Stone Cladding Engineering

Stone Cladding Engineering

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Rui de Sousa Camposinhos

Stone Cladding Engineering

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Rui de Sousa Camposinhos School of Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Instituto Politécnico do Porto Porto, Portugal

ISBN ISBN 978978-94 94-0 -007 07-6 -684 8477-5 5 ISBN ISBN 978978-94 94-0 -007 07-6 -684 8488-2 2 (eBo (eBook ok)) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6848-2 10.1007/978-94-007-6848-2 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2013943407 © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of  the material is concerned, specifically specifically the rights of translation, translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation reservation are brief excerpts excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and execute executed d on a computer computer system, system, for exclusi exclusive ve use by the purchaser purchaser of the work. Duplicati Duplication on of  this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’ Publisher’s location, in its current version, version, and permission for use must always always be obtained from Springer. Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptiv descriptivee names, registered registered names, trademarks, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While While the advice advice and and infor informat mation ion in this this book book are are belie believe ved d to be true true and and accu accura rate te at the date of  publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

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Preface

The natural stone is a material with widespread use over time, mainly due to its robust robustnes ness, s, durabil durability ity and avail availabi abili lity ty in a varie variety ty of colors colors and textur textures. es. If, for many many centuries, it was practically the only structural material for enduring longstanding construction, today, with the appearance of new construction materials, especially reinforced concrete, its use has been progressively dedicated to dressing of building façades. Under this usage, technological developments have enabled the delivery of element elementss of natural natural stone claddin cladding g with with ever ever large largerr dimens dimension ionss and smalle smallerr thicknesses, contributing to economic competitiveness in its use, particularly when assess assessed ed in the comple complete te lifec lifecycl yclee of construc constructio tion. n. The progres progressi sive ve increa increase se in stone plate size demands new requirements regarding the capacity to withstand forces, notably wind and seismic ones and the attachment system, crucial in view of the potential damage that a detachment of a high weight plate can cause. These elemen elements ts must must therefo therefore re be the subject subject of a struct structural ural design design to ensure ensure an appropri appropriate ate leve levell of safe safety ty.. As the the dime dimensi nsioni oning ng of this this type type of elem elemen ents ts is not curre current ntly ly explicitly regulated, existing regulation principles should be adapted, especially those covered in the recent European Structural Regulations, the EuroCodes or also under the Uniform Building Code in the USA. It is in this context that this book, Stone Cladding Engineering, finds its place, providing a vast pool of scientific and technical knowledge that, in conjunction with the current regulatory framework, allows the design of cladding in natural stone. The author of the book, Professor Rui Camposinhos, has devoted to this subject particular attention in recent years promoting experimental studies involving the exec execut utio ion n of hundre hundreds ds of pullo pullout ut test testss in in order order to chara charact cteri erize ze the the beha behavi vior or of vari various ous types of natural stone and guiding research, which resulted in the publication of  papers on the subject in prestigious international journals. The extent to which the subject is treated also results from his academic studies, obtaining a master’s degree and then a Ph.D. in related topics, and his experience as a professor at the School of Engineering of Polytechnic Institute of Porto and research work developed for

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vi

Preface

The The mate materi rial al of the the book book is well well orga organi nize zed, d, allo allowi wing ng the the read reader er to follo follow w the various threads in the proper sequence, well written and clearly illustrated, facilitat facilitating ing the understanding understanding of the various various aspects associated associated with the theme, theme, the dimensioning dimensioning and design of natural stone cladding cladding plates, plates, which can be considered considered divided into three parts. The first part organized in three chapters, after providing an introduction to the subject in a separate chapter, presents the characterization of natural stone, sorting them by type and identifying their main physical and mechanical properties. A detailed chapter is dedicated to the discussion of several wall and cladding systems. The The seco second nd part, part, organ organiz ized ed in two two chapt chapter ers, s, prese present ntss the the key key conc concep epts ts and and methodologies for verification of structural safety, checking the limit conditions invol involved ved,, the main main forces forces conside considered red and the concept conceptss of reliab reliabili ility ty and safety safety factors factors involv involved ed in a form of safety safety procedur procedures es according according to modern modern struct structural ural regulations. In this part a chapter is also dedicated to the characterization of actions in façades and its characteristic and design values. Special emphasis is given to dete determ rmin inee the the effe effect ctss of seis seismi micc acti action, on, whic which h show showss in deta detail il a gener general al meth methodo odolo logy gy applie applied d to non-str non-struct uctura urall element elementss linke linked d to struct structures ures.. The chapte chapterr ends with with methodologies for the determination of flexural and tensile stone strength. In the third part, three chapters present the matters that are necessary for proper sizing and detail of particular solutions in relation to determining the resistance of the the plat plates es,, the the calc calcul ulat atio ion n of kerf, kerf, under undercut cut and and dowe dowell and and pin pin anch anchora orage gess systems. Each chapter ends with examples of applications, illustrating the main topics exposed and presenting a comprehensive analysis of the solutions. The last chapter is opportunely devoted to the design of stainless steel and aluminum alloys body anchors and rails. The The way the the cont conten entt of this this work work was deve develo lope ped d migh mightt be the the basi basiss for for a discipline to be integrated integrated to a Master’s degree that would be of great benefit to both students students and and engineering engineering technicians technicians,, who wish wish to obtain or deepen deepen their knowledge knowledge on this topic, and will certainly constitute an indispensable tool for all engineering professiona professionals ls involve involved d in the design design or applicati application on of natural natural stone slabs for façades façades.. Porto, Portugal

