Summary of Surviving your Dissertation

 Rudestam, K.E. K.E. & Newton, R.R. R.R.

Summary of 

Surviving  your Dissertation

Chapter 1 The Research Process  A research proposal is an action plan p lan that justifies and describes the proposed study. It serves as a contract between the student and his dissertation or thesis committee that,  when approved by all parties, constitutes an agreement that data may be collected and the study may be completed. A good proposal contains a review of the relevant literature, a statement of the problem and the associated hypotheses, and a clear delineation of the proposed method and plans for data analyses. The research process can be visualizes by the “research wheel”, that can be found at page 5 of the book. This wheel shows that research is not linear but a recursive cycle of steps that are repeated over time. It includes the following chronological steps: 1. empirical observation; selecting a topic from the infinite array of possible topics 2. proposition; inductive logic to culminates in a developed proposition; relate the topic to a broader context 3. conceptual framework; a broader context of the proposal, based on theories 4. research questions / hypotheses; the use of deductive reasoning to move from the larger context of theory to generate a specific research question. 5. data collection; another task of empirical observation 6. data analysis; a) generalizations on the basis of the particular data that have been observed (inductive process) &  b) generalizations tied to a conceptual framework in order to develop research questions and implications for additional study  Two skills are necessary for the research process: I. Knowledge by description; learning in a passive mode, such as reading a book. II. Knowledge by acquaintance; learning by doing, such as driving a car. Chapter 2 Selecting a Suitable Topic Before defining a topic for the dissertation, one should first obtain a broad familiarity   with the field. This implies a large amount of exploring the literature and talking with experts. 5 guidelines for topic selection: 1.  A topic needs to sustain your interest over a long period of time, and you’ll always  be associated with this particular study. study. 2.  Avoid a topic that is overly ambitious and overly challenging. Instead, it should  be convenient and workable. 3.  Avoid topics that may be linked too closely with emotional emotional issues in your own life. 4. Choose a topic on which you can conduct the research demands “ruthless honesty” and “objectivity”. 5. Select a topic that has the potential for you to make an original contribution to the field and allow you to demonstrate your independent mastery of subject and method. Reasons to conduct a research can be resolving a problem, explaining a phenomenon, uncovering a process by which something occurs, demonstrating the truth of a hidden fact, building on or reevaluating other studies, or testing some theory in your field.

One of the most difficult parts of conducting a research is transforming an interesting idea into a researchable question. Researchable questions almost invariably involve the relationship between two or more variables, phenomena, concepts, or ideas. Mostly the presence of two variables is apt to be limiting, and oftentimes it is only when a third “connecting” variable is invoked that an idea becomes researchable. The presence of such a “connecting” variable will depend upon the logic of the conceptual model underlying the study. In this regard, a distinction can be made between two terms, mediator and moderator. The moderator variable pinpoints the conditions under which an independent variable exerts its effects on a dependent variable. A mediating variable tries to describe “how” rather than “when” effects will occur by accounting for the relationship between the independent variable ( the predictor) and the dependent  variable (the criterion). (For further explanation see table 2.2 at page 18 & 19)

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable Mediating Variable

= Moderator = Mediator

Not all decent research studies focus on three (or more) primary variables, many only  focus on the relationship between two variables or concepts, and few descriptive studies only deal with one. This generally occurs in the early stages of research in an area when little is known about a topic. One of the exercises that Rudestam & Newton mention in order to generate researchable questions is a brainstorming exercise. This begins with labeling one or two variables and generating a second and / or third, and takes place in small groups of app. four people. The chapter finishes with table 2.3, which asks the researcher to look at the kinds of  issues that need to be considered and responded to during the course of developing the research proposal. Summarized, it deals with the following three issues: - Is the question clear and researchable, and will the answer to the question extend knowledge in your field of study? - Have you located your question within a context of previous study that demonstrates that you have mastered and taken into consideration the relevant  background literature? - Is the proposed method suitable for exploring your question? Finally, some student suggestions are given in Box 2.1 at page 21. These are shortly  phrased the following: - Start an idea box where you can store good ideas for future reference. - Think of your topic as a large jigsaw puzzle with a piece missing. That is what you  want to research, to fill the gap in your field. - Before you begin, read several well-written dissertations recommended by your chairperson - Note that even small questions answered in your dissertation can serve much larger purposes.

Chapter 3 Methods of Inquiry  The principal characteristic of scholarly and scientific inquiry is the use of rationally  grounded procedures to extend knowledge that a community of scholars regards as reliable and valid, and the chosen methods of inquiry must rest on rational justification. In the hierarchy of knowledge, three levels are distinguished:  Axialogic / Epistemic Level: the underlying level of basic world hypotheses that form the foundation for content and method within a field of inquiry.  Epistemology refers to the study of nature of knowledge.  Axiology refers to the study of ethics, values, and aesthetics. Theoretical Level: the level of models and theories. Empirical Level: the level of knowledge that is obtained through sense experience. It is contrasted with rationalism, which refers to knowledge derived purely through thought and reason. •

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The primary role of research within this three-level schema is to link the theoretical and the empirical. The key to evaluating the completed study is whether or not the selected method is sufficiently rigorous and appropriate to the research question, and whether or not the study is conceptually and theoretically grounded. The method needs to evolve out of the research question and be determined by it. Quantitative Methods Current research in the social sciences is very steeped in the empirical and quantitative traditions. Descriptive statistics describe the patterns of behavior, whereas inferential statistics use probabilistic arguments to generalize findings from samples to populations of interest. In experimental research, quantitative research designs are used to determine aggregate differences between groups or classes of subjects, and emphasis is placed on precise measurement and controlling for extraneous sources of error. The goal of experimental research is to allow the researcher to infer a causal relationship between the two (or more) variables of interest. Methodological control is accomplished by: Random sampling: subjects have randomly been drawn from the potential pool of  subjects so that each member of the population has an equal chance or known probability of being selected. Randomization: assigns subjects to groups or experimental conditions in such a  way that each subject has an equal chance of being selected for each condition. •

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Unfortunately, these efforts at experimental control are often impractical in social science research with human subjects. Social sciences often make use of “quasi-experimental” research methods. These methods, also named “ex post facto research”, is a systematic empirical approach in  which the investigator does not employ experimental manipulation or random assignment of subjects to conditions because events have already occurred or they are inherently not manipulable.

