Studies of Religion Notes

Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945 -

1901-1945 religious makeup of population is hardly changed → predominately Anglo-Celtic Christian. 0.5 % profess non-Christian religions. Migration to Australia after WWII drastically alters religious landscape.

Contemporary Aboriginal Spirituality Aboriginal Spirituality as determined by the Dreaming Kinship • Complex network of relationships defining identity, rights, obligations. • Defines and individuals place, role and responsibility in the community. • Vary across communities but serve same function of social order, meaning, and continued well-being of group. • Determines education of children, system of moral and financial support, intermarriage issues. • Relationships evolve in context of extended family • Harshest penalty for breaking customary law often exclusion or banishment from kin. • Relationship with the Dreaming: - Kinship groups established by ancestor beings in dreamtime, along with other laws - It is the tangible expression of Dreaming in everyday life. - The way the individual experiences the Dreaming (ceremonies, sacred sites etc.) is entirely determined by the connection of the kinship group. - Roles, rights, responsibilities of kinship group are defined and explained through Dreaming stories. Ceremonial Life • Includes rites of passage, initiation, burial ceremonies etc. • Purposes: celebrate life-cycle; promote well-being, provision of needs, passing on information. • Often gender specific • Balance rites: - No immediate control over food supplies so most rituals celebrate wildlife and continuation of food supply. - Spirit of species inhabits certain sites: responsible groups must perform proper rights to ensure spirits emerge and give life. • Death and burial rituals: - Death is only the last ceremony in the present life as spirits return to original Dreaming places as part of eternal transition of Dreaming life force. - Burial grounds are feared - Buried in own country • Reflected in the Dreaming:

- Ceremonial life acknowledges the Dreaming as a fundamental aspect of human life while practice sustains it as a vital part of spirituality. - Ceremonies commonly pertain to sacred sites where, as revealed in the Dreaming, ancestor beings are said to inhabit. - Burial rites acknowledge the intrinsic spiritual link of the individual with the life force of the Dreaming Obligations to land and people • Indigenous people don’t own land; they are custodians • Mutual dependence: both provider of food and water and place of the ancestor beings. • Land used as a food-source is often separate from sacred sites. • When outside of estate care is taken not to break laws of people or approach their sacred sites. • Ownership based on ritual responsibility. • Elders responsible to properly perform rites • Totem (symbolic and real link to land, kin, and dreaming) : brings responsibility to totem and links to ancestor spirits. • Reflected in the Dreaming: - Land holds sacred places for all people. - Land is context of dreaming, inhabited by the ancestor spirits whom the people maintain a strong link with. - Responsibility to land physically and tangibly derives from and preserves the Dreaming as living religion. Effect of Dispossession on Aboriginal Spirituality Separation from the land • Settlement in 1788 caused competing interests for land • 50 years after settlement Protectionist policy established, moving Indigenous people to missions which caused isolation and segregation • Deprivation of land results in a loss of independence, culture, identity and spiritual world. Separation from kinship groups • Some missions ban culture, ceremonies are banned, and kin cannot visit. • Virtual destruction of kinship groups undermines basis of culture. • Without numbers to remain self-sufficient and sustain religious and cultural practices, identity suffers. • 1930s : Assimilation - forced removal (stolen generations) • 1965 : integration. • Present : Self-determination. The Stolen Generations • Forced separation of indigenous children from their families in every state from late 1800s. • During 1950-1970 as many as 100 000 are separated.

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3 forms: government or church run institutions, adoption into white families, fostering into white families. Separation from family and traditional background resulted in lost identity, culture, language, spirituality and self-esteem. The National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from their Families began August 1995 by HREOC. Effects of Stolen Generations and Dispossession: - Loss of economic independence - Loss of identity which is linked intrinsically to the land and kinship groups, unable to perform rites - Isolation from tangible link to spiritual world disables ceremonies, totems, sacred sites etc. - Breakup of family ties results in no continuation of information through generations - Disruption of traditional roles and responsibilities.

Significant events in the Land Rights Movement • • • • • • • • •

Post WWII resulted in a change of attitude toward colonialism and assimilation. 1972: self-determination becomes policy in all indigenous affairs. 1960s sees Indigenous people pursue justice and establish themselves as part of political landscape. 1965: Charles Perkins takes bus tour of students to northwest NSW to protest racial discrimination; The Freedom Riders. Generates national attention on racism cemented by White Australia Policy. Denied service in shops, separated in cinemas, excluded from bars and swimming pools used by whites. Australian Day 1972: the Aboriginal Tent Embassy on Parliament House Lawn became a focal point for protests against denial of rights, conditions, and lack of govt. action. Ignited by 1963 presentation of bark petition to commonwealth govt. from Yirrkala people. 1966: Gurindji people strike for claim on Wave Hill station in NT.

Mabo • 1992 High Court Mabo vs. Queensland : Aboriginal people finally win a case regarding land ownership. • Initiated by 5 indigenous plaintiffs (Eddie Mabo of Merriam people of Murray Islands in Torres Strait leads). • Overthrows concept of terra nullius. • Recognition of native title where continuous relationship with land is proven Native Title • 1993 Native Title Act recognizes native title and rights in federal law • Gave Indigenous right to posses, occupy, use, and enjoy land so land has had a continuous connection with indigenous people. Wik

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1993: Wik people claim some traditional land on Cape York Peninsula. 1996 Wik vs. Queensland established that native title can coexist with pastoral lease.

