Story of Globalization.

Story of Globalization (2001), stated that globalization: “is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world.”

Anthony McGrew‟s elaboration of this concept illustrates this point: “globalization [is] a process which generates flows and connections, not simply across nation-states and national territorial boundaries, but between global regions, continents and civilizations. This invites a definition of globalization as: „an historical process which engenders a significant shift in the spatial reach of networks and systems of social relations to transcontinental or interregional patterns of human organization, activity and the exercise of power.‟”

, globalization is often synonymous withinternationalization, referring to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the world

Table 1: Definitions of Globalization1 (in chronological order) SOURCE

DEFINITION

Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974), as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 11.

“globalization represents the triumph of a capitalist world economy tied together by a global division of labour.”

David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 8.

“...the compression of time and space.”

Martin Albrow, “Introduction”, in M. Albrow and E. King (eds.), Globalization, Knowledge and Society (London: Sage, 1990), p. 8, as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 15.

“ ...all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society.”

Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), p. 64.

“Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings “The that bothoccurring sides of are critical shapedpoint by isevents the ofaway global process manycoin miles andcultural vice versa.” today are products of the infinitely varied mutual contest of sameness and difference on a stage characterized by radical disjunctures between different sorts of global flows and the uncertain landscapes created in and through these disjunctures.”

Arjun Appadurai, “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy”, in M. Featherstone (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (London: Sage, 1990), p. 308, as cited in Chi-yu Chang, “How American Culture Correlates the Process of Globalization”, Asian EFL Journal, Vol. 6, Issue 3, September 2004.

Peter Dicken, Global Shift: The Internationalization of Economic Activity (London: Guilford Press, 1992), p. 1, p. 87, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 38. Kenichi Ohmae, The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Global Marketplace (London: HarperCollins, 1992), as cited in RAWOO Netherlands Development Assistance Research Council, “Coping with Globalization: The Need for Research Concerning the Local Response to Globalization in Developing Countries”, Publication No. 20, 2000, p. 14. Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage, 1992), p. 8. OECD, Intra-Firm Trade (Paris: OECD, 1993), p. 7, as cited in R. Brinkman and J. Brinkman, “Corporate Power and the Globalization Process”, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 29, No. 9, 2002, pp. 730-752, pp. 730-731. Robert Cox, “Multilateralism and the Democratization of World Order”, paper for the International Symposium on Sources of Innovation in Multilateralism, Lausanne, May 2628, 1994, as cited in J. A. Scholte, “The Globalization of World Politics”, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. Mike Featherstone, Undoing Culture, Globalization, Postmodernism and Identity (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 6-7, as cited in “Culture Communities: Some Other Viewpoints”, Issues in Global Education, Newsletter of the American Forum for Global Education, Issue No. 158, 2000. Hans-Henrik Holm and Georg Sorensen (eds.), Whose World Order? Uneven Globalization and the End of the Cold War (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), p. 1, as cited in R. J. Holton, Globalization and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), p. 11. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, World Class: Thriving Locally in the Global Economy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), as cited in J. A. Scholte, “The Globalization of World Politics”, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. Martin Khor, 1995, as cited in J. A. Scholte, “The Globalization of World Politics”, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15.

“...globalization is „qualitativelydifferent‟ frominternationalization...

it

represents „a more advanced and complex form of internationalization which implies ameans degreethe ofonset functional “...globalization of the borderless world...” internationally integration between dispersed economic activities.‟” (p. integration between national economies.‟” (p. 87)

1) ...

”...refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a “...understood as the phenomenon by whole.” which markets and production in different countries are becoming increasingly interdependent due to the dynamics of trade in goods and services and the flows of capital and “The characteristics of the globalization technology.” trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the “The process of globalization new competitive environment that suggests simultaneously two images accelerates these processes, and of The first image entails the theculture. internationalizing of extension outwards of a particular state...making states into agencies culture to its world.” limit, the globe. of the globalizing Heterogeneous cultures become incorporated and integrated into a “...the intensification of economic, dominant culture which eventually political, covers the whole world. The second image borders.” points to the compression of across cultures. Things formerly held apart are now brought into contact and juxtaposition.” “The world is becoming a global shopping mall in which ideas and products are available everywhere at the same time.”

“Globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.”

social and c

Robert Spich, “Globalization Folklore: Problems of Myth and Ideology in the Discourse on Globalization”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 6-29, pp. 10-11. Robert Spich, “Globalization Folklore: Problems of Myth and Ideology in the Discourse on Globalization”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 6-29, p. 7. David Steingard and Dale Fitzgibbons, “Challenging the Juggernaut of Globalization: A Manifesto for Academic Praxis”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 30-54, as cited in P. Kelly, “The Geographies and Politics of Globalization”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379-400, p. 383. C. Walck and D. Bilimoria, “Editorial: Challenging „Globalization‟ Discourses”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1995, pp. 3-5, p. 3, as cited in P. Kelly, “The Geographies and Politics of Globalization”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379400, p. 383. Richard L. Harris, “The Global Context of Contemporary Latin American Affairs”, in S. Halebsky and R. L. Harris (eds.), Capital, Power, and Inequality in Latin America (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), p. 279 and 80, as cited in Truman State University (Marc Becker), web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www2.truman.edu/~marc/resources/terms.html. Malcolm Waters, Globalization (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 3, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 48. Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question, The International Economy and The Possibilities of Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), p. 6. M. Albrow, The Global Age, 1996, p. 88, see http://www.globalizacija.com/docen/e0013glo.htm.

Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: The Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), p. 4, as cited in K. Chowdhury, “Interrogating „Newness‟, Globalization and Postcolonial Theory in the Age of Endless War”, Cultural Critique, No. 62, Winter 2006, pp. 126-161, p. 137.