Experimental designs permit the researcher to make causal inferences regarding the relationships among the variables. In contrast, correlational (or “observational’) studies do not generally enable the researcher to demonstrate causal relationships among  variables. Any conclusions regarding causality must be inferred from the underlying theory rather than from the results of the study itself. Statistical techniques that are used to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention or a difference between groups, such as an ANOVA or t-test, compare the size of “between-group” differences with the size of  “within-group” differences due to individual variability. Correlations depend upon comparing two distributions of scores, that is, scores that are broadly dispersed along two dimensions. Two points need to be made regarding the use of quantitative research. First, there is a tendency in the social sciences to overemphasize the importance of “statistically  significant” findings and to underemphasize the importance of clinically or socially  significant findings. Second, as you consider the kinds of designs and controls that are available to the social science researcher, we urge you to be aware of a fundamental dilemma. Good research is a constant balancing act between control and meaningfulness. Qualitative Methods These are used for studies that allow researchers to be more spontaneous and flexible in exploring phenomena, in their natural environment. Qualitative implies that the data are in the form of words as opposed to numbers. There is more emphasis on description and discovery and less emphasis on hypothesis testing and verification, as the qualitative researcher seeks a psychologically rich, in-depth understanding of the individual. In this, he can make use of interviews, hermeneutic inquiry, survey research, participant observation, and even statistics. The newer generation of qualitative researchers emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality, a close relationship between the researcher and the object of study, and the context that influences the inquiry. Although there exists great heterogeneity within the literature on qualitative methodologies, it is probably fair to say that such methods generally share three fundamental assumptions. These are; 1.  A Holistic View, that stresses that the whole is different that the sum of its parts, 2.  Inductive Approach, which says that qualitative research begins with specific observations and moves towards the development of general patterns that emerge from the cases under study  3.  Naturalistic Inquiry, qualitative research is intended to understand phenomena in their naturally occurring states. This appropriate selection of methods of inquiry is contextual and depends to a large extent upon learning the standards used in your own discipline. Three dimensions that seem important in contrasting the various qualitative research traditions are (a) the problems and concerns of the researcher, (b) the nature of  knowledge, and (c) the relationship between the researcher and the subject matter. These dimensions are summarized in relation to the research traditions of  phenomenology, hermeneutics, and ethnographic inquiry. (See table 3.3 at page 39)

The focus of  phenomenology is on what the person experiences and its expression in language that is as loyal to the lived experience as possible, and thus attempts to describe and elucidate the meanings of human experience. It attempts to get beneath how people describe their experience to the structures that underlie consciousness, that is, to the essential nature of ideas.  Hermeneutics has been described as the interpretation of texts or transcribed meanings. One engages in hermeneutic approach to data in order to derive a better understanding of the context that gives it meaning.  Ethnographic Inquiry attempts to capture and understand specific aspects of the life of a particular group by observing patterns of behavior, customs, and lifestyles. The focus is on obtaining full and detailed descriptions from informants Qualitative research designs typically are not intended to prove or test a theory, and it is more likely that the theory will emerge once the data are collected. Students selecting a qualitative design need to convince their committees that they understand the role of the qualitative researcher. Other Approaches to Dissertations  Alternative research methods are the four mixed-method designs, introduced by  Creswell (1995). These are the: a. Sequential studies; in which the researcher begins with generating quantitative data and then gathers qualitative data (or vice versa) in two distinct phases  b. Parallel / simultaneous studies; where the quantitative and qualitative phases occur simultaneously  c. Equivalent status designs; where both quantitative and qualitative approaches are used with more or less equal emphasis in order to understand the phenomenon being studied d. Dominant less dominant studies; where either the quantitative or qualitative approach provides the dominant paradigm and the other approach is a small, supplementary component of the study. Perhaps the most common application of the mixed methodology is to assess a large number of participants using standardized scales and measures I a field study or an experimental study and then conduct open-ended interviews with a subset of the original sample to derive a richer understanding of the phenomenon in question.  Another possible approach to writing a dissertation is to write a theoretical dissertation, in which you bypass the need for data collection. However, this is not seen as an easy way  out. If you know an area of inquiry inside out and are intimately familiar with the issues and controversies in the field, you have the chance to contribute a new theory. However, if you are beginning to review an area of interest to formulate a study, you are probably   better off with an empirical study.  Meta-analysis, also referred to as ‘analysis of analysis’, is a form of secondary analysis of  pre-existing data that aims to summarize and compare results from different studies on the same topic.

 Action research has been defined as “a form of research that generates knowledge claims for the express purpose of taking action to promote social change and social analysis”. It is research that involves broad participation in the research process and generates action leading to significant social change for the stakeholders. The typical steps in action research are: 1. Identify a problem area 2. Form hypotheses or predictions that imply a goal and a procedure for achieving it 3. Carefully record the actions taken and desired goal 4. Form inferences based on the data relating the actions taken to the extent of  achieving the desired goal 5. Continue retesting the generalizations in the situation in an ongoing iterative process In summary, positivism maintained that there was a single method that of the natural sciences, that was valid everywhere. Today, postmodern critics are circling like vultures to pick over the spoils of positivism Chapter 4 Review of literature The idea of a literature review is not to give an overview of the available literature on the topic. The reader will need to be convinced not only that the proposed study is distinctive and different from previous research but also that it is worthwhile doing. It is also the place where the students critical abilities as a scholar become evident. By the end of the literature review the reader must be able to conclude that this is the exact study that needs to be done to move knowledge in the field a little further. It is not necessary to reinvent the wheel so you can use others arguments. Common problems  A common problem in writing the thesis is that the author is giving away his power and authority. One way of giving away authority is to refer to the authority of other in the review. Statements of other scientists are not always valid. Another way of limiting your own authority is using quotations in excess. The overuse of quotation tends to deflect the argument away from the control of the author. A good literature review needs to be selective, and its is taken for granted the majority of source material you have read will not make it into the review. The relevant studies need to criticized rather than reported Critiquing a research article Reading an article requires a constant critical perspective. This means that you are evaluating the content for its application to your research. There is a list of actions given on p.60/61. Long shots and close ups This metaphor serves as a tool to refer to long shots as background information. The medium shot is in between the long shot and the close up and requires a more detailed descriptive material. The close up requires a careful examination of the research and is reserved for those studies that have the most direct relevance to the proposed research question. A good strategy for reviewing literature is to use the Venn diagram. Yellow is  background information, red is relevant information and blue is very relevant literature.

