Study Material for Legal Method (2)
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LEGAL METHOD AND INTRODUCTION TO LEGAL SYSTEM Semester – I B.A.LL.B. (Hons.) NAME OF THE COURSE TEACHER: Mr. A!m B. "#t$#n% B.A., LL.B. (Gold Medalist), Medalist), LL.M. (Gold Medalist).
STUDY MATERIAL: Mo&'e – I N#t're #n& F'nt!on o* L#+ Unit-I a) Meanin Meaning g and and Defini Definitio tion n of of Law Law b) Function and Purpose of Law Law c) Class Classif ific icati ation on of Law Law i) Public and Private Law ii) Substantive and Procedural Law Law iii) Municipal and International Law d) Harts Harts Concept Concept of of Law and and t!e Indian Indian Constitutio Constitution n "#$$#) # SCC "%) &
Intro&'t!on: Law' in its widest sense' (eans and involves a unifor(it of be!avior' a cons consta tanc nc of !app !appen enin ings gs or a caus causee of even events' ts' rules rules of acti action on'' w!et! w!et!er er in t!e t!e p!eno(ena of nature or in t!e was rational !u(an beings* In its general sense law (eans an order of t!e universe' of events' of t!ings or actions* In its +udicial sense law (eans an order of t!e universe' of events' of t!ings or actions* In its +udicial sense' law (eans a bod of rules of conduct' action or be!avior of person' (ade and enforced b t!e State* It e,presses a rule of !u(an action* !e different (eanings of t!e word .law (a be classified as follows/ &* Law (eans (eans +ustice' +ustice' (oralit (oralit'' reason' reason' order' order' rig!teousn rig!teousness ess etc*' fro( fro( t!e point point of view of societ0 #* Law (eans (eans Statutes' Statutes' 1cts' 1cts' rules' rules' regulation regulations' s' orders' ordina ordinances' nces' etc* etc* fro( t!e point of view of societ0 2* Law (eans (eans titles' titles' written written laws' +udicial +udicial precedents precedents and and custo(s custo(s as evidence evidence of law* 3enerall t!e ter( law is used to (ean t!ree t!ings/ First' it is used to (ean .legal order* It represents t!e regi(e of ad+usting relations' and ordering conduct b t!e sste(atic application of t!e force of organi4ed political societ*
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De*!n!t!on o* L#+ ,. I&e#! I&e#!st! st! De*! De*!n!t n!t!on !ons: s:
1ccording to Sal(ond 5t!e law (a be defined as t!e bod of t!e principles recogni4ed and applied b t!e State in t!e ad(inistration of +ustice6* 1ccording to 3ra' 5!e law of t!e State or of an organi4ed bod of (en is co(posed of t!e rules w!ic! t!e Courts' t!at is' t!e +udicial organ of t!e bod las down for t!e deter(ination of legal rig!ts and duties* -. "os!t! "os!t!e e De*!n! De*!n!t!o t!on: n: 1ccording 1ccording to 1ustin' 51 law' in t!e strict sense' is a general co((and of t!e
soverei sovereign gn indivi individua duall or t!e soverei sovereign gn bod bod' issued issued to t!ose t!ose in sub+ect sub+ectivi ivit t and enfo enforce rced d b t!e t!e p!s p!sic ical al powe powerr of t!e t!e Stat State* e* 1ccord ccordin ing g to 1ustin ustin'' 5law 5law is t!e t!e aggregate of rules set b (en as politicall superior or sovereign to (en as politicall sub+ect6* He sas' 51 law is a co((and w!ic! obliges a person or persons to a course of conduct6* /. H!stor!# De*!n!t!on: Savign Savign sas t!at law is not a bod of rules set b a deter(ined aut!orit aut!orit but is rules consist partl of social !abit and partl of e,perience* It is not t!e product of direc directt legi legisla slatio tion n but but is due due to t!e t!e silen silentt grow growt! t! of cust custo( o( or t!e t!e outc outco( o(ee of unfor(ulated public or a professional opinion* 0. So!o So!oo1! o1!# # De*!n De*!n!t! !t!on: on: 1ccording to Duguit' law is essentiall and e,clusivel a social fact* It is in no sense a bod of rules laing down rig!ts* Foundation of law is in t!e essential re7uire(ents of t!e co((unit life* I!ering defines law as 5t!e for( of t!e guarantee of t!e conditions of life of societ' assured b States power of constrain6* 1ccording to Pound' 5Law is t!e bod of principles recogni4ed or enforced b public and regular tribunals in t!e ad(inistration of +ustice*6
2. Re#!s Re#!st! t! De*!n! De*!n!t!o t!on: n: Hol(es %* sas t!at 5t!e prop!es of w!at Courts will do' in fact' and not!ing
(ore pretentious' are w!at I (ean b law6* 1ccording to realists' t!e for(al law is si(pl a guess as to w!at t!e Courts would decide and t!e law is t!at w!at t!e Courts actuall decide*
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!e (odern (odern defini definitio tion n given given b Dias is 5Law 5Law consist consistss largel largel of .oug!t .oug!t "nor(ative) propositions prescribing !ow people oug!t to be!ave* !e .oug!ts of laws are variousl dictated b social' (oral' econo(ic' political and ot!er purposes6* S'34et5m#tter o* L#+ Dias lists out t!e sub+ect (aterial of laws as follows/ &* duties duties prescrib prescribed ed !ow people people oug!t' oug!t' or oug!t oug!t not' to be!ave be!ave wit! wit! regard regard to ot!ers w!o are said to !ave corrective clai(s or rig!ts' #* liberti liberties es or freed freedo( o( to to act and not to act0 act0 2* powers powers to to alter alter e,isti e,isting ng legal legal situ situati ations ons'' 8* i((unities i((unities for( !aving !aving e,isting e,isting legal situations situations altered altered00 9* (eans (eans of ac!iev ac!ieving ing legal legal ends0 ends0 :* defin efinit itio ion ns0 ;* locatio location n of of lega legall relat relation ions!i s!ips0 ps0 o(an called it t!e jus t!e jus civile, t!e corpus juris civilis. It is t!e law of civitas t!at is t!e State* It is t!e part of i(perative law* !e c!aracteristic of civil law are/ &* !e Municip Municipal al law is a positive positive law* law* It deals deals wit! wit! law as it is* #* !e Municip Municipal al law !as a unifor( unifor(it it establis!ed establis!ed t!roug t!roug! ! t!e sste( sste( of +udicial +udicial precedents* 2* !e Municip Municipal al law is in t!e t!e nature nature of of en+o(en en+o(ents ts b t!e t!e State* State* 8* !e !e Muni Munici cipa pall law is terri territo toria riall i*e* i*e* it appl applie iess onl onl in t!e t!e terri territo torie riess of t!e State* ?ow we can state t!e Municipal law is all t!at bod of principles' decisions and enact(ents (ade' passed or approved b t!e legall constituted aut!orities or agencies in a State' for regulating rig!ts' duties and liabilities "between t!e State and t!e citi4ens citi4ens'' as also t!e citi4ens citi4ens inter se' se' and t!e citi4ens of t!e State in relation to (e(bers (e(bers of foreig foreign n States) States) and enforc enforced ed t!roug t!roug! ! t!e (ac!in (ac!iner er of t!e +udici +udicial al process securing obedience to t!e governing aut!orit in t!e t!e State* !e Municipal Law or ?ational Law is divided into two classes/ Public Law and Private Law* Intern#t!on# Intern#t!on# L#+: !e !e ter( ter( .Inte .Intern rnat atio iona nall Law Law was was coin coined ed b %ere( %ere( @ent @ent!a !a( ( in &;* Mne Mneni ni'' Le#al Lan#ua#e and Le#al /ritin#, /ritin#, "& "&st ed*)' 1sia Law House' Hderabad' #$$< "C!apter &$ p*&;:-&*B*M* Dias t!at t!ere is in t!e first place' an unfortunate tendenc to i(agine t!at t!e courts are giving effects to t!e intention of Parlia(ent on t!e !pot!esis t!at 5t!e words t!e(selves do' in suc! a case' best declare t!e intention of t!e law giver*6 @ut it would see( t!at w!enever t!e 5literal rule6 is applied' an reference to t!e intention of Parlia(ent is better avoided* Secondl' Secondl' t!e 5Plain (eaning rule6 suffers fro( t!e in!erent wea=ness' t!at is' it is not alwas eas to sa w!et!er a word is 5Plain6 or not* !us' t!e literal rule in !is opinion needs to be understood sub+ect to t!e following five e,planator riders/ "i) !e Statute (a itself provide a special (eaning for a ter(' w!ic! is usuall to be found in t!e interpretation section' "ii) ec!nical words are given t!eir ordinar tec!nical (eaning if t!e statute !as not specified an ot!er' "iii) Bords Bords will not be inserted b i(plication' "iv) Bords undergo s!ifts in (eaning in t!e cour course se of ti(e ti(e'' "v) "v) Fina Finall ll ' and and b no (ean (eanss t!e t!e leas least' t' it s!ou s!ould ld alwa alwa s be re(e(bered t!at words ac7uire significance fro( t!eir conte,t* Go&en R'e
!e 3olden rule departs fro( t!e strictl literal rule inas(uc! as according to t!e literal rule' t!e plain (eaning !as to be ad!ered to even to t!e e,tent of absurdit* !e 3olden rule of interpretation adopted in nglis! law is t!at 5In constructing statutes statutes and all written instru(ents' instru(ents' t!e gra((atical gra((atical and ordinar ordinar sense of t!e words is to be ad!ered to' unless t!e would lead to so(e absurdit or so(e repugnance repugnance or inconsistenc' but but no furt!er*6 !us it is' no doubt true t!at it is not t!e function of t!e Courts to fill in gaps and o(issions' but in e,ceptional cases' t!e Courts !ave to perfor( t!is function in accordance wit! t!e golden rule of interpretation* 1gain' to appl t!e words literall is to defeat t!e obvious intention of t!e legislature and to produce a w!oll unreasonable result* o ac!ieve t!e obvious intention and to produce a reasonable result we (ust do so(e violence to t!e words* M!s$!e* R'e