Religious Expression in Australia – 1945 to the present Australia’s Religious Landscape since 1945 • Census Data: - 1947: 88% Christian, 0.4 % Jewish, 0.2% No religion - 2002: 67.9% Christian, 4.8% Non-Christian, 27.3% Other (with 15.5 % no religion). • Church of England (Anglican) went from 39% of population in 1947 to 18% in 2006 • Catholicism has risen from 20% in 1947 to 25% in 2006 • Christianity has decreased, yet remains most popular religion in Australia (64% Christian) • Traditional Churches (Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist) experienced downturn losing 15% since 1996 • Newer Pentecostal Church had 25% increase since 1996 • Baptist, Catholic, Orthodox Churches had significant gains of up to 8% since 1996 • ‘Other Christian’ increased 19% since 1996 • National Church Life Survey: - 2001: more over 50, less under 40. - Found that more people identify with religious organizations than attend church. - 2001: low attendance in Catholic, Anglican, and Uniting as opposed to strong support of evangelical (Church of Christ and Pentecostal). The present Religious Landscape Christianity as the Major religious Tradition • Still main religion in Australia (63% of population) due to historical factors: - First fleet arrival brought majority of Anglican settlers as well as Presbyterians and Methodists. Only 10% were Catholic - Post first fleet settlers were predominately Anglican making population almost exclusively Christian - Immigration Restriction Act (1901) allowed European immigrants only, bringing majority of Christian adherents ensuring the demographic stay the same for at least 50 years - Traditional Indigenous religions were not recognised Immigration • After WWI, further migration from Europe encouraged saw more Christian adherents

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After WWII, other European nations encouraged to migrate to Australia (i.e. Greece) brought other Christian denominations to Australia such as Eastern Orthodox (i.e. Greek Orthodox) With the relaxation of the White Australia policy in the 1950’s and its abolition in 1973, Australia has seen increasing diversity of faiths, however most remain British and therefore Christian Post-war Assisted Passage Scheme implemented to encourage British migration to Australia to increase population, and was then spread to other Eastern European countries - increased Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox more communities, churches, schools and other social fixtures had to be built for the increase of new religious adherents After WWII, Jewish population began to increase evident that the Jewish population in Australia was very small before WWII, consisting of Jews only from the first fleet: Jewish immigrants come in waves after Holocaust Vietnam War displaced more than 2 million Indo-Chinese people, 120000 came to Australia for refuge - Large increase in Buddhism and Hinduism (Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand) - Increase in Roman Catholics First major influx of Muslims arrived with Turkish Cypriot Muslims fleeing WW2 refugee camps

Denominational Switching • Refers to the transfer of followers from on Christian denomination to another to suit lifestyle and feel comfortable and well catered for • 1991 Church Life Survey: 29% of responders had switched denominations in last 5 yrs • More common in Protestant denominations than Catholic and Orthodox • Past two decades has seen dramatic swing away from liberal churches to the more conservative - Pentecostal Church grew by 42% from 1986-1991 - Pentecostal Church increased by 60% in the last decade • Pentecostal Church has grown in popularity because: - It is an evangelical and charismatic denomination; music and presentation appeals to young generation - Strong sense of community • Reasons for ‘switching’ - People under the age of 40 switch as they are less likely to view a lifetime loyalty to a church as important, whereas people over 60 do - Christians more likely to switch denominations than any other religious faith as they move to explore and seek stronger Christian faiths - Conservative churches have also lost many members out of the Christian faith all together, with Pentecostal churches losing the greatest amount (‘revolving door syndrome’)

Rise of New Age Religion • Umbrella term covering a range of spiritual beliefs and practices aiming to foster individual fulfilment in the form of personal happiness, health and life purpose • Differ from traditional churches as they lack any single unifying creed or doctrine No Holy text, no central organisation, no formal leadership • Fastest growing religious faiths in 2001 census, increasing by 140% since 1996 • New Age practices became popular from 1960’s to 1970’s as a reaction to the failure of Christianity and Secular Humanism to provide spiritual and ethical guidance for the future • Roots of new Age practices traceable in many religious origins including Hinduism, Wicca, Neopagan traditions • Common beliefs - Monism- all that exists is derived from single source of divine energy - Pantheism- all that exists is God; God found within self through entire universe

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Reincarnation- after death, reborn to live a new life as a different human being Karma- good or bad deeds we do throughout life accumulate to determine if we are rewarded or punished in our next life Focus of the development of the self and exploration individual spirituality Believe transcendence is found through the natural world

Reasons for growth in popularity Christianity was seen as failing to provide spiritual or ethical guidance Media began to release stories of Catholic church clergymen involved in sexual abuse Growing emphasis of autonomy and individualistic lifestyle throughout society with more obligation on fulfilling and satisfying the needs of self rather than the community People currently seeking spiritual insight as a reaction to the unsettled and turbulent nature of the times we live in

Secularism • The belief that religion should not interfere with or be integrated unto the public affairs of a society • Reasons for secularisation Disenfranchisement ; belief that religious organizations have failed or denied the rights of their members Materialism: spirituality is often ignored in favour of possessions Humanism: belief in human effort rather than religion, where an ethical lifestyle need not be defined by religion Scientific Rationalism: accepting scientific logic as the highest authority. Religious dialogue in Multi-Faith Australia

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Religious Dialogue: between denominations and religions to foster understanding and social cohesion. Ecumenism: movement among Christian Churches to promote the restoration of unity among all Christians. Interfaith Dialogue: dialogue to foster understanding, cooperation, respect, tolerance, to find common ground and to reduce conflict.

The National Council of Churches Australia • Ecumenical organisation bringing together a number of Australian churches in dialogue and practical cooperation • Began with Australian Committee for the World Council of Churches which developed into Australian Council of Churches and then into NCCA in 1994 • Originally, the movement was for Christian unity within Australia between Anglican and Protestant churches only 1960s, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches joined 1994 after opening of Vatican II, Roman Catholic church joined • Today 15 different church variants apart of NCCA • More conservative, evangelical denominations such as Baptists and Pentecostal churches have failed to join NCCA due to: - reluctance to accept validity of ecumenical dialogue with churches possessing doctrines at variance with their own • NCCA sponsors National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Ecumenical Commission (NATSIEC) Represents Indigenous Australians from Christian faiths Aims to support indigenous issues, reconciliation and education whilst helping sustain Aboriginal spirituality and theology • NCCA Special projects: Jubilee campaign- debt justice for impoverished nations Safe as Churches project- confronts reality of sexual abuse by clergy and church workers The NSW Ecumenical Council • Established in 1946 to be the instrument through which its member churches celebrate and manifest their unity to understand each others’ faith. Affiliated with NCCA • Today possesses 16 member churches, but, like NCCA conservative churches have refused to join • Sponsors a variety of social and charitable initiatives overlapped by the NCCA E.g. the promotion of the Christmas bowl throughout NSW which helps to support thousands of people in needing countries such as the Middle East, Africa and Asia at Christmas time The Uniting Church - 1945: Presbyterian opts to negotiate with Methodists and Congregationalists leads to union of churches in 1972. - Union is complete in ’77 forming Uniting Church of Australia - Today Uniting Church has 1.3 million members and is the 3rd largest religious community. Importance of interfaith dialogue

