schemes for agricultural produce have been developed. These initiatives are taken by retailers, food processors, auctioneers and farmers to reduce the negative impact of intensive agriculture on environment quality and biodiversity. The first of these, EKO label, was introduced at the European level in 1991. Its principal feature is zero use of artificial fertilizers and chemical pesticides, although several natural pesticides are permitted. After EKO label, other labels for farming regimes have been developed in both the US and Europe (Manhoudt, 2002).

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2.2.3. Organic Food Availability In terms of the organic food market in Thailand, during the last few years the organic market in Thailand has risen and the number or green shops has increased from zero in 1992 to around forty shops in 1997 (Panyakul, 1998). Due to the economic crisis in Thailand, some Thai people who are affected by the crisis tend to dine at home. This situation has increased the amount they spend on basic food items such as rice, vegetables and fruits (Kantamaturapoj, 2004). Currently there is only little competition among operators of organic food business as it is a new market that involves a small number of operators. Most of the sales take place in the green shops and green corners in the conventional shops. According to a Green Net consumer survey research in Bangkok (1997), 58% of consumers perceive that the present price level of organic food is too expensive, whereas 55% found the price to be appropriate. The respondents who are non organic food consumers claim that there are very few varieties of organic vegetables available, that the prices are too expensive, that the Green Net shops are not within accessible distance, and that they often dine out (Green Net, 2003). The market of organic food produce can be classified into two target audiences: domestic and export. Domestically, DOA actively promotes organic food in Thailand to the extent of endorsement of farmers groups to produce organic crops. The interest and movements within Thailand follow the growth of organic produce exports overseas. The export is initially based on the Thai – European Fair Trade partnership on organic rice; around 10 – 20% of the total 150 tons of rice is inspected by Swiss-based inspectors and certified according to European Commission regulation (Panyakul, 1998). Other than organic rice, the European groups are also interested in indigenous rice varieties, non-GMO and organic soya oil, and dried fruits. 2.3. Organic Food Standards and Labeling The central goals of organic food labeling are credible labeling schemes, reasonable prices of organic foods, and organic product availability. Consumers have become more interested in organic food because of their concern over pesticide use, genetically modified organisms (GMO / engineered foods), irradiated food, and mad cow disease. In Thailand, the Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) was accredited in 2001 and is the first certification body based in Asia to become IFOAM Accredited. ACT was established in 1995 arising out of the Alternative Agriculture Network, a national network of eighty-five NGOs working on sustainable agriculture. Initially the so-called Alternative Agriculture Certification Thailand operated in the field of 'alternative agriculture', but in 1998 it revised its focus to organic farming and changed its name to 'Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand'. ACT is committed to supporting organic agriculture, a farming system in harmony with ecology without the use of synthetic chemicals and artificial fertilizers. They achieved this through enhancing consumer confidence by the development of standards and the provision of inspection and certification services. The standards of ACT were developed from the grassroots, but always with an eye on international equivalence. They remain practical for Thai farmers whilst meeting international market requirements. Through a membership structure, ACT ensures participation of stakeholders. A General Assembly meets to approve standards and elect a Governing Board that is in charge of policy. An Executive Board oversees the day-to-day works of a secretariat led by a General Manager. ACT is registered as a foundation in Thailand and its logo (a design inspired by the shape of ears of rice) is a registered trademark. Certification decisions are made by a central

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certification committee. Although rice is the main product of ACT operators, a wide range of sub-tropical fruits and out of season vegetables are now available along with an interesting range of wild herbs. Although much of the product is exported, there is a growing domestic market. ACT have recently focused attention on providing services to smallholder producers and in 2001 launched an inspection and certification system for special projects with internal control systems which operates fully in line with IFOAM norms on smallholder certification (ACT, 2002). Thailand’s Department of Agriculture is also responsive in promoting organic production and consumption in the country. DOA realized that a large amount of consumers around the world pay more attention to their health and the level of organic consumption rises, hence they encouraged farmers groups to produce organic products. Initially, the main purpose was to export organic products from Thailand to the global market. A few years later, several Thai consumer groups in the big cities were also interested in promoting healthy food consumption, thus organic food was one of the alternatives. As a result, the Department of Agriculture created the label “Organic Thailand” in early 2004. The farmers who had followed the state guidelines could put the organic logo on their food package. There is a project called “safe food” which was launched in 2004 by the MOA. This project is limited to fresh food and vegetables. The government inspector checks whether the final products contain any chemical contamination. If the contamination is at an acceptable level, in the sense that it is not harmful to human health, those products would be considered as “hygienic food”. At the same time, the Department of Medical Science of the MOH established a “food safety” project. The project has many things in common with the project launched by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Public Health also made a “hygienic food” logo to be put on product packaging. The conventional mainstream organic food operators would require certification of their products and it is understood that certification aims to guarantee the organic quality of the food products. Certification is indeed a prerequisite for mainstream international trade, however for domestic or local (national) consumption, organic certification is not as urgent (Prawoto, 2004). For instance, in Japan there is an association of consumers-producers called “Teikei” in which the organic farmers and consumers meet directly and complete transactions (Japan Organic Agriculture Association, 1993). Another example is Migro in Switzerland. As a supermarket, Migro has co-partnership directly with the producers so that Migro understands the process of cultivation. Migro supervises the quality of the organic products together with the farmers, and Migro markets the products while guaranteeing that the marketed products are organic (Chambres d’Agriculture, 2004). These are the notions of guarantee by the first and second party. Obviously direct interaction and trust between consumers and producers/guarantors are required. The decision of whether or not to certify depends on the marketing orientation, international or local. The definitions and descriptions of the types of organic and hygienic produce are as follows: 2.3.1. Organic produce Organic food products are produced without the use of antibiotics, growth hormones, chemicals or pesticides in the process, as explained in section 2.1 above. The production

22

process is friendly to the environment and the end product is 100% chemical and GMO contamination free. Organic logos are different depending on each certification body. Apart from the government, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM) is one of the more prominent and well-known certification agencies in Thailand. Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) is an independent organization, accredited by IFOAM. ACT has been established in Thailand since 1995 and it focuses its effort on certifying organic food produce only. The organic logos are shown below.

Figure 6: Organic logo of the Department of Agriculture (source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

Figure 7: Organic logo of International Federation of Organic Agriculture (source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

2.3.2. Hygienic produce Hygienic production process may use some kinds of allowed chemical substance. Also, the finished products are not 100% chemical contamination free. Yet the level of chemical substance is acceptable and is still safe for human’s health.

Figure 8: Hygienic logo by Department of Agriculture The logo of the hygienic fresh fruit and vegetable production pilot project indicates that the farm which produced the product has passed a food safety inspection by the Department of Agriculture concerning the proper use of pesticides. (source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

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Figure 9: Hygienic logo of the Ministry of Health The Department of Medical Science of the Ministry of Public Health has developed a system to check that vegetables are pesticide-free. This logo is placed on products from farms that were found to comply with these checks.

2.4. Theoretical Model Based on the results of literature review presented in sections 2.1 to 2.4, the following theoretical model that served as a basis for the field research is developed, of which the results are presented in chapter 3 and 4. Individual

Consumer Culture

Government

Demographic Variables Physiological Factors Psychological Factors Attitudes

National Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption

UNEP UN Guidelines on Consumer Protection

Urban middle class

Individual lifestyle

NGOs Retailer

Media

Individual consumers

Food Consumption Policies

L I F E S T Y L E

Organic food purchase and consumption

P R O V I S I O N

- Ministry of Agriculture - Ministry of Health - Ministry of Environment

modes of use modes of access modes of provision modes of production CONSUMPTION--------------------------- PRODUCTION ------------------------------ CYCLES Analysis of strategic conduct Institutional Analysis Figure 10. Analytical Framework (adopted and further analyzed based on Shepherd and Sparks (1994), Axelson and Brinberg (1989), Tolksdorf (1975)) in Sijtsema et al (2001), and Spaargaren, Gert (1999). 24

Theoretically, the argument is that domestic consumption can and should be studied both on the micro and the macro level, without creating something of a 'division' between the two approaches. Taking domestic consumption as a focus also means developing a consumeroriented perspective on production-consumption cycles. Empirically, we have a myriad of lifestyles and domestic environmental arrangements, with different modes of provision and access both within and between different countries (Spaargaren, 1999). This research serves to develop a framework of organic food consumption amid the plethora of influence from the individual choice, government endorsement, retailers’ approaches, and inter-governmental organization.

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3. ORGANIC FOOD AVAILABILITY, PURCHASING AND CONSUMPTION IN BANGKOK, THAILAND This chapter presents the empirical research findings with further elaboration on the technical methods used to answer the research questions. The level of consumer concerns in Thailand in this paper is based on the on-ground survey results in Thai markets which are comprised of three types of target audience. First is a supermarket targeted for the high-income Thai people and expatriates, namely Villa Market. Second is a supermarket chain targeted for the middleclass named Big C, and third is a traditional market that targets those on low incomes. The main objective of the survey is to discover the trends in consumer culture that affect the preference for organic food consumption in Thailand. 3.1. Profile of the Thai Food Markets The traditional food distribution system in Thailand is through so-called ‘wet markets’ which sell fruit, vegetables, meat and fish, together with small ‘mom and pop’9 food stores which distribute dry goods. The retail food market in Thailand can be divided into four major subsectors: (a) supermarkets, (b) superstores, (c) convenience store chains, and (d) traditional markets (wet markets and ‘mom and pop’ stores) (Asean, 2000). This section further elaborates on the two supermarkets and traditional market in which the research takes place. 3.1.1. Supermarkets: Villa Market In Thailand the supermarket developed as an integral part of the department store which is the primary retail distribution channel for the growing middle class. There are approximately 100 supermarkets in department stores in Thailand and because there are 14 department store groups, the ownership is quite fragmented. The one exception is the Central Group which owns Central and Robinson department stores with a total of 35 stores, each having a Tops supermarket (Asean, 2000). Supermarket Chain Tops Siam Jusco The Mall Foodland Sunny's Villa Food Lion

Stores in Bangkok 40 12 7 7 5 8 5

Stores in Provinces Outside Bangkok 2 1 3 -

Total Stores 40 14 7 8 8 8 5

Table 5. Supermarket Chains(source: Asean, 2000)

Villa Market is one of the oldest supermarkets in Thailand that has been in operation for thirty years. Their sales are focused on quality food products and wines from domestic and overseas sources. Currently there are eight branches in major business and residential areas to serve Bangkok customers. The stores are popular and much frequented by high-end Thai shoppers and foreign nationals living in Thailand. At present, Villa Market draws 300,000 customers with high purchasing power each month (Kasikornbank, s.a.)

9

‘Mom and Pop stores’ is a term to describe the businesses that are small, locally-based, and nonchained.

Villa Market opens daily and stocks all household essentials as well as local and imported groceries, fresh fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, fish, liquor, electrical goods, school and office supplies, local and imported magazines and pharmaceutical goods (Villa Market Co. Ltd, s.a.). Villa Market offers a range of herbs and spices for Western style cooking, and also other things that are normally not very easy to find in other local markets in Thailand such as sun-dried tomatoes, dried beans, assorted cheeses and so on. The Villa Markets are open 24 hours, seven days a week. 3.1.2. Superstores: Big C In the mid 1990s the rage in retailing across Asia was the rapid development of superstores and nowhere was the competition more intense than in Thailand. A superstore, typically 1520,000 square meters, provides all the basic needs of a consumer under one roof, and prices are very competitive. Superstores can generally offer products at prices 20-30% below those of department stores and 15-20% lower than supermarket prices. Unlike most department stores which tend to target the middle and upper middle classes, the superstore is targeted at all classes. As such the majority of superstores have opened in the provinces where this concept is seen to have enormous growth potential in the long term. Superstore Chain

Stores in Bangkok

Stores in Provinces Outside Bangkok

Total Stores

Big C Carrefour Lotus Supercentre Makro Total superstore

40 10

40 1

80 11

12

12

24

6 35

12 38

18 73

Table 6. Superstore Chains

The superstore business was dominated by the Central Group (Big C and Carrefour) and the CP Group (Lotus and Makro) until the economic downturn during which ownership and the competitive situation changed significantly in the superstore category. There are now five competitors all of which are foreign owned and all with massive financial resources at their disposal. Under these conditions and with such good long-term prospects, competition can only be expected to increase (Asean, 2000). Big C emerged with a new concept of retail business under the theme of ‘supercenter’ which means the store tries to meet the consumers’ demands for daily needs. It is simply a combination of a discounted store and food outlet, to provide customer satisfaction and quality products at very low prices every day. The Big C Supercenter Public Company Limited now operates forty Big C stores all over Thailand, with more than 11,500 employees, and its 2003 total turnover amounted to 42,342 million Baht. "Big" simplifies "respectable size and enormous space" and "C" is the abbreviation for "Customers". Therefore, Big C store is a modern retail outlet with spacious facilities to ensure customer needs and satisfaction. The complete product line-ups are available at the most competitive prices designed to serve the preference of Thai consumers. Big C is a large-sized and modern retail outlet for everyone in the family. It stocks a wide variety of quality 27

products, ranging from fresh food, personal items and clothing to household appliances. Most of these are purchased from leading domestic manufacturers. Products available in a Big C store can be divided into four main departments: Fresh Food: this department includes meats, seafood, vegetables, ready-to-cook and ready-to-eat foods, dairy products, frozen foods and bakery items. The sales of the Fresh Food Department amount to 10% of the total sales. Dry Food: this department includes ready-made food, condiments, beverages, snacks, liquors, personal effects, chemical products for cleaning, dry foods and general articles for pets. The sales of the Dry Food Department amount to 50 % of the total sales. Soft Line: this department includes clothes and cosmetics. The sales of the Soft Line Department amount to 15% of the total sales. Hard Line: this department includes bedding, appliances, kitchenware, furniture, sports equipment, car accessories, toys and renovation equipment. The sales of the Hard Line Department amount to 25% of the total sales. 3.1.3. Traditional Markets: Sri-Sa-Wad There are an estimated 300,000 small "mom and pop" stores in Thailand selling rice and dry grocery products and some 600,000 "wet market" vendors selling mainly fruits and vegetables, meat and fish. As the Thai economy continues to develop there will be a significant shift in consumer buying habits from the traditional markets to the new supermarkets and superstores. The trade advises that as much as 60% of the food retail trade in the Bangkok area is now through supermarkets, superstores, or convenience stores with the traditional wet markets now accounting for about 40% of the volume. The percentage of food distribution through the wet markets is, however, much higher in the provinces. The table below indicates that 75% of the Thai food retail trade is still through traditional markets and is the primary reason why foreign retailers are so optimistic about future growth prospects (Asean, 2000). Supermarkets Superstores Convenience Stores Traditional markets Total