 Image 1: the Venn diagram

Statement of the problem By the end of the literature review the reader should have a clear idea of the study. By the end of the review the reader must be convinced of your mastery of the subject. The statement of the problem is sometimes written as a separate chapter and sometimes located at the very end of the literature review. The statement of the problem is best  written down as research questions or hypotheses. It is critical that a research question has a explanatory basis. The means that the statement of the problem contains a brief  summary of the conceptual underpinnings for the proposed research. If there is a lack of  information to give an explanatory direction to the research question it can become an exploratory question. In most cases it is possible to project hypotheses even in those instances where there is a lack of research in an area. Sometimes aspects of a hypotheses need to be operationalised  or clarified in how they are measured. Examples are Likert scales. A  research hypothesis should be stated as a directional hypotheses that follows from the argument stated in the literature review. A hypothesis should: Be free of ambiguity  Express the relationship between one or more variables Imply an empirical test Some studies combine research questions and hypotheses. Hypotheses in this case are designed to cover those relationships that directly challenge previous work or test a theory. Research questions without hypotheses are more open ended opportunities to satisfy the curiosity. Several examples of hypotheses are given on p.67/68. • • •

Problem statements in qualitative research Qualitative studies are more likely to support more open ended questions. Qualitative research question: Seeks to reveal more fully the essences and meaning of human experiences Seeks to uncover the qualitative rather than the quantitative factors in behaviour and experience Engages the total self of the research participant and sustains personal and passionate involvement Does not seek to predict or to determine causal relationships Is illuminated through careful, comprehensive descriptions and vivid an accurate renderings of the experienced rather than measurements, rating or scores. • •

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The primary question is usually followed by a series of further questions that have implications for data analysis. How does the process develop over time  What are noteworthy events in the process  What facilitates the process  What hinders the process  Who are the key participants and what are their roles  What are the outcomes The statement of the problem, together with the precise exposition of the research questions and or hypotheses, serves as a transition between the review and the methodology. • • • • • •

Chapter 5 The Method Chapter The method chapter of a dissertation, article or proposal describes the exact steps that  will be undertaken to address your hypothesis and / or research questions. Therefore the method chapter is followed from the problem statement. The goal is to provide a clear overview of steps to be followed. Qualitative research The method chapter contains the three following sub-sections: Subjects or participants Instrumentation or measures Procedures This chapter should be viewed primarily as a set of directions for conducting a specific piece of research. • • •

How to begin a method chapter  Write an introduction paragraph that describes the design of the study. Describing your sample The “subject” section of the method chapter describes the source and number of subjects  you will be using. Subjects can be persons however also others things can be used. It is important that the procedure for sampling is mentioned; the selection of subjects, the amount and the source of the subject. It is also imperative that you mention the type of  sampling; random, stratified, purposive. Were are the subjects located? When determining the amount of subject three areas are important:  Information about the appropriateness of the use of the instrument with the  population and setting described in the proposal  Locate empirical studies that demonstrate the utility of an instrument with a population as closely representative as possible of the population to be used in the study.  Information about the measurement characteristics of the instrument  Measurement characteristics refer to the validity, reliability and structure of the measure. After conducting the study the student reports the validity and reliability in the new body of knowledge. Information about the administration and scoring of the scales. It is important that the reader understands how an instrument is administered and scored. Sometimes it speaks for it selves, sometimes an explanation must be mailed or included in the questionnaire. •

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 What if I design my own instrument It is not wise if you design your own instrument, try to keep looking in the library for other designs. If you are not able to find a satisfactory design, you can try to modify  another design into a suitable instrument. You can modify questions from a valid research and exclude questions which are not necessary. Modifying an existing instrument is acceptable as long as it makes the instrument still valid.  What if I am not using a questionnaire to collect data Behavioral observations, extended interviews and archival data all constitute valid sources of data for dissertation research. Here also validity and reliability need to be considered. Procedures The procedures section provides a detailed description of the exact steps taken to contact  your research participants, obtain their cooperation and administer your instruments.  When procedures are complex and cover a time period a flowchart or table presenting the procedures visually becomes very helpful. Any information that might be affecting the participants must be mentioned. Instructions for participants are included in the appendices. Ethical release form are crucial because they inform the participants for potential hazards of participating in the study. Data analysis: how to justify and describe an analysis In a research proposal a statement is made which statistical tests will be used to address the hypothesis and research questions. It is good to think about this in advance because it forces you to think what you will do with your data and how you will present it. It is a difficult part of the dissertation, student may not be prepared to apply statistics to their own research. First statistical analysis is not a one-time affair. Data is analyzed and reanalyzed until the researcher is satisfied. Second, interesting questions usually arise after the first analysis. You should after consultation with your advisors describe which techniques are most appropriate a) the nature of your hypothesis, b) the number of  independent and dependent variables and c) the level of measurement of each variable. Limitations of your research  At the end of the methods chapter it is wise to include a limitation part. This usually  restricts the populations to which the result can be generalized. Qualitative dissertation Qualitative research adopts views of sampling, instrumentation and data analysis that are often directly contrary to the views held by those who conduct more traditional “rationalistic” research. Lincon and Guba give 10 design considerations: 1. determining the focus for the inquiry  2. determining fit of paradigm to focus 3. determining the fit of the inquiry paradigm to the substantive theory selected to guide the inquiry  4. determining where and from whom data will be collected 5. determining successive phases of the inquiry  6. determining instrumentation 7. planning data collection and recording modes 8. planning data analysis procedure 9. planning the logistics 10. planning for trustworthiness

These 10 element cover the problem statement and methods chapter of a proposal. Samples Samples are usually not selected at random but researchers use criteria for selection to find the suitable candidates. Also the amount of participant is usually lower than a quantitative research sample. Because the grounded theory is inductive, the sample size may increase over time. For samples see p. 93/94. Chapter 6 Presenting the Results of Empirical Studies - Results chapter contains just the facts: tables, figures, transcript summaries. - Discussion chapter contains: extended discussion of the results.  Within qualitative research these boundaries are of little importance. The chapters are more integrated.  Where to begin? / Adressing research questions and hypotheses / The nuts and bolts of describing quantitative results How is the chapter organized: 1.  begin with a simple statement that describes the structure of the results chapter 2. results should be organized in such a way that the reader is not confronted with a large mass of data 3. forgo engaging in an extended discussion of the meaning of the findings (belongs to discussion chapter) Results chapter: 1. description sample (demographics) 2. examination research questions and/or testing hypotheses - create subheadings that describe the content of the hypothesis being addressed - address one research question at a time - clear and simple presentation is important -  when findings are not statistically significant also report the probability  level 3. examination of additional questions generated by earlier analyses or further exploratory investigation Speaking of significance Be aware of poorly written statements that describe results of statistical tests (e.g. p. 111112). So: one would most likely address the issue of mean differences in behavior problems using a combination of statements types I II and III as e.g. p. 113. Presenting tables and graphs Should results be presented in a table/figure (graphics)/as part of the text? - Table: in study with many groups where the sex distribution within each group is important - Figure: chart, graph, photograph, line drawing. Watch the space you need!!

