St-R-Snape-Mortuary-Assamblage-from-Abydos-I-Liverpool-1986

MORTUARYASSEMBLAGESFROM ABYDOS

VOLUME1

Thesis submitted in accordance Liverpool of the University of Doctor in Philosophy by Steven

September

requirements with the degree for the of Ralph Snape

1986

MORTUARY ASSEMBLAGES FROMABYDOS

STEVEN RALPH SNAPE

SEPTEMBER 1986

ABSTRACT

Professor

John Garstang,

conducted

an important Cemetery

Egyptian

work was never

and the

scattered

between

In

America,

this

part

through corpus pattern

as its

vast

majority

museums and private

Garstang's

thesis

is

a detailed at

of Abydene

basic

excavations.

the

Upper

years

1906 and 1909.

This

site-records

have

at

are

artifacts

recovered in

Britain,

are

fully

an original the

shapes data

a

of

compiled the

of

number

now

Europe,

of

described The

major

the material

present

documentation.

author This

explore

the

analysing

the

and

periods.

artefacts

pottery

site.

the

method

experimental

of

by

illustrate

various

archaeological

the

corpus

available

to

text

usage at

and

work at

and illustrated

Abydos,

the

cemetery

excavations

archaeological

and a study

used throughout

of

the

Liverpool,

at

excavations

collections

Abydos

other

museum visits is

the

of

of

no detailed

publication,

of

In addition, typology

for

by Gars/tang

recovered

series

of Abydos between

site

context

the

of

of Archaeology

and Egypt.

thesis, the

within

Institute

the

and extensive

prepared

survived,

North

of

vessels

of is

presented, from

the

using Abydos

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract. ...........

Contents

......................

................

-.

iii

...........................................................

Figures

List

of Text

List

of Plates

Introduction

vii

...............................................

viii

....................................................

Acknowledgements

600000011

x

.....................................................

xi

.......................................................

CHAPTER1: THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE ABYDOSCEMETERIES 1.1

: The Geology

1.2

: The Major

1.3

: The Location

1.3.1

: The Middle

Cemetery

1.3.2

: The Eastern

Ridge

1.3.3

: The North

1.4

: Toponyms for

of

Abydos Region

the

Landmarks

of the

of Excavations

.............................

Abydos Cemeteries

at Abydos ........................

..........................................

8 8

18

..........................................

Abydos Cemeteries

4

15

...........................................

Cemetery the

.................

l

..........................

22

EXCAVATIONS CHAPTER2: SOURCESOF EVIDENCEFOR THE GARSTANG/ABYDOS 2.1

: Documentation

2.1.1

: The Plan

2.1.2

: The Tomb-Cards ..............................................

26

2.1.3

: The Field

27

2.1.4

: The Monthly

2.1.5

: The Photographic

2.1.6

: Published

of

25

............................................... the

Site

Notebooks Reports

Accounts

........................................

......................................... .........................................

Records of

....................................

the

Excavations

.......................

25

28 29 30

iv

2.1.7

: The Harold

2.1.8

: Miscellaneous

2.1.9

: Other

2.2

: The Excavated

Objects

2.2.1

: The Dispersal

of the Material

2.2.2

: The Abydos Excavations

2.2.3

: Objects

Jones

Correspondence Notes

Field

.............................

Sources

.....................

33

...............................

Committee

36

............................

Collections

31 32

.......................................

and Private

in Public

31

...................................

and Unpublished

Published

30

...................

41

CHAPTER3: GARSTANG'SEXCAVATIONSAT ABYDOS, 1906-1909 3.1

: Garstang's

3.2

: The Excavations

3.3

: The Excavations

3.4 3.5

activities

archaeological of

1906

of

1907

: The Excavations

of

1908

: The Excavations

of

1909.......

to

prior

1906..........

46 50

.....................................

52

.....................................

59

..................................... ... ...........................

CHAPTER4: POTTERYTYPOLOGYAND THE QUANTIFICATIONOF SHAPE.........