It is obvious t!at an enact(ent wit!out a purpose or social ob+ective will be nonsense* !us' t!e enact(ent (ust be read in t!e lig!t of suc! assu(ed purpose' for t!en onl will it (a=e sense and t!e Court will also be doing doing its dut of (erging (erging t!e
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enact(ent enact(ent into t!e general sste( of law ta=ing into account its polic polic* 1s suc! it is t!e dut of t!e +udge to (a=e suc! construction of a statute as s!all suppress t!e (isc!ief and advance t!e re(ed* In ot!er words' it is a sound rule of interpretation t!at a statute s!ould be so constructed as to prevent t!e (isc!ief and advance t!e re(ed according to t!e real intention of t!e (a=ers* 1ll t!e above t!ree rules !ave resulted fro( two (ain approac!es* In literal or plain (eaning rule and golden rule it is referential approac! and in (isc!ief rule it is purposive approac!* However' ordinaril' t!e courts (ust follow literal unless t!ere are ade7uate reasons to follow t!e logical interpretation* (or details refer t!e text boo"s #iven in Module $$$). References: References: Boo8s: &* E*D* Ma! Ma!aa+an +an' -urisprudence and Le#al 0!eor&, "9t! ed*)' astern @oo= Co*' Luc=now' Luc=now' #$$9 "C!apter p*&9 - #&8)* #* P*St*%* St*%* Lang Langan an'' 0!e $nterpretation of 'tatute, "&# 'tatute, "&#t! ed*)' Le,is ?e,is' "#$$8)* 2* Billi illia( a( ?* s= s=ri ridg dge' e' %r* %r*' D&namic 'tatutor& $nterpretation, Universal Law Publis!ing Co* Pvt* Ltd*' "#$$$)* 9e3!o1r#6$: &* !ttp/ !ttp/w www ww**google google*co *co*in *inJ J Statu Statute te LawJ LawJ #* !ttp/en* !ttp/en*wi=ip wi=ipedia*o edia*orgw rgwi=iSt i=iStatutor atutorlawJ lawJ Statutor Statutor LawJ 2* !ttp/bo !ttp/boo=s*g o=s*google oogle*co*i *co*inrule nrulesofinte sofinterpretat rpretationJ ionJ >ules of Interpretatio InterpretationJ nJ
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Mo&'e – I< ='&1ment An#s!s #n& "ree&ent Unit-I a) b) c) d) e)
Case Case Law Law in t!e stud stud of of Legal Legal Met!od Met!od Studing Law under t!e t!e Case Met!od B!at B!at is Prec Preced eden entK tK Deter( Deter(ini ining ng t!e >ati >atio-d o-deci eciden dendi di of a Case Case Unde Underst rstan andi ding ng Law Law >epor >eports ts
Intro&'t!on Cases are t!e basic tools of t!e lawers* In counseling' a lawer reads cases in order to deter(ine w!at t!e legal position of !is client is* He wants to =now w!et!er anbod in a si(ilar position !as ever been involved in litigation and if so !ow did t!e court evaluate !is conductK In litigation a lawer uses cases to convince t!e court t!at t!at t!e positi position on favour favourabl ablee to !is client client !as alread alread been accept accepted ed b previo previous us decisions* !us lawers so(eti(es use cases to find out w!at are t!e legal rules w!ic! courts will appl and so(eti(es to influence t!e (a=ing of t!e rules* B!en a case is decided t!e +udge generall writes an opinion announcing t!e legal rules on t!e basis of w!ic! !e !as decided t!e clai(* !ese legal rules are often not ver clear* clear* !e were applie applied d wit! wit! referen reference ce to a partic particula ularr conte, conte,tt and in differ different ent conte, conte,tt t!e t!e (ean (ean t!e ver ver sa(e sa(e t!ing* t!ing* !ese rules rules are classifi classified ed and perfected in subse7uent cases* !e reasoning of t!e decision-(a=er acts as a precedent to decide subse7uent si(ilar clai(s* !oug! in t!eor it is possible to i(agine an identical case' in practice suc! occurrences are rare* B!en a case arises wit! si(ilar fact situations t!e counsel again tries to discover a fact or tries to point out t!e c!ange of circu(stances under w!ic! t!e rule was evolved so as to suggest t!at t!e cases are reall 7uite different* !is differentiating process !elps to evolve certain nor(s w!ic! w!en crstalli4e ta=e s!ape of legal rules* It (ig!t appear t!at a person w!o wants to =now t!e law' need onl to read cases and accept t!eir reasoning' but t!e law is alwas c!anging* 1 person w!o not onl wants to =now t!e law as it is' but also wants to =now !ow it is li=el to c!ange !as to criticall stud t!e cases' and w!ile going t!roug! t!e reasoning (ust tr to =now to w!at e,tent t!e reasoning was correct in t!e conte,t in w!ic! t!e clai(s !ad arise arisen n and and were were decid decided ed** !us !us'' a criti critical cal anal anals sis is of cases cases'' co(p co(pari ariso son n of t!e t!e
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conflicting reasoning of t!e courts in different fact situation' t!e reasoning be!ind t!e decisions are (atters w!ic! t!e students (ust tr to learn fro( t!e beginning of !is stud of t!e law*
E>#m6es o* St'& o* L#+ t$ro'1$ C#ses !is can be clarified b ta=ing a few !pot!etical e,a(ples/ 1 and @ are neig!bours using ad+acent land* 1 constructs an iron tan= on t!e top of !is !ouse for storing water for t!e suppl in !is !ouse* !e water fro( t!e tan= falls on @s !ouse and da(ages t!e terrace of @s !ouse* @ brings and action against 1* 1ssu(e for a (o(ent t!at t!ere is neit!er a statutor law nor an necessaril applicable precedent for deciding t!is clai(' w!at will t!e +udge doK Bill !e decide in favour of t!e defendant 1 or in favour of t!e plaintiff @K In deciding t!e case t!e +udge will announce a legal rule* !e rule will not be a specific one but will be stated in general ter(s* 1ssu(ing t!at t!e decision !as been given in favour of t!e plaintiff @' t!e +udge (ig!t state t!at in order to protect t!e interest of t!e propert owners it is necessar t!at an person w!o =eeps ant!ing li=el to do (isc!ief on !is land is responsible for t!e da(age caused to anone w!o is eit!er in+ured or w!ose propert is da(aged b t!at (isc!ievous t!ing* !e decision could !ave been given in favour of t!e defendant too on t!e ground t!at a decision in favour of t!e plaintiff would retard t!e construction of t!e necessar acco((odations* !is will create !ards!ip to t!e co((unit and !ence t!e decision-(a=er (ig!t accept t!e rule t!at unless t!ere was negligence on t!e part of t!e defendant !e will not be liable* 1ssu(ing t!at t!e defendant was not negligent in t!e construction of t!e tan=' t!e decision would !ave been in favour of t!e defendant and t!e rule would !ave been t!at an person w!o =eeps ant!ing li=el to do (isc!ief on !is land negligentl is responsible for t!e da(age caused to an ot!er w!o is eit!er in+ured or w!ose propert is da(aged b t!at (isc!ievous t!ing* "re6#r!n1 t$e O't!ne o* t$e C#se
o prepare t!e outline of t!e case note t!e following points are i(portant* !e w!ole outline s!ould be as brief as possible* "i)
t!e na na(e of of t! t!e ca case0
"ii) "ii)
t!e na(e na(e of of t!e t!e court court w!ic w!ic! ! deci decided ded t!e case0 case0
"iii "iii)) t!e t!e dat datee of of deci decisi sion on00
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"iv) "iv) cita citati tion on of t!e t!e cas case0 e0 "v) "v)
na( na(e of of +ud +udg ge or or +u +udges dges00
"vi) +udg(ent "vii "vii)) proc proced edur uree b w!ic! w!ic! case case ca(e ca(e befo before re cour courtt or trib tribun unal al "if "if orig origin inal al +urisdiction so state) !is (a also include"a)
t!e relief relief t!e plaint plaintiff iff as=ed as=ed in t!e lower lower cour courtt
"b) "b)
w!at w!at def defen enda dant nt as= as=ed ed t!e t!e low lower er cou court rt to to do
"c)
w!at w!at t!e lower lower court court was was co(pl co(plain ained ed of b t!e t!e part part appeal appealing ing
"viii) t!e facts before court for decision* decision* In setting out co(plicated co(plicated facts adopt c!ronological order0 "i,) "i,) t!e legal legal 7uesti 7uestion on or 7uesti 7uestions ons or or issues issues invol involved ved00 ",) ",)
i(po i(porta rtant nt argu argu(e (ent ntss of of cou couns nsel el00
",i) decisio sion0 ",ii) ",ii) reasons reasons for decisio decision n and and ",iii) reasons reasons for dissenting dissenting opinions' opinions' if an*