 You need to think carefully about the optimal number of tables and their content, as well as how to design the specific organization of each table to most effectively illustrate the important aspects of the analyses you wish to emphasize. -  watch for not too much decimals - compare in rows or in columns, but not both, be consequent - column and row averages and totals can provide much additional information,  without cluttering the table - select the information to be included carefully, organize it to make the information visually appealing, and use plenty of white space to improve visual organization - relate tables and figures to the text - avoid the use of computer-based variable names when possible The parts of a table Tables contain: number, title, headings (what variables and statistics are being presented and establish the organization of the table), body (numbers, data) and notes (general, specific, notes that indicate the statististical significance of findings). Recommendation to the use of notes: against the use of probability notes in favor of providing the exact probability level. Preparing the data for analysis Following steps outline the process leading to the production of both meaningful tables and reasonable statistical analysis: 1. is the variable in the correct form? - mutually exclusive categories - exhaustive categories - missing values 2. grouping the data 3. creating a correctly labeled table Contents of a complete table 1. table number 2. table name/title (includes name of the variable and some information about sample) 3. set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories you have developed (headings) 4. frequencies, percentages, totals (body) 5. notes including source Dealing with missing values 1. create a category to contain the missing data 2. footnote the numer of missing values 3. create a residual category for all unimportant values  Are there guidelines for line spacing in tables? - make tables readable

Models for the tabular presentation of common descriptive and inferential statistical analysis 1. univariate (one variable) 2.  bivariate (two variables) 3. multivariate (more than two variables) Constructing one-variable tables and statements that describe them form computer printouts. Correctly labeled table with frequencies and percentages see p. 126 table 6.3 (only frequency and percent columns included). Percent column contains all cases, including missing values. Valid percent column in table 6.2 excludes the missing values. Goal is to point out what is perceived as notable in the table, which is in part a matter of   judgment on behalf of the data analyst. Table 6.5 correct labeled table of a continuously  distributed variable. Differences with table 6.3: depends on what kind of variable: continuous/discrete (and ordinal) table 6.3 includes missing values (recommend exclusion; then use valid percent column) table 6.5 includes cumulative percentages (never include with nominal level data). Help divide sample into groups and are generally useful only when there is a large number of categories in 6.4 you see 1-7, in 6.5 they are categorized on age • •

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Some rules when using categories: 1. the larger the width, the more data information is lost 2. label table with the range of values, not the value used to represent that range (17) 3. means, sd and other descriptive statistics for interval and ratio variables generally are based on the unrecoded data, which contains the most information 4. do not destroy the original data 5. compare the recoded and unrecoded data to make sure that no mistakes were made and that the missing values were not included in one of the valid groupings 6. try to keep each class interval the same width. Graphs can be highly misleading  when you don’t. Bivariate distributions Usually presented in the form of tables. These distributions are the basic ingredients of  dissertations in the social sciences, education and business. Three types: 1. tables in which both the IV and the DV are categorical: these are summarized by  using percentages and the tables are called cross-tabulations -  bivariate table, cross-tabulation, contingency table - contains joint distribution of 2 categorical variables - laid out in the form of a square or rectangle containing rows and columns. Both representing the categories of the different variables. See p. 129. Cell entries and marginal totals - entries in each cell will be the freqeuncies representing the number of times that each pair of values occurs in the sample (cell frequencies) - marginal frequencies: entries that occur at the end of each row or column. Represent total number of times the category of the row variable or column  variable occurred.

How to decide which is the row variable and which is the column variable - IV at the top, DV at the side - IV: causes DV  - DV: depends on or be caused by IV  The concept of association based on subgroup comparisons Compare the conditional distributions with one another after the percentages are computed within each column. Calculate percentages in one direction and make our comparisons in another direction. Because we compute percentage up and down the columns, we compare across the columns (e.g. table 6.7 p. 134).  Percentage difference: easy method of making a statement about the degree or amount of relationship in a table is to compare the percentages in th e conditional distributions. 2. tables of means and sd that summarize bivariate relationships in which the IV is categorical and the DV a score of some sort - continuous variables: those that can be scaled along a continuum row highest to lowest, most favorable to least favorable, etc. (most psychological, sociological, political and educational measures) - earlier: these variables are ordinal, so you can’t compute means and inferential statistics. Because they need at least interval level logic underlying is that these variables are continuous at the latent level and thus, when other assumptions are met, do not pose serious problems for the social sciences. 3. tables showing relationship between two variables, both of which are continuously distributed -  when IV and DV are continuously distributed and there is only one such relationship the coorelation coefficient is presented. -  best way to present: scatter plot (graph) - correlation matrix: when a large number of relationships is examined simultaneously  Tabular presentation of the results of inferential statistics Statistical inference considers whether or not the results can be generalized to the population from which the sample was drawn. Whether or not the results are statistically  significant. This question would be addressed with a chi-square test. How to select these different statistical techniques and models: see research questions p 138-140! How to interpret and present the results of analysis of variance (anova)  ANOVA is utilized when the independent variable(s) form categories and the dependent  variable is continuously distributed. These represent the sort research question 2 described at pages 138-140. The next pages will go deeper in to a research with dissertation ready tables and an example of how this information be presented and discussed in a result section. Important is that the tables are intended to elaborate upon the text not substitute for it. Text should stand on its own. Further explanation is given on p. 142 and 143. Presenting the results of multiple regression analysis (MRA) MRA is a multivariate statistical technique that examines the relationship between the continuously distributed independent variables and one continuously distributed dependent variable. This technique is appropriate for the research question type 1 on pag, 138-140. There is no standard agreed format for presenting these results of MRA.