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Australia is a multicultural society and whilst this is positive, it can lead to many misunderstandings and clashes in belief, particularly throughout religious faiths Clashes in belief have been the result of much conflict, war and violence throughout history

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The role of Interfaith Dialogue • • • •

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It is when representatives from different religious traditions meet together peacefully to talk and exchange information about their respective faiths and clear up misunderstandings One example was the Australian National Dialogue of Christians, Muslims and Jews in 2003 by the NCCA purpose was to provide opportunities for faiths to build understandings and harmony whilst clarifying issues In December 2004, 14 countries with ten interfaith delegates met in Indonesia for the purpose of friendly dialogue. Dialogue in practice: Uniting Church est. groups to improve relations w. Muslim and Jewish comm. Catholic Church has Committee for Ecumenical and Interfaith relations Australian Council of Christians and Jews: Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, and Canberra aim to reconcile common heritage and promote understanding. They stand against anti-Semitism through seminars, memorial services (WWII)

The relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of reconciliation •

Inter-faith dialogue is important as it engenders understanding hence respect for Aboriginal spirituality and culture, addresses history of conflict and oppression, helps to improve relationships.

Reconciliation and Christianity: Aboriginal/Christian church movements → many have welded Ch. into beliefs, or have used culture to revitalize their Christian faith. • Census data says significant percentage identify as Christians. • Most churches have Indigenous ministries, liturgies in local languages, symbols and motifs on stained glass, customs into services (i.e. smoking ceremony) • Pope John Paul II (Alice Springs 1986) → “ the Gospel now invites you to become through and through Aboriginal Christians….allowed the hap Reconciliation is the term given to the process whereby ATSI people and non-ATSI people can move into the future with a new relationship based on mutual recognition, understanding and respect • Mistakes of the past such as dispossession of land and the stolen generation must be acknowledged and dealt with for harmony to exist Church Initiatives • 1998, joined with other churches to issue a statement called ‘Towards Reconciliation in Australian Society- Reconciliation and Aboriginal Australians’ •

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which argued for the settlement of differences between ATSI and non-ATSI people National Reconciliation Week sees a week of Catholic Initiatives promoting reconciliation particularly regarding Aboriginal health Anglican Church expressed its support for Reconciliation at the 1998 General Synod and encouraged a number of enterprises designed to facilitate the process Uniting Church National Assembly made formal apology to ATSI people to policies of the past and made a pledge for a better future Week of Prayer for Reconciliation began in 1993 with the goal of providing interfaith week of prayer, thought and reflection with the common goal of reconciliation. Includes all faiths, including Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism

Depth Study: ISLAM Significant People and Ideas The contribution to the development and expression of Islam of one significant person or school of thought, other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. One significant person in the history of Islam is Rabi'a al-Adawiyya. Rabi’a was a woman born in 717 CE in Basra (modern day Iraq). According to legend, Rabi’a was orphaned when she young and sold into slavery. She was then freed when her master found her praying and shrouded in divine light. Rabi’a lived all her life in Basra as an ascetic, fasting all day and praying all night. She provided spiritual guidance and advice to Islamic people, men and women alike, and is known as one of the most famous Islam mystics, who had a significant contribution on its development. Rabi’a al-Adawiyya was living during a time of great turbulence after Prophet Muhammad’s death. There was an increasing focus on accumulating wealth, and move away from the core of Shari’a law. However, there were some Muslims who rejected this materialism and corruption; Rabi’a was one of these people. In her life as ascetic, Rabi'a had only four possessions: a reed mat, a screen, a pottery jug and a bed of felt that doubled as a prayer rug. This life of poverty inspired many others to reject the materialistic lifestyle of the time. Rabi'a gathered these people and encouraged them to a life of prayer and devotion, towards the way of mahabbah (Divine Love) and uns (intimacy with Allah. In addition to her poverty, Rabi'a possessed a spirituality that was based on a binding trust and love of Allah. She believed that spirituality was to be integrated into daily life, not merely stated. She loved Allah for his sake, a love not “from fear of hell” or “hope of Paradise” as she wrote in one of her many poems.

This idea had a profound effect on the emergence of mystical Islam, and she contributed to the Sufi movement through this concept and her life of poverty. She died around 801 and is known as the first Sufi wali (saint) The effect of this person or school of thought on Islam Sufism • Tasawuuf –mystical dimension of Islam: adherents are referred to as Sufis •

The life and writings of Rabi'a were significant to the Sufi movement, which values the qualities of self-sacrifice, devotion, kindness and integrity, all of which were embodied by Rabi'a

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Sufis believe that through mystical growth and rejecting the material world, the self is destroyed and the mystic is alone in the presence of Allah.

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Through the writings of Rabi'a, asceticism and its philosophy of mahabbah and uns gradually gave place to the loving poetry of mysticism.

Transcending gender •

In Rabi'a’s time there was a rigid system of gender relations in Islam, where women were confined to the domestic and under patriarchal rule

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Rabi'a chose a life of celibacy against social and religious conventions in order to focus of Allah through prayer and meditation: “It does not please me to be distracted from Allah even a moment”

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She participated in free intellectual discussion with men when it was considered inappropriate

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In doing this she gained respect and admiration and was able to surpass the boundaries for women. She was a role model for women to be more focused on religion

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Rabi'a taught and guided many people to the fundamentals of Islam through direct teaching

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Her ascetic life was also an example to all on modelling Muhammad’s message: to live a simple with the focus on Allah rather than luxury

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Rabi’a wrote about her relationship with Allah, describing the love between herself and Allah in many devotional poems

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She develops the idea that Allah should be loved for his own sake, not out of fear or hope of reward

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The accessibility of her writing to a large number of people allowed the idea of devotional love to spread

Ethics

Islamic ethical teachings on bioethics or environmental ethics or sexual ethics

Environmental Ethics Principle beliefs underpinning environmental ethics in Islam •