Raimundo Delgado (Full Professor FEUP)

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Contents

1

Claddin Cladding g with Stone: Stone: Introd Introducti uction on. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Stone Veneers Performance..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1.3 Cladding with Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Actions and Stone Strength ..... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.6 Fixing Systems and Metal Anchors .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 4 5 6 7 8

2

Natural Natural Stone Stone Characte Characteriza rization tion . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Rock Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Sedimentary Rocks .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 2.2.3 Metamorphic Rocks .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.3 Natural Stone Standards for Cladding .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2.4 Natural Stone Properties ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2.4.1 Geometry and Tolerances .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2.4.2 4.2 Density, Poros rosity and Water Abso bsorpt rption .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2.4.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 2.4.4 Weathering Resistance.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .

9 9 10 11 12 14 15 18 20 20 22 22

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viii

Contents

3.5 3.6 3.7

Prestressed Standalone Panels .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Rain Screen Systems. ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... . Mechanical Anchored Fixing Systems .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3.7.1 Dowell Anchorage System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3.7.2 Kerf Anchorage System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 3.7.3 Undercut Anchoring System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44 46 48 50 51 52 53

4

Limit Limit States States Desi Design gn . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 State of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Risk and Reliability Analysis... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4.3.1 Measures of Reliability .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.4 Design Situations for Stone Cladding .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.4. 4.4.1 1 Loa Load and Resi Resisstanc tancee Facto actorr Des Design ign Forma ormatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 4.4. 4.4.2 2 Dime Dimens nsio ion n Ston Stonee Stre Streng ngth th Char Charac acte teri rist stic ic Value aluess . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. 4.4.3 3 Partia rtiall Safe Safetty Fact actors ors for for Dime Dimens nsiion Ston Stonee .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 4.5 Example of Application..... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4.5.1 Allowable Stress Design – ASD .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 4.5.2 Limit State Design – LSD .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 55 56 57 58 61 63 65 65 68 69 70 72

5

Actions Actions and Stone Stone Str Strengt ength h . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Combination of Actions ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 5.2.1 Ultimate Limit States ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5.2.2 Serviceability Limit States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5.3 Characteristic Value of Actions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5.3.1 Self-Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Wind Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 3.3 Effec fect of Seismic Action on Claddi dding .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5.3.4 Thermo-Hygrometric Action ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 5.3.5 Snow Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.6 Induced Vibrations.. .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5.4 Dimension Stone Strength .... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .. 5 4 1 Tests and Data Analysis

75 75 76 76 77 78 78 79 86 93 95 95 95 96

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Contents

ix

7

Unde Underc rcut ut Ancho Anchorag ragee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Undercut Anchoring ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .. 7.2.1 Expansion Ring Keying .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.2.2 Slotted Sleeve Keying .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.2.3 Frame Supporting Systems .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.3.1 Deformation Limit State.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.3.2 Flexural Stresses .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.3.3 Anchorage Pull-Out Strength ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.3.4 Finite Element Analysis .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.4 Empirical Formulation ... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.5 Ultimate Limit State Design ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.5.1 Flexural Design ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .. 7.5.2 Pull-Out Strength Design .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 7.6 Application Example.... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119 119 120 121 121 122 122 122 124 127 128 130 131 132 133 134 136

8

Kerf erf Anch Anchor orag agee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Kerf Anchoring..... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8.3 Design Procedures and Assumptions . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 8.3.1 Flexural Design ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .. 8.3.2 Kerf Anchorage Strength ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 8.3. 8.3.3 3 Effec fectiv tive Stre Stresss Conc Conceentra ntrati tion on Factor ctor .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 8.3.4 Anchorage Design Formulae ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 8.4 Application Example.... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

137 137 138 140 141 143 148 148 150 151 153

9

Stainle Stainless ss Ste Steel el and and Alumin Aluminium ium Anchors Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Corrosion and Metallic Alloys .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9.3 Aluminium Versus Steel .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9.4 Stainless Steel ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9.4.1 Stainless Steel Bolts and Nuts.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9 5 Aluminium Alloys

155 155 156 157 157 158 159