$ US Millions 1762 1325 503 10969 14559

Share (%) 12 9 4 75

Table 7. Retail food sales by major segment (source: Asean, 2000, 1998 estimate)

The traditional market used in this survey is Sri-Sa-Wad, located in 23 Pradipath Street, Saphankwai. It is one of the many mushrooming ‘wet’ traditional markets throughout Bangkok. 3.2. Organic Food Products Availability in Surveyed Markets The types of organic food available in the supermarket Villa Market and superstore Big C are organic vegetables, white rice, eggs, tofu, corn, brown rice, butter and wheat. It is noted through on-ground research in the supermarkets that sell organic food products that some products are certified by IFOAM while some products are certified by other certifiers. Moreover, some of the organic food products, if not placed with the healthy, hygienic, and

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pesticide-free food products, are placed on shelves assorted with other regular food products that do not allow consumers to distinguish and identify them. In some supermarkets, organic food products are placed under a large caption board stating “Pesticide-free”; hygienic food products are also put in this area. Based on the retailers’ survey the types of organic food items for sale are as follows: Markets Organic food items

Villa Market -

Eggs Vegetables Butter Brown rice White rice Tofu Corn Wheat

Big C -

Vegetables Corn

Traditional market “Sri Sa Wad” No organic food products are available.

Table 8. Organic Food Products Available in Surveyed Markets

Villa Market evidently offers more variety of organic food products which implies that there already is an existing niche market of organic food in this supermarket. Big C, on the other hand, only offers a limited number of organic products, although the sorts of organic vegetables are diverse. There is apparently a small amount of organic food consumers in the Big C, although not as many as in Villa Market. In the traditional market “Sri Sa Wad”, no organic food products are available whatsoever. 3.3. Organic Food Purchasing and Consumption 3.3.1. Personal Information of Respondents Of the 60 respondents who represent Thai consumers, 53% of them are females with an age ranging between 25 to 34 years old, with the number of family members in the household mostly is under four. A 60% majority have attained an education level of bachelor degree, with the main occupations being employees, students, and private businessmen. Thai people normally do not have any special dietary requirements; however, of all respondents at the three market places, 20% of the respondents of Villa Market claim to be vegetarians. In terms of food items purchasing for daily food consumption purposes, most of the Thai people interviewed prefer to purchase food from the supermarkets (20%) rather than the traditional market (15%) or local shops (5%). They normally go to the market everyday (15%) or twice a week (11.7%) for routine grocery shopping. 3.3.2. Eating Habits The eating habits of Thai people can be inferred from the food items consumed daily for breakfast, lunch, and dinner as presented in the tables below. Breakfast consumed on the day of interview Breakfast normally consumed 10 Plain rice (43%) 26 Plain rice (45%) None (26%) 16 None (26%) Rice and coffee (5%) 3 Milk (5%) Milk (3%) 2 Bread (3%) Rice and eggs (3%) 2 Coffee (3%) 10

27 16 3 2 2

Note: 48.3% of all respondents usually eat breakfast at home whereas 10% eat breakfast in the office.

29

Soup (1.6%) Biscuit and juice (1.6%) Sweets (1.6%) Rice and pork (1.6%) Rice, coffee and tea (1.6%) Bread and coffee (1.6%) Rice and vegetables (1.6%) Coffee (1.6%) Doughnut and low fat milk (1.6%) Noodles (1.6%) Eggs (1.6%) Total Lunch eaten on the day of interview Rice (46%) Noodles (23%) Rice and pork (6%) None (6%) Salad (5%) Noodles and meatballs (3%) Rice and chicken (1.6%) Rice and curry (1.6%) Rice and vegetables (1.6%) Rice, soup and eggs (1.6%) Rice, coffee and tea (1.6%) Total Dinner eaten on the evening prior to interview

Rice (68%) Seafood, vegetables and meat (10%) None (3%) Noodles (1.6%) Milk (1.6%) Rice and eggs (1.6%) Rice and vegetables (1.6%) Noodles and milk (1.6%) Chicken burger (1.6%) Salad (1.6%) Rice and pork (1.6%) Noodles and pork (1.6%) Chicken and vegetables (1.6%) Rice, soup and tofu (1.6%) Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60 28 14 4 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 60

Rice and eggs (1.6%) Rice and curry (1.6%) Sandwich (1.6%) Rice, coffee, and tea (1.6%)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Seafood, vegetables, meat & rice 1.6%)

Bread and coffee (1.6%) Rice and coffee (1.6%) Cereal and low fat milk (1.6%) Noodles (1.6%) Cereal (1.6%) Total Lunch normally eaten Rice (56%) Noodles (18%) Rice or noodles (12%) None (3%)

60 11

Rice, coffee, and tea (1.6%) Rice and curry (1.6%) Rice and pork (1.6%) Sandwich and juice (1.6%) Salad (1.6%)

34 11 7 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

Total

60

Dinner normally eaten12 Rice (82%) Seafood, vegetables and meat (5%) Soup (3%) Rice and eggs (3%) Rice and noodles (3%) Vegetables (1.6%) Meat, vegetables and rice (1.6%)

49 3 2 2 2 1 1

Seafood, vegetables, meat & rice (1.6%)

41 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60 Total

60

Table 9. Types of Food items for Daily Consumption (source: consumers’ survey)

11

Note: 26.7% of all respondents usually eat lunch at the office, 20% eat their lunch at a street stall, 18.3% eat at home, and 16.7% eat at a restaurant. 12 Note: 66.7% of respondents normally eat dinner at home, 15% dine out at a restaurant and 11.7% at a street stall.

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In terms of grazing / snacking, 50% of all respondents normally eat snacks between meal times such as sweets (13%), bread (10%), and chips (10%); whereas the other half are not accustomed to snacking. 3.3.3. The 'Social Organization' of the Eating Process The 'social organization' of the eating process as part of eating habits characteristics and the criteria for purchasing food and organic food is elaborated by Thai people as follows: up to 30% of respondents strongly agree, and 20% agree, that they often dine / eat out in restaurants or other types of eating places. Most of them normally enjoy their meal with their friends or family / spouses instead of eating alone. 3.3.4. Criteria for Purchasing Food and Organic Food The criteria that Thai people apply when choosing, purchasing and consuming food in general can be reflected by respondents’ judgments as presented in the following table. Priority Criteria for Selecting Food 1 Freshness 2 Taste 3 Information on labels of packaged products 4 Health 5 Cost / price 6 Brand image 7 Advertisements in media 8 Special offers 9 Animal friendliness 10 Environmental friendliness 11 Organic 12 Fair trade 13 Calories 14 Epidemics, e.g. avian flu 15 Local produce Table 10. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Food (source: consumers’ survey)

Whereas the criteria to purchase organic food by organic food consumers are as follows. Priority 1 2 3 4

Criteria for Selecting Organic Food Health (69%) Safety (19%) Advertisements / Information on Media No particular reason

Table 11.. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Organic Food (source: consumers’ survey)

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3.3.5. Underlying Reasons for Purchasing Organic Food Of all respondents interviewed in this research 26.7% are organic food consumers, 18.3% from Villa Market respondents and 8.3% from Big C respondents. The percentage of organic food consumers from the twenty respondents from Villa Market is 55%, and from the twenty respondents from Big C is 25%. None of the respondents from Sri-Sa-Wad traditional market are organic food consumers. The organic food consumers found the information about organic food mainly from newspapers (50%), from magazines (25%) and the internet (12.5%). The main reasons for consuming organic food are because of health concerns (68.8%) and safety reasons (18.8%). The availability of organic food products in Thai supermarkets and consumption of organic products by Thai respondents can be seen in the table below in the order of frequency of consumption. Organic products consumed Organic vegetables Organic white rice Organic eggs Organic tofu Organic corn Organic brown rice Organic butter Organic wheat

Frequency of purchase and consumption Frequently Sometimes Never No response 68 % 31 % 56 % 37 % 6% 37 % 43 % 12 % 6% 25 % 56 % 18 % 18 % 62 % 18 % 12 % 68 % 18 % 6 % 56 % 31 % 6% 6 % 37 % 50 % 6%

Table 12. Purchase and Consumption of Organic Products by Organic Food Consumers

Of all the organic food purchased by organic food consumers, most of the products are usually purchased from the supermarkets (87.5%). Most of the consumers have been consuming organic food for more than a year. The range of period of consuming organic food is diverse; however the majority of respondents have been consuming organic food for four years (10%) and five years (10%). There were several respondents who were unable to respond to this due to failure to recall for how long they have been consuming organic food. 53.3% of the organic food consumers agree that organic food is indeed more expensive than regular / non-organic food, although most of the organic food items needed by the consumers are available in the supermarkets. 46.7% of the respondents strongly disagree with the statement that the organic food items they need are not available in the supermarkets. Apart from the availability of organic food in the supermarkets, the perception of consumers in terms of organic food availability in restaurants or street stalls is researched. In the questionnaire responses, there are several respondents who claim that organic food is available in the restaurants and stalls (33.3%) and a similar majority believes that organic food is not available in such places (33.3%). A contradiction of opinion also occurred in the perception of consumers with respect to the availability of information in the market where organic foods are usually purchased. Of all the organic food consumers, 26.7% agree that the market where they purchase organic food

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already provides ample information on organic food. On the contrary, an equal 26.7% of respondents disagree. The majority (73.3%) of the organic food consumers strongly agree that organic food is healthier than non-organic food. In terms of freshness, 40% of respondents agree that organic food would stay fresh as long as regular / non-organic food. It is also worthy to note that with regards to the avian flu outbreaks, 26.7% of respondents strongly agree with the statement that the outbreaks have increased their interest in organic food, and 26.7% of respondents agree with the statement. Although the organic food consumers claim that the information about organic food is obtained from the newspapers, 53.3% of them agree that the information is still considerably low. The majority (40%) of the organic food consumers strongly agree that if organic food would cost the same as regular food, they would willingly consume more organic food produce. 3.3.6. Willingness to Consider Organic Alternatives by Non-Organic Food Consumers According to the responses of the questionnaires with non-organic food consumers, 84.1% of respondents are willing to consider consuming organic food produce. Of the major types of food consumed, the types of organic food alternatives which Thai nonorganic food consumers are willing to consider are as follows.

Organic food products

Organic vegetables Organic eggs Organic white rice Organic tofu Organic corn Organic brown rice Organic butter Organic wheat

Consideration to purchase and consume Most likely

Likely

Quite unlikely -

Unlikely

2%

Quite likely 21 %

-

Least likely -

73 % 64 % 59 % 32 % 32 % 36 %

4.5% 9% 18 % 9% 22 %

27 % 25% 39 % 39 % 16 %

2% 2% 9%

2% 11 % 11 %

2% 2% 2% -

18 % 16 %

25 % 14 %

11 % 4.5 %

14 % 27 %

20.5% 9%

7% 25 %

Table 13. Willingness to consider purchasing organic food products

According to the above table, the currently non-organic food consumers were most willing to consider purchase and consume organic vegetables, which is the most common organic food product that generally available in the supermarkets and superstores. Organic eggs turned out to be the second most considered organic food products purchase and consumption, yet this organic food item is only available at Villa Market. As Thai people consume rice which they incorporate as their daily diet, organic white rice becomes one of their considerations for purchase and consumption. Unfortunately organic white rice was also found in Villa Market only.

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4. THAI NEWSPAPER COVERAGE OF FOOD AND ORGANIC FOOD This chapter further elaborates on the methods and research empirical findings of the content analysis of the five newspapers in terms of news coverage of organic food issues, the types of news presented and the profile of each newspaper. 4.1. Media Coverage on Issues Pertinent to Food As mentioned in the previous chapter, the issues pertaining to food particularly on the safety and quality sides have been subjected to tremendously heated debate in the media. Although the discussions were not directly aimed at organic food, the media paid a considerable amount of concern to the health and safety sides of food provisioning. Moreover there were a number of articles published on a frequent basis in response to the attempt of the Thai government to set 2004 as “Food Safety Year”. This endeavor is in contrast to the current situation on the ground as since early 2004, avian flu outbreaks emerged and became the main point of discussion in the media and brought about continuous debate in public. Other than issues relating to food safety and avian flu, there were several more debates regarding food contamination, illegal and over use of pesticide in food production, food poisoning, GMOs, health food (misinterpreted by some as organic food), chemical contamination in food, and so forth. Based on research of the five different newspapers, it was apparent that there were no advertisements found on organic food products whatsoever. On the contrary, the number of non-organic food advertisements was high. Although there were a few articles specifically discussing organic food, in general the media paid attention to food issues beyond the food chain such as the avian flu outbreaks and food safety.