There are many MRA variations available and the complexity of the models is tested. Struggles are both on interpretation and on presentation of the results.  When doing a MRA it generates a wide variety of output. This includes un-standardized and standardized regression coefficients, multiple correlations, squares, etc and changes in values of R and R² in stepwise regression procedures. Usually the t or f statistics indicate the significance. See model 6.15, describes the MRA. The independent variables are in the rows and the un-standardized and standardized regression coefficients are in the columns. The t value is associated with the regression coefficients and is also in the columns. R² is presented in the bottom of the table and is associated with the F value. The F and T values are presented with their p value. For an example of MRA p. 146-152. Streamlining your results: presenting multiple analysis in a single table Many similar analyses are presented in section Results. When you have different  variables many tables and describes can be given. When these kinds of situations occur, recommendation is to seek a means by which the result may be combined into one single table. In table 6.19 p. 154 only the results are presented in one table, the mean, sd, N for each variable is given but it does not present the whole ANOVA test that is done. It is sufficient to present only the F ratio and the accompanying probability notes to indicate the statistical significance of each analysis. One single table gives all results and facilitates a discussion, and comprehension of the results. Final caution is that it is important to point out that one can carry it out to far. The result  will lead to confusion rather than clarification. Presenting the results of qualitative research It is more of a challenge to write a qualitative dissertation than it is to write a quantitative dissertation. Widely accepted guidelines and formats are available for statistical analyses. This is not the case for qualitative analyses. There is no clear agreement found on the variety of formats and approaches for qualitative reporting. First priority is to adopt a well organized strategy that makes sense of your data and presents them clearly and comprehensively. Qualitative research conducts lots of data, in different forms. Words, ideas, interview  transcripts, field notes, a wide variety of records, documents, unobtrusive measures. You could be come victim of data overload. Qualitative data analysis programs do exist and are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Most qualitative researchers begin with getting an overview of all the data they have, making summaries in the form of memos, reflective notes. The summaries are brought  back to the participant and asked for feedback and verification. Because the tendency of  text data is overwhelming in scope and quantity there must be made some categories or codes to reduce the data, sort and refine it. Moustakas describes two approaches to analysis. - modification by Kaam’s method -  variation of methods suggested by several authors

The following steps are taken in the approaches of Moustakas and are over the whole process of transcript of every participant. 1. review each statement for how well it describes the experience 2. record all relevant statements 3. remove all statements that redundant or overlap with others, leaving the key  meaning of units of the experience 4. organize the invariant meaning units into themes 5. Coalesce the themes into a description of the textures of the experience and augment the description with the quotations from the text 6. using your imagination and taking multiple perspectives to find possible meanings in the text construct a description of the structures of your experience 7. create a textural- structural description of the meaning and the essences of your experience Integrate the individual textural structural descriptions into a composite description of  the meaning and essences of the experiences of the whole group. The proponents of  grounded theory have slightly different way of thinking about what takes place in the results chapter of a dissertation. Making sense of naturalistic data means processing the data through some technique of inductive analysis. Grounded theory has a unified procedure of developing categories in information and moving these categories to construct a narrative to connect them and generate a set of theoretical propositions. Two sub processes of inductive analysis: unitizing is a coding operation in which information units are isolated from the text. Categorizing is that information units derive from the unitizing phase are organized into categories on the basis of similarity in meaning. As the number of categories rise to a point the researcher attempt to write rules that define which units of information may be included or excluded from the category. This is called the constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) and requires continual revision, modification and amendment until the new units can be placed in to an appropriate category and de categories do not include any new  information. The following steps are of the inductive process: 1. opening coding: reviewing the entire text for descriptive categories 2. axial coding : relating the categories to their subcategories according to their properties and dimensions. 3. selective coding: integrating and refining the theory  The resulting theory can be presented in the dissertation as hypotheses generating by the data and /or proposed as a comprehensive model, with some figures and models, to understand the phenomenon in the context of the study and previous research and practice. For examples look at p. 159 – 160. It is important for qualitative research to describe the context of the a particular event. Miles and Huberman (1994) recommend a context chart as one manner in which to do this . the context chart is a network mapping in graphic form the interrelationships among the roles, groups, and if appropriate the organizations that are going to make up the context of the individual behavior. Some forms to illustrate the chosen constructs are genogram figure 6.1 p.163. and in figure 6.2. is illustrated a organizational chart (organigram). Another form of displaying qualitative data is a causal network. This graph displays the independent and dependent variable in naturalistic study.

This graph uses arrows to represent the direction of influence (causality) and makes specific notations regarding the meaning of the connections between the arrows linking the variables in the analysis. See for example p. 165. Chapter 7 Discussion The discussion chapter is an opportunity to move beyond the data and integrate creatively the results of your study with the theory and research. There are no rules or formats written how to write a discussion, but a good discussion should have the following elements: 1. an overview of the significant findings of the study  2. a considerations of the findings in the light of the existing research studies 3. implications of the study for current theory  4. a careful examination of findings that fail to support or only partially support  your hypotheses 5. limitations of the study that may affect the validity or the generalizability of the results 6. recommendations for further research 7. implications of the study or professional practice or applied settings  A discussion includes the following points: Exercise of inductive thinking Take over where the introduction and review left off  Forward your conceptual argument on basis of the obtained data, exploring the meaning of the data with the relationships of the variables Evaluate the extent to which your study answered the questions Consider the strengths and weaknesses of the alternative interpretations from the literature • • •

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One popular way of starting a discussion is with a review of the status of the hypotheses and research questions. Avoid terminology, refer to variables by name. A failure is to return to the literature to integrate the results of the study with other empirical studies examined in same phenomena. A good discussion embeds each result within the theoretical context that was presented in the literature review. Some other suggestions are for writing a discussion: the data analysis should have been presented thoroughly in the result chapter do not repeat and reformulate points that have already been made discuss the findings than rather describe them again focus on one or two recommendations  be careful not to offer suggestions for further research that can be dressed easily in your own study  do not include trivial details or ramble aimlessly around the topic, think  creatively  • • • • •

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Dissertations do not content a summary but in the discussion, a subtitle Conclusions can  be given, here you can summarize the implications of your findings in a few paragraphs.

 Abstract   An abstract is a short summary of the project placed before the introduction of the dissertation. An abstract needs to be clear and should not be overlooked because is the section that is first read end is sometimes only read. The abstract should give an accurate reflection of the content of the dissertation. It is easy to write the abstract after you have finished the dissertation. You lift to two or three sentences from each chapter to assemble the abstract. Abstracts need to give a overview of the dissertation. It must be over 150 words, and include short statements that summarize the research problem, subjects, the method and procedures, results and conclusions and implications. Title Lots of times not enough attention is given to the title of the dissertation. The title is the  vehicle that carries the meaning of the dissertation in the professional community. If  constructing a title remember to: include all necessary key words to correctly and fully convey the content of the study  delete all words that are redundant or do not contribute to the essential meaning order the words to reflect accurately the meaning you intend •

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See for examples of titles p. 174.