64

68

CHAPTER 5: HORIZONTAL STRATIGRAPHY IN THE ABYDOS CEMETERIES 5.1

: The Orientation of Cemeteries ............................... Nuclear Linear Development and -

86

5.2

development : Linear of - the theories

90

5.3

: Official

Limitations

5.4

: Patterns

of Use in

5.4.1

: The Use of the Cemetery at Abydos ........................... Origin Importance the their of -

5.4.2

: The Evolution

5.4.3

at Abydos ......................... : The Use of the Cemeteries New Kingdom Middle Kingdom the to -

the Abydos Cemeteries site's excavators

in the

on Burial the

at Abydos ....................

Abydos Cemeteries

of Tomb-Types

.................

....................

at Abydos .......................

91 92 94

96 98

V

CHAPTER 6: THE 'LATE OLD

KINGDOM' IN THE ABYDOS CEMETERIES

6.1

: Mortuary

6.2

'Late The :

6.2.1

: Naga ed-Der ................................................

107

6.2.2

: Qau el-Kebir

109

6.3.1

'Late Old Kingdom' at Abydos The : ........................... Eastern Ridge Excavations the on -

113

6.3.2

'Late Kingdom' Abydos....................... Old The at : Garstang/Abydos Excavations from Evidence the -

117

6.3.3

: Peet's

6.3.4

: The Dating

6.4

: Conclusions on the 'Late in Middle/Upper Egypt

as Archaeological

Assemblages Old Kingdom'

Horizon

Samples

in Middle/Upper

100

.............

105

Egypt.......

...............................................

Cemetery 'E'

...

119

........................................

'Late the of

Old Kingdom' Tombs at Abydos....... Old Kingdom' Horizon ..............

121 123

CHAPTER 7: THE SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD AT ABYDOS

7.1

Material : Archaeological Period from Abydos

7.2

: Nubians at Abydos in the Second Intermediate

7.3

Presence at Abydos ................. : Evidence for a Military Period in the Second Intermediate

of the Second Intermediate

.........

Period........

127

129 137

APPENDIX: THE MONTHLY REPORTS ......................................

143

List

152

of Abbreviations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

..............................................

.......................................................

153

THE TOMB-REGISTER: NOTES ...........................................

164

THE POTTERY CORPUS .................................................

169

THE TOMB-REGISTER: TEXT ............................................

187

vi

THE TOMB-REGISTER: FIGURES .........................................

403

CONCORDANCE ........................................................

594

PLATES.............................................................

607

Vii

LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES

Page Figure

1: Major

Figure

2: Excavations

Figure

3: Location

of the Excavations

of

1906,1907

Figure

4: Location

of

the Excavations

of

1909

Figure

5: Profiles

of Vessels ......................................

72

Figure

6: Centroid

and Angle

..............................

73

Figure

7: Example

of a Cyclical

..............................

75

Figure

8: Cluster

Analysis

Figure

9: Cluster 10: Cluster

Figure Figure

landmarks in

of

the Abydos Cemeteries

the Abydos Cemeteries

Location Curve

of

the Total

Analysis

of

the

Analysis

of the

11: Four Carinated

Vessels

"Drop

......................

Carinated

and 1908.......

......................

Population Cups"

..................

of Vessels......

......................

Vessels

...................................

................

5 9 58 63

78 80 82 83

viii

LIST OF PLATES Plate

1: The "Pot

Plate

2: Eastern

Plate

3: Shaft-and-Chamber

Plate

4: Door of Tomb 6 A'06

Plate

5: Statuettes

Plate

6: Shafts

of Tomb 18 A'06

Plate

7: Burial

in Tomb 24 A'06

Plate

8: Burial

in Tomb 30 A'06

Plate

9: Tombs 306 A'07

Yard" Ridge

of

the Expedition

Excavations Tomb with

House at Abydos

of Ayrton

and Loat

Brick-Lined

Shaft

from 21 A'06 (left)

and 12 A'06 (right)

ff.