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Organic food advertisement Organic food articles Non organic food advertisement Non organic food article Birdflu Thairath

Ban Muang The Nation Bangkok Business

Bangkok Post

Foodsafety

Figure 11. Media coverage of organic food, non-organic food, avian flu outbreaks and food safety

Among the sixty respondents interviewed, the majority of respondents (50%) read Thairath. However, in regards to Figure 11 above, Thairath was the newspaper with the lowest coverage of issues pertaining to food.

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4.2. Further Elaboration of Methods Prior to selecting the newspapers that were going to be researched, the researcher undertook a desk study that involved internet investigation to decide which Thai newspapers have the widest circulation and popularity, based on the number of readers. The final list of the newspapers were Kom Chad Luek, Bangkok Post, Naewna, Bangkok Business, The Nation, Thaisarn News, Thairath, Khao Sod, Ban Muangand Matichon. During the survey in Thailand, the researcher also informally interviewed and observed the local Thai people to determine which five newspapers would best represent the 460 newspaper titles that are available in Thailand. After further assessment measures were taken, the final list of the newspapers included only the five newspapers which were perceived as best representing Thai newspapers: Bangkok Post, The Nation, Bangkok Business, Thairath and Ban Muang. Of the five selected newspapers, the former three newspapers are in English language and the latter two newspapers are in Thai language. During the research of newspapers, a Thai research assistant was present to support the process, which was essential and substantially helpful to the whole content analysis research. The essence of the content analysis research was to calculate the number of information items devoted to food issues. The information taken from the newspapers was divided into two groups: advertisements and articles. These groups were then sub-divided: the advertisements into advertisements of organic food or non-organic food; the articles classified as organic food, non-organic food, avian flu or food safety. The types of articles include news coverage, features, editorial, commentary, analysis, readers’ opinions, etc. The section on recipes was not included in the research. The newspapers were drawn in stratified random sampling of four issues within each calendar month between the periods of 1 August 2003 until 31 July 2004. In order to better understand the technical implementation of this content analysis research, the figure below is presented. 4.3. Politics in Thai Media The four-year-term government under the Thairakthai Party led by Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra has had an effect on the condition of the Thai media (he was appointed early this year for the second term as Thai Prime Minister). The year 2002 was declared by the Thai Journalists Association as the “year of media interference”, while 2003 was the “year of media round up” since there were some obvious efforts from the authorities to penetrate media workings, although the Constitution of Thailand 1997 guarantees and supports more freedom of media reporting and opinion-giving than previous constitutions enforced in the kingdom of Thailand. Finally, 2004 was claimed as the “year of division and destruction” of Thai media.

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Thai language newspapers

English language newspapers Bangkok Post

The Nation

Bangkok Business

Advertisements

Organic food

Thairath

Ban Muang

Articles

Non-organic food

News coverage, features, editorial, commentary, analysis, column, readers’ opinion, etc.

Organic food

Non-organic food

Bird flu

Food safety

Figure 12. Implementation of Content Analysis Research

Throughout 2004, Prime Minister Thaksin often criticized the media in a way which suggests that Thaksin experiences unpleasant feelings towards exposure in the newspapers. Yet Thaksin’s objections were mainly focused on two of the English language newspapers of Thailand: Bangkok Post and The Nation. The interference measures taken by the Prime Minister were not merely forceful criticism, but also led to the impeachment of the Bangkok Post editor Veera Prateepchaikul on February 20, 2004. (Thai Journalists Association, 2004). Despite such incidents, the Thai press was considered one of the freest in Southeast Asia. The western "free press" ideology was introduced to Thailand after a change in the political system from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy in 1932. The Western Fourth Estate philosophy has been taught in all Thai journalism schools and press freedom was stated as the ultimate importance for journalists in the Press Association Code of Ethics in Thailand. In comparison with Thai broadcasting media such as television and radio that have always been under the control of the state government, Thai printed media is considerably more independent. Moreover, it was evident that the Thai press emerged prior to the significant change of the political system in 1932 that affected the way in which Thai printed journalism developed, as it did not fall under robust control by a military-dominated government as happened to the broadcast media which emerged after the 1932 revolution and then quickly became the state government’s propaganda machine. Private ownership patterns have been established for the Thai press and there has been little attempt by the government to change such patterns, despite the ubiquitous government policy to suppress freedom of the media in general (Suriyasarn, 1997). To sum up, Thai newspapers have always remained privately owned since the beginning. It can be argued that this private and relatively diverse ownership pattern of the printed media in Thailand has resulted in relatively more independence and freedom for the Thai press. The importance of undertaking research on newspaper and disclose the political backgrounds in relevance to organic food can be explained as follows. It is evident that printed media plays pivotal role to bring out public opinions in the open. The more freedom the press media

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obtains, the better quality and quantity of expressions to constructively criticize or give feedback to the government (i.e. consistency of Thai government to bring about food safety amidst the various problems occur on the food chains) and share personal insights (for instance to promote organic food consumption as healthier alternatives and to encourage government to make more stringent measures in promoting organic food consumption). 4.4. Profiles of Thai Printed Media As previously mentioned, the printed media are largely privately-run, with a handful of Thailanguage dailies accounting for the majority of newspaper sales, represented by Thairath and Ban Muang in this research. Thailand has two major English language newspapers for general news which are the Bangkok Post and The Nation. Both are large and prominent newspapers, and furthermore over the years have been leading newspapers in Asia, having won many awards from international trade organizations. Expatriates have consistently rated Thailand's newspaper status as among the best in Asia.13 Comparing the two newspapers was not applicable as each has its own strengths and weaknesses relative to the other; nonetheless they were equivalently excellent in terms of quality and quantity of news and information. Although both of the aforementioned newspapers include decent business sections, Englishspeaking readers who strive for business news and information were encouraged to read Bangkok Business, which is claimed to be "Thailand's first international business daily". The news presented in the five newspapers was deemed similar in terms of the issues and topics discussed, since the research was conducted over the same period of time. Most of the newspapers brought up the issues of the Food Safety Year 2004 campaign, the government’s policy of “Kitchen of the World” and the avian flu outbreaks in the headlines during the given research period, as they were on-going debates in the public eye. Each newspaper presented in a different way discussions and points of view, although they were focused on similar - if not the same - issues. As the Thai government gave more attention to food safety issues, there were a number of articles discussing this particular matter. Although the number of articles about organic food were considerably less than articles pertaining to non-organic food, it was indeed interesting to reveal the discussion of the Thai public about food in general as a response to the food safety issues and policies put forward by the government. The Thai people became more sensitive about the problems created by the widespread avian flu outbreaks and the quality, safety and health of the food they consume, and thus strove for healthier and safer food alternatives. This subchapter elaborates on the profile of each newspaper, newspaper type and news content. 4.4.1. Thairath Thairath is the biggest newspaper in Thailand with a production capacity of 360,000/hour, total production of 1,000,000 per day and successfully draws the attention of approximately 25,000,000 readers.14 The target audience of Thairath is referred to as ‘omni-directional’. The distribution of Thairath is nationwide and the typicality of this newspaper is a colorful blend of sensationalism, crime and politics. 13 14

Based on observation and informal interview with UN expatriates in Bangkok, Thailand. http://www.thairath.co.th/ 37

Thairath exposes news with a critical way of writing the reportage, and it is designed to appeal to a wide variety of readers by supporting different political parties and interest groups through its spread of columns. The types of news published in the newspaper with regards to food were as follows: - In the headline section, there was coverage of several news items: • In relation to the latest government policy on food safety, it was reported that one of the government’s main priorities was the implementation of the campaign to establish Food Safety Year in 2004. The official announcement from the Thai Prime Minister was also published, in which he stated that the foods either intended for local consumption or for export must be of the same standard and safe for consumption. The responsibility to ensure food safety has been assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and the Ministry of Public Health. Other than that, the government’s policy to launch Thailand as the “Kitchen of the World” was also covered. The main concern addressed was to prepare Thailand in promoting Thai restaurants and Thai grocery businesses overseas. • The newspaper exposed the avian flu outbreak, the current state of the epidemic in Thailand, the death tolls in Thailand and Vietnam, avian flu vaccination for poultry, and printed confirmation of the first human cases of avian flu in Thailand. • It covered GMOs in food, particularly the latest GMO papaya scandal in Thailand and the pressure on the Food and Drug Administration to issue a labeling policy to give people information that will help them to make their consumer choices. -

In the scientific column of Thairath, information regarding organic vegetable farming was exposed. It wrote that organically grown vegetables have a great potential for export, besides sales in the domestic market, yet many aspects of the organic farming system have to be studied in detail and standardized. Apart from that, it stated that the costeffectiveness of this agricultural system was also deemed important, But that nonetheless, organic farming is a challenging business.

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News articles that covered relevant topics of public heated debate were those about: • Raw and ready to eat food as the new trends in Thai modern culture, and the safety measures in those particular types of food. • Illegal and excessive use of pesticides in food and the establishment of safety measures on exported food items. It was reported that the measures were deemed necessary as Thailand is a major food exporting country, and to decrease food contamination by chemicals and other harmful substances, the cooperatives approach a solution encompassing cooperation and coordination of food safety control. • Information regarding the consumption of chicken, fried food, pork and fast food safely. The recommended usage and dosage of food coloring in food items were also published as ‘tips’ for readers.

4.4.2. Ban Muang Ban Muang is a Bangkok – based reportage newspaper that is mainly distributed in Bangkok. It is not as popular as Thairath, which is nationwide. Apart from news, it has a special section of advertisements and most Thais use this ads section as a reference for buying and selling products. This newspaper reached a daily readership of approximately 290.000 people in 2002.15

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http://www.banmuang.co.th/ 38

Ban Muang is owned by Ban Muang Kan Pip (Ban Muang Printing Press). This newspaper is owned by politician, Banharn Silpa-Archa, who was prime minister from July 1995 until July 2000. News items that were published in Ban Muang with respect to food issues were: - In the front page headlines, it reported on the government policies of the “Kitchen of the World” and “Food Safety Year 2004” campaigns. It generally aimed to publicize the decisions and measures taken by the government to combat the avian flu epidemic. Moreover, field journalism covering the occurrences of and deaths caused by avian flu in certain areas of Thailand and other countries such as Vietnam was reported. - A number of articles appeared in the scientific column with regards to organic spices, organic vegetables and organic farms. It was reported that Thailand has now become one of the biggest organic spice exporters in the area, competing with other Asian exporters such as India, China, and Vietnam. - Other types of news referring to food in general included articles covering: • • •

New varieties of mangos that were grown using hybrid methods. Pasteurized milk; commercially sold milk products were pasteurized or heat-treated which kills the bacteria that may be present in raw milk. Health food; it reported that the wealthier economy has increased the level of consumer health awareness that in turn has resulted in the Thai health food business flourishing.

4.4.3. The Nation The Nation is one of the English language newspapers in Thailand (others being the Bangkok Post and Bangkok Business). The slogan of this newspaper heralds itself as the “Independent Newspaper” and the target audience of this newspaper is well-educated people and foreigners (expatriates) in Thailand. The Nation is owned by Nation Multimedia Group, who also own the Bangkok Business. The distributor is SED Group, which is also one of the companies in the group. The Nation is circulated in Bangkok and other big cities such as Phuket, Chaimai and Nakorn Ratchasima. By 2002, the total number of readers had reached up to 43,000.16 The Nation to some extent possesses similar qualities to the Bangkok Post. However some people who compare the editorials in the Bangkok Post and The Nation feel that The Nation is usually more critical of the government, though clearly both were critical to similar degrees. The Nation somewhat provides more in depth coverage at local news and analysis than the Bangkok Post. The Nation is sometimes qualitatively measured as being fairly radical in this typically conservative culture, yet it seems to address the questionable cultural values more often than other newspapers.17 One could argue that The Nation is preferable to the Bangkok Post because it seems to be multifaceted and more sensitive and respectful to a diversity of viewpoints, in addition to providing somewhat more profound local analysis. In a nutshell, The Nation is seemingly a bit more courageous, cutting edge and ambitious. Nonetheless, both papers complement one another, especially in their analysis sections, and there is not a lot of difference between the two.

16

http://www.nationmultimedia.com/ Based on observation and discussion with the UN expatriates and officers in Bangkok, Thailand who read The Nation.