Tawhid (unity), khalifa (stewardship), and akrah (accountability) are the three central concepts of Islam and also the pillars of environmental ethics of Islam 

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Includes unity and oneness of all that is created by Allah

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Unity is reflected in the created world,

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Thus, Tawhid demands that the integrity of the created world be maintained by balance and harmony

Khalifa - Allah has made humans responsible for all creation - Involves appropriate use of resources for human needs

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Akrah

- Muslims believe they will be judged on how they have acted - This is extended to one’s treatment of the created world

Sources of ethical teaching The relationship between humans and the universe is outlined in the Qur’an, Hadith and Shari’ a It is defined in Qur’an as based on -

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meditation of the universe and what it contains sustainable utilisation and development for human benefit care and nurture extended beyond humans to the benefit of created beings

Qur’an Tawhid - “And the earth – we have spread it out wide and placed on it mountains firm, and caused life of every kind to grow in a balanced manner, and provided means of livelihood for you...” (Surah 15:19) - “The seven heavens and the earth and all therein praise him and there is not a thing but hymns his praise.” (Surah 22:18) Khalifa - “It is He that has made you custodians; inheritors of the earth.” (Surah 6:165) - “Greater indeed than the creation of man is the creation of the heavens and the earth ( Surah 40:57)

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Tawhid - “The whole earth has been created a place of worship, pure and clean.” Khalifa - “The earth is green and beautiful and Allah has appointed you stewards over it.” - “If a Muslim plants a tree or sows a field humans and beasts and birds eat from it, all of it is love on his part.”

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Functions as an application of the principles of the Qur’an to specific circumstances that are not explicitly addressed in the Qur’an Prevents hunting other than for the needs of the umma

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Includes instructions on the humane killing of animals Includes laws on the growth and size of cities Includes laws about the protection of biodiversity States that forest, pastures and wildlife are to be owned by state and managed for good of the umma

Case study: Water Significance of water in Islam Created by Allah • • •

Allah made water the basis and origin of life – “We made from water every living thing” All creation depends on water for their existence – “in the rain that God sends down from heaven, thereby giving life to the earth after its death...” Allah has called on man to appreciate the value of water – “Have you seen the water which you drink?... were it our will, We could have made it bitter.”

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Water purifies the body and clothes from all dirt and impurities – “and he caused rain to descend on you from heaven to cleanse you..” Allah has made water a common right for all living beings – “...the water shall be shared between them” Wasting water is forbidden, whether scarce or abundant Even for the purpose of wudu (purification before prayer), the Prophet said that “in anything, there can be waste”

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In Muslim countries, there are now areas in which development is forbidden so as to conserve natural resources There are laws to safeguard water resources In 1994 Islamic members of the IUCN (The World Conservation Union) issued a statement outlining the principles that Islam promotes in the protection and rehabilitation of the natural environment. “The teachings of Islam promote all endeavours whether local, regional or International...to conserve, protect and rehabilitate our natural environment”.

Significant practices in the life of adherents The Hajj is an obligation which fulfils one of the five pillars of Islam required of a Muslim at least once in a lifetime for those financially and physically able “those who can make their way there”.

It is a faithful submission to the will of Allah. “And pilgrimage to the House is incumbent upon men for the sake of Allah” – Surah 3:96. Before embarking pilgrims must: - Redress all wrongs Organise funds for the journey and for the family in their absence - Prepare themselves for good conduct during the Hajj The journey Pre: -

Fasting (Sawm) Almsgiving (Zakat) Five daily prayers (Salat) Wear Ihram garments

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Perform Tawaf at the Ka’ba (reciting “Here I am at your service, O Allah. Here I am!” while circling 7 times) to awaken consciousness of Allah as the centre of faith and reality Trim hair and remove Ihram garments

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Hajj begins officially on 8th day of Dhul-Hijjah Wear Ihram garments and say dawn prayers Leave Mecca to arrive at Mins before noon

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Leave Mina for Mt. Arafat “the Day of standing”; stand on mountain from noon to sunset reading the Qur’an and asking for forgiveness All chant the Talbiyah: “Bayak! Labayak!” (I am here! I am ready”) Sermon on the mount, where Mohammed said his last sermon

Umra:

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Feast of Sacrifice: the end of Hajj and celebration of Eid al-Adha Leave Musdalifa for Mina Jamra (throwing 7 pebbles at the largest of three pillars, symbolises throwing stones at the devil) The nahr: a sheep, cow or camel is sacrificed to represent Allah replacing Abrahams son Isaac with a sheep to be sacrificed

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After another night at Mina day 3 is repeated

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Travel back to Mecca Perform final Tawaf Leave for home or to visit Prophets Mosque at Medina

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With all rites performed, pilgrims have earned the right to be called al-Hajj or alHajji

How the Hajj expresses the beliefs of Islam Commemorates important religious events • Abraham and his son Ishmael built the Ka’ba, and established the rituals of the Hajj to reflect his life • Muhammad’s last sermon on Arafat • Jamra symbolises Abraham throwing stones at Satan who tried to dissuade him from sacrificing Isaac • Nahr reflects Allah replacing Isaac with a sacrificial lamb Reinforces fundamental Islamic concepts • Five Pillars of Faith Pillar How the Hajj expresses this Shahada : declaration of faith that • Talbiya: a prayer that states the - there is no god but Allah pilgrimage is only for the glory of - Muhammed is the messengers of Allah Allah • Mount Arafat: the place of Muhammad’s last sermon, where all are closest to Allah Salat : 5 Daily prayers • The Hajj is a period where pilgrims Obligatory for every Muslim are directly communicating with Direct communication with Allah Allah Avoid attachment to material items • Muslims are in actual proximity of the In direction of ka’ba Ka’ba • Ihram is symbolic of renouncing worldly concerns and dedication to Allah Zakat: Almsgiving • The meat sacrificed or money given Annual compulsory welfare for nahr is distributed amongst contribution family, friends and the poor Act of devotional duty to gain Allah’s • Show obligation of the wealthy to the favour poor All wealth belongs to Allah – Muslims • Ihram means that money and status are trustees are not a factor for pilgrims. All are equal • It is a process of spiritual self development, by abandoning one’s hearth, home, comforts and amenities in life