Plate

10: 'Cenotaph'

321 A'07

Plate

11: 'Cenotaph'

321 A'07

Plate

12: Model Sarcophagus and Coffin

Plate

13: Canopic Equipment from Tomb 324 A'07

Plate

14: Chamber of Tomb 326 A'07

Plate

15: Statuettes

Plate

16: Objects

from Tomb 329 A'07

Plate

17: Objects

from Tomb 342 A'07

Plate

18: Objects

from Tomb 344 A'07

Plate

19: Objects

from Tomb 371 A'07

Plate

20: Objects

from Tomb 345 A'07

Plate

21: Objects

from Tomb 385 A'07

Plate

22: Wooden Sculpture

Plate

23: Objects

from Tomb 417 A'07

Plate

24:

Objects

from Tomb 428 A'08

Plate

25:

Statue

from Tomb 452 A'08

Plate

26:

Figure

from Tomb 477 A'08

Plate

27:

Objects

from Tombs 340,346

from 321 A'07

(? ) A'07 347 and

from Tomb 352 A'07

from Tomb 482 A'08

ix

Plate

28: Objects

from Tomb 486 A'08

Plate

29: Stela

from Tomb 494 A'08

Plate

30:

Senet

Board

Plate

31:

"Chapel"

504 A'08

Plate

32:

"Chapel"

and Shafts

Plate

33:

Ushabti

Plate

34: Kerma Ware Beakers from Tomb 524 A'08 (? )

Plate

35: Figures

Plate

36: "Chapel"

Plate

37: Objects

Plate

38: Tomb 694 A'08

Plate

39: Objects

Plate

40: Tomb 748 A'09

Plate

41: Tomb 859 A'09

Plate

42: Tomb 900 A'09

Plate

43: Tomb 938 A'09

Plate

44: Tomb 941-949 A'09

Plate

45: Objects

Plate

46: Tomb 942 A'09

Plate

47: Objects

Plate

48: Tomb 966 A'09

Plate

49: Objects

from Tomb 980 A'09

Plate

50: Objects

from Tomb 971 A'09

Plate

51: Objects

from Tombs 1019 and 1112 A'09

Plate

52: Door of Tomb 1043 A'09

Plate

53: Objects

from Tomb 1'143 A'09

Plate

54: Objects

from Tomb 1081 A'09

Plate

55: Scimitar

from Tomb 499 A'08

of Tomb 504 A'08

from Tomb 522 A'08

from Tomb 527 A'08 533 A'08 from Tomb 694 A'08

from Tomb 747 A'09

from 941-949 A'09

from Tomb 941-949 A'09

from 1907

X

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In any work of both

required,

for

allowing

me access

thank: -

Mrs.

College,

London;

to

Mr.

Spencer, Cambridge;

C.

A. R.

Carmarthen

Museum;

University

of Reading;

of Manchester;

Mr.

Dr.

Exploration

ways during

Thomas,

Ure

Museum,

Bolton

Museum;

Museum;

Mr.

J.

Dr.

P.

Whitehouse,

H.

Dr.

New

Tamworth

Sulima,

R.

Mr.

Leahy,

M. A.

Dr.

Cairo

Museum,

University

Brussels;

M. Saleh,

London;

Delaney,

C.

Metropolitan

Musse Cinquantenaire,

the

Department course

especially,

My deepest whose help

A.

Museum,

J. S. Johnson,

Dr.

C. Lilyquist,

Society,

A. J.

Gardner,

J.

of Cambridge;

Dr.

Dr.

and

Museum, Oxford.

The Egyptology

proferred

Kemp, University

Museum, Durham;

Museum; Mrs.

Ms.

O. R. Gurney;

H. de Meulenaere,

Egypt

Ashmolean

and,

Prof.

B. J.

Gulbenkian

Fleming;

and

Mr.

Museum;

Manchester

M.

of Birmingham;

Prof.

Castle

David,

Scottish

Fitzwilliam

Bourriau,

J.

to

Bienkowski

Bierbrier

M.

like

University

Royal

P.

Museum; Dr.

Kendal

Ms.

Museum,

Goring,

and

advice

I would

material,

K.

Dr.

and

Among all

giving

Petrie

Hall,

Museum; Dr.

Mrs.

in

and

objects,

topics.

on particular helpful

R.

Aldred

Museum;

Dr.