17

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Based on the content analysis research, the researcher found several interesting articles, for instance: - The headlines published news on food safety and the government’s policies regarding food safety. The avian flu outbreaks were also in the headlines, as was the case with other newspapers in Thailand. The rise in death tolls caused by avian flu in Thailand and Vietnam was reported. While exposing the truth, The Nation tried to discourage mass panic by ensuring the readers that the government has and continuously is taking actions to tackle the problems of avian flu, and the statements were mostly on Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra’s behalf. - The ‘Opinion’ section provides commentaries, both from the editor of the newspaper and contributors. Specifically relevant to organic food consumption were articles such as: ƒ The growing concern for organic food in Thailand as a healthier, safer alternative that guarantees produce that is free from contamination by chemicals, pesticides, GMOs, or other harmful substances.. ƒ Several comments in response to the government’s new policies in relation to food safety which contain skepticism in spite of the hope that the policies will be put into practice for the sake of the whole Thai nation. ƒ Commentaries that assert the recommendations of the government, i.e. provincial governors were enforced to make sure that all chicken slaughterhouses use standard procedures when slaughtering chickens, the provincial governors across the country shall adopt strict control measures banning the movement of poultry, and they will report chicken deaths in all areas. - In the ‘National’ section, occurences of chemical contamination in seafood, pesticide contamination in vegetables, and food poisoning were published. As the government launched the Food Safety Year 2004 campaign, more attention was drawn to food safety issues that included contamination and the health impacts of consuming certain foods. - In the ‘Weekend’ part of the newspaper that was only published on Saturday and Sunday, news was provided about the promotion of organic coffee products from Sumatra by Starbucks in Thailand as an alternate, healthier, more environmentally friendly coffee. - Other relevant news published in The Nation included: ƒ Chemical contamination in seafood and GMOs in papaya. ƒ Different varieties of beverages such as beers and soft drinks in Thailand. ƒ The bad effects of fizzy drinks and alcoholic beverages on human health. ƒ Fast food as a reflection of Thai contemporary society’s unhealthy eating habits. ƒ A report on state agencies that are working with private industries to develop and promote the country’s herbal products to promote the country's herbs in the world market. ƒ The new hybrid rice variety that was distributed to farmers across Thailand. ƒ The risks of consuming cereals, as some products contain more sugars and fats that may increase the risk of obesity and high blood fat levels. ƒ News on sugar production, reporting that Thailand is now the world's third largest sugar exporter after Brazil and Europe. ƒ An article on Thai coffee that is roasted for local and export market. ƒ Food borne illness and food poisoning caused by pesticides and contagious chemicals, and the measures to prevent such ailments. ƒ The benefits of food, herbal supplements, milk, and green tea for human health

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4.4.4. Bangkok Business Bangkok Business is a daily newspaper with a circulation throughout Bangkok metropolitan areas and the nearby provinces. This newspaper attracted around 8,000 readers in 2002.18 Bangkok Business is a newspaper that is focused on reporting all types of business related news. The main news coverage is business, both in the local and international sphere. Nonetheless, more than half the news coverage is for other types of news including politics, education, sport and entertainment. Bangkok Business is owned by Nation Multimedia Group, the owner of The Nation newspaper. Apart from these two newspapers, Nation Multimedia Group also owns a nationwide tabloid called Kon-Chat-Luk , which is another printed media business. Nation Multimedia Group is also the owner of a news TV cable station and news radio station.19 The reportage in Bangkok Business pertaining to organic food was mostly from a business perspective, as well as being linked to the constraints of business opportunities. The organic food market in Thailand is perceived as a growing niche and therefore many investors are eyeing up the possibilities of this business to continue. The news that was published in Bangkok Business was classified in different columns. -

The ‘Business and Finance’ section covered information on the current existence of organic farms and organic vegetables in Thailand. It was mentioned that since the “green market” continues to expand in response to the new trend of health-conscious consumers, organic products are now in greater demand in the world market. It said that Thailand’s organic products have vast opportunities, because the markets for these products are large. As for non-organic food news, the publicity of the dried tropical fruit business and the future of food exports were presented.

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In the ‘Editorial’ column, the Bangkok Business editor commented on the latest news and happenings, in which avian flu outbreak issues were presented. Other news related to the epidemic bird flu outbreaks was also analyzed, aimed at turning the threat into business opportunities. For instance, it reported on the shift to competitively priced soybeans in an attempt to keep costs to a minimum amid fears of avian flu that may cut down on the demand for soybeans feed from poultry farmers.

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The ‘Local’ column presented news such as the current state government policy on “Kitchen of the World” and “Food Safety Year 2004” to inform readers about the business opportunities which could arise from these. The standards on food were also elaborated upon in articles within this column to make the readers well-informed on the food standardization and specification as well as hygienic and labeling requirements that are regulated by the Thai Food and Drug Administration of the Ministry of Public Health.

-

Other news that discussed food in general included articles concerning: ƒ ƒ

18 19

Food contamination with intense amount of pesticides, hormones and chemicals as well as GMOs. Health food as an alternative option to bring about a healthier lifestyle.

www.business.vu.edu.au/bho2250/Top20media/TopmediaSE-Asia.html#Thailand http://www.bday.net/ 41

ƒ ƒ

ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ

The previous outbreak of mad cow disease in Europe and the brain-damaging disease which causes death for humans who eat the infected beef. Information about food additives, stating that in Thailand the usage of food additives was regulated by food regulating agencies or health ministry departments Fast food, indicating the increasingly high rates of fast-food consumption in Thai society despite its vicious effects on health. Canned goods as one of the important manufacturing exports involving large investments made by private firms. The wide range of appetizing snacks available in the Thai market. The recent soaring business of fruit drinks ( pure fruit juices and concentrated fresh juices mixed with water) in the Thai malls and superstores.

As Bangkok Business newspaper is written in English, the target audience is not merely the well-educated Thais and expatriates, but also prospective foreign investors that may invest in Thai business. The newspaper has a website that is updated daily and contains the news as printed in the newspaper. Therefore this newspaper is accessible to foreigners who are interested in investing and establishing businesses in Thailand. 4.4.5. Bangkok Post Bangkok Post was founded by an American in 1946 and is staffed with a mix of foreigners and Thais. As a newspaper that prides itself on being the voice of the times and a mirror of Thailand, the Bangkok Post has continued to evolve while maintaining its core values of impartiality, accuracy and fair reporting and analysis. Daily news and analysis remain the key focus of the Bangkok Post with special effort given to key events and developments (Bangkok Post, 2004). The number of Bangkok Post readers has reached 480,000 and this newspaper’s distribution is nationwide (Victoria University, 2002). The target audience of this newspaper is Englishspeaking expatriates and intellectual Thais. The typicality of Bangkok Post is that the news is presented in a way that indicates a more ‘internationalist’ point of view due to the influence of foreign journalists’ on the editorial team. Bangkok Post is a conservative newspaper that presents the news with little propensity to take a position against the government. According to the research observation on Bangkok Post news reporting, there were several types of news published, such as: ƒ

Headline coverage and exposure from the government’s points of view, especially on the current Thai government policies, i.e. “Kitchen of the World” and the campaign for “Food Safety Year 2004”. These articles included: - Reports on meetings conducted within the government that brought about decision making in relation to the various measures taken vis-à-vis the avian flu outbreak and excessive use of pesticides in food production. - Publicity of meetings, conferences and seminars conducted by government and intergovernmental organizations. For instance, from 12 to 14 October 2004 the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) jointly organized the Second Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators in Bangkok on the theme of "Building Effective Food Safety Systems" as the follow up of the first FAO/WHO Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators conducted in Marrakech, Morocco in January 2002, and this was covered by the newspaper.

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ƒ

ƒ

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Official statements from the government and inter-governmental organizations such as WHO and FAO. It is important to note that each reportage were always finished off with an explicit message that encouraged readers not to panic and ensured that the government had taken emergent measures to tackle the current problems in the food chain, especially on avian flu outbreak issues. Critical writings arranged in the Commentary and Analysis sections about the importance and promotion of sustainable and pesticide-free food, the current state of the avian flu epidemic spread in Thailand and how it affects the community and national economy. Editorials about the recent avian flu outbreaks and encouragement for the public to change their preference to healthier, more natural food alternatives. This section was slightly different from the Commentary and Analysis section since the Editorial is usually written by the editor of the newspaper and contains commentary on selected most recent topics and happenings. Readers’ comments by letters and e-mails that were arranged in a special section named “Postbag”. This section of the newspaper is mainly a sort of readers’ forum in which the readers can express their thoughts and opinions on a given topic. With regards to the organic food topic, there were several comments from readers in response to current news coverage. The readers statements were diverse, including: - voicing concerns and worries about the avian flu epidemic and furthermore encouraging the government to establish more stringent measures - Petitioning the government to provide a well-informed organic labeling system and to ensure that the food products are truly free of pesticides and other harmful substances. - Rejection of GMO-produced foods to be marketed in Thailand. - Demanding the government to regulate the economic instruments that endorse organic food farmers as a way to get the “right price”. - Their two-fold food anxiety which was on the one hand doubting and lacking in confidence to consume non-organic “regular” food as it is perceived that the usage of pesticides, growth hormones and other chemical substances is excessive, and on the other hand, distrusting the reliability of current organic labeling to provide correct rationalization according to the standards of pesticides and chemical use.

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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION In line with the discussion on organic food, it is worth first of all to consider and appraise the contextual approach to food-consumption practices by analyzing the consumption behavior as a whole before moving on to the issues of ‘green’ provisioning. This conclusion chapter is divided into three parts that involve different points of discussion. The first subchapter elaborates the general nature of food consumers’ culture and its relation with social practices. The second part is the analysis of discourse about food in the Thai media. The third subchapter is the framework that elaborates the chain of providers and consumers of organic food in Thailand. 5.1. Perspectives of Food Consumers’ Culture within Social Practices As is the case with many other South East Asian people, Thais mostly eat rice for their daily three-times-a-day meal. Rice is their source of carbohydrates, and is more popular than other types of carbohydrate such as potatoes, bread or noodles. Normally rice is accompanied with other food items, for instance, meat, vegetables, eggs, seafood, and so on. The food that respondents eat for breakfast is mostly typical Thai food, yet for some respondents, especially from Villa Market, the breakfast eaten is to some extent influenced by a western selection of food items, such as cereal and low fat milk, bread and coffee, sandwiches, biscuits, and juice. Most of the Thais interviewed eat their breakfast at home. In terms of lunch, most of the Thai respondents prefer to eat typical Thai food, i.e. rice with chicken, meat, vegetables, seafood, or noodles with meat. Then again the western influence somewhat penetrates the selection of food, especially for respondents who are vegetarians or more health concerned and prefer to eat healthier alternatives such as salads, sandwiches and juice. Most respondents eat lunch in the office, at street stalls, and in restaurants. Lunch time is usually used to attend office business meetings or soiree. Although this may be the case for some people, others would prefer to prepare their lunch or cook and eat lunch at home. Dinner, as one may argue, can be distinguished as the ‘main’ meal eaten during the day. People would eat a full course meal at this time of the day. Unlike other meal times, 88% of Thai respondents would include rice in their dinner among other sources of carbohydrate food items. In particular, western food selections are not of their preference during dinner time. They combine rice with other varieties of dishes. More than half of the respondents have dinner at home, and only a few dine out at restaurants and street stalls. It is apparent that Thai people use dinner time as a family occasion and most families cook at home for dinner. It is worthy to note that although more than half of all respondents claim that they often dine out, the above responses evidently suggest on the contrary. Most of the meals are prepared and eaten at home. Therefore one could argue that Thais dines out during the weekends or holidays, and most Thais prepare, cook, and eat their food at home. In general, the criteria which Thai consumers’ apply to the selection of food are primarily freshness and taste, whereas the organic food consumers state that the main reasons they consume organic food are health concerns and safety. It is interesting to note that as criteria used to select food in general, environmental friendliness is ranked as the 10th priority. Yet for organic food consumers, environmental reasons are not regarded as priority given that they are more concerned on the health and safety aspects of organic food products that are better assured in comparison with regular non-organic food products. In terms of willingness to shift preference to a healthier and more sustainable alternative of food produce, more than 80% of the non-organic food consumers stated that they are willing 44

to consider organic food. They are well aware about the problems on the food chain including the threats and importance to shift to organic food. The items of organic food produce that are most likely to be considered are organic vegetables, organic eggs and organic white rice. The reason is because 1) These are the food items Thais need for daily meals, and 2) these are the most widely-available organic food products among the range of organic food items in the supermarkets and green shops. The total number of organic food consumers interviewed in this research is mostly consumers from Villa Market. However, Villa Market is a supermarket targeted at high incomers and therefore does not represent the whole population of Bangkok. The number of organic consumers shopping in Big C is only half the amount of organic consumers in Villa Market, and there is only a small organic range available. Hence one could argue that the organic food niche is already established in the high-class society, but since no organic food is available in the traditional market and only a little organic produce is offered by the middle-class Big C, the creation of a new market for the majority of Thai people (who are lower to middle-class) becomes the challenge, to ensure the same access to green food provisioning. Despite the above argument, the attempt to fully accomplish food safety20 and food security21 remains a discussion as to whether or not it is possible to achieve food security and safety for all. 22 This can in fact be achieved by intensification of agricultural practices. In order to raise agricultural productivity, seeds and other agricultural technologies required must be environmentally friendly (IFPRI, 2003). With the exception of the established niche market in Villa Market, it can be concluded that there is still a relatively low level of organic food consumption in Bangkok, Thailand. This condition is caused by several factors: 1) the high prices that the lower-class society find difficult to afford; 2) the small number of available varieties of organic vegetables in the markets; 3) the location of Green Net shops that are not within an accessible distance; 4) preference of some people to dine out rather than prepare, cook, and eat their meals at home; 5) confusing and unexplained terms of organic, hygienic, health, and pesticide-free food in the markets that results in ‘badly-informed’, confused consumers; and 6) the antipathetic manner and reaction of a given group in the society to all sorts of organic or other ‘green’ products. It is important to highlight that the future possibility of organic food consumption in Bangkok is positive given that there was a high level of willingness to shift preference to healthier, more sustainable alternatives by non-organic consumers. The loyalty of organic consumers is evident by the fact that most of them have been consuming organic food for years. Moreover the linkages among stakeholders in organic farming are already established that brings about more optimism on the success of organic consumption encouragement in the future.