Chapter 8

Overcoming Barriers

In this chapter six specific types of issues that can lead to complications in the dissertation process. These are:  Working with your committee Emotional Blocks Task blocks Getting Organized Depending upon others for data collection and data analysis Dissertation orals • • • • • •

 1: Working with your committee. The real ideal scenario for a student is when all committee members work together smoothly, communicate frequently and support the student through the dissertation process. In real life this does not happen so often. This is because committee members disagree and recalcitrant or neglectful members hold up the completion of the dissertation. In the experience of the authors there is no advantage in avoiding difficult team members. With difficult, members who provide extensive feedback and demand a high quality work are meant. The way to get through many challenging educational hurdles is being able to manager negative feedback with grace and non-defensiveness, a skill worth cultivating. If the situation occurs where the committee exists of only one member, then it could result in the fact that the dissertation draft is only sent frequently  to one person and infrequently as possible to the other members. One skill of managing feedback is dealing with contradictory recommendations. Some faculties have their own tastes and preferences. This is to be expected and no committee will ever be in total agreement. Important is to stay in charge of your own project. It is vital to know which suggestions are critical and which are window dressing.

 As a researcher you need to maintain your integrity on important issues and argue them persuasively, based on facts and logic. When committee have divergent opinions which seem non-negotionable, you can always appeal to your chair person for support and turn over the dilemma to the faculty, keep in mind never to place faculty members against each other.  Always begin by selection a chairperson of the committee and then after consulting with  your chair invite other members. In general sense, you want members who are willing to promote rather that hinder your progress. It also makes sense to select members with an expertise concerning your own topic. Be sure to include at least one committee member  who has sufficient expertise in the kind of methodology and analysis procedures you anticipate using. Finally do not forget the need for social support in the dissertation process. The authors suggest the inclusion of a committee member who can provide emotional support in times of frustration. Make copies of all drafts and documents under all circumstances, including backup of all files! It is also recommended to keep them in different places in case of fire.  2: Emotional Blocks Students often do not only need technical supervision or consultation, they also need emotional stimulation. Along the way is it quite normal for students to have the feeling that they will never reach the end. Students need to adopt a perspective that allows them to know that frustration is predictable and will end. One way in doing this is to do the dissertation in small steps by selecting definable targets along the way. Students should  be encouraged not only to share their substantive research ideas, but also their fears and doubts about themselves in the process.  3. Task blocks Important in writing the dissertations is the organization of space and time. The dissertation is the singular most time consuming graduate requirement. The thought of  having freedom could cause problems. Some tips for arranging your life in completing the dissertation: Give yourself privacy and quiet. Tackle the dissertation one step at a time, review the literature, research question, problem statement, method and the discussion. Get your thoughts on paper. Talk your ideas over with others. Establish a regular weekly schedule that allows for several hours of concentrated dissertation time. Recognize that even the most productive people need a break.  Also it is important to keep family and the partner informed about the dissertation process. • •

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 4. Getting organized  Some dissertations deal with multiple hypotheses, different instruments and use numerous statistical analyses. It is important to keep control over all the magnitude of   your dissertation. The book shows a case study of H. Barret ( p 188/189) who made tables so that committee members, statistical consultants and anyone else were able to obtain immediately a picture of the study in question. (see case study)

 5. Collecting and analyzing data: Depending on others There are at least 2 occasions when helpers or consultants may become involved in the dissertation: 1: In setting up the study and collecting the data, 2: In analyzing the data. Many dissertations require the cooperation of other institutions. Sometimes it is possible to make a dissertation part of a much larger, ongoing research project. If one chooses this type of research several aspects should be kept in mind:  A doctoral dissertation must be your own project (In both concept and design). Someone else’s scheduling may not fit your own scheduling. Be sure that you have the freedom to make methodological changes that are critical to ensure the quality of your own work. It is not unusual for other people ’s large scale projects to use measures that do not fit your own research. Be careful in selecting assistants. Professors hold other authority over students than the researcher does. It pays to be careful and conscientious in hiring assistants and have a  backup strategy. Finally whenever one collaborates with a faculty or consultant, remember to take and maintain responsibility regarding your own dissertation project. • • •

6. Dissertation orals In science it is the traditions of a final oral exam. The defense ranges from a presentation to colleagues to an examination by a committee of the quality of the work. The oral dissertation should not be scheduled as long as the student is not ready in writing the paper. The oral defense should be regarded as an opportunity to think about and articulate the implications of your study to your own discipline and be challenged by the committee. Being fully familiar with your topic is crucial for a successful defense. The more familiar with the details of the study as well as the relevant literature the better. Sometimes the committee sees the oral presentation as an opportunity to build up their own egos at your expense. Best remedy is to take control of the situation as much as possible and move out of the role of victim. Try to make your presentation as clear as possible providing the committee with essentials of the study. Questions of the committee will normally turn out in interesting discussions on the topic, but could also  be intimidating. The more you take a proactive non defensiv e position, the less likely it is for the committee to humiliate you. Take into account that there will be questions which  you are not able to answer, this could be seen as a positive thing because it gives the committee room for recommendations. Most of the time oral presentations lead to “minor changes”. These can be seen as adjustments in the bibliography, some further analyses or some elaborated discussions. Major changes are more troublesome, they are more substantive alterations to theory. Always answer the request of changes as soon as possible, otherwise completion of the dissertation could take forever. Chapter 9 Writing For an researcher is knowing how to express ideas in written form an essential skill. Much of science depends on the communication of ideas in written form. Well written proposals are more likely to be: ¾ Received positively by funding agencies or dissertation committees ¾  Accepted for publication in professional journals ¾ Understood and appreciated by the audience they reach  You can learn a good deal about how to write a research report by referring to books and articles explicitly focused on this topic. You can also study the writing style and organization of articles in professional journals that publish research reports in areas related to your topic. Modeling these probably will ensure that your report complies sufficiently wit that journal’s requirements to be acceptable.

Unfortunately the writer has specifically aimed to make the report impossible for the average reader to understand. This is labeled as “gobbledygook.” To reach the reader and express your ideas, you will need to learn how to: ¾  Write what you mean ¾ Choose words and ways of putting them together that convey your understandings directly  ¾  Avoid scientific jargon and stylistic “gobbledygook.” ¾ Identify with your potential readers and try to imagine their process of  understanding what you have written Past experiences with writing Remembering and reappraising your past writing experiences may also suggest ways to change your feelings and take steps to remedy your difficulties. Learning to distance your self from writing Unfortunately, subsequent education can encourage you to put more and more distance  between your writing and your self, so that you learn to devaluate your own voice and may even conclude that it is an inappropriate presence in your writing. Learning to think of writing as a boring activity  Learning to feel inadequate as a writer The major obstacles that you need to overcome to not feel inadequate as a writer anymore are ¾ Fear ¾ Boredom ¾ Perfectionism ¾ Disenfranchisement ¾ Impatience ¾ Excessive pride  Additional obstacles may reside in difficulties with spelling, grammar, and sentence, but these obstacles usually can relative easily be overcome. Overcoming obstacles If you want to learn to write, it is essential to make writing a regular and routine activity  that is at least as important to you as brushing your teeth or reading the newspaper. There will be no better way to increase your skill and your comfort. Getting started Making lists  You might, for example, begin by making of ideas that seem important to address in your paper. Playing with your list of ideas in this ways can give you a structure for your  writing project that will allow you to get started and to know where you are going.