University

Ms.

to

is

people

number of

access

and documentary

objects

Liverpool

British

Spencer,

for

and advice

Mr. R. Anstee,

M. Warhurst,

Ruffle,

of a great

collections

help

B. Adams and

Museum, Edinburgh;

York;

of

assistance

who have been particularly

people

Mrs.

the

custodians

colleagues

academic the

kind,

this

at Liverpool

of my research;

my supervisor

debt

of

gratitude

and support by the

spouse

has been of

Prof.

is

to far

helped

have all Dr.

C. J.

Eyre,

me

Dr. K. A.

in

many

Kitchen

A. F. Shore.

my

beyond

a Ph. D candidate.

Dr.

wife, that

Joyce even

Tyldesley,

traditionally

xi

INTRODUCTION

Between

the

at

the

published

in

excavations

scattered.

has

involved

in

themselves,

to

order

Abydos and a review

at

form

a preamble

from

1906 to

the

this

of

1909,

work.

possible

plates

used

negatives;

there

It

are all

of but

they

of excavation

be

the

a

objects

have survived give and

the

often

the

of

to

the

objects

the

cemeteries

at at

this

site

the

site

the

material. in

the

register

Nearly

all

original

clearest illustrate

to central

comprehensive

and

Where

the

to

and

introduction

concise

Garstang's

from

to

forms

or by photograph.

to This

activities

listed

widely

assemblages

material

the

and

1906-1909.

from

geography

diverse

rather

reproduced these

primary

were

attempt

archaeologists

other

of

relate

as an explanatory

to

by line-drawing

condition,

is

of

attempts of

the

of Garstang's acts

of

which

recovered

of

work of

corpus

and useful,

not

circumstances

the

itself

which This

been illustrated

ideal

of

of a collection

catalogue proved

A discussion

to a discussion

tomb-register.

core

re-group

findspots.

their

the

series

been an

information

with

the

form,

is

the work

records

together

major

recovery,

thesis

present

existing

a

of

These excavations

their

since

now possible,

excavations,

out

Garstang,

or adequate

a complete

the

of

the

carried

have,

as is

using

Garstang/Abydos

locate

part

as closely

reconstruct,

like

anything

John

Upper Egypt.

of Abydos,

site

The major

Professor

Liverpool,

at

by Garstang

unearthed

objects

1909

and

of Archaeology

Institute

never

1906

years

present

have the

of

plate-glass day

picture objects

has

it

in of

for

an the

which

now no known provenance.

Some of the Garstang/Abydos

material

has already

been studied

and, in

xii

part,

The

published.

have been the

cemetery

1983) which

Minoan

(1980).

Garstang/Abydos

was hoped that the

to compare

order

Unfortunately, this

regarding

Human burials, a relatively

of

archaeological

a group

structure

of objects

examinations which are is

too to

class

numerous

seriation

data

through

examination 1975).

of

wealth

part

are

detail

in

of

aspects

social

of

'economic

deposited

in

burials

this

of

and thesis

climate'

(e. g. Randsborg

spheres is

types

of

intended

deal

this

kind

approach systems',

of

artefact

of

a

1973);

given the

(O'Connor

influence to

in

type

the

'total

the

Most

study.

- works

in

- often

purpose-built

complex

testing

of

of

A more

change

mores

burials

references. of

and

deliberate

of

for

contexts

diachronic

political

The second

form

some

of

the

of

nature

are

archaeology

form

aspects

studied

to assess

studies

(e. g. Kemp 1975: 2); period

funerary

of

largest

in

from

of object

fields

The very

many

is

regarded

them,

with

associated

the

the

usually

to need specific

use cemetery

such as:

far

different

of material

a given

in

material. and

provides

-

artefacts

aspect by

being

be

publication.

cultural

commonly studied

anthropology,

disposal with

and the

data. conclusions

should

author

present

definitive

the

pending

by the

in

objects

any

and

possible

Kemp

available

inscriptional

the

the

by

non-inscribed

from

proved

not

drawn

material

provisional,

social .

has

become

the

and

from

publication

would

be derived

Kemp

material

for

prepared

regarding

as might

this

inscribed

Late

of

by

and published

material

conclusions

A informAtion

such

with

this

quantity

a

34

between

tomb-register

studied

being

is

(Abdallah

thesis

contained

the

Graeco-Roman

the

doctoral

the

which

Furthermore,

excavations

it

and Leahy;

in

has been thoroughly

pottery,

Merrillees

as

Tomb 416 A'07,

and 300 A'07.