“[I]t is a mind set, an idea set, an ideal visualization, a popular metaphor and, finally, a stylized way of thinking about “Globalization is a conceptualization complex international of the international political economy developments.” which suggests and believes essentially that all economic activity, whether local, regional or national, “...globalization as an ideological must be conducted within a construct to satisfy perspective devised and attitude that capitalism‟s need for new markets constantly is global and worldwide in and labour sources and propelled by its scope.” the uncritical „sycophancy‟ of the international academic business community.” “...globalization is not an output of the „real‟ forces markets and

of

technologies, but is rather an input in the form of rhetorical and discursive constructs, practices ideologies “‟Globalization refers inand general to the which some groups are imposing on worldwide integration of humanity others political and and theforcompression of economic both the gain.” temporal and spatial dimensions of planetwide human interaction.‟ It „has aggravated many of the region's most chronic problems--such as the pronounced degree of economic “A social and process which that the exploitation socialininequality constraints of geography on social have characterized Latin America and arrangements recede since cultural it came under European and in which people become colonial domination in the sixteenth increasingly aware that they are century.„” “„Globalization‟ is a myth suitable for receding.” a world without illusions, but it is also one that robs us of hope. Global markets are dominant, and they face no threat from any viable contrary “The historicalfor ittransformation political project, is held that constituted by the sum of particular Western social democracy and forms andofinstances of... [m]aking or socialism the Soviet bloc are both being made global (i) by the active finished.” dissemination of practices, values, technology and other human products throughout the globe (ii) “...globalization is a „world of so things‟ when global practices and on that have „different speeds, exercise an increasing influenceaxes, over points of origin and when termination, and people‟s lives (iii) the globe varied as relationships to ainstitutional serves a focus for, or premise in structureshuman in activities.” different regions, shaping, nations, or societies.‟”

Paul Bairoch and Richard Kozul-Wright, “Globalization Myths: Some Historical Reflections on Integration, Industrialization and Growth in the World Economy”, Discussion Paper 113 (Geneva: UNCTAD, March 1996), p. 3, see http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/dp113.en.pdf. David Harvey, “Globalization in Question”, unpublished MS, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, The John Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 1996, as cited in P. Kelly, “The Geographies and Politics of Globalization”, Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1999, pp. 379400, p. 385.

“...process in which the production and financial structures of countries are becoming interlinked by an increasing number of cross-border transactions to create an international division of labour in which national wealth creation “...a spatial fix for capitalism and an comes, increasingly, to depend on ideological agents tool with which countries, to attack economic in other socialists.” and the ultimate stage of economic integration where such dependence has reached its spatial limit.”

James H. Mittelman, “How Does Globalization Really Work”, in J. H. Mittelman (ed.), Globalization: Critical Reflections (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996), p. 2, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 35.

“A „rubric for a varied phenomena.‟”

Charles Oman, “The Policy Challenges of Globalisation and Regionalisation”, OECD Development Centre, Policy Brief No. 11, 1996, p. 5.

“„Globalisation‟ is the growth, or more precisely the accelerated growth, of economic activity across national and regional political boundaries. It finds expression in the increased movement of tangible and intangible goods and services, including ownership rights, via trade and investment, and often of people, via migration. It can be and often is facilitated by a lowering of

Mark Ritchie, “Globalization vs. Globalism”, International Forum on Globalization, 1996, see http://www.itcilo.it/english/actrav/telearn/global/ilo/globe/kirs h.htm.

“Igovernment will define globalization as the process of impediments corporations to moving that their money, factories and products around progress, notably in transportation the planet at ever more rapid rates of and communications. The actions of speed in search of cheaper labor and individual economic actors, firms, raw andit, usually governments banks,materials people, drive in the “...an ensemble of developments willing to ignore or abandon pursuit of profit, often spurred by the that make the world single place, consumer, labor anda environmental pressures of competition. changing laws. the As an meaning and protection it is Globalisation thus ideology, aand centrifugal importance of is distance national largely unfettered by ethical or moral process, a process of economic identity in world affairs.” considerations.” outreach, and a microeconomic “Globalisation phenomenon.”is not a single set of processes and does not lead in a single direction. It produces solidarities in some places and destroys them in others. It has quite different consequences on one side of the world from the other. In other words, it is a wholly contradictory process. It is not just about “...an emergent I concept, whichas was fragmentation: see it more a created spontaneously to reflect shake-out of institutions in which new people‟s experiences of new the forms of unity go along with properties of an accelerating phase forms of fragmentation.” of the level of social integration compromising the bonds between nation states.”

Jan Aart Scholte, “Globalisation and Collective Identities”, in J. Krause and N. Renwick (eds.), Identities in International Relations (New York: St. Martin‟s Press, 1996), p. 44, see http://www.globalizacija.com/docen/e0013glo.htm. Anthony Giddens, “Anthony Giddens on Globalization: Excerpts from a Keynote Address at the UNRISD Conference on Globalization and Citizenship”, UNRISD (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development) News, Vol. 15, Bulletin No. 15, 1996/7, pp. 4-5, p. 5, as cited in M. Findlay, The Globalisation of Crime, Understanding Transitional Relationships in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 169. Richard Kilminster, “Globalization as an Emergent Concept”, in Alan Scott (ed.), The Limits of Globalization: Cases and Arguments (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 272.