Clustering If the linearity of lists stultifies you and you have never been able to make an outline until you have written your piece, a different way of beginning may be more in tune with  your thinking style. A possible method is called clustering. It begins with a free associative task that involves writing your topic somewhere in the middle of a piece paper and then writing words and phrases that come to mind around that central topic,  with no conscious attention to their spatial placement. As more and more apparently  random associates are recorded, you can begin to draw lines between ideas that seem connected and gradually fill in the map of associated thoughts.  Writing a letter to a friend  Another way to trick yourself into beginning is to pretend you are writing to a friend to tell her about your topic and what you have learned about it. Beginning as if you were writing to a friend will highlight the communicative aspect of   writing and remind you of the importance of yourself in the communicative relationship that is created by writing. Journalistic devices Fledging reporters are instructed to begin every news story with a paragraph that tells the reader “who?”, “what?”, “why?”, “when?” and “where”?”. The relatively simple task of  answering the journalistic questions results in an introduction that states the purpose and approach of the study clearly and directly and prepares the reader for the elaborations that will follow. Your reader can then make a decision about whether or not he or she is sufficiently interested in your topic and your approach to read further.  Writing stories If you are a person who likes to tell stories, you might find it useful to write about your topic in story form. The story of how you came to be interested in your topic might be a natural way to begin. Or you might tell the story of how you learned more about your topic. Each of these devices for getting started provides a way to organize your thoughts and ideas that should allow you to put some words on your pristine piece of paper or your  blank computer screen. Topic and passion If you have any choice at all about topics for your writing, one of the most important things you can do to facilitate your writing is to choose one that you care about and are interested in. Although some advisors warn against choosing topics with high personal relevance on the grounds that your appropriate objectivity will be impaired, this danger is small compared to the problems that arise when you try to write about something entirely divorced from your personal experience, concern or interest. The energy derived from your passion and interest will be evident in your writing and will make it exciting for almost any reader. Even when you care about your topic, you may not be able to generate the kind of  passion I have been describing if you limit yourself to reporting what is known about the topic. Such writing often becomes a kind of laundry list of what others have discovered or said about the subject and just as often is both boring to write and boring to read.

The detective mode usually is more effective in communicating the excitement you feel about your topic. By this I mean the organization of your writing around questions that  you have sought to answer and the possible answers that have presented themselves. The difference between writing about a topic and writing about questions could be described as the difference between reviewing what is known about a topic and identifying the relevance of what is known about the questions to the hand.  Authorship and voice Much of what I have said about caring and passion is directly related to another important attribute of good writing that I call claiming your authorship.  Yet, many theorists and researchers persist in using a style that suggests that it is in appropriate for writers to acknowledge their authorship or involvement with what they  have written. Conventions of referring to the self in the third person , never using the  word I, and predominantly using the passive voice suggests that even a writer who is discussing his or her own discoveries or theories must pretend it was someone else who thought or discovered or concluded. This kind of depersonalization is motivated not only by a reluctance to claim authority   but apparently also by an attempt to demonstrate objectivity by underplaying the fact that there is a real and potentially fallible person who has written about his or her own ideas and conclusions. It serves to reinforce the fears of many that they are not entitled to have ideas or to think about topics or to draw their own conclusions. Claiming authorship requires taking responsibility for what you write, although this may be intimidating, it is also empowering. Developing a voice as a writer depends on a strong sense of yourself as the possessor of  knowledge and ideas who is entitled to speak about these to others. Concern about audience and evaluation It is important to write with some awareness of your potential readers so that you can foresee what they will need to know to understand your ideas. Revision Despite all of my cautions about not striving for perfection in your writing, I do want to stress the importance of rereading and revising what you have written. It is unlikely that any one of us can execute a first draft of a writing project that: ¾ Says exactly what we want to say  ¾ Provides all the information our readers need to understand what we have  written ¾ Does not contain awkward sentences or grammatical constructions ¾ Cannot be significantly improved upon reconsideration Reading aloud what you have written is an excellent way to hear the awkward phrases and grammatical errors that inevitably creep into any piece of writing.

Conclusion Twelve tricks to keep you going when you write 1.  At least in your first draft, use the first singular to keep you in touch with your ideas, your reactions, your beliefs and your understandings 2.  Write as flamboyantly as you like in your first draft to give voice to your passion 3. If it makes you nervous to assert your own position, qualify it as often as possible in your first draft 4. In the beginning, try to forget how your audience might evaluate what you write or how you write it 5. Try to write in short sentences, especially in your first draft, so that you don’t get tangled up in long, convoluted sentences that can obscure your meaning 6. Try to find your own comfortable writing style and way of developing ideas. Be respectful of your style. 7. Do not be afraid to use the writing of others as a model 8. Introduce discipline into your writing task by committing yourself to spend a given number of hours (or minutes) writing or to produce a given amount of   written text every day. Later on, when your first draft is finished and you are ready to revise your work  9. Remove all the adverbs and objectives you so joyously in your first draft and restore only those absolutely necessary to your meaning. 10. Eliminate all your qualifying statements and restore only those that are necessary  to be honest and to retain your meaning 11. If all your short sentences sound choppy and telegraphic, combine some of your sentences to make a better flow. 12. Don’t accept any of the foregoing rules or any other rule of writing that can’t be  broken or doesn’t work for you. Chapter 10 Computing Introduction This chapter is designed to provide you with information about the available software that performs numerous tasks that make the dissertation process more efficient.  What kind of computer user are you?  Weitzman and Miles (1995) ask their readers to consider the following four key questions  when contemplating the selection of a software program:  What kind of computer user am I?  Am I choosing software for one project or the next few years?  What kind of project(s) or database(s) will I be working on?  What kind of analysis am I planning to do? • • • •

These question refer to selecting software for qualitative data analysis, they are relevant for any software purchase. Rudestam and Newton add one question: What kind of  computer user do I want to become? When picking a computer program it should suit  your needs therefore you should consider your future needs, the ability of the software  you choose to meet those needs, and the likelihood that the software and the company  that supports it will still exist in the near future. So, be careful when you choose a computer program.