A'06

lacuna

the

in

excavations

of a recent

subject

for

accounts

1907

early

with

a number

xiii

issues

of

which

the

since

been examined

here.

approached

would

writer

has by its

very

the

substantially four

seasons methods

century Like

Peet,

excavation realising about

his

to examine

record

1906-1909.

may

the

practical

and

person

use have

working those

than

problems in

material

this

thesis

an

writer

of

a the

work at

realities

own work at Abydos might

of

be

easy to

pillaged

more

systematic

site

had

equally

is

survives or

just

hoped

that

time well

and

during

Abydos

been

site

fieldwork

apply

like

approach undertaken,

and place; to

the about

censorious

who began their

badly

the

it

substantial,

objective,

archaeologists

that

practical

unrepresentative, it

of

controlled

as

record

reservations

too

limitations

for

has,

the

these

on an already wish

the

misleading,

ic, dii

the

carefully

a

of

of Garstang's

It

by past

and publication

another

to recognise

personally,

Given

accurate

especially

one

first account

preserved

constitutes

employed

ago,

primary

which

account

of

of

complete

information.

present

issues

for

suitable

a few of these

Just

doubtless

other

be the

material

nature

incorrect

plain

the

as a

been unable

reasons,

questions.

excavations,

possible.

would

Besides

excavation.

identify

studies

tomb-register

the

of

The presentation

future makes such

The present

material

author;

present

makes it

this

range

a wide

by the

same data

on the

for

of

Garstang/Abydos

the

of

a study

and range

quantity

raw data

as the

from

arise

his this

a

Abydos. to

the while

comments thesis:

"It is, however, too late to adopt any such Utopian methods, and the Fund is compelled the humbler and more difficult to undertake How much task of saving as much as possible remains. of what from the pages of this volume. be apparent there is even now will If our work seems in places incoherent, the nature of the task we " (Peet 1914, xiii) have undertaken be must our excuse.

1

CHAPTER 1

OF THE ABYDOSCEMETERIES THE TOPOGRAPHY

OF THE ABYDOSREGION 1.1 THE GEOLOGY

The cemeteries the

cultivation

the

'high

Abydos are

at

which

desert' alluvium

regularly

deposited

became the

are

They are

B. C. ) deposits

part of

1971,116),

to as "Nummulitic" matrix

limestone. Asyut

of

(Sal3dford

rock;

great are

being

bays into erke

since

the

(circa.

clay

in

region

the

Eocene cliffs

which

1934,23)

the

summer

floods

(Said

a

1962, years

coin-shaped

are

also

between

referred fossils

be found

to

Nag

back to tributaries with

of

ridges"

also

are

the

legacy

the

of

filled

at

"wall-like

cliffs

fall

begin

million

are

which

are

to

Asyut 65-70

(Pliocene)

and which

of

Dam) was

place,

which

forming

presence

of

1977,526).

and shale

the

regime

of

consists

took

beyond

Often

cliffs

the Aswan High

formations

bands of marl points

one)

the

Eocene limestone of

land

This

slightly

chalk

the

At certain

(Abydos

enclose

the

of

B. C. (Butzer

1977,525).

because

building

Tertiary

early

and the

east,

cultivated

Lower Eocene

the

limestone,

(Abu al-Izz

The

year

22,000

the

the

to

inundation.

annual

northwards

of

Nile

the

every

of

part

Sea (Butzer

the

(until

around

Tethys

the

west.

degree,

Qena bend and continue 94).

the

by the

norm at

The cliffs

the

which

or lesser

greater

borders

to

silt-clay

situated

between

terrace

on a sand/gravel

in

Hammadi the

west

in this and "to

converge" Pliocene

gulf

2

deposits. These Pliocene

bed into

by spreads

overlaid

often

latest

the

terraces, and gravels

84 End Map).

B. C. ),

the

during

river

identifies

a period

B. C. The Pleistocene derived of

the

from

Egyptian

cobbles that,

of

harder

rocks "great

Pliocene

series"

surface

debris

includes

pebbles

(Sandford

in

the

The geology design

were not .