movement,

a

Cesare Poppi, “Wider Horizons with Larger Details: Subjectivity, Ethnicity and Globalization”, in Alan Scott (ed.), The Limits of Globalization: Cases and Arguments (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 285, as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, “A Critical st Methodology of Globalization: Politics of the 21 Century?”, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 95. C. Thomas, “Globalization and the South”, in C. Thomas and P. Wilkin (eds.), Globalization and the South (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 6, as cited in I. Clark, Globalization and International Relations Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 10. International Monetary Fund, “World Economic Outlook, A Survey by the Staff of the International Monetary Fund”, “Meeting the Challenges of Globalization in the Advanced Economies”, in the World Economic and Financial Surveys, 1997, p. 45, see http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/WEOMAY/Weocon.htm (Chapter 3). Fredric Jameson, “Notes on Globalization as a Philosophical Issue”, in F. Jameson and M. Miyoshi (eds.), The Cultures of Globalization (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), as cited in Vilashini Cooppan, “World Literature and Global Theory: Comparative Literature for the New Millennium”, Symploke, Vol. 9, Issue 1-2, 2001, pp. 15-43, p. 16. Gijsbert Van Liemt, “Labour in the Global Economy: Challenges, Adjustment and Policy Responses in the EU”, in O. Memedovic et al. (eds.), Globalization of Labour Markets: Challenges, Adjustment and Policy Responses in the European Union and Less Developed Countries (Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998), as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, “A Critical Methodology of Globalization: st Politics of the 21 Century?”, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 97. George Modelski, “Globalization Texts, Concepts and Terms”, University of Hawaii, compiled by Fred W. Riggs, May 13, 1998, see http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/glotexts.htm#MODELSKI. Majid Tehranian, “Globalization Texts, Concepts and Terms”, University of Hawaii, compiled by Fred W. Riggs, May 13, 1998, see, http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/glotexts.htm#TEHRANIAN.

“[G]lobalization must be understood as the condition whereby localizing strategies become systematically connected to global concerns...Thus, globalization appears as a dialectical (and therefore contradictory) process: what is being globalized is the tendency to stress „locality‟ and “...refers the process „difference‟,broadly yet to„locality‟ and whereby power is located in global „difference‟ presuppose the very social formations and expressed development of worldwide dynamics through global networks rather than of institutional communication and through territorially-based states.” legitimation.” “Globalization refers to the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion “Astechnology.” cultural process, globalization of names the explosion of a plurality of mutually intersecting, individually syncretic, local differences; the emergence of new, hitherto suppressed identities; and the expansion of a world-wide media and technology culture with the promise “...the growing interdependence of popular democratization. of As national economies.” economic process...the assimilation or integration of markets, of labor, of nations.”

“...globalization is a process along four dimensions: economic globalization, formation of world opinion, democratization, and political globalization. This was rounded off with the assertion that “Globalization is a process has changes along one of thatthese been going on for the past 5000 dimensions (such as economic years, but it elicited has significantly globalization) changes accelerated since the demise of the among the other dimensions.” Soviet Union in 1991. Elements of globalization include transborder capital, labor,

Ray Kiely and Phil Marfleet, Globalisation and the Third World (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 3.

management, news, images, globalization are the transnational corporations “...a world (TNCs), in whichtransnational societies, media cultures, politics and economics have, in some sense, come closer organizations (TMCs), together.” intergovernmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and

and data

organizations(

Anthony Giddens, The Third Way, The Renewal of Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998), pp. 30-31. Anthony G. McGrew, “Global Legal Interaction and PresentDay Patterns of Globalization”, in V. Gessner and A. C. Budak (eds.), Emerging Legal Certainty: Empirical Studies on the Globalization of Law (Ashgate: Dartmouth Publishing Company, 1998), p. 327, as cited in V. S. A. Kumar, “A Critical st Methodology of Globalization: Politics of the 21 Century?”, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, Summer 2003, pp. 87-111, p. 98. Herman E. Daly, “Globalization Versus Internationalization: Some Implications”, Global Policy Forum, 1999, see http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/herman2.htm. Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), pp. 7-8.

David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations, Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 2. David Henderson, The MAI Affair: A Story and Its Lessons (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1999), as cited in M. Wolf, Why Globalization Works (London: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 14. Jan Aart Scholte, ”The Globalization of World Politics”, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 14. Emanuel Richter, (n.d.), J. A. Scholte, ”The Globalization of World Politics”, as cited in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 15. 12

Quanto Financial Technology, “Glossary – G”, 20002005, see http://www.equanto.com/glossary/g.html. Jha Avinash, Background to Globalisation (Bombay: Center for Education and Documentation, 2000), p. 3, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. Ulrich Beck, “The Cosmopolitan Perspective: Sociology of the Second Age of Modernity”, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 51, Issue No. 1, January/March 2000, pp. 79-105, p. 86.

“Globalization, as I shall conceive of it in what follows, at any rate, is not only, or even primarily, about economic interdependence, but “[G]lobalization [is] a process which about the transformation of time and generates space in ourflows lives.” and connections, not simply across nation-states and national territorial boundaries, but between

global regions, continents and civilizations. This invites a definition globalization as: „an historical “Globalization refers to globala process which engenders economic significant shift in formerlyintegration of many the spatialeconomies reachof networks and national into one global transcontinental or interregional economy, mainly by free trade and patterns human free capitalofmobility, but organization, also by easy activity and the exercise of power.‟” or uncontrolled migration. It is the “[T]he inexorable integration of effective erasure of national markets, nation-states and boundaries fortoeconomic purposes. technologies a degree never witnessed International before trade - in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations (governed by to reach comparative and nation-states around the advantage) becomes world farther, faster, deeper and interregional trade cheaper than ever before, and in a “...the deepening and (governed by absolute advantage). way that iswidening, also producing a powerful speeding up one.” of What was many becomes backlash from those brutalized or left worldwide behind by this new system... Globalization meansinthe spread of interconnectedness all aspects free-market capitalism to virtually “...free contemporary movement social of goods, life, from services, the every country incriminal, thethereby world.” labour cultural and to the capital thecreating financial a single to the spiritual.” market in inputs and outputs; and full national treatment for foreign investors (and nationals working “Globalization processes abroad) so refers that, toeconomically whereby social relations acquire speaking, there are no foreigners.” relatively distanceless and borderless qualities, so that human lives are increasingly played out in the world “Die Globalisierung...global as a single place.” networking that has welded together previously disparate and isolated communities on this planet into mutual dependence and unity of „one world.‟” (translated from German) “Tendency of integration of national capital markets.” “...integration of national economies leading to the notion of a borderless global or planetary economy... an interwoven net of factories, fields and forests, banks, governments, “Globalization however populations, the word is labouring and - farming understood implies the cities and transport spreadweakening over the of state sovereignty and state surface of earth.” structures.”

systems

Griffith University, “Software Internationalisation Glossary of Unicode Terms”, Australia, March 2000, see http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~davidt/cit3611/glossary.htm.