T$e C#se Met$o& *rom t$e St'&ents 6o!nt o* eports is cited in court* !e greater accurac of (odern reporting' and t!e vetting b +udges' necessitates longer delas before t!e cases are publis!ed* 1lso' t!e Law >eports onl cover ;O of t!e cases in t!e !ig!er courts in an given ear* Interesting issues are/ &* B!o selects selects w!ic! w!ic! cases cases to report reportKK #* How How are are t!e t!e selec selecte tedK dK ditors select t!e cases for inclusion for t!e publis!ers* !ese are !ig!l trained lawers' well ac7uainted wit! precedent and t!e li=el i(portance of cases* Durin During g t!e t!e past past &$$ &$$ ears ears publ publis is!e !ers rs of law repo report rtss !ave !ave been been gene general ralist istss or specialists* So(e law reports are annotated' particularl for t!e use of practitioners' ot!ers left wit!out annotations' introductions' etc* In addition to reported cases' t!e Supre(e Court Librar contains t!ousands of files of unreported cases* In &8$' t!e
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Lord C!ancellors C!ancellors Depart(ent Depart(ent prepared a report/ report/ 0!e %eport of t!e La* %eportin# ommit ommittee tee.. !e Co((ittee considered t!at' after editors !ad (ade t!eir c!oices' .B!at re(ains is less li=el to be a treasure !ouse t!an a rubbis! !eap in w!ic! a +ewel will rarel' if ever' ever' be discovered* Af course' toda' t!ere is a vast range of electronic retrieval sste(s' w!ic! contain t!ousands of details of unreported cases* !is !as caused its own proble(s and t!ere was a legiti(ate concern t!at courts would be inundated wit! cases t!at did not reall contain an new law' but w!ic! !ad been retrieved fro( electronic sources* In t!e case of %oberts of %oberts 2etroleum Ltd. 3. Bernard 4enn& Ltd. "&ul >ulee of of Law Law Doctri Doctrine ne of of Separ Separati ation on of of Power Power Classif Classifica icatio tion n of 1d(ini 1d(inistra strativ tivee 1ction 1ction >ule Ma=ing Power of 1d(inistration "Delegated Legislation)
Unit-II a) %udici %udicial al 1cti 1ctivis( vis(-- %ustice %ustice M*?* M*?* >ao b) %udicial >eview of 1d(inistrative 1d(inistrative 1ction c) Social Social 1cti 1ction on Litiga Litigatio tion n "P* "P*I*L*) I*L*) i) Locus Standi d) Legiti(ac of %udicial 1ctivis( e) Co(petence of wo wo %udge @enc!es of Supre(e Court to refer Cases to Larger @enc!es- Dr* >* Pra=as! f) Disciplining Division @enc!es of wo wo %udges of t!e Supre(e Court*>* *>* 1nd!ar+una 1nd!ar+ una g) Prospective Averruling and %udicial >estrain
Intro&'t!on !e first Parlia(ent of India called t!e Provisional Parlia(ent ca(e into being wit! t!e co((ence(ent of t!e Constitution and t!e .Sovereign' De(ocratic and >epu >epubl blic ic of Indi India a on #:t! %anuar %anuar'' &9$* &9$* !us !us t!e Parlia( Parlia(ent ent along along wit! wit! t!e Constitution and t!e >epublic !ave co(pleted (ore t!an !alf-a-centur of t!eir life* B!en India ac!ieved its independence and t!e founding fat!ers sat down to fra(e a Constitution' t!e adopted representative parlia(entar de(ocrac as t!e (odel of polit (ost suited to Indias needs' et!os and e,perience* Ideall' in an de(ocratic polit' sovereignt derives its legiti(ac* 1nd' t!e will of t!e people (ust (anifest itself t!roug! Parlia(ent* Parlia(ent is e,pected to (irror t!e !opes and aspirations of t!e people* It is in t!is foru( t!at t!e ideas' t!e ideals' t!e fears and even t!e frustrations of t!e people can find e,pression* It is for t!is reason t!at t!e institution of Parlia(ent !as been accorded a place of pri(ac in our de(ocratic polit* polit* Parlia(entar procedure is intended to facilitate debate and discussion on proble(s and perceptions of t!e people* Parlia(entar Parlia(entar institutions are ever evolving'
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ever in t!e (a=ing* !oug! t!e basic principles (a re(ain t!e sa(e' parlia(entar tec!ni7ues' practices and procedures undergo c!anges' graduall adapting t!e(selves to t!e c!anging needs of t!e ti(es* Parlia(entar sste( is said to be based !eavil on past precedents* @ut' in actual practice' it is e,tre(el difficult to find e,act precedents* ver difficult proble( t!at develops in Parlia(ent see(s to be entirel different different and wit!out wit!out parallel and t!erefore one re7uiring re7uiring fres! !andling* !andling* Precedents Precedents can guide and !elp but not dictate t!e precise decision or course of action* ver new situation' situation' t!e wa it develops develops and t!e wa it is !andled' creates a new precedent precedent and in t!e long run (a give birt! to new rules and regulations* !us' subtle c!anges in Parlia( Parlia(ent entar ar proced procedure ure ta=e ta=e place place and new practi practices ces =eep =eep develo developin ping g al(ost al(ost constantl*
Cone6t o* R'e o* L#+ !e word rule co(es fro( 5regle6 and law fro( 5lagu6 roug!l translating translating to 5supre(ac of law6* & !e basic function of rule of law is to ensure +ustice' peace and order in societ* It !as t!e two following aspects/ !)
S'3st#nt!e Content: !is i(plies t!at t!e content of law s!ould reflect t!e
basic standards of societ' e,!ibit regularit and consistenc and place t!e !u(a !u(an n perso persona nali lit t abov abovee all all else* else* It s!ou s!ould ld incl includ udee freed freedo( o( fro( fro( govern(ent govern(ent intervention intervention and rig!t to (ini(u( (ini(u( (aterial (aterial (eans* (eans* !us t!e obliga obligatio tion n of citi4ens citi4ens to obe obe t!e law s!ould s!ould arise arise out of its (orall (orall +ustifiable nature* !!)
"roe&'r# M#$!ner: !is includes legal institutions' institutions' procedures procedures and
traditions all of w!ic! (ust pa attention to t!e +udg(ent of individuals and t!e values of societ* !e !e legislature' e,ecutive' +udiciar and t!e legal profession !ave a part to pla* pla*# Ane definition of t!e rule of law is/
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Prof* P* Surianaraanan' Development of %ule of La* "&st ed*' Madurai/ Madurai Ga(ra+ Universit' &ule-(a=i a=ing ng action action or 7uasi-l 7uasi-legi egisla slative tive action action** "b) >ule-decisio >ule-decision n action or 7uasi-+udici 7uasi-+udicial al action* action* "c) >ule-ap >ule-appli plicati cation on action action or ad(inis ad(inistrat trative ive action* action* "d) Ministerial Ministerial action or pure ad(inistrativ ad(inistrativee action* action* (%efer for details t!e text boo" of $.2. Masse&, Administrative La*, 8astern Boo" ompan&, (9 t! ed.), +:, p. ;:5e+ecting >e+ecting t!e contention contention t!e 1pe, 1pe, Court !eld t!at since t!e petition petition involves an issue of public i(portance' t!e Court can still decide t!e issue even in t!e face of loss of standing of t!e petitioners* It is no dening t!e fact t!at toda due to t!e intensive for( of govern(ent' t!ere is a tre(endous increase in t!e functions of t!e ad(inistration as a facilitator' regulator and provider* !erefore' if t!ese new-found powers are properl e,ercised t!ese (a lead to a real socio-econo(ic growt! and if abused t!ese (a lead to a totalitarian State* 1gainst t!is bac=drop t!e pri(e function of +udicial review is to c!ec c!ec= = t!e t!e abus abusee of ad(i ad(inis nistr trati ative ve powe powers rs and and to enfo enforce rce acco accoun unta tabi bili lit t on t!e t!e operators of t!ese powers* !e power of public law review is e,ercised b t!e Supre(e Court and Hig! Courts t!roug! writs of certiorari' pro!ibition' (anda(us' 7uo-warranto and !abeas corpus and also t!roug! t!e e,ercise of power under 1rticles &2: and ##; of t!e Constitution* (or more details refer t!e text boo" of $.2. Masse&, Administrative La*, La*, 8astern Boo" t! ompan&, (9 ed.), +:, p. ;>5 ;++)
So!# At!on L!t!1#t!on ("IL) Public Interest Litigation "PIL) !as been an invaluable innovative +udicial re(ed* It !as translated t!e r!etoric of funda(ental rig!ts into living realit for at least least so(e so(e seg(en seg(ents ts of our e,ploi e,ploited ted and downt downtrod rodden den !u(anit !u(anit * Under Under trial trial prisoners languis!ing in +ails for inordinatel long periods' in(ates of aslu(s and carecare-!o !o(e (ess livi living ng in subsub-!u !u(a (an n cond condit itio ions ns'' c!il c!ildr dren en wor= wor=in ing g in !a4ar !a4ardo dous us occupations and si(ilar disadvantaged sections* Public Public Interest Litigation Litigation is t!e na(e given to t!e rig!t of an (e(ber of t!e public' !aving sufficient interest to (aintain an action for +udicial redress of public in+ur in+ur arising arising fro( fro( breac! breac! of public public dut or violat violation ion of so(e so(e provis provision ion of t!e constitution or t!e law and see= enforce(ent of suc! public dut and observance of suc! constitutional or legal provisions* It is t!e essence of t!is rule of law' w!ic! constit constitute utess t!e core of our constitu constitutio tion' n' t!at t!at e,erci e,ercise se of t!e power b t!e State' w!et!er it be t!e legislature or t!e e,ecutive or an ot!er aut!orit' s!ould be wit!in t!e constitutional li(itations and if an practice is adopted b an one of t!e( w!ic!