20

Food safety can be defined as "agricultural practices that promote the safe production of fresh fruits and vegetables, taking into account the conditions specific to a particular production area, the type of product and methods used in such a way so as to minimize potential human health hazards due to the contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables." (Canadian Horticultural Council) 21 Food security relates to availability of food and access by people to food sufficient for a healthy life (IFPRI, 2003). 22 Interview with Wei Zhao in Paris, 22 December 2004. 45

5.2. Thai Media’s Discourse on Food and Organic Food It is previously mentioned that half of the organic food consumers obtain their information from the newspapers, yet more than half of them agree that the information still remains low. The most-read newspaper by Thais interviewed in this research is Thairath. Despite its popularity, Thairath pays less attention to food issues and the problems in the food chain compared to the other newspapers. The news presented in Thairath falls mostly under controversial and sensational themes such as politics, crime and entertainment. One may distinguish Thairath as a ‘tabloid’ in terms of its style of presenting the news. The research found that there are no advertisements whatsoever for organic food, but on the contrary, advertisements for non-organic, commercial food products are numerous. Theoretically, advertising is a service for which consumers are willing to pay, because the information it provides reduces search time (Solomon, 2002). Yet the price of organic food produce is above that of regular food products, and if advertisements are employed, the price would be even higher than it already is. Hence as long as economic instruments are not applied, it is impossible to compete with nonorganic food products, including the use of advertisements. Organic food has its own niche market along with its loyal customers consuming the products over a long, spread-out period of time. Therefore advertisement provision is only deemed important if the aim is to create a new niche market. Although there are no organic food advertisements in the newspapers, the readers may find information about organic food in the articles published in the scientific column, features, readers’ opinions and feedback, and so on. The articles presented in the newspapers are deemed as being rather more informative than persuasive. The issues pertaining to food have become a heated debate, especially as the government set up the new policy of ‘Kitchen of the World’ and the campaign of ‘Food Safety Year 2004’. This set of actions triggered many pluses and minuses in public reaction. Some reactions are skeptical, yet others are rather optimistic, with a certain expectation of achieving food safety while setting Thailand as a hub for food industries on a global scale. In line with the government’s policies, the media also pays attention to problems occurring in the food chain, such as the emergent avian flu outbreak with its increasing death toll. The news items presented are mainly general knowledge items about the avian flu virus, the effects of avian flu on certain regions of Thailand in which animal culling measures were conducted to avoid the spread of the disease, and commentaries that question the government’s consistency in their commitment to food safety amidst the avian flu outbreak. It is perceived that although the Thai printed media has generally been considered one of the freest in Southeast Asia, the types of news presented can still be classified as political news stories with quotations of politicians’ statements contained in the article. Government intervention on the media was rigorous given that initially the bird flu outbreak issues were not approved to be publicized, but the vast spread of the epidemic eventually allowed the media to disclose this issue to public. 5.3. Chain of Providers and Consumers of Organic Food in Thailand. The ‘green’ food provisioning is initially intended for export, but later domestic demands started to emerge. It could be implied that Thai organic food provisioning started from export, and Thai consumers followed the lead from that point onwards. The chain of providers and consumers has two aims: 1) exports, and 2) domestic consumption within Thailand. 46

The certification of organic food in Thailand is under the government’s Department of Agriculture and IFOAM-based ACT (in addition to other international certifications that depend on the intended country to where produce is being exported). This sub chapter further discuss about the providers-consumers’ chain of organic food provision. Prior to the marketing of organic produce, the organic farmers first ought to attain organic accreditation by ACT or DOA. The organic certification by DOA and ACT are both for exports and domestic market purposes, yet each has strengths and weaknesses. The DOA certification is free of charge, whereas to get ACT certification one must pay a fee. However as ACT is a member of IFOAM, it has a wider international network that enables better possibilities for export of products compared to DOA. ACT has the network to enable cooperation with other international certification so that the products will be acknowledged more by the destined country of export. Apart from the organic certification, Thailand acknowledges the hygienic certifications by the Ministry of Health and DOA as another category of organic food. Hygienic food is the food produced with hygienic processes that may use chemical substances at an acceptable level that are harmless to human health. Therefore hygienic food is slightly inferior compared to organic food which ensures it is 100% chemical free. The hygienic logos provided by MOH and DOA are both in Thai, however the DOA label is accompanied with a small English translation at the bottom of the label. One may conclude that food accredited with ‘Hygienic’ certification is mainly intended for the Thai market rather than export. Hygienic food provides better opportunity for Thais to consume less-polluting, less-contaminated food produced at more affordable prices. Subsequent to the attainment of accreditation, the food producers are ready to supply the products for local supermarkets or export. At this stage, Green Net is available to assist the food producers, as a provider-oriented NGO that aims to organize the export production of Thai farmers and ensure fair trade to maintain the welfare of farmers. As previously mentioned, for organic food to have better access to foreign markets, several international linkages have been established. Most organic certification is based on international agencies related to the country of exports, for instance, the partnership with a Swedish certification body KRAF. This certification is recognized by certification bodies in several other European countries to help the Thai organic food produce enter the European market. In line with the emergence of a dynamic organic food consumption movement, the government and inter-governmental organizations such as the UN undertake measures to promote this subject. The publication of the UN Guidelines for Consumer Protection raises public awareness of consuming sustainably, of which section H article 57 emphasizes the urgency of food safety and security. Yet the Guidelines are deemed too general, and are rather perceived by the government as recommendations rather than stringent measures. However the UN has no mandate to enforce any legislation and policies. Therefore the technical advice addressed by the UN Guidelines should be persistently followed with assistance for the different stakeholders in society to work together and develop policies and measures to promote organic food consumption in Thailand. The other programme undertaken by UNEP is the workshop to eliminate the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). This programme is particularly correlated with the discouragement of excessive pesticide use in food production. This workshop has brought together stakeholders from developing countries and OECD countries to discuss further the measures to be conducted to control the use of toxic chemicals.

47

The UNEP’s approach to both programmes is similar, in which UNEP is positioned as stakeholders’ advisor and facilitator to accomplish the goal of the programmes, which is to enforce the government to establish blueprint policies to be implemented for a given issue. In the case of the SC. Asia programme, UNEP assists and encourages the government and NGOs from Asian countries to draft the blueprint of a National Action Plan (NAP) on sustainable consumption. The effectiveness of the programme on Asian governments, and specifically Thailand, in promoting sustainable consumption depends on the detailed goals entailed in the NAP. For instance, if the government emphasizes the focus of sustainable consumption of food, the plan should be detailed with regards to labeling schemes or other practical, realistic measures.23 The policies derived from the NAP for sustainable consumption will be the base of stringent measures, such as the enforcement of organic food labeling. The government has the authority and mandate to establish the country’s legislation and policies, therefore UNEP’s initiatives will be effective as long as followed with control measures. 5.4. Recommendations Several recommendations that are herewith addressed consist of policy recommendations and a recommendation for further studies to be conducted in this research. 5.4.1. Policy Recommendations 1. A strong political will and policy consistency for organic agriculture. The attempt of the Thai government to make Thailand the “Kitchen of the World” and 2004 as the “Food Safety Year” has shown Thailand can be the organic food ‘trend-setter’ in Asia, yet it should be further followed up by stringent measures and policies to put strategies into practice. The government can create economic incentives for the organic food producers and farmers to further encourage organic grown crops. 2. The government is also responsible to provide more information on organic food to Thai consumers via the media and government publications. The Thai government should be more open and not suppress the exposure of epidemics within the country so that the public are better informed and more aware of the possible threats. 3. Government cooperation with NGOs and farmers’ organizations is strategically important and therefore needs to be further strengthened. NGOs such as the Green Net already have wide networks that can assist the government helping local organic farmers market their products overseas in line with the government attempt for public service. 4. The existing private initiative of ACT should be further supported by the government so that it can facilitate organic trade, both within Thailand and for exports. It should avoid competing with ACT in organic inspection and certification as global organic certification is conducted by the private sector. ACT is already internationally recognized, therefore is more effective and flexible, enabling the participation of all stakeholders and ensuring the independence of the certification process. 5.4.2. Recommendations for Thai Markets 1) The markets that offer organic food should provide more items to meet the needs of consumers. Furthermore, the organic food products should be placed on distinctive shelves that help consumers to identify organic food products, and they should be separated from regular food. Information on the meanings of organic, pesticide-free, health, and hygienic logos should be placed adjacent to the shelves to better inform the consumers about the healthier alternatives. 23 Interview with Bas de Leeuw in Paris, January 5, 2005. 48

2) In order to create a new niche market of organic food, convenience stores such as SevenEleven, Family Mart, Fresh Mart, AM/PM, and Central Minimart could play an important role in promoting organic food consumption in Thailand. Since most consumers in the metropolitan areas strive for convenience, they would buy food items from these types of shops, which are often located near to residential areas. According to observation, consumers would buy things in the convenient store regardless of the price because they are accessible and therefore minimize transportation costs. If providers could distribute organic food products to convenience stores throughout Bangkok, consumers will be more familiar with these types of products and the growth of organic food consumers will be enhanced. 5.4.3. Recommendations for Further Studies Subsequent to this thesis, it is recommended that these following further studies are pursued: 1) The assessment of possibilities, opportunities and obstacles for establishing new organic food niche markets in Thailand. 2) The roles of DOA vis-à-vis ACT in providing access to organic food markets in a domestic and international perspective 3) International linkages in the context of globalizing the food chain: foreign certification bodies and the effects on increasing organic food exports 4) Assessment of implementation on regulation and control measures of organic food production. 5) Hygienic food as the initial stage to endorse organic food consumption in Thailand: current state, problems and prospects.

49

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Annex 1 List of Interviews Conducted for the Research Name

Organization

Position

Place and date of interview

Niclas Svenningsen

UNEP ROAP

Project coordinator of Sustainable Consumption Asia

Bangkok, August 19, 2004

Uchita de Zoysa

Center for Environment and Development

Executive Director

London, October 1, 2004

Bas de Leeuw

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) Paris

Regional Officer

Paris, January 5, 2005

Wei Zhao

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) Paris

Environmental Affairs Officer

Paris, December 22, 2004.

55

Annex 2. Questions for Informants Interview The purpose of each individual question is outlined below. Purpose Collect general details and background information of the expert respondents. To identify the stakeholders that is of influence on organic food consumption, their responsibilities, effectiveness in influence, and existing bilateral cooperation. To gather information about the available policies set up by UNEP that involves organic food consumption endorsement. To find out to what extent these policies affect the government policies in motivating organic food consumption, the role of the government policies and the instruments that is most suitable in the different kind of food chain To know the expectations toward Asian governments upon the implementation of the National Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption, mainly in food consumption issues.

Questions 1 - 5 (open – fill in) 6-9 10 11 - 13

14

A. Personal Information 1. 2. 3. 4.

Name ____________________________________ Agency ____________________________________ Position ____________________________________ Duration of employment _______________________

B. Stakeholders 6. What are the factors of influence on Thai people to consume organic food? 7. Who are the stakeholders that are of influence on organic food consumption in Thailand? 8. What kinds of roles do the different stakeholders have in the organic food consumption in Thailand? 9. What is the effectiveness of their actions in influencing organic food consumption? 10. What is the importance of the government compared to other stakeholders? 11. What is the significance of advertising in influencing consumers’ preference on organic food products? 12. How can other countries assist Thailand in the promotion of organic food consumption and vice versa?

C. Policies of UNEP 13. What programmes do UNEP undertake in relation with the endorsement of organic food consumption? 14. What is their effectiveness on the Asian governments, specifically in Thailand, in endorsing organic food consumption?

56

15. To what extent will the National Action Plans on Sustainable Consumption be influential in promoting organic food consumption?

D. Policies of Thailand Government 16. What type of instruments do Thai government agencies prefer to use to promote organic food consumption in Thailand? - Legislation - Economic instruments (e.g. taxes, subsidies) - Information / Education 17. What is the effectiveness of these instruments? 18. What is the expectated role of the Thai government in the implementation of the National Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption, specifically in organic food consumption as an element of sustainable consumption? 19. Has the bird-flu outbreak give impacts on the Thai government’s policies regarding organic food?

E. Closing 20. Do you know of any useful publications for this research? 21. Is there anybody else I can contact for more information regarding this research?

57

Annex 3. Questions for Consumers The purpose of each individual question is outlined below. PURPOSE Collect general details of the respondent to analyze result by education background, socio-economic status, etc. To find out the main characteristics of the eating habits (including the ‘social organization’) and purchasing of food by Thai people. To understand the criteria of Thai people for purchasing food. To find out the reasons for purchasing and not purchasing organic food. To observe the willingness to purchase organic food in the future by the Thai people.