Media Studies Learning Web, “Glossary”, Brendan Richards, September 26, 2000, see http://freespace.virgin.net/brendan.richards/glossary/glossa ry.htm. Anne Krueger, “Trading Phobias: Governments, NGOs and the Multilateral System”, The Seventeenth Annual John Bonython Lecture, Melbourne, October 10, 2000, see http://www.cis.org.au/Events/JBL/JBL00.htm.

“The process of developing, manufacturing, products that are intended for worldwide distribution. This term combines two aspects of the work: “A process in which activities are the internationalization (enabling organised globalwithout not national product toon bea used language scale, in or culture barriers) and localization (translating and enabling the product ways which involve for a specific locale).” instantaneous around the world.” “...a phenomenon by which economic agents in any given part of the world are much more affected by events elsewhere in the world.”

and marketings

some

inte

Stuart Hall, “The Multicultural Question”, Pavis Lecture, Walton Hall Campus of the Open University in Milton 13 Keynes, October 19, 2000.

“...it is a hegemonizing process in the proper Gramscian sense.”

P. McMichael, Development and Social Change, A Global nd Perspective, 2 ed. (London: Pine Forge Press, 2000), p. 348.

“„Globalization project‟: an emerging vision of the world and its resources as a globally organized and managed free trade / free enterprise economy “As experienced from below, the pursued by a largely unaccountable dominant form of globalization political and economic elite.” means a historical transformation: in the economy, of livelihoods and modes of existence; in politics, a loss in the degree of control exercised locally... and in culture, a devaluation of a “...globalization is... the establishment of the collectivity‟s achievements... Globalizationcontrol.” is emerging as a sociopolitical political response to the expansion of market power... [It] is a domain of knowledge.”

James H. Mittelman, The Globalisation Syndrome, Transformation and Resistance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 6-7.

Pavel V. Nikitin and John E. Elliott, “Freedom and the Market (An Analysis of the Anti-globalisation Movement from the Perspective of the Theoretical Foundation of the Evaluation of the Dynamics of Capitalism by Palanyi, Hayek and Keynes)”, The Forum for Social Economics, Fall 2000, pp. 1-16, p. 14, as cited in G. Gaburro and E. O‟Boyle, “Norms for Evaluating Economic Globalization”, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 30, No. 1/2, 2003, pp. 95-118, p. 115. Jan Aart Scholte, Globalization – A Critical Introduction (London: Macmillan Press, 2000), p. 46. Eduardo Aninat, “China Globalization, and the IMF”, speech by the Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, The Foundation for Globalization Cooperation’s Second Globalization Forum, January 14, 2001, see http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2001/011401.htm. Vilashini Cooppan, “World Literature and Global Theory: Comparative Literature for the New Millennium”, Symploke, Vol. 9, Issue 1-2, 2001, pp. 15-43, p. 15. nd

Malcolm Waters, Globalization, 2 Routledge, 2001), p. 1.

ed. (London:

“De-territorialization – or... the growth of „supraterritorial‟ relations between people.” “Globalization can be defined as the increasing interaction among and integration of diverse human societies in all important dimensions of their activities--economic, social, political, cultural, and religious.” “...a process of cross-cultural interaction, exchange, and transformation.” “[T]he key idea by which we understand the transition of human society into the third millennium.”

Malcolm Waters, Globalization, 2 Routledge, 2001), p. 6.

nd

ed. (London:

Memorial University of Newfoundland, “Canadian Business in the New Stakeholder Economy Glossary”, Robert Sexty, Faculty of Business Administration, 2001, see http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~rsexty/business1000/glossary/G.ht m. Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 364, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. Thomas Larsson, The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization (US: Cato Institute, 2001), p. 9.

Jain Neeraj, Globalisation or Recolonisation (Pune: Elgar, 2001), pp. 6-7, see http://www.globalizacija.com/doc en/e0013glo.htm. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), MOST Annual Report 2001, see http://www.unesco.org/most/most ar part1c.pdf. Richard Langhorne, The Coming of Globalization: Its Evolution and Contemporary Consequences (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 2. Jan Aart Scholte, “The Globalization of World Politics”, in J. Baylis and S. Smith (eds.), The Globalization of World Politics, An Introduction to International Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 14-15. Wayne State University, Anthropology Department, April 4, 2001, see http://www.anthro.wayne.edu/ant2100/GlossaryCultAnt.htm . The World Bank Group, 2001, see http://www1.worldbank.org/economicpolicy/globalization/. Alan Deardorff, “Glossary of International Economics”, University of Michigan, 2001, see http://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/g.html.

“Globalization is the direct consequence of the expansion of European culture across the planet via settlement, colonization and cultural replication. It is also bound up intrinsically with the pattern of capitalist development as it has ramified through political and cultural arenas. However, it does not imply “...the integration of the markets a that every corner of planet on must worldwide scale and could eventually become Westernized and capitalist mean worldwide or but rather that everystandards set of social practices for product pricing, arrangements must quality, establish its service, design.” to the capitalist position and in relation West - to use Robertson‟s term, it must relativize itself.” “The integration of the world economy.”