Sawm: Fasting From dawn to sunset during Ramadan - More time should be spent in prayer and meditation Time of moderation, forgiveness and concern for other’s welfare

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A time of prayer, meditation and asking for forgiveness Forbidden acts of Ihram are to be avoided The sa’y re-enacts Hajar’s search for food; empathy for hunger

• Al- Akhira: the world to come - Muslims believe in an afterlife where they will be held accountable for their lives (akhra) - Muslims believe that by participating in the Hajj there is a greater prospect of reward in the afterlife The Significance of the Hajj for both the individual and the Muslim community Individual - The hajj is an opportunity for Muslims to experience spiritual rebirth and develop a sense of consciousness in Allah. It is also opportunity to reassess and confirm their Islamic beliefs - Provides opportunity for the pilgrim to improve their spirituality through worship, hardship and salat - It focuses the individual on jihad; sacrificing time, skills, money and struggling against external evils - Enables the pilgrim’s renewal through cleansing from sin. “whoever performs the Hajj...will come home like a newborn” - The hajj reinforces Allah’s mercy and compassion as it exceeds His anger by forgiving the sins of the sinful creation by declaring an absolute pardon for every pilgrim upon completion of the accepted rituals of hajj - The individual strengthens their relationship with Allah and gains a greater understanding of Islamic history and has a better prospect of reward in the afterlife Community - The Hajj is a sign of unity, equality and a sense of pride in the global umma as they pray together and are equal in the ihram garments - It brings together Muslims of all races to from a fellowship for such a significant practice in the Islamic faith - Through performing rituals, a common goal is achieve which promotes and preserves the unity of the umma - The hajj acts as a universal reminder of the blessing of Allah on humanity of our diversity and the brotherhood to worship the one Allah

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Religious Tradition Depth Studies: Christianity

Significant People and Ideas Hildegard of Bingen was born in 1098 in West Germany, the tenth child of a noble family and later to be raised in a Benedictine monastery. She become a nun at the age of 15 and was elected the head of a convent soon after. Aged 32, Hildegard began to receive visions and revelations from God and recorded these in her first and most recognisable book Scivias (the one who knows the ways of the Lord). She consequently made an important contribution to the development and expression of Christianity by conveying her visions and her connection with God through her books, music, art and preaching tours. She also spoke out about injustices and as a woman of these times (12th Century) was unexpectedly received favourably and supported by the patriarchal Catholic Church. Therefore, as a result of her actions she has remained an inspirational and fundamental part of shaping Christianity and its expression as we know it today. Hildegard’s first book Scivias was followed by several others their subjects including creation, redemption and sanctification. They give light to new ideas of the time and challenge social hierarchies, values and even ethics. In the lines “And so it kindled my whole heart...and suddenly I understood the meaning and expression of the books” gives a sense of purpose and clarity from Hildegard, a purposeful task. She said that even though Jesus was born of a woman with no male conception it was therefore a woman who best represented the humanity of Jesus. In this way, she subsequently brought the issue of male dominance to the forefront in Catholic traditions. Her acceptance as a mystic therefore contributed to the acceptance of women in the church. A good example of this very acceptance of Hildegard can be seen in the conflict between the abbot of St Disibod and Hildegard where she was supported against all odds, by the pope. This was unheard of in the time and suddenly Hildegard; a woman outranked a man and even an abbot. It is in this manner that Hildegard is respected for confronting many authoritarian figures which were all men and without violence or deception, was able to convey her thoughts, her visions and subsequently impact on the Christian tradition that we experience today. Consequently, the faithful dissenter, artist and musician in Hildegard was able to make the Christian tradition accessible to women, the poor and the uneducated. Her music was able to capture her visions and the beauty which existed within them no matter the audience (mainly illiterate). This very passion which needn’t be expressed in words awakened a deeper awareness of imagery and symbolism in the expression of Christianity. Her artistic words, the “Illuminations” are symbolic masterpieces which combine images of justice, art ecumenism, ecology and mysticism. Therefore, her idea of the ‘holy trinity’ of art, science and religion was capable in

spreading God’s word and her own beliefs about the management of the Christian faith and make it a fairer and more just arrangement today. Subsequently, Hildegard of Bingen has had a significant impact on the development and expression of Christianity through her artistry, music and writings which have shown a profound grasp of the Scripture and her visions and shows that a singular male concept of God is no longer suitable. This is shown in the lines “God is even more so our mother”. Her confidence in women is still looked up to today and her ability to speak out against injustices especially to a man was a courageous act admired. Her mystical experiences were validated by the Catholic Church and because of this, her works have been able to influence the Church and today we express and experience religion in a far more equal manner. In Hildegard’s words “what that individual needs is to be flooded with love, what the church needs is to be holy”. Significance: Hildegard was a powerful woman, who communicated with Popes, statesmen, German emperors and others such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux who advanced her work. Many abbots and abbesses asked for her prayers and opinions on various matters. She traveled widely during her four preaching tours, the only woman to do so during the Middle Ages. She has been referred to as a saint by some. Hildegard was one of the first souls for which the canonization process was officially applied, but the process took so long that four attempts at canonization (last was in 1244 under Pope Innocent IV) were not completed, and she remained at the level of her beatification. An ecological Perspective: Hildegard’s writings reflect her profound sense of being related to the earth. Unlike some of her contemporaries who rejected earthly life as binding their spirit, Hildegard believed this earth was home and a region of delight, and as such must be admired, cherished and protected. One modern commentator concluded: “For her, the fundamental sin is, so to speak, ‘ecological.’ That is, it consists in a rupture in the inter-relationship and interdependence of the whole of creation. For her, liberation from sin means a re-establishment of the harmony of the original creation, the assumption by every human being of their co-creative responsibility with God for the earth. (Silvas, “Saint Hildegard” Tjurunga vol. 29, p. 15) An emphasis on the beauty of a life of justice and compassion For Hildegard, holiness implied acting justly and doing good works. Like an orchard that bears good fruit, virtuous lives produce good work, having a power got viriditas, of ‘greenness.” A lifestyle of good works requires awareness of the times, discernment of the good, choice as to course of action, and taking of action. Such a just and compassionate life shines forth in beauty. A powerful role model for women to be true tot heir own religious experience Hildegard reflected and wrote at length about the experience of women. Her correspondence reveals a lifestyle of political and social activism. Hildegard actively challenged the status quo. She now challenges all women to respect their own experience, to affirm their talents and skills, and to transform the world in an authentic partnership with men. Hildegard’s contribution to the development and expression of Christianity