8#
is in flagrant and sste(atic violation of its constitutional li(itations' t!e petitioner as a (e(ber of public would !ave sufficient interest to c!allenge suc! practice b filing a writ petition and it would be constitutional dut of t!e court to entertain t!e writ petition and it would be constitutional dut of t!e court to entertain t!e writ petition and ad+udi ad+udicate cate upon upon t!e validi validit t of suc! suc! practic practice* e* Public Public Interes Interestt Litiga Litigatio tion n is' t!ere t!erefo fore re'' t!e t!e new new devi device ce b w!ic! w!ic! publ public ic part partici icipa patio tion n in +udi +udici cial al revi review ew of ad(inistrative action is being assured* It is also t!e new strateg t!roug! w!ic! access to +ustice is being assured even to t!ose w!o for an reason w!atsoever not able to approac! t!e court to ventilate t!eir grievances* %ustice P*?* @!agwati t!oug!t t!at it was 5essentiall a co-operative or collaborative effort on t!e part of t!e petitioner' t!e State or t!e public aut!orit and t!e court to secure observance of constitutional or legal rig!ts' benefits and privileges conferred upon t!e vulnerable sections of t!e co((unit and to reac! social +ustice to t!e(6*
Le1!t!m# o* ='&!!# At!!sm It is significant to note t!at Supre(e Court of India is (ost powerful ape, court in t!e world* Unli=e t!e Supre(e Court or t!e House of Lords in ngland or t!e !ig!est courts in Canada or 1utralia' t!e Supre(e Court of India can review even a constitutional a(end(ent and stri=e it down if it under(ines t!e basic structure of t!e Constitution* It can decide t!e legalit of t!e action of t!e President of India under article 29: of t!e Constitution w!ereb a state govern(ent dis(issed* !roug! public interest interest litigation' litigation' t!e Court !as granted access to persons persons inspired inspired b public public interest to invite +udicial intervention against abuse of power or (isuse or inaction of t!e govern(en govern(ent* t* ?ot onl was t!e re7uire(ents re7uire(ents of locus locus standi standi liberali4ed to facilitate access but t!e concept of +usticiabilit was widened to include wit!in +udicial purview actions or inactions t!at were not considered to be capable of resolution t!roug! +udicial process according to traditional notions of +usticiabilit* +usticiabilit* %udicial activis( is not an aberration* It is an essential aspect of t!e dna(ics of a constitutional court* It is a counter-(a+oritarian c!ec= on de(ocrac* %udicial activis(' !owever' does not (ean governance b t!e +udiciar* It also (ust function wit!in t!e li(its of t!e +udicial process* Bit!in t!ose li(its' it perfor(s t!e function of legiti( legiti(i4in i4ing g or' or' (ore (ore rarel rarel'' stig(a stig(ati4 ti4ing ing t!e action actionss of t!e ot!er ot!er organ organss of govern(ent*
82
!e +udiciar is t!e wea=est organ of t!e State* It beco(es strong onl w!en people repose fait! in it* Suc! fait! of t!e people constitutes t!e legiti(ac of t!e Court and of +udicial activis(* Courts !ave to continuousl strive to sustain t!eir legiti(ac* !e do not !ave to bow to public pressure' rat!er t!e !ave to stand fir( agai agains nstt an an pres pressu sure* re* B!at B!at sust sustain ainss legi legiti( ti(ac ac of +udi +udici cial al acti activi vis( s( is not not its its sub(ission to populis( but its capacit to wit!stand suc! pressure wit!out sacrificing i(partialit and ob+ectivit* Courts (ust not onl be fair' t!e (ust appear to be fair* Suc! inarticulate and diffused consensus about t!e i(partialit and integrit of t!e +udiciar is t!e source of t!e Courts legiti(ac* How is suc! legiti(ac sustainedK !e (t! created b t!e blac= letter law tradition t!at +udges do not (a=e law but (erel finds it or interprets it soug!t to i((uni i((uni4e 4e +udges +udges fro( fro( respons responsibi ibilit lit for t!eir t!eir decisio decisions* ns* Mt!o Mt!olog logi4at i4ation ion of t!e +udges also contributed to t!e sustenance of legiti(ac* !ose devices for sustaining legiti(ac' !owever' presupposed t!e negative and tec!nocratic role of t!e +udges* !e are of no !elp in sustaining t!e legiti(ac of +udicial activis(* Be !ave to e,plore t!e (t! t!at +udges do not (a=e law* Si(ilarl' we !ave to recogni4e t!at a constitutional court is political institution* It is political because it deter(ines t!e li(its of t!e powers of ot!er organs of govern(ent* @eing political need not (ean being partisan or unprincipled* Be also !ave to understand t!at +udges are !u(an beings as fallible as ot!er !u(a !u(an n bein beings gs are* are* %udg %udges es are are boun bound d to !ave !ave t!ei t!eirr pred predil ilec ecti tion onss and and t!os t!osee predilections are bound to influence t!eir +udg(ents* !e courts t!e(selves !ave i(posed restrains on t!eir powers in order to (ini(i4e t!e c!ances of vagaries arising out of sub+ective lapses or pre+udices of t!e +udges* !e courts are bound to follow precedents' t!e are bound to follow t!e decisions of t!e !ig!er courts' and t!e are bound to follow certain rules of interpretation* Furt!er' decisions of courts are reasoned reasoned and are often sub+ect to appeal or review* !ese !ese restrictions restrictions ensure t!at t!e lapses would be (ini(al* Criticis( of t!e +udg(ents of t!e courts would furt!er act as a corrective to ob+ectionable +udg(ents* !roug! suc! processes t!e courts sustain t!eir legiti(ac* le giti(ac*
Com6etene o* T+o ='&1e Ben$es o* S'6reme Co'rt to re*er C#ses to L#r1er Ben$es 88
!e Supre(e Court of United States of 1(erica consists of nine +udges and ever %udge of t!at court is a part to eac! of its +udg(ent* @ut t!e sa(e is not t!e case in our Supre(e Court* !e Supre(e Court of India consists of twent-si, %udges including t!e C!ief %ustice and sits in Division Courts co(prising of two %udges' t!ree %udges' five %udges' or (ore' and t!erefore all t!e %udges do not beco(e part to eac! of t!e +udg(ent pronounced b t!e Supre(e Court of India* In view of t!e fact t!at our Supre(e Court sits in divisions' a practice developed to refer a case to a larger @enc! w!enever a s(aller @enc! doubted t!e correctness of t!e law declared in t!e earlier +udge(ent* +udge(ent* Furt!er references (a go to still larger @enc!es until t!e law is settled b a larger @enc!* For e,a(ple' it can be seen as to !ow 4es!avananda B!arati case &# reac!ed a @enc! of t!irteen t!irteen Honble %udges* %udges* In '!a"ari 2rasad 'in#! Deo v. ?nion of $ndia &2 a five %udge Constitution @enc! !eld t!at an a(end(ent of t!e Constitution (ade under 1rticle 2:< is 5not law6 wit!in t!e (eaning of 1rticle &2"#) of t!e Constitution* In 'ajjan 'in#! v. 'tate of %ajast!an &8 anot!er five-%udge @enc! also too= t!e sa(e view* !ese two decisions were doubted and t!e correctness of t!ese decisions was considered b an eleven-%udge @enc! in Gola" @at! v. 'tate of 2unjab w!ere w!erein in b a (a+o (a+ori rit t of :/9' :/9' t!e t!e elev eleven en-%u -%udg dgee @enc @enc! ! pros prospe pect ctiv ivel el over overru rule led d '!an '!an"a "ari ri 2ras 2rasad ad and 'ajjan 'ajjan sin#! deci decisio sions ns and and it was was !eld !eld t!at an a(end(ent of t!e Constitution is 5law6 wit!in t!e (eaning of 1rticle &2"#) of t!e Constitution* 1fter t!is decision' 1rticles &2 and 2:< were a(ended so as to e,clude t!e t!e a(en a(end( d(en ents ts of t!e t!e Cons Consti titu tuti tion on fro( fro( t!e t!e purv purvie iew w of 1rticl rticlee &2"# &2"#)* )* !e !e correct correctnes nesss of Gola" @at! case and case and t!e validit of t!e Constitution "went-fourt! 1(end(ent) 1ct' &;& were considered b a larger @enc! of t!irteen %udges in 4es!avanand B!arati v. v. 'tate of 4earala w!erein 4earala w!erein Gola" @at! case was overruled and t!e doctrine of basic structure was propounded* (or furt!er details refer articles #iven in Module 3).