“[I]t is the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of the world “...it is nothingto butmutual „recolonisation‟ in a can interact, benefit, with new garb.” somebody on the other side of the world.” “Globalization can be defined as a set of economic, social, technological, political and cultural structures and processes arising from the changing character of the “Globalization is the latest stage in of a production, consumption and trade long accumulation of technological goods and assets that comprise the advance has given political human base of which the international beings the ability to conduct their economy.” affairs across the world without “...globalization refers to processes reference to nationality, government whereby many social relations authority, time of day or physical become environment.” relatively delinked from territorial “...the intensification of worldwide so that humanliv geography, social increasingly relations played which, out in the through world economic, and political as a singletechnological place.” forces, link distant localities in such a way that distant events and powers “Globalization – the growing penetrate local events.” integration of economies and societies around the world.” “1The increasing world-wide integration of markets for goods, services and capital that attracted special attention in the late 1990s. “2

Also used to encompass a variety of other changes that were perceived to occur at about the same time, such as an increased role for large corporations (MNCs) in the world economy and increased intervention into domestic policies and affairs by international institutions such as the IMF, WTO, and World “3

Among

countries

outside

the

Peter Berger, “Introduction: The Cultural Dynamics of Globalization”, in P. Berger and S. Huntington (eds.), Many Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 16.

David Harvey, Spaces of Hope (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), p. 54, as cited in K. Chowdhury, “Interrogating „Newness‟, Globalization and Postcolonial Theory in the Age of Endless War”, Critical Critique, No. 62, Winter 2006, p. 144. Robert O. Keohane, Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 15. Zaki Laïdi, “Democracy in Real Time”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 13, No. 3, July 2002, pp. 68-79, p. 69. Brink Lindsey, Against the Dead Hand: The Uncertain Struggle for Global Capitalism (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002), p. 275, n. 1., as cited in M. Wolf, Why Globalization Works (London: Yale University Press, 2004), p. 14-15.

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“...globalization is, au fond, a continuation, albeit in an intensified and accelerated form, of the perduring challenge of modernization. On the cultural level, this has been the great challenge of pluralism: the breakdown of takenfor-granted traditions and the “...if the word signifies opening up of„globalization‟ multiple options for anything about our recent historical beliefs, values and lifestyles. It is not geography, most to be a a distortion itto issay thatlikely this amounts new phase of exactly the same to underlying process of the capitalist production of space.” of the great challenge enhanced describes freedom a trend for of both “...globalization collectivities.” (italics in original) increasing transnational flows and increasingly thick networks of “...a process of intensifying social interdependence.” (italics in original) relations on a worldwide scale that results in an increasing disjunction “...three space distinct but interrelated between and time.” senses: First, to describe the economic phenomenon of increasing integration of markets across political boundaries (whether due to political or technological causes); second, to describe the

individu

strictly politicalphenomenon of falling government-impo international flows of goods, services, and capital; and, finally, to describe the much broader political “...a process ofofcreating a product phenomenon the global spread or of service that will be successful in market-oriented policies in both the many countries without modification.” domestic and international “...development of globalspheres. Since I contend that globalization in financial markets, the first sense is dueof primarily to growth “Economic is a historica globalization transnational in the „globalization‟ second sense, and that globalization in the second corporations and their growing innovation technological sense isoverand primarily due to dominance national economies.” progress. It refers thesense, increasing globalization in the to third I do integration economies around the not think it ofunduly confusing to use world, particularly tradethree and the same word through to mean financial flows. The term sometimes different things.” also refers to the movement of “Globalization can and be defined as a people (labor) knowledge process by means of which most of (technology) across international the world'sThere developed and borders. are countries also broader some of the developing countries aim cultural, political and environmental to improve inter alia the freethat floware of dimensions of globalization information, money, ideas, not covered here.” “By economic globalization we mean cooperation, detection, exchange, the practice of economic agents and prosecution of criminals, (business and technology,enterprises, and tradebanks, between finance companies) working in nations.” (italics in original) different countries and serving the world market without a prevailing national base. These agents change their location between national territories on the basis of opportunities for growth and profit, and they grow not because they are supported or protected by the nationstate but through their own efforts. They carry out their economic affairs as if the boundaries which define the

Melba Cuddy-Keane, “Modernism, Geopolitics, Globalization”, Modernism/Modernity, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2003, pp. 539-558, p. 553. Imre Szeman, “Culture and Globalization, or, The Humanities in Ruins”, CR: The New Centennial Review, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2003, pp. 91-115, p. 94.

“Cultural globalization is distinguished by a consciousness of dwelling in the world, and a conception of that world as a fluid, “Globalization interconnected, conflicted, and dynamic whole.” cosmopolitanism.”

is the mome

H. J. J. G. Beerkens, “Global Opportunities and

“Theworld-wideinterconnectednessbetween

Institutional Embeddedness, Higher Education Consortia in Europe and Southeast Asia”, University of Twente, 2004, see http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/thesisbeerkens.p df.

supplemented by globalisation as a process in whichbasic arrangements (like power, culture, markets, politics, rights, values, norms, ideology, identity, citizenship, solidarity) become disembedded from their “...the movement across international borders of goods and factors of spatial context(mainly the nation-state) production.” massification, flexibilisation, diffusion and expansion of transnational flows of people, products, finance, images and information.” (italics in original)

William Easterly, “Channels From Globalization to Inequality: Productivity World Versus Factor World”, as cited in S. M. Collins and C. Graham, “Editors‟ Summary”, in S. M. Collins and C. Graham (eds.), Brookings Trade Forum, Globalization, Poverty and Inequality (Brookings Institution, 2004), p. xiv, see http://www.brookings.edu/press/books/chapter 1/brookings

nation-

tradeforum2004.pdf. University of California, Riverside Library, “Approval Plan Glossary”, January 17, 2004, see http://lib.ucr.edu/depts/acquisitions/YBP%20NSP%20GLO SSARY%20EXTERNAL%20revised6-02.php. BBC News, “Financial Terms E-J”, April 15, 2004, see http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/working lunch/guid es/glossary/1496844.stm.

Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, “Essay Contest Glossary”, U.S., 2004-2005, see http://minneapolisfed.org/econed/essay/topics/glossary05.c fm. Calgary Board of Education, Media Services, 2005, see http://schools.cbe.ab.ca/logistics/g.html. The Canadian Government, 2005, see http://canadianeconomy.gc.ca/english/economy/globalizati on.html. OECD, OECD Handbook on Economic Globalisation Indicators (OECD, 2005), p. 11.

“Used for transnational influences on culture, economics,

politics

especially illustrating global patterns or trends.” “The world is shrinking thanks to advancing technology. Depending on what you read, this increasingly interconnected global marketplace is either the best or the worst thing to happen. Meetings of bodies such as “Thethe generalized expansionFund of G8, International Monetary international economic activity which and the World Bank often generate includes increased international large demonstrations.” trade, growth of international investment (foreign “The process of and making something investment) worldwide in scope or application.” international migration, technology among “The term „globalization‟ countries. describes Globalization increasing worldthe increasedis the mobility of goods, wide integration markets and for services, labour, of technology goods, services, labor, and capital.” capital throughout the world. Although globalization is not a new “The term „globalisation‟ been development, its pace has has increased widely used to describe the with the advent of new technologies, increasing internationalisation of especially in the area of financial markets and of markets for telecommunications.” goods and services. Globalisation refers above all to a dynamic and multidimensional process of economic integration whereby national resources become more and more internationally mobile increasingly interdependent.”

and

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Coventry Business School, Coventry University, “Glossary” from J. Beech and S. Chadwick (eds.), The Business of Tourism Management (Prentice Hall Publisher, 2005), see http://www.stile.coventry.ac.uk/cbs/staff/beech/BOTM/Glos sary.htm.

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March21,2006,see

dictionary.org/definition/english/gl/globalisation.html. 75

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Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.kwymca.org/nccq/glossary.htm.

76

web

77

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78

Take Back Wisconsin, page is published by Julie Kay Smithson, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.takebackwisconsin.com/Documents/Glossary.ht

“Generally defined as the network of connections of organisations and

peoples are across national, geographic and c boundaries. These global networks are creating a shrinking world where local differences and national boundaries are being subsumed into global identities. Within the field of “[T]he globalisation broad is also economic, tourism, viewed technological, trends in terms of and the scientific revolutions in that directly affect higher education telecommunications, finance and and are largely inevitable in the transport that are key factors contemporary world. the nature and currently influencing pace of growth of tourism in “In the translation/localization These phenomena include developing nations.” business marketplace, it refers to the information technology whole problem of making any product in its various or service global, simultaneous manifestations, thewith use of a common release Web site languagein all markets. for scientific globalization means than just communication, and more the imperatives making one mass web site respond to the of society‟s demand for higher different language and regional education...” requirements of the browser. Globalization includes the process by which site development, update “Globalization can beworkflow defined asare a processes, and historical stage of accelerated engineered to provide a expansion of market capitalism, like comprehensive framework for costthe one multilingual experienced the 19th effective site in development century with the industrial revolution. and maintenance - incorporating It is a fundamental transformation in overseas offices, consultants, “Growth to because a global or of worldwide societies the recent translators, etc. Sometimes achieved scale." technological has by neutralizing revolution the culturalwhich elements, led to a recombining of the economic superior globalis sites are those that “Globalization term used to refer and socialthe forcesacultural on a new territorial enrich elements to the expansion of economies dimension.” appropriately in each locale.” beyond national borders, in particular, the expansion of production by a firm to many countries around the world, i.e., globalization of production, or the „global assembly line.‟ This has given transnational corporations power beyond nation-states, and has “It refers to international weakened any nation'sexchange ability or to sharing of labour force, production, control corporate practices and flows ideas, knowledge, productscontrol and of capital, set regulations, services across borders.” balances of trade and exchange “The increasing integration of world rates, or manage domestic economic markets for goods, services, and policy. hasalso also weakened capital. ItIt has been defined asthe a ability to fight nationality for better processof workers by which wages andincreasingly working conditions becomes irrelevantfrom in fear employers relocate to globalthat production andmay consumption.” areas.” new word that is “Aother relatively commonly

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Harker Heights High School, Killenn, Texas, USA, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://hhhknights.com/geo/4/agterms.htm. 79

Scottish Enterprise, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.scottishenterprise.com/sedotcom home/help/help-glossary.htm. 20

Pearson Education, Prentice Hall, web resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/213/218150/glo ssary.html. 27

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22

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24

web resource accessed March 21,

http://www.hsewebdepot.org/imstool/GEMI.nsf/WEBDocs/ Glossary. Washington Council on International Trade, resource accessed March 21, 2006, see http://www.wcit.org/tradeis/glossary.htm.