QUESTIONS 1 (open – fill in) 2– 5 (open) 6 (closed) 7 – 14 (open & closed) 15 – 16 (closed)

Introduction My name is Aretha Aprilia, I am an Indonesian who currently a student at Wageningen University – the Netherlands. I am now undertaking a research for my thesis, which is about organic food consumption. As part of the research, I interview Thai people to understand the characteristics of food consumption. This interview will take 10 minutes of your time. I thank you in advance for your kind cooperation. 1. Personal Information a. Name: b. Gender: c. Age: 15 – 24 45 – 54 25 – 34 55+ 35 – 44 d. Education: e. Occupation: f. Number of family members in your household: g. Special dietary requirements: h. Newspaper you mostly read: Note: Your personal information(s) will neither be enclosed nor visible in the report. 2. Eating habits and characteristics Breakfast (7.00 – 10 AM): a. What did you eat this morning for breakfast? b. What do you normally eat for breakfast? c. Where do you usually eat breakfast? Home street stall other ____________ Office restaurant Lunch (12.00 – 2.00 PM): d. What did you eat this afternoon? e. What do you normally eat for lunch? f. Where do you usually eat lunch? Home street stall other ____________ Office restaurant 58

Dinner (6.00 – 8.00 PM): f. What did you eat yesterday evening? g. What do you normally eat for dinner? h. Where do you usually eat dinner? Home street stall other ____________ Office restaurant Others (snacks – in between meal times): g. Do you usually have snacks in between meals? Yes No h. What type of snacks do you normally eat in between meal times? 3. Where do you normally purchase your food for daily consumption? ‫ ٱ‬Supermarket ‫ ٱ‬Traditional market ‫ ٱ‬Local shop ‫ ٱ‬others, _________________ 4. How often do you purchase food in the market? ‫ ٱ‬everyday ‫ ___ ٱ‬times per week ‫ ___ ٱ‬times per month ‫ ٱ‬others, ___________________ 5. [I am going to read a few statements.] Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is strongly disagree and 6 is strongly agree. No.

a. b. c. d.

Statements

Strongly Disagree

Strongly agree

I am often eating out. I mostly eat with friends I mostly eat with my family / spouse I mostly eat alone

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 5 5

6 6 6

1

2

3

4

5

6

Don’t know

6. When I buy food, I consider: No.

Statements

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Costs Health Local produce

h. i. j. k. l. m. n.

Brand image Freshness Taste Animal friendliness Calories Special offers

Strongly Disagree

Environmental friendliness

Organic Fair trade Information on packaged products

labels

Advertisements in media

of

Strongly agree

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6 6 6

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Don’t know

59

o. p. q.

Epidemics, e.g. bird flu

Hygiene Others

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 5 5

6 6 6

7. [I am now going to ask you about organic food]. Organic food is food that is free of antibiotics, growth hormones, chemicals, and pesticides. Do you purchase and consume organic food? Yes Æ go to the next question No go to question 15 Don’t know 8. How did you find out about organic food? ‫ ٱ‬newspapers ‫ ٱ‬magazines ‫ ٱ‬television ‫ ٱ‬radio ‫ ٱ‬Internet Government’s publication Supermarket’s products information Others __________________ Don’t know 9. Why do you purchase organic food? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 10. What kinds of organic food do you consume and how often? Food products Often Sometimes Never Eggs Vegetables Butter Brown rice White rice Tofu Corn wheat

Don’t know

Other …………

11. Where do you usually purchase organic food products? ‫ ٱ‬Supermarket ‫ ٱ‬Traditional market ‫ ٱ‬local shops ‫ ٱ‬Others, please specify _________________ 12. How long have you been consuming organic food? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

60

13. [I am going to read a few statements. Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is strongly disagree and 6 is strongly agree.] What makes it difficult or easy for you to consume organic food? No.

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

Statements

Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree

Organic food is more expensive than regular food Organic food is not available in the supermarket Organic food is not available in the restaurants / stalls Organic food is healthier than regular food Organic food does not stay fresh as long as regular food There is very little information on organic food in the newspapers. The bird-flu outbreaks have increased my interest in organic food. This [market] gives no information on organic food. If organic food would cost the same as regular food, I would buy more organic food.

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

Don’t know

14. Is there anything else that would make it easier for you to buy organic food? Yes No Don’t know 15. Would you consider purchasing organic food? Yes No Don’t know 16. [Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is strongly disagree and 6 is strongly agree.] If the organic food is available at the same price as regular food, how likely would you purchase organic food? No.

Products a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

Organic eggs Organic vegetable Organic butter Organic brown rice Organic white rice Organic tofu Organic corn Organic wheat

Least likely

Most likely

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 5 5

6 6 6

Don’t know

Comments ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Annex 4. Outputs of SPSS Data Processing Gender

Valid

Frequency 28

Percent 46.7

Valid Percent 46.7

Cumulative Percent 46.7

Female

32

53.3

53.3

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Male

Age

Valid

15-24

Frequency 12

Percent 20.0

Valid Percent 20.0

Cumulative Percent 20.0

25-34

30

50.0

50.0

70.0

35-44

7

11.7

11.7

81.7

45-54

4

6.7

6.7

88.3

55+

7

11.7

11.7

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Education level

Valid

none

Frequency 2

Percent 3.3

Valid Percent 3.3

Cumulative Percent 3.3

11

18.3

18.3

21.7

36

60.0

60.0

81.7

11

18.3

18.3

100.0

60

100.0

100.0

Primary education Bachelor degree Post graduate Total

Number of family members in household

Valid

0-4

Frequency 34

Percent 56.7

Valid Percent 56.7

Cumulative Percent 56.7

5-9

25

41.7

41.7

98.3 100.0

10+

1

1.7

1.7

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Place to eat breakfast

Valid

Home

Frequency 29

Percent 48.3

Valid Percent 61.7

Cumulative Percent 61.7

Office

6

10.0

12.8

74.5

3

5.0

6.4

80.9

Street stalls Restaurant

Missing

5

8.3

10.6

91.5

Other

4

6.7

8.5

100.0

Total

47

78.3

100.0

9.00

13

21.7

62

Total

60

100.0

Place to eat lunch

Valid

Home

Frequency 11

Percent 18.3

Valid Percent 18.6

Cumulative Percent 18.6

Office

16

26.7

27.1

45.8

12

20.0

20.3

66.1

Street stalls Restaurant

10

16.7

16.9

83.1

Other

10

16.7

16.9

100.0

Total

59

98.3

100.0

Missing

9.00 Total

1

1.7

60

100.0

Place to eat dinner

Valid

Frequency 40

Percent 66.7

Valid Percent 66.7

Cumulative Percent 66.7

Street stalls

7

11.7

11.7

78.3

Restaurant

9

15.0

15.0

93.3

Other

4

6.7

6.7

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Home

Snacks between meal times

Valid

Frequency 30

Percent 50.0

Valid Percent 50.0

Cumulative Percent 50.0

No

30

50.0

50.0

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Yes

Type of snacks

Valid

bread

Frequency 6

Percent 10.0

Valid Percent 10.0

Cumulative Percent 10.0

chips

6

10.0

10.0

20.0

coffee

1

1.7

1.7

21.7

depends

1

1.7

1.7

23.3

desert

1

1.7

1.7

25.0

fruit

5.0

5.0

30.0

fruits

3 1

1.7

1.7

31.7

milk

2

3.3

3.3

35.0

none

30

50.0

50.0

85.0

potato

1

1.7

1.7

86.7 100.0

sweets Total

8

13.3

13.3

60

100.0

100.0

Place to purchase daily food consumption

63

Valid

Supermarket

Frequency 20

Percent 33.3

Valid Percent 62.5

Cumulative Percent 62.5

9

15.0

28.1

90.6 100.0

Traditional market Local shop Missing

3

5.0

9.4

Total

32

53.3

100.0

9.00

28

46.7

60

100.0

Total

How often food is purchased from the market

Valid

everyday three times a week twice a week

Frequency 9

Percent 15.0

Valid Percent 29.0

Cumulative Percent 29.0

3

5.0

9.7

38.7

7

11.7

22.6

61.3

once a week

4

6.7

12.9

74.2

twice a month

3

5.0

9.7

83.9 100.0

Once a month

5

8.3

16.1

Total

31

51.7

100.0

9.00

29

48.3

60

100.0

Missing Total

Respondents often eating out

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

5

8.3

8.6

8.6

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

5

8.3

8.6

17.2

10

16.7

17.2

34.5

Agree

8

13.3

13.8

48.3

Rather agree

12

20.0

20.7

69.0

18

30.0

31.0

100.0

58

96.7

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

9.00 Total

2

3.3

60

100.0

Respondents mostly eat with friends

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

7

11.7

12.3

12.3

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

4

6.7

7.0

19.3

11

18.3

19.3

38.6

Agree

9

15.0

15.8

54.4

Rather agree

13

21.7

22.8

77.2

Strongly agree

13

21.7

22.8

100.0

64

Missing

Total

57

95.0

9.00

3

5.0

60

100.0

Total

100.0

Respondents mostly eat with my family/spouse

Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

5

8.3

8.5

8.5

6

10.0

10.2

18.6

6

10.0

10.2

28.8

Agree

8

13.3

13.6

42.4

Rather agree

18

30.0

30.5

72.9

16

26.7

27.1

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

9.00 Total

1

1.7

60

100.0

Respondents mostly eat alone

Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

12

20.0

20.7

20.7

18

30.0

31.0

51.7

11

18.3

19.0

70.7

Agree

7

11.7

12.1

82.8

Rather agree

5

8.3

8.6

91.4

5

8.3

8.6

100.0

58

96.7

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

9.00 Total

2

3.3

60

100.0

Cost

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing Total

9.00

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

3

5.0

5.2

6.9

7

11.7

12.1

19.0

7

11.7

12.1

31.0

18

30.0

31.0

62.1

22

36.7

37.9

100.0

58

96.7

100.0

2

3.3

60

100.0

65

Health

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree Disagree

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

8

13.3

13.6

15.3

Agree

12

20.0

20.3

35.6

Rather agree

15

25.0

25.4

61.0

23

38.3

39.0

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

Total

Local produce

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Percent

Cumulative Percent

14

23.3

24.6

24.6

24

40.0

42.1

66.7

11

18.3

19.3

86.0

6

10.0

10.5

96.5

2

3.3

3.5

100.0

100.0

57

95.0

9.00

3

5.0

Total

60

100.0

Missing

Valid Percent

Environmental friendliness

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing Total

9.00

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.8

1.8

4

6.7

7.0

8.8

16

26.7

28.1

36.8

13

21.7

22.8

59.6

14

23.3

24.6

84.2

9

15.0

15.8

100.0

57

95.0

100.0

3

5.0

60

100.0

66

Organic

Frequency Valid

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Rather disagree Disagree

5

8.3

9.1

9.1

14

23.3

25.5

34.5

Agree

11

18.3

20.0

54.5

Rather agree

13

21.7

23.6

78.2

12

20.0

21.8

100.0

55

91.7

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

Total

5

8.3

60

100.0

Fair trade

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing

9.00

Total

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

12

20.0

22.6

22.6

16

26.7

30.2

52.8

14

23.3

26.4

79.2

4

6.7

7.5

86.8

7

11.7

13.2

100.0

53

88.3

100.0

7

11.7

60

100.0

Information on labels of packaged products

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing Total

9.00

3

Percent 5.0

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

5.1

5.1

5

8.3

8.5

13.6

8

13.3

13.6

27.1

30

50.0

50.8

78.0

13

21.7

22.0

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

67

Brand image

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

4

6.7

6.8

8.5

7

11.7

11.9

20.3

Agree

17

28.3

28.8

49.2

Rather agree

25

41.7

42.4

91.5

5

8.3

8.5

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

Total

Freshness

Valid

Agree

Frequency 2

Percent 3.3

Valid Percent 3.4

Cumulative Percent 3.4

15

25.0

25.4

28.8

42

70.0

71.2

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Rather agree Strongly agree Total Missing

9.00

Total

Taste

Valid

Strongly disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing

9.00

Total

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

1

1.7

1.7

3.4

10

16.7

16.9

20.3

47

78.3

79.7

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Animal friendliness

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

3

5.0

5.6

5.6

15

25.0

27.8

33.3

20

33.3

37.0

70.4

Agree

7

11.7

13.0

83.3

Rather agree

2

3.3

3.7

87.0

Strongly agree

7

11.7

13.0

100.0

68

Missing

Total

54

90.0

9.00

6

10.0

60

100.0

Total

100.0

Calories

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Missing

9.00

Total

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

9

15.0

15.5

17.2

18

30.0

31.0

48.3

11

18.3

19.0

67.2

11

18.3

19.0

86.2

8

13.3

13.8

100.0

58

96.7

100.0

2

3.3

60

100.0

Special offers

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

4

6.7

6.8

6.8

2

3.3

3.4

10.2

9

15.0

15.3

25.4

Agree

13

21.7

22.0

47.5

Rather agree

25

41.7

42.4

89.8

6

10.0

10.2

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

Total

1

1.7

60

100.0

Advertisements in media

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree Disagree

Total

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

5

8.3

8.5

10.2

8

13.3

13.6

23.7

Agree

13

21.7

22.0

45.8

Rather agree

27

45.0

45.8

91.5

5

8.3

8.5

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

69

Epidemics, e.g. bird flu

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree Disagree

Cumulative Percent

Valid Percent

1

1.7

1.7

1.7

3

5.0

5.1

6.8

Agree

11

18.3

18.6

25.4

Rather agree

23

38.3

39.0

64.4

21

35.0

35.6

100.0

59

98.3

100.0

1

1.7

60

100.0

Strongly agree Total Missing

Percent

9.00

Total

Consumers of organic food

Valid

Cumulative Percent 26.7

Yes

Frequency 16

Percent 26.7

Valid Percent 26.7

No

43

71.7

71.7

98.3

3.00

1

1.7

1.7

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Organic food consumers in Villa Market