D!s!6!n!n1 D!!s!on Ben$es o* T+o ='&1es o* t$e S'6reme Co'rt In two rulings' two Constitution @enc!es of five +udges presided over b @!aruc @!aruc!a' !a' C*%* C*%* in B!arat 2etroleum orpn. Ltd. v. Mumbai '!rami" 'an#! ig!ts* 1(er 1(eric ican an law law and and t!e t!e US Cons Consti titu tuti tion on appl appl to ever ever one one in t!e t!e US' US' irrespective of citi4ens!ip or i((igration status' and even illegal i((igrants !ave (ost of t!e sa(e basic legal rig!ts as US citi4ens* Under t!e US Constitution' eac! state !as t!e power to establis! its own sste( of cri(inal and civil laws' resulting in 9$ different state legal sste(s' eac! supported b its own laws' prisons' police forces' and count and cit courts* !ere is a wide variation in state and local laws' (a=ing life difficult for people (oving between states* T$e US ='&!!#r
!e !e US +udi +udicia ciar r is inde indepe pend nden entt of t!e t!e gove govern rn(e (ent nt and and cons consis ists ts of t!e t!e Supre(e Court' t!e US Court of 1ppeals and t!e US District Courts* !e Supre(e Court' t!e !ig!est court in t!e land' consists of nine +udges w!o are appointed for life b t!e President* Its decisions are ar e final and legall binding on all parties* In deciding cases' t!e Supre(e Court reviews t!e activities activities of state and federal govern(ents govern(ents and decides w!et!er laws are constitutional* !e Supre(e Court !as nullified laws passed b Congress and even declared t!e actions of US Presidents unconstitutional* Mo(entous +udge(ents in recent ears !ave involved t!e Batergate scandal' racial segregation' abortion and capital punis!(ent* However' w!en appointing a Supre(e Court +udge' t!e Presidents selection is based on a candidates political and ot!er views' w!ic! (ust usuall correspond wit! !is own* !e Supre(e Court was for (an ears (ade up of (e(bers wit! a liberal or refor(ist outloo=' alt!oug! t!is trend !as been reversed in recent ears wit! t!e appoint(ent of conservative +udges b successive >epublican Presidents* T$e Fe&er# Co'rts
1 separate sste( of federal courts operates alongside state courts and deals wit! cases arising under t!e US Constitution or an law or treat* Federal courts also !ear disputes involving state govern(ents or between citi4ens resident in different states* Cases falling wit!in federal +urisdiction are !eard before a federal district +udge* 1ppeals 1ppeals can be (ade to t!e Circuit Court of 1ppeals 1ppeals and in certain cases case s to t!e US Supre(e Court* T$e C!! #n& Cr!m!n# Co'rts
92
!ere is a clear separation and distinction between civil courts' w!ic! settle disputes between people "suc! as propert division after a divorce)' and cri(inal courts t!at prosecute t!ose w!o brea= t!e law* Cri(es are categori4ed as (inor offe offenc nces es
".(i ".(isd sde( e(ea eano nour urs s))
or
seri seriou ouss
viol violat atio ions ns
of
t!e t!e
law law
".fe ".felo loni nies es) )**
Misde(e Misde(eano anours urs includ includee offenc offences es suc! suc! as droppi dropping ng litter litter'' illega illegall par=in par=ing g or +a+awal=ing' and are usuall dealt wit! b a fine wit!out a court appearance* Felonies' w!ic! include robber and drug dealing' are tried in a court of law and t!ose found guilt are generall sentenced to prison* In (an counties and cities' t!ere are often eccentric local laws "usuall relating to (isde(eanours rat!er t!an felonies)* People w!o co((it (isde(eanours (a be issued a su((ons "unsuspecting foreigners w!o violate local b-laws (a be let off wit! a warning)' w!ile anone co((itting co((itting a felon is arrested* arrested* 1n arrest al(ost al(ost alwas alwas involves involves being .fris=ed for concealed weapons' !andcuffed and read our rig!ts* ou (ust be advised of our constitutional rig!ts w!en arrested* !ese include t!e rig!t to re(ain silent' t!e rig!t to !ave a lawe lawerr presen presentt during during 7uestion 7uestioning ing'' and t!e rig!t rig!t to !ave !ave a free free courtcourtappointed lawer if ou cannot afford one* ou will be as=ed if ou wis! to waive our rig!ts* !is is not reco((ended' as an state(ent ou (a=e can t!en be used against ou in a court of law*
Le1# Sstem !n Fr#ne !e Frenc! Legal and %udicial sste( bears t!e i(print i(print of >o(an >o(an law and is ver (uc! different fro( t!e @ritis! and 1(erican Sste(s* !e t!ree i(portant features of >o(an +udicial sste( i*e* s((etr' unit and aut!orit are found in t!e w!ole edifice of Frenc! law and +ustice* !e (ain features of t!e legal and +udicial sste( in France are/ &* Co&!*!e& !e first first Penal Penal Code Code and Cri(inal Cri(inal Procedur Proceduree Code Code were were Co&!*!e& L#+: !e prepared before t!e eig!teent! centur ended w!ereas t!e Civil Code and Civil Procedure Code were for(ulated during t!e reign of ?apoleon in t!e earl nineteent! centur* @ot! =inds of Codes and Procedures are responsibl co(plete and clear* Frenc! Codes are well balanced' absolutel s ste(atic and easil accessible* 1 %udge need not see= !elp fro( precedents* He is free to give !is %udge(ent*
98
#* No Eete& ='&1es / !e %udges in France are not purel elected* Under t!e &9< &9< Cons Consti titu tuti tion on of Fran France ce a onseil onseil 'uperieur 'uperieur dela Majistratur Majistraturee "Hig! Council of %udges) !as been appointed to (a=e proposals for appoint(ent of %udges of t!e Court of Cassation and Presiding %udges of t!e Courts of 1ppeal and to give its opinion of t!e proposals of t!e Minister of %ustice relative to appo appoin int( t(ent entss of ot!e ot!err %udg %udges es** !e !e Hig! Hig! Coun Counci cill of %udg %udges es acts acts as t!e t!e disciplinar council of +udges* 2* D'# H!er#r H!er#r$: $: !ere are two separate sets of Courts in France* !e are ordinar courts dealing wit! co((on law for t!e trial of civil and cri(inal offences* @esides t!e ordinar courts' t!ere are ad(inistrative courts w!ic! are concerned wit! t!e acts of t!e ad(inistrative aut!orities and t!e grievances t!at t!e citi4ens (a !ave against t!ese aut!orities* 8* Co'rt o* Con*!t: Bit! two sets of Courts' ordinar and ad(inistrative' it beco(es necessar to !ave so(e agenc for settling disputes arising out of t!e final +urisdiction of t!e Court of Cassation and t!e Council of State* For t!is purpose' a Court of conflict was setup in &epublic' t!e Pri(e Minister Minister or t!e President President of eit!er c!a(ber of t!e Parlia(ent* Ance a law !as been pro(ulgated' its constitutionalit cannot be 7uestioned* :* T$e Inst! Inst!t't t't!on !on o* "#r? "#r?'et 'et:: o eac! Court in France t!ere is attac!ed a par7uet b a 2rocureur 2rocureur or State 1ttorne and a (e(ber of assistants to !elp !i(* !e par7uet does t!e sa(e +ob as is done b public prosecutors in India* It conducts prosecutions* !e (e(bers of t!e par7uet are all irre(ovable and
99
t!e t!e (ove (ove upward upwardss in t!eir cadre* cadre* !oug! !oug! t!eir (ain (ain functio function n is on t!e cri(inal side' et t!e also act in civil cases w!ic! are of interest to t!e State' b sub(itting t!e point of view of t!e State on t!e law' and of t!e public aut!orities and of people w!o are not capable of prosecuting t!eir own case* !e institution of par7uet is a ver uni7ue feature of t!e Frenc! legal and +udicial sste(* ;* In&e6en&ene o* ='&!!#r: !e President !as been (ade t!e guarantor of t!e independence of +udiciar* %udges (a not be re(oved fro( office* !e %udges of t!e superior courts i*e* Court of Cassation and t!e Courts of 1ppeals are appointed on t!e proposals (ade b t!e Hig! Council of %udges w!ic! consists of t!e President of t!e >epublic' t!e Minister of %ustice and nine ot!er (e(bers* !us t!e appoint(ent of t!e superior +udges is outside t!e purview of t!e t!e e,ecu e,ecuti tive ve** !e !e +udg +udges es at t!e t!e lowe lowerr level level are appo appoin inted ted t!ro t!roug ug! ! a co(p co(peti etiti tive ve e,a( e,a(in inati ation on** !e !e fres! fres! appo appoin inte tees es spen spend d four four ears ears in t!e t!e ?ational Centre of %udicial Studies to get furt!er training in t!e legal and +udicial sste(* !e %udges are free to deliver t!eir +udge(ents uninfluenced b an =ind of pressure* !e independence of +udiciar is well recogni4ed in France* ig!ts "t!e rig!t to vote' t!e rig!t to be elected)0 c) Legal Legal >ig!t >ig!t "rig!t "rig!t to be secured secured against against unreaso unreasonab nable le sei4ure sei4ure or searc!' searc!' to be infor(ed pro(ptl of t!e reasons for arrest or detention' and to be represented b a lawer' and t!e rig!t to a public trial b an i(partial Court)0 d) Mobilit Mobilit >ig!ts >ig!ts "to enter' enter' re(ain in' in' or leave leave Canada Canada or an provinc province)0 e)0 e) 7ualit 7ualit >ig!t >ig!t "no discri(i discri(inat nation ion on grounds grounds of race' race' religi religion' on' et!nic et!nic or national origin' se,' age' or (ental or p!sical disabilities)0 f) Affi Affici cial al Lan Langu