25

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ongoing, multidimensional process of worldwide change. It describes the idea that the world is becoming a single global market. It describes the idea that time and space have been shrunk as a result of modern telecommunications technologies which allow almost instantaneous communication between people almost anywhere on the planet. It describes the idea that cultures are blending and mixing and where cultural icons and “The valuesincreasing from economic, dominant cultural, Northern demographic, political, cultures are being adopted in the South, while at the same time of unique environmental interdependence ethnic differences are being different places the world.”and “Referring to thearound world economy the strengthened world markets.”and local identities are being exerted. It describes that idea that the planet as a whole, rather than “Globalisation is a or more advanced individual continents landscapes, is form of internationalisation that implies considered as 'our home' and that a degree of functional integration between internationally dispersed some human activities can economic activities.” environments far from their source or “People around the globe are more have an negative effect on the planet connected to each other than ever as a whole (UNESCO).” before. Information and money flow more quickly than ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available in all

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“Tendency toward a worldwide parts of the world.International travel is more f investment and business environment, and the integration of national capital communication is commonplace. Thisphenomenon markets.” „globalisation.‟" “Development of extensive worldwide patterns of economic relationships between nations.” “A set of processes leading to the integration of economic, cultural, political, and social systems across geographical boundaries.” “...the movement toward

markets or policies that transc

borders.”

Bridgemary Community Sports College, “Glossary: Economic Systems and Development”, web resource accessed May 24, 2006, see http://www.bridgemary.hants.sch.uk/folders/gcse revision guide/glossary/page 1.htm.

“...an industry or corporation acting on a global scale with manufacturing bases in several countries. E.g. Nike and McDonalds.”

Ripon College, “Important Concepts in Global Studies”, web resource accessed May 24, 2006, see http://www.ripon.edu/academics/global/CONCEPTS.HTML.

“Globalization refers to [t]he widening, deepening and speeding up of

worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary life. aspects, including its nature, causes and effects are hotly disputed, with strange bedfellows on all sides).”

GLOBALIZATION OF EDUCATION In popular discourse, globalization is often synonymous withinternationalization, referring to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of people and institutions throughout the world. Although these terms have elements in common, they have taken on technical meanings that distinguish them from each other and from common usage. Internationalization is the less theorized term. Globalization, by contrast, has come to denote the complexities of interconnectedness, and scholars have produced a large body of literature to explain what appear to be ineluctable worldwide influences on local settings and responses to those influences. Influences of a global scale touch aspects of everyday life. For example, structural adjustment policies and international trading charters, such as the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), reduce barriers to commerce, ostensibly promote jobs, and reduce the price of goods to consumers across nations. Yet they also shift support from "old" industries to

newer ones, creating dislocations and forcing some workers out of jobs, and have provoked large and even violent demonstrations in several countries. The spread of democracy, too, is part of globalization, giving more people access to the political processes that affect their lives, but also, in many places, concealing deeply rooted socioeconomic inequities as well as areas of policy over which very few individuals have a voice. Even organized international terrorism bred by Islamic fanaticism may be viewed as an oppositional reaction–an effort at deglobalization –to the pervasiveness of Western capitalism and secularism associated with globalization. Influences of globalization are multi-dimensional, having large social, economic, and political implications. A massive spread of education and of Westernoriented norms of learning at all levels in the twentieth century and the consequences of widely available schooling are a large part of the globalization process. With regard to the role of schools, globalization has become a major topic of study, especially in the field of comparative education, which applies historiographic and social scientific theories and methods to international issues of education.

Globalization Theory Globalization is both a process and a theory. Roland Robertson, with whom globalization theory is most closely associated, views globalization as an accelerated compression of the contemporary world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a singular entity. Compression makes the world a single place by virtue of the power of a set of globally diffused ideas that render the uniqueness of societal and ethnic identities and traditions irrelevant except within local contexts and in scholarly discourse. The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in 1960 by Marshall McLuhan in an influential book about the newly shared experience of mass media, was likely the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Despite its entry into the common lexicon in the 1960s, globalization was not recognized as a significant concept until the 1980s, when the complexity and multidimensionality of the process began to be examined. Prior to the 1980s, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as the emergence of industrial man. Although the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. History is witness to many globalizing tendencies involving grand alliances of nations and dynasties and the unification of previously sequestered territories under such empires as Rome, Austria-Hungary, and Britain, but also such events as the widespread acceptance of germ theory and heliocentricism, the rise of transnational agencies concerned with regulation and communication, and an increasingly unified conceptualization of human rights. What makes globalization distinct in contemporary life is the broad reach and multidimensionality of interdependence, reflected initially in the monitored set of relations among nation-states that arose in the wake of World War I. It is a process that before the 1980s was akin to modernization, until modernization as a concept of linear progression from traditional to developing to developed–or from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft as expressed by Ferdinand Toennies–forms of society became viewed as too simplistic and unidimensional to explain contemporary changes. Modernization theory emphasized the functional significance of the Protestant ethic in the evolution of modern societies, as affected by such objectively measured attributes as education, occupation, and wealth in stimulating a disciplined orientation to work and political participation. The main difficulty with modernization theory was its focus on changes within societies or nations and comparisons between them–with Western societies as their main reference points–to the neglect of the interconnectedness among them, and, indeed, their interdependence, and the role played by nonWestern countries in the development of the West. Immanuel Wallerstein was among the earliest and most influential scholars to show the weaknesses of modernization theory. He developed world system

theory to explain how the world had expanded through an ordered pattern of relationships among societies driven by a capitalistic system of economic exchange. Contrary to the emphasis on linear development in modernization theory, Wallerstein demonstrated how wealthy and poor societies were locked together within a world system, advancing their relative economic advantages and disadvantages that carried over into politics and culture. Although globalization theory is broader, more variegated in its emphasis on the transnational spread of knowledge, and generally less deterministic in regard to the role of economics, world system theory was critical in shaping its development.

The Role of Education As the major formal agency for conveying knowledge, the school features prominently in the process and theory of globalization. Early examples of educational globalization include the spread of global religions, especially Islam and Christianity, and colonialism, which often disrupted and displaced indigenous forms of schooling throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Postcolonial globalizing influences of education have taken on more subtle shapes.