Using your computer as a literature searching and bibliographic management tool Table 10.1 pgn 231 refers to software for the management of bibliographic information. In short, you an accomplish the following tasks with any of these programs: Search online databases by opening connection files that permit access to hundreds of remote bibliographic databases, university card catalogues, and the library of congress. Create a large number of databases with thousands of references per database  with hundreds of bibliographic styles Create one-step bibliographies in MS Word, Word perfect, and a number of other  word processors, including RTF and HTML formats. Search your own database of references, keywords, and notes •

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Databases: using your library’s computerized search capability  Sometimes costs are associated with searching some databases. Universities pay the fee to access libraries. Those libraries provide access to loads of journals, full text articles and so on. At the Vu we have for example pro quest. Rudestam and Newton mention some see pgn. 232-237. They are however not relevant for us. There are advantages and disadvantages of computerized literature searching:  Advantages: Fast Up to date Examine titles and keywords User-friendly/easy  • • • •

Disadvantage Costly  Not all databases are to be search the same, this can be frustrating Books are less easy to find then journals Older articles may be gone. The potential to miss references is very real Searches may uncover articles containing the correct words but in the wrong context. • • • • • •

Reading and recording: how to take notes with your computer? There are four basic methods to make a record/ notes with your computer. 1. Index cards: ‘Old fashioned’; 2.  Word processed notes: not designed for sorting and searching; 3. Bibliographic management software: slow in learning curve and expensive; 4. Database managers: Good for use with text based material that can be used to record notes, conduct content analysis, and to manage bibliographies. Often such a program is part of a search database. Bibliographies: a special case One of the most frequent complaints of those who read others’ dissertations is that the references are incorrect. So, constructing bibliographies used to be particularly  troublesome and time consuming in research. However, the word processing software and other programs such as in table 10.1 are helpful methods for dealing with such problems.

 Writing spelling and grammar  Always use your spelling check and use it effectively. Software for quantitative analysis Statistical research is often linked with difficult and abstract research. However, the  basis is learned at the university and programs are designed execute the calculating. One does not need to understand the engine when driving a car. There are several programs for quantitative analysis. See table 10.2 pgn. 242. SPSS is known to us. Software for qualitative analysis Table 10.3 pgn 245-246 lists seven possibilities of qualitative data analysis programs. The book also refers to other data analysis software on pgn 247.  What about data: Can I obtain my dissertation data using online data collection methods? It is possible and not unrealistic to obtain all the information you need to complete a dissertation directly from the Internet. Be aware of primary and secondary data analysis. Primary data analysis refers to data collected by the researcher. Secondary data analysis draws on data collected by other researchers. There are several reasons for using secondary data: Costs are less Often better quality then the data of a student • •

Rudestam and Newton present strategies for obtaining primary and secondary data on the Internet:  Are you skilled enough to work with the internet/computer? Do you have a good idea of the population to be sampled and how to reach this sample by computer? Is your dissertation committee supportive to your collection strategy? There are some books that offer information on good survey design and how to use Internet to collect survey data. See pgn 249 for references. • •

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How to protect your work?  Anything can happen so follow a few rules. Make back ups Make copies and store them elsewhere. • •

Utilities: software to streamline and protect your system Use utilities like virus scans in order to protect your work. How much computer do I need? Seek advice to discover how much computer you need. The advice of Rudestam and Newton is: Start your dissertation with a new computer when it is already more than a few   years old. Never buy a computer without a written guarantee  Always buy a computer with a tape or zip drive that allows you to back up. •

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CHAPTER 12 INFORMED CONSENT AND OTHER ETHICAL CONCERNS  When conducting research, students should be knowledgeable about the university’s requirements on ethical standards, which every institute has. One of the aspects/possibilities is obtaining ‘informed consent’ of the participants prior to initiating all research. Two main common ethical issues that pertain to using subjects in social sciences: 1. the need for fully informed consent to participate 2. the need to emerge from the experience unharmed The value of a study is ultimately determined by balancing the potential benefits, in terms of generalizable knowledge, with the costs and potential risks. You have to keep in mind that people/participants might be upset by your work. Risks are permissible, but must be anticipated beforehand. The rule is to seek informed consent, a key element of conducting ethical research,  whenever there is more than minimal risk of harm to the participants. This is especially  the case in research designs that employ concealment (‘het verbergen’) or deception, in fieldwork where variables are manipulated and where data are gathered from unwitting employees. Some methodologies do not require this informed consent, although there is a lack of  clarity about the standard of minimal risk: - secondary analysis of data - archival research - systematic observation of publicly observable data In box 12.1 the guidelines are given from the company APA for research with human participants. Based on these, chapter 12 presents eleven points that (can) form the foundation for obtaining informed consent: 1. Tell the participant who is conducting the study  Indicate researcher, including institutional affiliation and supervisor. 2. Explain: Why was the particular person singled out for participation?  When there were more potential candidates, sensitively communicate inclusion and exclusion criteria to the non-selected ones. 3.  What is the time commitment? Inform the participant about how long the involvement will take. 4.  Are there any benefits to be expected? Be reasonable, but don’t oversell the study. In most research there are actually  few or no advantages to participate. 5.  Are there any potential risks, and how have these been managed? These risks include any possible emotional, psychological, physical, social, economic, or political difficulties. Offer an option in return when difficulties arise for a participant (“if…, feel free to contact…”). When there are no foreseeable risks, state there are no known risks… 6. Explain the study (expectation of participant, purpose of study) and offer to answer questions. 7. Participation is always voluntary. Explain that the participant has a right to withdraw from the study at any time.

8. Provide the participants with a copy of the informed consent form. 9. Payment Let the subject know what payment he or she can expect, if any. 10. Let the participant know the limit of confidentiality  Confidentiality refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed in a relationship of trust, with the expectation that it will not be divulged (‘onthuld’) to others without permission in ways that are inconsistent  with the understanding of the original disclosure. Confidentiality is not the same as ‘anonymity’. 11. Debriefing Inform the participant how the debriefing will take place, because they deserve to have the opportunity to learn about the results of the study. Offer the possibility  to receive a summary for example, by filling in name and address. Feedback  should be in understandable language, general but informative, and without  being harmful. (An example of an informed consent is given on p.274-275) The five C’s of Research Ethics Principles (table 12.3, p.276) presents questions to guide  you in determining whether or not you have attended to all relevant ethics principles in administering your study, clustered in five groups. The five C’s stand for: Confidentiality, Coercion, Consent, Care, Communication. Bias-free writing  You have to avoid language and materials that are oppressive or discriminatory to any  group of people. Questionnaires and measures should be checked to be certain that it is not implied that it is “normal” or “right” to belong to a specific ethnic group, have a particular sexual preference, or engage in a particular lifestyle. On page 276 to 278 some guidelines are summed up, concerning for example gender and stereotyping.