guag agee >ig! >ig!t0 t0 and and g) Minori Minorit t Langua Language ge duca ducatio tion n >ig!ts* >ig!ts* 1ll t!e above rig!ts' rig!ts' !owever' sub+ect sub+ect to suc! reasonable reasonable li(its as can be de(onstrabl +ustified in a free and de(ocratic societ* !e C!arter gives t!e individuals t!e power to appeal to t!e Courts if t!e feel t!eir rig!ts !ave been infringed upon or denied* 9* A Soere!1n Soere!1n St#te: St#te: !oug! Canada en+os a Do(inion status' it is a full sovereign state for all a ll intents and purposes* !e Statute of Be Best(inster st(inster of &2& reco recogn gni4 i4es es t!e t!e sove sovere reig ign n statu statuss of Cana Canada da** !e !e Cons Consti titu tuti tion on 1ct &ules t!e Supre(e Court (a review its +udg(ent or order but no application for review is to be entertained in a civil proceeding e,cept e ,cept on t!e grounds (entioned in Arder QLEII' QLEII' >ule & of t!e Code of Civil Civil Proced Procedure ure and in a cri(inal cri(inal proceedi proceeding ng e,cept e,cept on t!e ground ground of an error error apparent on t!e face of t!e record* References: References: Boo8s: &* S*>* Mn Mneni' Le#al Lan#ua#e and Le#al /ritin#, "&st ed*)' 1sia Law House' Hderabad' #$$< "C!apters 8 "Unit II)* #* 1rv 1rvind ind Dat Datar ar'' ommentar& on t!e onstitution of $ndia, "# nd edn*)' Bad!awa' ?agpur' "#$$;)*
:<
2* P*M* @a=s! a=s!i' i' 0!e onstitution of $ndia, ";t! edn*)' Universal Law Pub*' ?ew Del!i' "#$$:)* 8* M*P M*P* %ain %ain'' $ndian onstitutional La*, La*, "9t! ed*)' Bad!awa' ?agpur' "#$$8)*
Mo&'e – esear >esearc! c! b) Legal >esearc!/ ec!ni7ues ec!ni7ues and Ideas c) Citations
Intro&'t!on Legal Legal researc! researc! is t!e process process of identi identifi fing ng and retriev retrieving ing infor( infor(atio ation n necessa necessar r to suppor supportt legal legal decisio decision-( n-(a=i a=ing* ng* In its broade broadest st sense' sense' legal legal researc! researc! includes eac! step of a course of action t!at begins wit! an analsis of t!e facts of a proble( and concludes wit! t!e application and co((unication of t!e results of t!e investigation*
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!e process processes es of legal researc! var according to t!e countr and t!e legal sste( involved* However' legal researc! generall involves tas=s suc! as/ &) finding pri(ar sources of law' or pri(ar aut!orit' in a given +urisdiction "cases' cases' statutes' regulations' etc*)0 regulations' etc*)0 #) searc!ing secondar aut!orit aut!orit "for e,a(ple' law reviews reviews' legal dictionaries' dictionaries' legal treatises treatises'' and legal encclopedias suc! as 1(erican %urisprudence and Corpus %uris Secundu()' for bac=ground infor(ation about a legal topic0 and 2) searc!ing non-legal sources for investigative or supporting infor(ation* Legal researc! is perfor(ed b anone wit! a need for legal infor(ation' including lawers' law librarians' librarians' and paralegals and paralegals** Sources Sources of legal infor(ation infor(ation range fro( printed boo=s' to free legal researc! websites and infor(ation portals to fee database vendors suc! as Le,is?e,is and Bestlaw* Law libraries around t!e world provide researc! services to !elp t!eir patrons find t!e legal infor(ation t!e need in law sc!ools' sc!ools' law fir(s and ot!er researc! environ(ents* Man law libraries and institutions provide free access to legal infor(ation on t!e web' eit!er individuall or via collective action' action' suc! as wit! t!e Free 1ccess to Law Move(ent* C!t#t!ons
1 citation is a reference to legal aut!orities and precedents suc! as statutes' cases' regulations and law review articles* Citations are used in argu(ents to courts' legal te,tboo=s' law review articles and t!e li=e to establis! or fortif t!e propositions argued* Citations to legal (aterials follow a standard for(at w!ic! (a=es it possible for anone using a law librar to find cited cases' statutes' regulations' and law review articles* Most legal citations consist of t!ree basic parts/ ) t!e name of t!e case, statute, or article +) a statement of *!ere t!e item can be found in a multi5volume set of le#al materials *ritten as7 volume number, number, name of publication (or set) pa#e number >) a date If we will see t!e citation of a case' a co(plete case citation loo=s li=e as follows/ Bro*n v. v. Board Board of 8ducation, 8ducation, >;9 ?. '. ;:> (=;). (=;).
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!e starting point for legal researc! is to =now !ow t!at law' contained in t!e report of a case' section of an 1ct or in a clause of a >egulation' >egulation' is referred to b t!e legal profession* !is is =nown as t!e citation of citation of cases' 1cts and regulations* !us we sa t!at a case is cited in court b counsel to provide t!e legal aut!orit for t!e proposition t!at is being put forward* References: References: Boo8s: &* >ober obertt Ba Batt' tt' oncise Le#al %esearc!, "9t! ed*)' Universal Law Pub* Pvt* Co*' ?ew Del!i' #$$8 "C!apter &)* #* S*G* S*G* Ee Eer(a and and M* 1f4al 1f4al Ba Bani' Le#al ni' Le#al %esearc! and Met!odolo#&, Met!odolo#&, "#nd ed*)' !e Indian Law Institute' #$$& " C!apter Part- @ p*#&-#8$)* 2* S!ar S!aron on Hans Hanson on'' Le#al Met!od, Cavendis! Met!od, Cavendis! Pub* Ltd*' London' "&)*
Mo&'e – I Us!n1 L#+ L!3r#r Unit-I a) I(po I(porta rtanc ncee of Law Law Lib Librar rar b) Using a Law Librar c) Find inding ing t! t!e Law Law
Intro&'t!on Li=e an ot!er librar a law librar is a trinit of (en' (aterial and building* It !as been aptl re(ar=ed r e(ar=ed about a law librar t!at 5t!e law librar is trul a vital vital factor factor in t!e ad(ini ad(inistra stratio tion n of +ustice +ustice'' an instit instituti ution on of e,trao e,traordi rdinar nar social social significance in a free societ* Inspiring is t!e e,a(ple of (en and wo(en of vision w!o devote devote t!eir t!eir talent talentss to t!e creatio creation n and perpetua perpetuatio tion n of law libraries libraries w!ose w!ose benefits reac! out far and beond t!e personal interests of t!e original creators*6 In
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addition' t!e law librar is a 5co((unit trust6' w!ic! 3ilbert Step!enson defined as 5an ocean liner receiving its cargo in part fro( living trusts' w!ic! are private s!ips and carring it over into successive generations as to a distant port' t!ere to be distributed for t!e co((on c o((on good*6 1 law librar contains !ig!l speciali4ed (aterials' and t!is re7uires special s=ill s=ill to !andle !andle** @asica @asicall ll legal legal (ateria (ateriall consist consistss of statuto statutor r law and reports reports of decide decided d cases* cases* @ot! @ot! t!ese t!ese tpes tpes of legal legal (ateria (aterials ls relate relate to t!e 5aut!o 5aut!orit rit66 and 5precedent6 respectivel* Hence an tpe of researc! will not be co(plete unless t!ese (aterials !ave been scanned t!roug!* 5!e ter( statutor law is (ore inclusive t!an is generall considered b t!e ter( in popular parlance for it includes not onl legislative legislative enact(ents enact(ents but constitutio constitutions' ns' treaties' treaties' court rules' interstate interstate co(pacts' co(pacts' (unicipal ordinances' and ad(inistrative rules and regulations*6 1n 1n law librar librar !as to be well well e7ui e7uipp pped ed wit! wit! rega regard rd to t!es t!esee two two basi basicc (aterials* !ese (aterials (a e7uip t!e reader not onl wit! w!at t!e law is but also !elp !i( understand t!at in a co(plicated societ wit! co(ple, laws' !e (a !ave to ta=e recourse to suc! secondar (aterials as te,t boo=s' reference boo=s and articles* For a researc! librar t!ese (aterials (a !ave to be in abundance' but in addition suc! a librar !as to contain (aterials in allied fields suc! as !istor' political science' ant!ropolog' sociolog and econo(ics and also in co(parative law* !e tas= of a researc!er is not onl to find t!e e,isting law but also to e,a(ine alternative solutions to a proble( and to suggest refor( in law* Us!n1 # L#+ L!3r#r
Legal researc! inevitabl involves t!e use of t!e boo=s' pa(p!lets' periodicals and docu(entar (aterials in libraries* 3eneral source (aterials !ave to be consulted for for t!e t!e nece necessa ssar r bac= bac=gr grou ound nd =now =nowle ledg dgee of t!e t!e prob proble( le( to be inve invest stig igate ated* d* Gnow Gnowle ledg dgee of prev previo ious us findi finding ngss in si(il si(ilar ar cases cases is also also re7u re7uire ired d b t!e t!e legal legal researc!ers* 1ll t!ese source (aterials are nu(erousl available in librar* Use of t!e librar is a (ust to an researc!er* Hence' a researc!er s!ould =now !ow to use t!e resources of libraries* He s!ould understand t!e was in w!ic! libraries organi4e collections and wit! =nowledge of basic bibliograp!ic and reference (aterials* !e general procedure of (aintaining libraries is t!e sa(e in an librar because all libraries organi4e t!eir collections on t!e sa(e general principles and provide si(ilar