Hildegard’s contributions to the development and expression of Christianity have been expansive and far reaching. For example, she strove to improve the rights and equality of women. She fought against discrimination directed towards her sisters by the monks of the Disibode and their Abbot Kuno (over strict finances, cramped living quarters. (She gave full expression to her visions through a trilogy and two other major texts - a remarkable achievement for a woman at that time. In her monasteries, she encouraged women with musical, singing and spiritual gifts. Like her male contemporaries, Hildegard embarked on extensive preaching and missionary journeys (four of these between 1159 and 1170) speaking in the cathedrals, urging people to holiness and condemning corruption. From a religious and cultural perspective, Hildegard helped unity the ‘holy trinity’ of art, science and religion in order to spread god’s word more effectively. In doing so, Hildegard awakened humanity to a deeper awareness of the role and importance of imagery and symbol. Her artistic works, the “Illuminations”, are symbolic masterpieces that successfully bring together the themes of justice, art, ecumenism, ecology and mysticism. She was also a prophetess who had the ability to speak to people from all classes and walks of life. She challenged people to reform their lives and pay attention to the prophecies and divine warnings revealed to her. Hildegard’s impact on Christianity Hildegard’s long lasting impact on Christianity can be understood in many ways. She was a remarkable woman who was the ‘first’ in many fields. At a time when few women wrote, she produced many major works of theology and visionary writing. While few women were shown respect generally and by society’s elite, her advice was sought by bishops, popes and kings. She recognized the essential connectedness of the cosmos in her treatises on natural history, medicine, scripture and theology. She is the first composes whose biography is known to us. Her irrepressible spirit and outstanding intellect overcame social, physical, cultural and gender barriers to achieve timeless recognition. Hildegard’s visionary and intellectual achievements, as well as her courage to overcome all obstacles, and her great love for the Church exemplified in her long preaching tours – these at the core of her impact on Christianity. She is perhaps more famous today than she was in her own time among those who met or knew of her. From the 1300s onwards, Hildegard’s name and feast began to appear in martyrlogues. In 1324, Pope John XXII granted permission for her ‘solemn and public cult’ along with forty days indulgence to those who observed certain feast days including hers. She was later included by Baronius in the sixteenth century Roman Martyrology and her status as a saint was thus ensured. Her cult flourishes to this day, particularly in monastic circles, but also publicly. In the many accounts of her life she is ranked highly among the fathers, doctors and writers of the church. The most distinguishing feature of her life and spirituality, which ensured her status compared with her contemporaries, was her conviction that her life was set in a prophetic mould, that her insights were directly from God, and were to be shared with all of humanity. She was able to deliver these prophecies since it was believed God often chose the weak and despised ‘vessel’ in order to confound the strong. Therefore, importantly, to act as a female prophet was to confirm female inferiority rather than to deny of remove it. All her activities – letter writing to give advice, preaching, visiting monasteries, exorcising and healing – were justified on the grounds of her privileged access to the ‘secrets of god.” Analyse the impact of Hildegard of Bingen on Christianity both past and present. Hildegard of Bingen was an important figure in Christian history, one of the female pioneers in not only furthering the rights of those around her but for women all over the world. She was also

a messenger for the word of God; her actions and accomplishments changed many people, and had great impact upon Christianity that lasts to this day. Born in Germany in 1098, she was raised in a Benedictine monastery. She become a nun at the age of 15, and when she was 32, Hildegard began to receive visions and revelations from God, and recorded these in her first and most well known book Scivias (Knows the Ways of the Lord.) Before dying in 1179, Hildegard had accomplished much in her life. Hildegard reflected and wrote at length about the experience of women. Her writings reveal a lifestyle of social and political activism, which some people can relate to today. She sought to improve the rights and equality of women, and fought against discrimination directed towards her sisters. (e.g. against the monks of Disibod and their Abbot Kuno who enforced over strict finances and cramped living quarters.) She gave full expression to her divine visions through a trilogy and two other major texts, which was a remarkable achievement for a woman at that time. Like her male counterparts (e.g., Bernard of Clairvaux) Hildegard embarked on extensive preaching and missionary journeys, speaking in cathedrals, urging people to holiness and condemning corruption. Hildegard was known to communicate with popes such as Eugene III and Anastasius IV, statesmen such as Abbot Suger, German emperors such as Frederick I Barbarossa, who advanced her work and sought her council, demonstrating her importance and influence at the time. All these events had considerable impact upon Christianity at the time. Not only did her voice for women help lift oppression to them individually, but led the way for women to have their rights respected and viewed differently in the Christian church, which had a predominately patriarchal at the time. When speaking in public to large audiences, she accomplished not only spreading the word of God, but showed everyone that women and all humans are equal, and can do just as much good works as men. She had her divine experiences validated by the Christian Church, giving her significant credibility, and resulted in everyday people taking her words into their lives, rather than being skeptical and dismissive. Hildegard’s impact on Christianity can still be seen today, with the various changes that have occurred in the Church since her time. Her actions for equality speak to women today, setting an example for people to fight oppression and to do what is right, rather than what is easy. From a religious and cultural perspective, Hildegard helped unite art, science and religion in order to spread God’s word more effectively. In doing so, Hildegard brought attention to a deeper awareness of the role and importance of imagery and symbol. Her artistic works, the ‘Illuminations’ are symbolic masterpieces that successfully unite the themes of justice, art, ecumenism, ecology and mysticism. Hildegard had long lasting impact on Christianity in many areas. She was a remarkable woman who was the first in many fields. Her irrepressible spirit and intellect overcame social, physical, cultural and gender barriers which achieve timeless recognition for her, indicating that we should follow her ways even in today’s society and context. Hildegard’s achievements, as well as her courage to overcome all obstacles, and her great love for the Church shown in her long preaching tours are at the centre of her impact on Christianity, and set an example for Christians everywhere to strive to fulfill.