In globalization, it is not simply the ties of economic exchange and political agreement that bind nations and societies, but also the shared consciousness of being part of a global system. That consciousness is conveyed through ever larger transnational movements of people and an array of different media, but most systematically through formal education. The inexorable transformation of consciousness brought on by globalization alters the content and contours of education, as schools take on an increasingly important role in the process. Structural adjustment policies. Much of the focus on the role of education in globalization has been in terms of the structural adjustment policies of the World Bank and other international lending organizations in low-income countries. These organizations push cuts in government expenditures, liberalization of trade practices, currency devaluations, reductions of price controls, shifts toward production for export, and user charges for and privatization of public services such as education. Consequently, change is increasingly driven largely by financial forces, government reliance on foreign capital to finance economic growth, and market ideology. In regard to education, structural adjustment policies ostensibly reduce public bureaucracies that impede the delivery of more and better education. By reducing wasteful expenditures and increasing responsiveness to demand, these policies promote schooling more efficiently. However, as Joel Samoff noted in 1994, observers have reported that structural adjustment policies often encourage an emphasis on inappropriate skills and reproduce existing social and economic inequalities, leading actually to lowered enrollment rates, an erosion in the quality of education, and a misalignment between educational need and provision. As part of the impetus toward efficiency in the expenditure of resources, structural adjustment policies also encourage objective measures of school performance and have advanced the use of cross-national school effectiveness studies. Some have argued that these studies represent a new form of racism by apportioning blame for school failure on local cultures and contexts. Democratization. As part of the globalization process, the spread of education is widely viewed as contributing to democratization throughout the world. Schools prepare people for participation in the economy and polity, giving them the knowledge to make responsible judgments, the motivation to make appropriate contributions to the well being of society, and a consciousness about the consequences of their behavior. National and international assistance organizations, such as the U. S. Agency for International Development and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), embrace these objectives. Along with mass provision of schools, technological advances have permitted distance education to

convey Western concepts to the extreme margins of society, exposing new regions and populations to knowledge generated by culturally dominant groups and helping to absorb them into the consumer society. A policy of using schools as part of the democratization process often accompanies structural adjustment measures. However, encouraging user fees to help finance schooling has meant a reduced ability of people in some impoverished areas of the world to buy books and school materials and even attend school, thus enlarging the gap between rich and poor and impeding democracy. Even in areas displaying a rise in educational participation, observers have reported a reduction in civic participation. Increased emphasis on formalism in schooling could plausibly contribute to this result. An expansion of school civics programs could, for example, draw energy and resources away from active engagement in political affairs by youths, whether within or outside of schools. Increased privatization of education in the name of capitalist democratization could invite greater participation of corporate entities, with the prospect of commercializing schools and reducing their service in behalf of the public interest. Penetration of the periphery. Perhaps the most important question in understanding how education contributes to globalization is, what is the power of schools to penetrate the cultural periphery? Why do non-Western people surrender to the acculturative pressure of Western forms of education? By mid-twentieth century, missionaries and colonialism had brought core Western ideas and practices to many parts of the world. With contemporary globalization, penetration of the world periphery by means of education has been accomplished mainly in other ways, especially as contingent on structural adjustment and democratization projects. Some scholars, including Howard R. Woodhouse, have claimed that people on the periphery are "mystified" by dominant ideologies, and willingly, even enthusiastically and without conscious awareness of implications, accept core Western learning and thereby subordinate themselves to the world system. By contrast, there is considerable research, including that of Thomas Clayton in 1998 and Douglas E. Foley in 1991, to suggest that people at the periphery develop a variety of strategies, from foot dragging to outright student rebellion, to resist the dominant ideology as conveyed in schools. Evidence on the accommodation of people at the periphery to the dominant ideology embodied in Westernized schooling is thus not consistent. Erwin H. Epstein, based on data he collected in three societies, proposes a filter-effect theory that could explain the contradictory results

reported by others. He found that children in impoverished areas attending schools more distant from the cultural mainstream had more favorable views of, and expressed stronger attachment to, national core symbols than children in schools closer to the mainstream. In all three societies he studied, globalization influences were abrupt and pervasive, but they were resisted most palpably not at the remote margins, but in the towns and places closer to the center, where the institutions representative of the mainstream–including law enforcement, employment and welfare agencies, medical facilities, and businesses–were newly prevalent and most powerfully challenged traditional community values. Epstein explained these findings by reasoning that it is easier for children living in more remote areas to accept myths taught by schools regarding the cultural mainstream. By contrast, children living closer to the mainstream cultural center–the more acculturated pupils–are more exposed to the realities of the mainstream way of life and, being more worldly, are more inclined to resist such myths. Schools in different areas do not teach different content; in all three societies, schools, whether located at the mainstream center or periphery, taught an equivalent set of myths, allegiances to national symbols, and dominant core values. Rather, schools at the margin are more effective in inculcating intended political cultural values and attitudes because they operate in an environment with fewer competing contrary stimuli. Children living in more traditional, culturally homogeneous and isolated areas tend to be more naive about the outside world and lack the tools and experience to assess objectively the political content that schools convey. Children nearer the center, by contrast, having more actual exposure to the dominant culture, are better able to observe the disabilities of the dominant culture–its level of crime and corruption, its reduced family cohesion, and its heightened rates of drug and alcohol abuse, for example. That greater exposure counteracts the favorable images all schools convey about the cultural mainstream, and instead imbues realism–and cynicism–about the myths taught by schools. In other words, schools perform as a filter to sanitize reality, but their effectiveness is differential; their capacity to filter is larger the farther they move out into the periphery. As extra-school knowledge progressively competes with school-produced myths, the ability and inclination to oppose the dominant ideology promoted by schools as part of the globalization process should become stronger. This filter-effect theory could clarify the impact of schools as an instrument of globalization and invites corroboration.