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resources for users* 1ll t!e libraries !ave a sste( of sub+ect classification' a card catalogue' and certain bibliograp!ic and reference (aterials* 1 researc!er w!o wis!es to use a law librar (ust =now !ow to trace t!e re7uired (aterial fro( t!e boo=s =ept in a librar* Hence !e s!ould !ave t!oroug! =nowledge regarding t!e availabilit of boo=s and reading (aterial' !ow to use t!e librar catalogue and also t!e =nowledge of classification sste( used in t!e librar* He (ust (ust ac7uai ac7uainte nted d wit! wit! t!e catalogue catalogue w!ic! gives !i( t!e infor( infor(atio ation n of t!e available boo=s wit! title' aut!or and place of publication and publis!er along wit! call nu(ber of t!e boo=s* References: References: Boo8s: Bani' Le#al %esearc! and Met!odolo#&, Met!odolo#&, "#nd ed*)' ,. S*G* Eer(a and M* 1f4al Bani' Le#al !e Indian Law Institute' #$$& " C!apter Part @ p* #8&-#:2)* -. >obert Batt' oncise Le#al %esearc!, "9t! ed*)' Universal Law Pub* Pvt* Co*' ?ew Del!i' #$$8 "C!apter :) /. S*>* Mneni' Le#al Mneni' Le#al %esearc! Met!odolo#&, Met!odolo#&, "2 "2rd ed*)' 1lla!abad Law 1genc' #$$8 "C!apter &#) 0. S*G* Mis!ra' Le#al Mis!ra' Le#al Lan#ua#e, Le#al Le#al /ritin# /ritin# and General 8n#lis!, "& 8n#lis!, "&st ed*)' 1lla!abad Law 1genc' 1genc' #$$< "C!apter&#) " C!apter&#)
Mo&'e – Use o* E5So'res #n& Le1# Rese#r$ Unit-I a) b) c) d)
Use of Internet Internet ,plorer ,plorer and and Searc! Searc! ngine ngine for Legal Infor( Infor(ation ation International Legal Service Providers ?ation ?ational al Lega Legall Servic Servicee Prov Provide iders rs Ruot Ruotab able le Ruo Ruote tess
Intro&'t!on ?owadas we find co(puters on t!e des=s of t!e lawers* !e influence of co(puters and electronic sources on law !as alread effected significant c!anges and t!ere t!ere is li=eli li=eli!oo !ood d of (an (an (ore (ore c!ange c!angess wit! wit! t!e increas increasing ing sop!is sop!istica ticatio tion n of e7ui e7uip( p(en entt and and tec! tec!ni ni7u 7ue* e* ?ow ?ow t!e t!e advo advoca cate tess are are fa(i fa(ilia liarr wit! wit! new new +argo +argon n of co(put co(puters ers .input .input' ' .outpu .output' t' .proce .processin ssing' g' .progr .progra(( a((ing ing' ' .storag .storage' e' .retri .retrieva eval' l' .software' .browse' .searc!' .engines' .databases' etc* Co(puters and electronic sources are al(ost plaing t!e part of libraries* Certain practical advantages are t!at
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co(puters can assist practitioners b ti(ing' and costing interviews wit! clients' besides storage of infor(ation* Intern Internet et facilit facilit broug!t broug!t t!e w!ole w!ole =nowle =nowledge dge of t!e world world into into a lap-top lap-top co(puter* Infor(ation ec!nolog !as developed a lot and e-(ail facilit !elps t!e researc!er in co((unication* !e !e resea researc! rc!er er can can get get info infor( r(ati ation on t!ro t!roug ug! ! webs websit ites es and and !e can get get t!e t!e national and international statutes' agree(ents' and details of case laws relating to a particular issue wit! t!e use of *"dot) co( online stores t!roug! different websites* Co(puter' at present' ta=es t!e place of a calculator in t!e !ands of learners* Bit! t!e !elp of t!e printer' t!e researc!er can get t!e printed cop of t!e docu(ents needed wit!in no ti(e* ?owadas use of co(puter and electronic sources is a (ust to an legal practitioner or legal researc!er* !e web universe' wit! t!ousands of sites t!at get added everda' everda' is e,panding rapidl* B!en we loo= for sites t!at contain t!e re7uired infor(ation' we access a searc! engine and invo=e a searc! process0 t!e searc! engine scans its database' collects all t!e appropriate lin=s t!at (atc! our 7uer' coo=s a web page wit! t!is searc! result and pus!es it to over browser* Ane of t!e (et!ods t!roug! w!ic! a searc! engine e,pands its web database is b grabbing t!e lin= infor(ation using auto(atic progra(s called Crawlers* !ese progra(s (ove continuousl fro( one site to t!e ot!er and fetc! infor(ation and pus! t!e( into t!e engines database* !is' tec!ni7ue wor=s fine as long as t!e scanned site !as a well-laid out site structure wit! static web pages* !e software does not finis! its +ob b +ust downloading t!e lin=s' it analses t!e lin=s' re(oves irrelevant lin=s' t!en downloads t!e pages and stores it in our !ard dis=* !e service also provides t!e facilit to save t!e searc! results in our (ac!ine so t!at ou can retrieve it later* Se#r$ En1!ne #n& Le1# In*orm#t!on
If one wants to get relevant infor(ation on an sub+ect (atter' !e can switc! on !is co(puter and open t!e internet browser to get t!at infor(ation t!roug! a searc! engine* 1 searc! searc! engine is an internet site w!ic! stores t!e infor(ation infor(ation about all t!e branc!es of =nowledge and after receiving t!e searc! re7uest co(pares it to t!e entries in its store and presents t!e re7uired (atter to t!e searc!er* 1 searc! engine is
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a service providing website consisting of organi4ed and inde,ed infor(ation provided b different web publis!ers* !ere are a nu(ber of searc! engines suc! as ,cite' Infosec=' a!oo' a!oo' Metacrawler' ?etfind' 3oogle*Co( etc*
Use o* Internet E>6orer #n& Se#r$ En1!ne *or Le1# In*orm#t!on 1 researc! sc!olar w!o wants to =now about t!e 1cts' case laws bot! national and international i(portance can enter t!e Internet ,plorer to get infor(ation* He !as to follow t!e following steps to searc! t!e relevant infor(ation/ &* Switc! Switc! on t!e t!e des=to des=top p button button** #* Double Double clic= on t!e internet internet connector connector icon to open t!e t!e internet browser browser** 2* pe t!e t!e user user na(e a(e and and passw asswo ord in t!e t!e rele releva van nt bo, bo, and and clic clic= = on .connectSign on and ou ou find t!e Microsoft Internet ,plorer* 8* Clic= on t!e t!e .searc! .searc! button button of t!e t!e tool bar* bar* 9* Clic= on t!e t!e .c!oose a searc! engine engine in t!e searc! pane pane t!at appears appears on t!e left side of t!e internet e,plorer window* :* An t!e rig!t side side pane of t!e internet internet e,plorer e,plorer window window ou find a list of searc! searc! engines* ;* Select and clic= clic= t!e searc! engine engine in t!e rig!t pane of t!e window window browser* browser* eviews' @ar %ournals and Legal Periodicals/ Periodicals/ !is includes docu(ents docu(ents fro( law reviews' legal encclopedias' bar +ournals etc* Ho+ to Use 9est#+:
In Bestlaw Bestlaw at t!e rig!t !and side t!ere is a tool bar* !is docu(ent opens in t!e find lin=* o retrieve a docu(ent w!en ou =now its citation' tpe t!e citation in t!e 8nter citation te,t bo, and clic= Go. ou ou do not need to include brac=ets or use e,act spacing' spacing' capitali4ation capitali4ation or punctuation* punctuation* For e,a(ple' ou can tpe C+ + 4L%D >+, + + !"lrd >+ or + +!"lrd>+ to retrieve t!e sa(e docu(ent* F!n& C!t#t!on Tem6#tes
If ou are uncertain about correct citation for(at for our Find re7uest' ou can use a fill-in fill-in-t! -t!e-b e-blan lan= = te(pla te(plate* te* o displa displa a te(plat te(plate' e' tpe tpe t!e public publicatio ation n abbreviation in t!e 8nter t!e 8nter citation te,t bo, and clic= Go* For e,a(ple' tpe cmlr in in t!e 8nter citation te,t bo, and clic= Go to retrieve t!e citation for(at for docu(ents in ommon Mar"ets La* %eports. %eports. ou ou can retrieve t!e following tpes of docu(ents b tping t!eir citations/ • • • • • • • •
Case Law Statutes >egulations opical opical Material Legal Practice Materials Law >eviews and @ar %ournals reatises ?ewspapers and Maga4ines
"'3!#t!on L!st
Clic= "'3!#t!on L!st in t!e left fra(e to view a co(plete list of publications and abbrevi abbreviatio ations ns t!at t!at can be used used wit! wit! ind * o (ove t!roug! t!e list' clic= t!e
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arro arrows ws at t!e t!e top top of t!e t!e rig!t rig!t fra(e fra(e** o 7uic 7uic=l =l find find an abbr abbrev eviat iatio ion' n' tpe tpe an Scan. appropriate word in t!e te,t at t!e top of t!e Publications List and clic= Scan. "'3!#t!on Co'ntr
@ecause publications fro( different countries can !ave t!e sa(e publication abbr abbrev evia iatio tion' n' ou (ust (ust spec specif if t!e t!e coun countr tr fro( fro( w!ic! w!ic! ou want want to retri retriev evee docu(ents* o c!oose a countr for our current curre nt Find re7uest' select t!e countr fro( t!e 2ublication ountr& drop-down list in t!e left fra(e* o c!ange t!e default countr' countr' c!oose ptions fro( ptions fro( t!e drop-down list on t!e toolbar* !e Aptions- 3eneral Bestlaw Be stlaw page is displaed* C!oose a countr fro( t!e list* Le>!s Ne>!s