Valid

Yes

Frequency 11

Percent 55.0

Valid Percent 55.0

Cumulative Percent 55.0

No

9

45.0

45.0

100.0

Total

20

100.0

100.0

Organic food consumers in Big C

Valid

Yes

Frequency 5

Percent 25.0

Valid Percent 25.0

Cumulative Percent 25.0 100.0

No

15

75.0

75.0

Total

20

100.0

100.0

Organic food consumers in Traditional Market "Sri-Sa-Wad"

Valid

No

Frequency 20

Percent 100.0

Valid Percent 100.0

Cumulative Percent 100.0

Organic food consumers in Villa Market out of all Respondents

Valid

Yes No

Missing Total

Frequency 11

Percent 18.3

Valid Percent 55.0

Cumulative Percent 55.0 100.0

9

15.0

45.0

Total

20

33.3

100.0

System

40

66.7

60

100.0

70

Organic food consumers in Big C out of all respondents

Valid

Missing

Valid Percent 25.0

Cumulative Percent 25.0

25.0

75.0

100.0

33.3

100.0

Frequency 5

Percent 8.3

No

15

Total

20

System

40

66.7

60

100.0

Yes

Total

Organic food consumers of all respondents from Villa Market, Big C, and Sri-Sa-Wad

Valid

Frequency 16

Percent 26.7

Valid Percent 26.7

Cumulative Percent 26.7

No

44

73.3

73.3

100.0

Total

60

100.0

100.0

Yes

Reasons of purchasing organic food

Valid

advertsm

Frequency 1

Percent 6.3

Valid Percent 6.3

Cumulative Percent 6.3

health

11

68.8

68.8

75.0

none

1

6.3

6.3

81.3

safety

3

18.8

18.8

100.0

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Source to obtain information about organic food

Valid

Newspaper

Frequency 8

Percent 50.0

Valid Percent 50.0

Cumulative Percent 50.0

Magazine

4

25.0

25.0

75.0

Television

1

6.3

6.3

81.3

Internet

2

12.5

12.5

93.8

1

6.3

6.3

100.0

16

100.0

100.0

Supermarket's product information Total

Organic eggs

Valid

frequent

Frequency 6

Percent 37.5

Valid Percent 37.5

Cumulative Percent 37.5

sometimes

7

43.8

43.8

81.3

never

2

12.5

12.5

93.8

no response

1

6.3

6.3

100.0

Total

16

100.0

100.0

71

Organic vegetables

Valid

frequent

Frequency 11

Percent 68.8

Valid Percent 68.8

Cumulative Percent 68.8 100.0

sometimes

5

31.3

31.3

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Organic butter

Valid

frequent

Frequency 1

Percent 6.3

Valid Percent 6.3

Cumulative Percent 6.3

sometimes

9

56.3

56.3

62.5

never

5

31.3

31.3

93.8 100.0

no response

1

6.3

6.3

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Organic brown rice

Valid

Cumulative Percent 12.5

frequent

Frequency 2

Percent 12.5

Valid Percent 12.5

sometimes

11

68.8

68.8

81.3

never

3

18.8

18.8

100.0

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Organic white rice

Valid

Cumulative Percent 56.3

frequent

Frequency 9

Percent 56.3

Valid Percent 56.3

sometimes

6

37.5

37.5

93.8

never

1

6.3

6.3

100.0

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Organic tofu

Valid

Cumulative Percent 25.0

frequent

Frequency 4

Percent 25.0

Valid Percent 25.0

sometimes

9

56.3

56.3

81.3

never

3

18.8

18.8

100.0

Total

16

100.0

100.0

Organic corn

Valid

frequent

Frequency 3

Percent 18.8

Valid Percent 18.8

Cumulative Percent 18.8

sometimes

10

62.5

62.5

81.3 100.0

never

3

18.8

18.8

Total

16

100.0

100.0

72

Organic wheat

Valid

frequent

Frequency 1

Percent 6.3

Valid Percent 6.3

Cumulative Percent 6.3

sometimes

6

37.5

37.5

43.8

never

8

50.0

50.0

93.8

1

6.3

6.3

100.0

16

100.0

100.0

no response Total

Place where organic food products are usually purchased

Valid

Frequency 14

Supermarket Local shops Total

Percent 87.5

Valid Percent 87.5

Cumulative Percent 87.5 100.0

2

12.5

12.5

16

100.0

100.0

Length of period consuming organic food

Valid

Frequency 1

Percent 5.0

Valid Percent 5.0

Cumulative Percent 5.0

2 weeks

1

5.0

5.0

10.0

3 months

1

5.0

5.0

25.0

6 months

1

5.0

5.0

55.0

2 years

1

5.0

5.0

15.0

3 years

1

5.0

5.0

30.0

4 years

2

10.0

10.0

40.0

5 years

2

10.0

10.0

50.0

20 years

1

5.0

5.0

20.0

norespon

9

45.0

45.0

100.0

20

100.0

100.0

1 week

Total

Organic food is more expensive than regular food

Valid

Strongly disagree disagree

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

6.7

6.7

6.7

1

6.7

6.7

13.3

Agree

3

20.0

20.0

33.3

Rather agree

8

53.3

53.3

86.7

2

13.3

13.3

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

Strongly agree Total

73

Organic food items needed by the consumers are not available in the supermarket

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree disagree

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

7

46.7

46.7

46.7

1

6.7

6.7

53.3

2

13.3

13.3

66.7

Agree

1

6.7

6.7

73.3

Rather agree

3

20.0

20.0

93.3 100.0

9.00

1

6.7

6.7

Total

15

100.0

100.0

Organic food is not available in restaurants/stalls

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

2

13.3

13.3

13.3

1

6.7

6.7

20.0

5

33.3

33.3

53.3

2

13.3

13.3

66.7

5

33.3

33.3

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

Strongly disagree Rather disagree disagree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

The market where organic foods are purchased gives no information on organic food

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree disagree

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

6.7

6.7

6.7

2

13.3

13.3

20.0

4

26.7

26.7

46.7

Agree

4

26.7

26.7

73.3

Rather agree

2

13.3

13.3

86.7

2

13.3

13.3

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

Strongly agree Total

Organic food is healthier than regular food

Valid

Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Frequency 3

Percent 20.0

Valid Percent 20.0

Cumulative Percent 20.0

1

6.7

6.7

26.7

11

73.3

73.3

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

74

Organic food does not stay fresh as long as regular food

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree disagree

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

6.7

6.7

6.7

6

40.0

40.0

46.7

2

13.3

13.3

60.0

Agree

2

13.3

13.3

73.3

Rather agree

3

20.0

20.0

93.3 100.0

9.00

1

6.7

6.7

Total

15

100.0

100.0

The bird-flu outbreaks have increased respondents’ interest in organic food

Frequency Valid

Strongly disagree Rather disagree disagree

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

2

13.3

13.3

13.3

1

6.7

6.7

20.0

3

20.0

20.0

40.0

Agree

4

26.7

26.7

66.7

Rather agree

1

6.7

6.7

73.3

4

26.7

26.7

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

Strongly agree Total

There is very little information on organic food in the newspapers

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

6.7

6.7

6.7

3

20.0

20.0

26.7

2

13.3

13.3

40.0

8

53.3

53.3

93.3

1

6.7

6.7

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

There is very little information on organic food in the newspapers

Frequency Valid

Rather disagree disagree Agree Rather agree Strongly agree Total

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

6.7

6.7

6.7

3

20.0

20.0

26.7

2

13.3

13.3

40.0

8

53.3

53.3

93.3

1

6.7

6.7

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

75

If organic food would cost the same as regular food, respondents would consume more organic food

Valid

disagree

Frequency 2

Percent 13.3

Valid Percent 13.3

Cumulative Percent 13.3

1

6.7

6.7

20.0

4

26.7

26.7

46.7

6

40.0

40.0

86.7

2

13.3

13.3

100.0

15

100.0

100.0

Agree Rather agree Strongly agree 9.00 Total

Consideration of organic food consumption by non-organic consumers

Valid

Yes

Frequency 37

Percent 84.1

Valid Percent 84.1

Cumulative Percent 84.1

No

1

2.3

2.3

86.4

6

13.6

13.6

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

Don't know Total

Organic eggs

Valid

likely

Frequency 2

Percent 4.5

Valid Percent 4.5

Cumulative Percent 4.5

quite likely

12

27.3

27.3

31.8

most likely

28

63.6

63.6

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

Organic vegetables

Valid

likely

Frequency 1

Percent 2.3

Valid Percent 2.3

Cumulative Percent 2.3

quite likely

9

20.5

20.5

22.7

most likely

32

72.7

72.7

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

Organic butter

Valid

Least likely quite unlikely unlikely likely

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

3

6.8

6.8

6.8

6

13.6

13.6

20.5

9

20.5

20.5

40.9

11

25.0

25.0

65.9

76

quite likely

5

11.4

11.4

77.3

most likely

8

18.2

18.2

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

Organic brown rice

Valid

Frequency 4

Percent 9.1

Valid Percent 9.1

Cumulative Percent 9.1

unlikely

5

11.4

11.4

20.5

likely

10

22.7

22.7

43.2

quite likely

7

15.9

15.9

59.1

most likely

16

36.4

36.4

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

quite unlikely

No response Total

Valid

Least likely likely

44 100.0 Organic white rice

100.0

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

2.3

2.3

2.3

4

9.1

9.1

11.4

quite likely

11

25.0

25.0

36.4

most likely

26

59.1

59.1

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

Organic tofu

Valid

quite unlikely unlikely

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

2.3

2.3

2.3

1

2.3

2.3

4.5

likely

8

18.2

18.2

22.7

quite likely

17

38.6

38.6

61.4

most likely

14

31.8

31.8

93.2

3

6.8

6.8

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

Organic corn

Valid

Least likely quite unlikely unlikely

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

2.3

2.3

2.3

1

2.3

2.3

4.5

5

11.4

11.4

15.9

likely

4

9.1

9.1

25.0

quite likely

17

38.6

38.6

63.6

most likely

14

31.8

31.8

95.5

77

No response Total

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

Organic wheat

Frequency Valid

Least likely quite unlikely unlikely

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

11

25.0

25.0

25.0

12

27.3

27.3

52.3

4

9.1

9.1

61.4

likely

6

13.6

13.6

75.0

quite likely

2

4.5

4.5

79.5

most likely

7

15.9

15.9

95.5

2

4.5

4.5

100.0

44

100.0

100.0

No response Total

78

Annex 5. Content Analysis on Newspapers 5.1.Thairath Date/year

ORGANIC FOOD Article&News Info of article and news

Date/year

Ads. 03/08/03

none

none

03/08/03

3

none

05/08/03

none

none

05/08/03

3

1 1 1

Raw and ready to eat food Safety measure for exported food illegal pesticide contaminated in food