Christian Environmental Ethics

Christians have traditionally placed less emphasis on taking care of the environment than, for example, Hindus or Aboriginal peoples. Christians have tended to focus on taking care of people, rather than nature, although people are in fact part of nature. The bible does however, provide information about how to take care of the earth: • The first book of the Bible, Genesis, describes the world as God’s creation and people as its stewards • In Leviticus, God requests that every seven years the land be rested, meaning that people were not to use it. This practice gave time for the land to rejuvenate. • In Deuteronomy, God requests that respect be shown to wild and domestic animals and that when animals or birds are eaten, enough must be left for the remainder to breed. • In Proverbs, a virtuous person is described as one who looks after their animals. • There are statements in both the old and new testaments about how God loves and cares for animals and birds. In the gospel of Matthew, Jesus talked of how God feeds the birds in the sky and clothes the field with grass. Christian theologians who have practiced and taught good ecological principles include: • The Benedictine monks in Europe, who introduced farming practices that improved the fertility of the land • St Francis of Assisi, who is remembered for his love and respect for birds and animals • Hildegard of Bingen • Aldo Leopold who helped develop ecotheology and taught that all creation is part of God’s creative work and should be treated with respect, and that nature is important to God, and nature includes people, animals, plants, rocks, rivers and mountains. An interest in ecotheology increased in the twentieth century, and some of the churches are now seeing it as an important focal point for Christians. By 2007, climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, the need to conserve water and alternative energy sources were recognized by governments and secular organizations as well as church groups of being of urgent concern. The recent concern by church members about the environment could e because there is now so much more about which to be concerned, deforestation and pollution are increasing and plants and animal species are becoming extinct at an increasing rat. Human impact on the planet is increasing at an alarming rate. Some churches are trying to help the environment in a personal way, Scots Uniting Church in Adelaide, which runs an ecofaith community’ tries to minimize the impact of its worship as much as possible. The congregation drinks Tradewinds tea and coffee with soy milk, uses recycled paper and bring everything they need for their gatherings on a bike trailer. They are about to pull out the churches garden of exotic plants and replace them with native plants to help feed native birds in the city. The national Council of churches, which represents 15 denominations in Australia, has lobbied the government on a number of issues including: • Helping people who are most affected by climate change • Setting new targets and timetables for the increased use of renewable energies • Adopting environmental policies that recognize that poverty and ruining the environment are linked • Adopting policies that improve the quality of rivers, land, sea and air, and protecting endangered species in all forms of life

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Encouraging the whole community to recognize that all its resources should be used responsibly and to lead a simple, generous life, remembering that future generations will need resources too.

In 2002, the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference approved the formation of Catholic Earthcare Australia. Its mission is to help people understand that creation is sacred and endangered, and must be protected and preserved for present and future generations. In 2005, Uniting justice Australia, the National Council of Churches in Australia, Catholic Earthcare Australia and the Australian Conservation Foundation circulated a brochure to parishes across the country entitled “Changing Climate, Changing Creation.” It encourages parishioners to write to governments asking for more money for public transport and new targets and timetables for increased use of renewable energies, as well as a commitment to the Kyoto Protocol. Stewardship of the earth implies caring for it, not abusing it. Although the human race has domination over the earth, it does not own it – the earth is ‘on loan’ to the human race by the creator. In addition to our roles as caretakers, we are to appreciate the value, functionality and beauty of environment as god’s creation. “In His incredible grace and power, God has placed on this plant everything needed to feed, clothe and house the billions of people who have lived o it since the Garden of Eden. All the resources He has provided for our needs are renewable, and he continues to provide the sun and rain necessary to sustain and replenish those resources.” Christians do this because the word ‘steward’ is used in the Bible to express the concept of responsibility for the use of material processions and for the care of God’s creations, which includes the environment. Christina stewardship may therefore be defined as the response which the church (collectively and individually) are called to make to god for all that he has given us and done for us, above all in Jesus Christ. There is a close relationship between God and the created world. Humans have a particular responsibility – stewardship – which will lead to undesirable consequences if unfulfilled. Past understandings are that humankind had given license to freely use the world’s resources. Contemporary interpretations of this text highlight the mutual relationship which exists between humankind and the rest of creation. Negligent use of the resources needed for human life will lead to environmental degradation and a loss of the capacity of the earth to provide for us. Christians are taught that they have a fundamental responsibility to care for creation – they are God’s partners in creation, responsible for ensuring that it is nurtured and cared for in sustainable ways. The 1990 World day of Peace message from Pope John Paul II presented a comprehensive but concise overview of the spiritual and moral dimensions of environmental problems. From it can be drawn a set of principles for making ethical judgments about environmental issues. The natural world has value itself and should not be valued merely for its usefulness to humanity. The world and all in it must be freed from what can be termed a state of suffering.

Humans are part of the created world and inextricable part of a material existence. Earth belongs to God and is only on loan to humans who called to care for it. Significant Practice : Baptism • • •

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Baptism is used in most Christian denominations. It signifies initiation into the beliefs and practices of the Christian tradition. Baptism has significance as a statement of a person’s beliefs in the Christian tradition – a necessary element for salvation. Baptism allows Christians to share in the death and resurrection of Christ as it cleanses people from their sins. It is performed using gestures, sacred writings and symbols The Salvation Army and the Society of Friend are examples of Christian groups which do not participate in baptism. For the majority of Christians today, baptism was carried out when they were infants – it is common practice in Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox branches of Christianity. The parents and god parents must make commitments on behalf of the child, and agree to nurture the child in the Christian faith. In other Christian groups such as the Baptist and Pentecostal Churches the baptism of infants is not accepted. Members are expected to choose to be baptized as adults having made their own decision to repent and be born again. The idea of baptism stems form the sense of being immersed I water. This symbolizes being surrounded by and imbued with the beliefs and practices of the Christian community. The baptismal ritual is usually carried out within the church, and is contained within or celebrated net to the main forms of Sunday worship. The majority of baptisms involve the sprinkling or pouring of water onto the head of the child. In orthodox churches the child is immersed briefly in water on three occasions. There are a variety of aspects included in baptism across different denominations. The core elements are the baptism with water and the profession of faith. Baptism is often incorporated into the celebration of the Eucharist, in particular the celebration of the Easter Vigil. This begins with a welcome and greeting from the priest/deacon, followed by a questioning of the parents and godparents to confirm their wish for baptism. The priest or deacon and godparents trace the sign of the cross on the child’s forehead. The liturgy of the word follows, which includes readings from the Bible and a homily from the priest or deacon. The homily is followed by the rite of exorcism and the anointing with the oil of chrism. The waters of baptismal font are then blessed, and those present make a profession of faith, including a renunciation of sin. The baptism follows, usually involving a pouring of water on the child’s head. The child is then clothed in a white baptismal garment, and the parents and godparents receive a baptismal candle. The priests of deacon pray the prayer of Ephphatha, asking that the child’s ears will be open to receive the word of God and that their mouth will open to proclaim the Gospel. The Our Father is then prayed followed by a final blessing. -