!e Le,is ?e,is group provides infor(ation infor(ation to legal' corporate' corporate' govern(ent govern(ent and acade(ic (ar=ets' and publis!es legal' ta, and regulator infor(ation' via online' !ardcop print and CD->AM for(ats* !e global legal and infor(ation division of >eed lsevier plc' Le,is ?e,is 3roup co(bines do4ens of brands t!at are leaders wit!in wit!in t!eir t!eir respect respective ive (ar=et (ar=ets' s' includ including ing @utterw @utterwort ort!s' !s' Les ditio ditions ns du %uris %uris Classeur and Martindale-Hubbell* Le,is ?e,is 3roup unites strong brands' pioneering tec!nologies and pre(iu( infor(ation for custo(ers in t!e legal corporate' govern(ent and acade(ic (ar=ets* More t!an two-t!irds of its revenue is generated in t!e ?ort! 1(erican (ar=etplace* 1t t!e sa(e ti(e t!e 3roup is t!e (ar=et leader in t!e United Gingdo( and t!e @ritis! Co((onwealt! and (a+or publis!er in t!e legal' ta, and regulator (ar=ets in Continental urope and Latin 1(erica* !e 3roup is divided into four (ain operating units/ ?ort! 1(erican Legal (ar=ets' US Corporate and Federal (ar=ets' Martindale-Hubbell and t!e International Division* !e division w!ic! co(prises t!e 3roups publis!ing assets is regionall organi4ed' in urope' 1sia-Pacific and Latin 1(erica* !ese include t!e (ar=etleading @utterwort!s co(panies in t!e UG and @ritis! Co((onwealt!' Les ditions du %uris Classeur in France' and (an ot!er co(panies t!at are !ouse!old na(es in t!eir (ar=ets* !e 3roups products are available via t!e Borld Bide Beb' dial-up online' CD->AM and !ardcop print* !e t!ousands of titles available via Le,is ?e,is 3roup products offer access to so(e of t!e (ost recogni4ed and aut!oritative sources in t!e
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world toda* 1 trusted source' Le,is ?e,is 3roup offers targeted Beb infor(ation solutions solutions t!at can be integrated integrated into custo(er custo(er business business processes and sste(s* sste(s* Le,is ?e,is Beb Beb and dial-up online solutions co(bine searc!able access to (ore t!an t!ree billion docu(ents fro( t!ousands of sources wit! leading edge sste(s and tools for (anaging t!is content* Le,is ?e,is delivers a !ig! 7ualit resource wit! w!ic! to build legal researc! and =nowledge-(anage(ent solutions for t!e entire enterprise* !e Le,is service' t!e first co((ercial' full te,t legal infor(ation service' began in &;2 to !elp legal practitioners researc! t!e law (ore efficientl* !e co(panion ?e,is' launc!ed in &; news and business infor(ation service' to ric!en researc! wit! recent and arc!ival news and financial infor(ation* Since t!at ti(e' t!e service service !as grown grown to beco(e beco(e t!e larges largestt news news and busin business ess online online infor( infor(ati ation on service' including co(pre!ensive co(pan' countr' financial' de(ograp!ic' (ar=et resea researc! rc! and and indu industr str repor reports* ts* Prov Provid idin ing g access access to t!ou t!ousan sands ds of world worldwi wide de newspap newspapers' ers' (aga4in (aga4ines' es' trade trade +ourna +ournals' ls' indust industr r newslet newsletter ters' s' ta, and accoun accountin ting g infor(ation' financial data' public records' legislative records' data on co(panies and t!eir e,ecutives (a=es t!e Le,is ?e,is service and indispensable tool for gat!ering infor(ation and providing accurate answers* Le,is Le,is ?e,is ?e,is organi organi4es 4es its (ateria (aterials ls into into genera generall categor categories ies as Co(bin Co(bined ed Fede Federal ral and and Stat Statee Case Case Law-U Law-US' S' Fede Federal ral Lega Legal-U l-US' S' Stat Statee Lega Legal-U l-US* S* Deta Detaile iled d description of t!ese contents is as follows/ &* Co(bined Co(bined Federal Federal and and State State Case Law/ Law/ It contain containss case laws laws fro( federal federal and and state courts* #* Federal Federal Legal Legal US/ It contain containss pri(ar pri(ar federal federal case laws* laws* 2* 1rea 1rea of Law b topic/ topic/ !is !is topic topic contains contains special speciali4ed i4ed sources sources w!ic! w!ic! cover cover suc! diverse sub+ects as coprig!t' insurance' securit etc* 8* ?ews/ It provides provides current current awareness awareness and and infor(atio infor(ation n service* service* Ho+ to Use Le>!s Ne>!s
!e (ain page of Le,is ?e,is' after logging in' s!ows two searc! bo,es* !e first one wit! t!e title .c!oose fro( ( last #$ sources accessed displas last #$ sources accessed* B!ereas t!e second one !as t!e title .Loo= for a source* !is !as two options0 t!e first one is .(atc! ter(s in long na(es i*e* for(al na(e used to
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describe a source' e*g* Federal a,* !e second one is searc! b .s!ort na(e i*e* t!e traditional librar and file na(e* !e second option includes .,plore Sources* Using t!is we can select broad !ierarc!ical topics* 1t t!e end of t!e page t!ere is anot!er searc! space for .co((and searc!ing* !is allows researc!er to 7uic=l access particular librar and file instead of navigating t!roug! sources of !ierarc!*
N#t!on# Le1# Ser!e "ro!&ers M#n'6#tr#:
@usine @usinesses sses toda toda rel on profess profession ional al infor( infor(ati ation on t!at t!at eit!er eit!er (a=es (a=es t!e( t!e( (one or saves (one* Infor(ation w!ic! !elps t!e( in (a=ing critical decisions' t!at defines t!eir perfor(ance and success* !ere is plent of content available on t!e internet' t!e corporate intranet' e,tranet and in print* @ut users are struggling to sort t!roug! t!is vast a(ount of data to cull out t!e infor(ation t!at is critical critic al and relevant as t!e available content is unstructured' dis+oined and difficult to access* Increasingl searc! for infor(ation is (oving to t!e Internet* Speed' ease of use' saving ti(e' space and cost' are few of t!e factors responsible responsible for t!is (igration (igration fro( conventional searc! (odes to t!e digital (edia* Manupatra operating on a versatile et robust platfor( utili4es t!e power and potential of t!e digital (edia' 5w!ere content co(es to life6* It provides a structured' co(pre!ensive and intelligent database for legal and corporate professionals to do t!eir researc! and access relevant infor(ation in a for( and (anner t!at is useful to t!e(* Manupatra.com Manupatra.com is a virtual librar on Indian Laws' %udge(ents' @usiness Polic' Procedures' ?otifications' >ules' Arders ?ews and (ore* Manupatra Manupatra offers offers dna(ic' dna(ic' current and updated infor(ation infor(ation on topics critical critical to t!e legal legal fratern fraternit it'' corpor corporate ate establi establis!( s!(ent entss and profes professio sional nals* s* Manupa Manupatra tra co(prises of a vast and ever e,panding database on t!e following/ &* Supr Supre( e(ee Cour Courtt a) %udge(ents %udge(ents delivere delivered d since incept inception ion and and updated updated on on a dail dail basis0 basis0 b) >ules0 #* Hig! Hig! Cour Courts ts
ating agencies li=e 1le,a !ave confir(ed t!at Indlaw is t!e (ost traffic=ed Indian legal and regulator resource base online* Indlaw caters to t!e needs of ever professional' w!et!er !e is a lawer' c!arte c!artered red account accountant ant'' co(pan co(pan secreta secretar r'' (anage (anage(en (entt consul consultan tant' t' direct director or or an entrepreneur* Indlaw ensures t!at ou are aware of t!e latest c!anges in t!e legal and polic fra(ewor= faster t!an fro( an ot!er source* Indlaws Indlaws databases include/ Case Laws' Legislations' Legislations' >ules' ?otifications' ?otifications' Circulars' rade ?otices' Practice Directions' For(s' >eports and a nd Proceedings' F1Rs' F1Rs' Indlaw 1rticles' ?ews' Press ?otes* A In&!# Re6orter
1I> Ltd* is t!e creation of t!e genius pioneering 4eal of late Mr* E*E* C!etale w!o was also a crusader and fig!ter against all odds* !e institution 1I> Ltd* ca(e into its e,istence in &## wit! its first Law >eporter 1ll India >eporter* It was followed b ot!er Law >eports li=e Cri(inal Law %ournal' Labour and Industrial cases' cases' a,atio a,ation n Law >eport >eports' s' 1lla! 1lla!abad abad Law %ourna %ournall and 1I> Supre( Supre(ee Court Court "wee=l) one after anot!er* Moreover' t!e institution too= up t!e (ore diversified wor= of preparing and publis!ing co((entaries* Digests and Manuals all confined to Federal 1cts of India* !e ee was alwas on t!e binding law of t!e land* !e activities of t!e Institution can be broadl classified into two categories as follows/
eport >eporting ing +udge +udge(en (ents ts of Supre( Supre(ee Court Court of India India and all all Hig! Cour Courts ts in India India** B!ereas 1ll India >eporter !as been a co(pre!ensive %ournal in as (uc! as reporting +udge(ents in all branc!es of Law' t!e ot!er +ournals' as intended and designed' are speciali4ed agencies reporting +udge(ents of t!ese ver superior Courts in t!eir respective branc!es of Law*
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