16/08/03

none

none

16/08/03

3

1

Safety measure in exported food

20/08/03

none

20/08/03

2

1

Health food

31/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

1

1

Safety measure in ready to eat food

04/09/03

none

none

04/09/03

1

1

Safety measure for chicken

12/09/03

none

none

12/09/03

none

1

Safety of fried food

15/09/03

none

none

15/09/03

2

1

Government policy in food safety

24/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

4

none

02/10/03

none

none

02/10/03

none

1

07/10/03

none

none

07/10/03

2

none

18/10/03

none

none

18/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

1

01/11/03

none

none

01/11/03

1

1

Organic vegetable

Ads

NON-ORGANIC FOOD Info of article and news

Article&News

Health food

none

79

07/11/03

none

none

07/11/03

none

1

Food colorings

11/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

none

1

Safety measure for pork

26/11/03

none

none

26/11/03

1

none

03/12/03

none

none

03/12/03

none

14/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

none

1 1 none

20/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

none

none

26/12/03

none

none

26/12/03

2

1 1 1

01/01/04

none

none

01/01/04

none

none

07/01/04

none

none

07/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

none

1 1

Bird flu Chemical contamination in food

24/01/04

none

none

24/01/04

none

1 1 1

Bird flu Bird flu GMOs

01/02/04

none

none

01/02/04

2

1 1 1

Bird flu Bird flu Food safety for fast food

02/02/04

none

none

02/02/04

none

5 1

Bird flu Health fruit

11/02/04

none

none

11/02/04

1

none

GMOs rice Chemical contamination in food

Mad cow disease GMOs Herbal beverage

80

17/02/04

none

none

17/02/04

1

3 1

Bird flu Bird flu vaccine

28/02/04

none

none

28/02/04

1

1 1

Bird flu vaccine Health food

03/03/04

none

none

03/03/04

none

1

Food quality

12/03/04

none

none

12/03/04

1

1 1 2 1

Health food Food Safety Bird Flu Thailand to be kitchen of the world policy

19/03/04

none

none

19/03/04

3

1 1 1

Bird Flu Health Food Fast Food

25/03/04

none

none

25/03/04

1

none

31/03/04

none

none

31/03/04

none

none

06/04/04

none

none

06/04/04

1

none

14/04/04

none

none

14/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

1

1

Fruit

26/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

none

1 1

Health Food Rice

06/05/04

none

none

06/05/04

2

none

14/05/04

none

none

14/05/04

2

1

Food fair

81

18/05/04

none

none

18/05/04

1

1 1

27/05/04

none

none

27/05/04

4

none

31/05/04

none

none

31/05/04

1

1

07/06/04

none

none

07/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

none

none

10/07/04

none

none

10/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

1

1

22/07/04

none

none

22/07/04

none

none

Food Safety Fruit

Bird Flu

Bird Flu

82

5.2. Ban Muang Date/year 03/08/03

Ads. none

ORGANIC FOOD Article&News Info of article and news none

03/08/03

Ads none

05/08/03

none

none

05/08/03

none

1

16/08/03

none

16/08/03

none

none

20/08/03

none

none

20/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

none

1

04/09/03

none

none

04/09/03

none

none

12/09/03

none

12/09/03

1

none

15/09/03

none

none

15/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

none

1

Food safety

02/10/03

none

none

02/10/03

none

1

Health food

07/10/03

none

07/10/03

1

none

18/10/03

none

none

18/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

none

none

01/11/03

none

01/11/03

none

none

07/11/03

none

none

07/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

1

1

1

1

1

1

Organic spice

Organic vegetable

Organic vegetable

Organic vegetable

Date/year Article&News

NON-ORGANIC FOOD Info of article and news 1 New fruit variety Pasteurized milk

Milk

Food safety

83

26/11/03

none

none

26/11/03

1

1

03/12/03

none

none

03/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

1

none

20/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

none

1

26/12/03

none

none

26/12/03

01/01/04

none

none

01/01/04

1

none

07/01/04

none

none

07/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

1

none

24/01/04

none

24/01/04

4

3

Bird flu

01/02/04

none

none

01/02/04

4

2

Bird flu

02/02/04

none

none

02/02/04

none

1

Bird flu

11/02/04

none

none

11/02/04

none

1

Bird flu

17/02/04

none

none

17/02/04

1

1 1

Bird flu Food poisoning

28/02/04

none

none

28/02/04

1

1

healthy drink

03/03/04

none

none

03/03/04

1

1

Beverage

12/03/04

none

none

12/03/04

5

none

19/03/04

none

none

19/03/04

4

none

25/03/04

none

none

25/03/04

3

none

1

Organic farm

Instanced food

Rice

84

31/03/04

none

none

31/03/04

1

1

06/04/04

none

none

06/04/04

3

none

14/04/04

none

none

14/04/04

3

none

20/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

3

none

26/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

1

1

06/05/04

none

none

06/05/04

5

none

14/05/04

none

none

14/05/04

3

none

18/05/04

none

none

18/05/04

3

none

27/05/04

none

none

27/05/04

3

1

31/05/04

none

none

31/05/04

2

none

07/06/04

none

none

07/06/04

none

1 1

17/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

2

none

26/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

3

1

30/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

1

none

10/07/04

none

none

10/07/04

3

none

17/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

3

1 1

22/07/04

none

none

22/07/04

3

none

Hybrid rice

GMOs

Bird flu

Rice Research High fat food

New plant food

Bird Flu Healthy snack

85

5.3. Bangkok Bussiness Date/year 03/08/03

Ads. none

05/08/03

none

16/08/03

ORGANIC FOOD Article&News Article and news none

Date/year Ads

NON-ORGANIC FOOD Article&News Article and news none

03/08/03

none

none

05/08/03

none

none

none

none

16/08/03

1

none

20/08/03

none

none

20/08/03

3

1

31/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

2

none

04/09/03

none

none

04/09/03

1

none

12/09/03

none

1

12/09/03

3

1

Health food

15/09/03

none

none

15/09/03

3

1

Food safety policy

24/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

1

1

GMOs

02/10/03

none

none

02/10/03

1

1 1

Food standard Food safety

07/10/03

none

none

07/10/03

1

1

Health food

18/10/03

none

1

18/10/03

1

none

22/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

1

none

01/11/03

none

none

01/11/03

3

none

07/11/03

none

1

07/11/03

4

1

Organic farm

Organic vegetable

Organic farm

Food contamination

GMOs

86

11/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

3

none

17/11/03

none

none

17/11/03

4

1

26/11/03

none

none

26/11/03

4

none

03/12/03

none

none

03/12/03

2

1

14/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

1

none

26/12/03

none

none

26/12/03

4

1 1 1

Health food Mad cow Bird flu

01/01/04

none

none

01/01/04

1

1 1

Mad cow Hybrid rice

07/01/04

none

none

07/01/04

5

1 1 1

GMOs Food additive Food poisoning

15/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

1

1

Bird flu

24/01/04

none

none

24/01/04

none

5 1

Bird flu GMOs

01/02/04

none

none

01/02/04

none

5

Bird flu

02/02/04

none

none

02/02/04

3

4 2 1

Bird flu GMOs Health food

11/02/04

none

none

11/02/04

1

5

Bird flu

GMOs

GMO rice

87

17/02/04

none

none

17/02/04

2

1

Bird flu

28/02/04

none

none

28/02/04

1

1

Bird flu

03/03/04

none

none

03/03/04

2

2

Bird flu

12/03/04

none

none

12/03/04

1

none

19/03/04

none

none

19/03/04

3

1

Bird flu

25/03/04

none

none

25/03/04

4

1

Fast food

31/03/04

none

none

31/03/04

1

1

Fast food

06/04/04

none

none

06/04/04

1

none

14/04/04

none

none

14/04/04

1

none

20/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

2

none

26/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

1

1 1 1

Bird flu Fruit Energy drink

06/05/04

none

none

06/05/04

4

1 1 1

Food Contamination Food Safety Fruit juice

14/05/04

none

none

14/05/04

2

1

Food Safety

18/05/04

none

none

18/05/04

2

1 1

Dried fruit for export Food Safety

27/05/04

none

none

27/05/04

4

2

Bird flu

88

1

Green tea Beverage

31/05/04

none

none

31/05/04

2

1

07/06/04

none

none

07/06/04

5

none

17/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

4

1 1

26/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

3

none

10/07/04

none

none

10/07/04

3

2 1

Bird Flu Rice

17/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

4

2 1

Bird Flu Snack

22/07/04

none

none

22/07/04

3

1

Bird Flu

Canned food GMO

89

5.4. The Nation Date/year

ORGANIC FOOD Ads.

Article&News

Date/year

Articles and news

NON-ORGANIC FOOD Ads

Articles&News

Info of article and news

03/08/03

none

none

03/08/03

1

1

Food Safety

05/08/03

none

none

05/08/03

none

none

16/08/03

none

none

16/08/03

3

none

20/08/03

none

none

20/08/03

1

1

Beer

31/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

4

1

GMO

04/09/03

none

none

04/09/03

3

1

Soft drink

1

Fast Food

12/09/03

none

none

12/09/03

7

none

15/09/03

none

none

15/09/03

4

1

Sugar

24/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

4

1

Food Safety policy

02/10/03

none

none

02/10/03

7

1

Herb

1

Risk of consuming cereal

07/10/03

none

none

07/10/03

5

2

Beer

18/10/03

none

none

18/10/03

1

1

Beer

22/10/03

none

1

22/10/03

1

1

GMO

1

Sugar

Organic Food concern in Thailand

90

01/11/03

none

none

01/11/03

3

1

Coffee

07/11/03

none

none

07/11/03

4

1

Food poisoning

1

Exported food

1

Pork quality

11/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

5

none

17/11/03

none

none

17/11/03

5

1

Coffee

26/11/03

none

none

26/11/03

7

1 1

Beer Pesticide contamination in vegetable

1

Thai food

03/12/03

none

none

03/12/03

2

none

14/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

2

none

20/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

1

1

26/12/03

01/01/04

none

none

none

none

26/12/03

01/01/04

none

2

1

Food poisoning Chemical contamination in sea food

1

Food life cycle

1

Food poisoning

1

Mad cow

1

Fast food

1

Food seasoning

1

Hybrid rice

1

Healthy food

91

07/01/04

15/01/04

none

none

none

none

07/01/04

15/01/04

2

none

1

GMOs

1

Bird flu

1

Mad cow

1

Shrimp

1

Bird flu

1

Fast Food

1

Food contamination

1

Ice cream

24/01/04

none

none

24/01/04

1

9

Bird flu

01/02/04

none

none

01/02/04

2

7

Bird flu

1

Food contamination

1

Healthy Food

4

Bird flu

1

Health food

8

Bird flu

1

Food retailing

1

Beverage

02/02/04

11/02/04

none

none

none

none

02/02/04

11/02/04

4

2

17/02/04

none

none

17/02/04

2

4

Bird flu

28/02/04

none

none

28/02/04

4

1

Bird flu

1

Healthy beverage

1

Food contamination

03/03/04

none

none

03/03/04

5

1

Green tea

12/03/04

none

none

12/03/04

none

2

Bird flu

92

1

Snack food

19/03/04

none

none

19/03/04

1

1

Bad effect of fizzy drink

25/03/04

none

none

25/03/04

3

1

Bad effect of alcoholic beverage

31/03/04

none

none

31/03/04

1

1

New benefit from milk

1

Prevention of food poisoning

1

Beer

06/04/04

none

none

06/04/04

2

1

Ice cream

14/04/04

none

none

14/04/04

none

1

Bad effect of fizzy drink

20/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

3

none

06/05/04

none

none

06/05/04

2

none

14/05/04

none

none

14/05/04

3

none

18/05/04

none

none

18/05/04

1

27/05/04

31/05/04

none

none

none

none

27/05/04

31/05/04

2

2

1

Rice

1

Food supplements

1

Healthy food

1

Bird flu

1

Energy drink

1

Food exhibition

none

93

07/06/04

none

none

07/06/04

1

none

17/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

1

1

26/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

1

none

30/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

1

1

Canned food

Food poisoning

1

Coffee

1

Wine

1

Chocolate

10/07/04

none

none

10/07/04

3

1

Herb for supplement food

17/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

3

2

Bird Flu

22/07/04

none

none

22/07/04

2

2

Bird Flu

94

5.4. Bangkok Post Date/year

ORGANIC FOOD

Date/year

Articles and news

NONE ORGANIC FOOD

Ads.

Article&News

Ads

Articles&News

03/08/03

none

none

03/08/03

29

none

Info of article and news

05/08/03

none

none

05/08/03

28

1

biology farm

16/08/03

none

none

16/08/03

22

3

sugar, fast food and cuisine

20/08/03

none

none

20/08/03

26

none

31/08/03

none

none

31/08/03

23

none

04/09/03

none

none

04/09/03

26

none

12/09/03

none

none

12/09/03

78

4

fast food and soft drink

15/09/03

none

none

15/09/03

25

1

food safety policy

24/09/03

none

none

24/09/03

25

1

FAO/WHO Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators

02/10/03

none

none

02/10/03

26

none

07/10/03

none

none

07/10/03

27

none

18/10/03

none

none

18/10/03

28

4

Beer, cuisine, cofee, soft drink

22/10/03

none

none

22/10/03

24

1

beer

01/11/03

none

none

01/11/03

31

3

low fat, cuisine, exported food

95

07/11/03

none

none

07/11/03

40

none

11/11/03

none

none

11/11/03

26

2

cofee, thai food

17/11/03

none

none

17/11/03

26

7

food poisoning, exported food Pork quality, low fat, dairy milk

26/11/03

none

none

26/11/03

24

1

Beer

03/12/03

none

none

03/12/03

33

1

food safety

14/12/03

none

none

14/12/03

28

3

20/12/03

none

none

20/12/03

32

2

Food poisoning

26/12/03

none

none

26/12/03

29

4

Food life cycle, food poisoning

01/01/04

none

none

01/01/04

23

none

07/01/04

none

none

07/01/04

none

1

shrimp export

15/01/04

none

none

15/01/04

3

8

Bird flu, poultry, food safety

24/01/04

none

none

24/01/04

24

9

Bird flu, food contamination

01/02/04

none

none

01/02/04

22

3

fast food, bird flu opinions, rice.

02/02/04

none

none

02/02/04

22

1

Bird flu statement from WHO

11/02/04

none

none

11/02/04

21

4

Bird flu, beverage

17/02/04

none

none

17/02/04

18

4

Rejection of GMOs

traditional market Mad cow, sea food contamination

96

28/02/04

none

none

28/02/04

27

1

Anxieties of consuming food.

03/03/04

none

none

03/03/04

25

1

potatoes

12/03/04

none

none

12/03/04

51

2

Bird flu, fast food

19/03/04

none

none

19/03/04

35

4

bird flu, f safety, healthy pills

25/03/04

none

none

25/03/04

24

3

Health food, bird flu, GMO rice

31/03/04

none

none

31/03/04

15

3

Bird flu aftermath, children’s diet

06/04/04

none

none

06/04/04

22

1

Ice cream

14/04/04

none

none

14/04/04

15

1

Bad effect of fizzy drink

20/04/04

none

none

20/04/04

21

none

26/04/04

none

none

26/04/04

23

none

06/05/04

none

none

06/05/04

21

none

14/05/04

none

none

14/05/04

88

none

18/05/04

none

none

18/05/04

19

1

27/05/04

none

none

27/05/04

15

none

31/05/04

none

none

31/05/04

20

1

07/06/04

none

none

07/06/04

25

none

sustainable agriculture

health food

97

17/06/04

none

none

17/06/04

19

none

26/06/04

none

none

26/06/04

25

none

30/06/04

none

none

30/06/04

19

1

chocolate

10/07/04

none

none

10/07/04

16

1

bird flu

17/07/04

none

none

17/07/04

21

1

Bird Flu

22/07/04

none

none

22/07/04

19

none

98

Annex 6. Pictures of the Markets and Presentation of Food Produce

Villa Market

Big C

Sri-Sa-Wad traditional market

Shelves of fruits and vegetables inside the supermarket

Shelves of fruits and vegetables inside the superstore chain

Presentation of fruits and vegetables

99