Four main symbols: water, the oil of chrism, white garment, baptismal candle

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Main gestures: sign of the cross, trinitine blessing, profession of faith

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Sacred writings: liturgy of the word, which incorporate the first reading gospel acclamation and the Gospel Baptism reflecting Christian beliefs

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The origins of Baptism are ancient, pre-dating Christianity itself. Some Jewish groups were practicing baptism prior to the ministry of Jesus. John the Baptist had baptism as the hallmark of his ministry, and Jesus accepted the baptism of John. He then gave instructions to his followers to baptize people in his name. Water as the central symbol of baptism reflects the belief in God as the creator and humankind’s dependence on him. This calls to mind images of the waters of chaos from the Genesis account of creation, the destructive power of the flood in the story of Noah, and the miraculous crossing of the red Sea in the accounts of Exodus. The image of water also calls to mind the image of the womb and the discussion of rebirth in water and the spirit in John’s Gospel. The imagery of this story closely parallels the Christian understanding of baptism as a rebirth from original sin into the life of the spirit. The Christian understanding of baptism contains a sense of the repentance highlighted in the ministry of John the Baptist. John announced that his ministry was only a preparation for the one who was to come. The act of repentance proclaimed in John’s baptism expresses the idea of turning away from sin which is integral to the practice of baptism. Christians believe that in baptism they are turning away from or renouncing sin and evil and turning in a positive way to live the life of the spirit. Baptism also expresses the belief of Christians in the church as the body of Christ. Christians are baptized into the church, which is the body of Christ. The early church community as depicted in the Acts of the Apostles regarded baptism as a necessary element of salvation. It was sign of their repentance, and proclaimed their forgiveness from sin and allowed them to receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The belief that baptism is integral to salvation, that it signifies repentance and forgiveness of sin are important beliefs of the Christian faith that are expressed in the practice of baptism. The symbols used during the rite of baptism also express significant beliefs of the Christian tradition. The sign of the cross is used in a number of places in the rite. This simple symbol and ritual action expresses the Christian belief in the triune God which is at the heart of Christian faith. The anointing with the oil of Chrism is another important symbol, used in the sense of mandating or setting someone aside for a purpose. It is seen in the anointing of a king such as the anointing of Saul. Christians are anointed with oil as a sign of their mandate to share in the ministry of Jesus. Another symbol used is a white garment, symbolizing the purity of the baptized person. Baptism is therefore a new beginning for Christians. The giving of a candle to the parents and godparents or to the newly baptized person also conveys significant expressions of Christian belief. It brings to mind notions of Jesus being the light of the world, and the word of god being a guiding light for the people to follow. It also symbolizes the conflict between good and evil – light dispelling the darkness in and through the ministry of Jesus. This expresses the idea of the gifts bestowed on the individual and their responsibility to use these gifts in service to others. The Baptismal candle is lit from the paschal candle and presented to the person being baptized or the parents of a child. The candle symbolizes the light of God, now

always present within the individual. It is said to be the light which darkness cannot overcome, which guides and illuminates one’s way. Analyse the significance of Baptism for both the individual and the Christian community • •

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this expresses the fundamental belief in salvation: which suggests that humans require deliverance from god from the power of sin and darkness Sacred writings are incorporated in the liturgy of the word which consists of the first reading, gospel acclamation and the gospel. Scripture shows that baptism directly adheres to god command which expresses the desire of Christians to live in accordance with god’s will. Baptism has profound significance for the person who is baptized. It is also important for the Christian community as a whole. It has ties with the earliest Christian communities and indeed with the life and ministry itself. It is also significant for the theological reflection that it offers to both the individual and the community, and in the saving action of God and the formation of a Christian community. This is significant for the individual as they receive forgiveness of their sins and the gift of the Holy Spirit. As an authentic rite of passage, Baptism is an ancient ritual, belonging in the life of the Christian community since its inception. It predates the Christian movement in the context of Judaism. Some Jewish groups were practicing baptism prior to the ministry of Jesus. John the Baptist had baptism as the hallmark of his own ministry – Jesus himself accepted the baptism of John. He gave instructions to his followers to baptize people in his name. Baptism relates to and expresses a number of important beliefs. Christians today have the possibility in sharing in an event of ancient significance. It is significant for the individual because they walk the same path and share in the same rite that has been practiced among Christians since the earliest days of the church. The rite of baptism has great possibilities for theological reflection, with images of death and new life. This calls to mind the death and resurrection of Jesus, of creation and renewal. It also conveys an understanding about the great saving actions of the God of Israel. It creates a reflection on the idea of repentance and forgiveness as well as cleansing and renewal. Opportunities for prayerful reflection and spiritual developments are created in the rite of baptism. Many churches have preparation courses which help make connections between theological themes and life experience. For the community, the theological richness provides a source of constant reflection and renewal. Many Christian communities invite congregations to renew their own baptismal promises. This challenges the members of the community to constantly reflect on their vocation as christians and the significance of their own baptism. The rite of baptism is a profound marker in the life of the community. The early church community regarded baptism as a necessary element of salvation. Through baptism they are now a member of the body of Christ. Baptism is an authentic rite of passage – it marks the transition of the individual from one stage in life onto the next. It also marks the transition from being outside of this community to being full initiated. For the individual there is significance in a sense of belonging with the community; the sharing of a common mind and faith. The community is invigorated when it is engaged in the task of the gospel and enriched by the presence of a new member of the community.