(see

of

this

used for

below,

(wet-period)

Chapter

Northern

violent

sandstone

thicknesses (Sandford a good deal

terrace

all

similar

and

Arkell

the 5),

at

siting it

of

years

Africa,

which

(Butzer

1977,

15,000

at

10,000

-

sand

quartz and

south

east and

stones time

this

so

uncomformably

1933,13),

the

while

containing

quartz

& 32).

Abydos.

rock-tombs

was not

the

2 million

sand occur

breccia

red

had a profound

periods

from

brought

semi-precious

of

of

1934,

to the

washed downstream

were also

gravel

Arkell

yellow

and

Various

plateau.

are

and

Butzer

found

is

which

deposits

Palaeolithic

North

around

white

cut

sands

circa.

Europe.

include

to

Sebilian

ae4

was

in

flooding

of

Nile

These

so-called

(from

Pleistocene

part

Plio-Pleistocene

sand and gravel

fke'n--1934,24

a

tombs of

of

of

limestone

Abydos,

at

the

deposits

Nubian

the

the

(Sandford

alluvium

This

allowed

the Middle/Upper

in

later

Age in

Ice

be the

seem to

gravel.

and

eastern

and

of a pluvial

to the

which

submerged

Nile

the

of

of Pleistocene

later

this

sand

1971,44).

the

under

result

corresponds 526)

run

sea,

the

when

Bay (Abu al-Izz

of which

Much of

by the

south

the

of

were deposited

which

seem to

which

Pliocene

the

B. C. )

(i. e.

Tertiary

the

of

land-surface

the

retreat

and subsequent

end

to Kom Ombo with

in

by an uplift

was followed

the

at years

Cairo

from

was flooded

Egypt

down

12-2 million

= circa.

Valley

its

were laid

deposits

just

effect

Since

the

as at the

on the

location

cliffs

to

many other

less-wealthy

the

and west

cemeteries members

of

3

society

who were buried

Because

large it

in

surface

was essential

'water-borne'

solid

case in

be the

The influence

& 49).

38-39

the

of

and design

location

In

the

'Necropole

the

necropolis,

the

to be

to select

of

a portion

sands

of

shafts

layers

of

the of

geology

tombs was recognised he saw that

particular, du Centre'

be

could

collapse

particular

of

the

tombs were required

loose

thick,

the

fronted

terraces

Pliocene

to avoid

order

which

the

multi-chambered

sand/gravel, the

in

differed

"sous-sol"

being

the

from

into

the where

to

near

Pleistocene the

cliffs.

cemetery

and chambers

as

the would

deposits. 'bay'

Abydos

the

on

(1880; 1-

on by Mariette composition

geological

markedly

here

dug

found

early

the

the

that

the

of

of

rest

of

a: -

composed of

"melange de de sable et d'argile, qu'on appelle pierre calcaire, de la mollasse it le fait defaut, rencontre, quand on souvent y la De laisse facilement offre travailler. peu d'6paisseur et se a d'autres On d'amenagement des tombes. commence conditions pour funeraires des puits les trouver ont profonds, et monuments (Mariette divisions Ibid., trois souvent leurs au complet. " 40).

Nevertheless, hard-packed

lenses sand,

for

utilised

the

of

and these

material

softer

cutting

to 416 A'07,

reference

softer

of notes

have

seem to

pockets

even in been

the

readily

himself,

Garstang

tomb-chambers. that:

be found

were to

with

-

"As was not uncommon, the chambers in hollowed a softer were than the rock above; in fact the depth of such stratum of gravel by the point determined tombs seems to have been largely at which " (Garstang 1913,108). found. a convenient soft stratum was An illuminating Merrillees of

section

of

fig.

37)

1980,10,

other

in

shaft-tombs

this which

tomb is

reproduced

may be compared

Abydos

cemeteries

geological

make-up

the

by Kemp (Kemp with

and

cross-sections

(e. g. Ayrton

et

al

1904,

pl. XX, 7).

Peet the

also

siting

refers of

to

tombs: -

the

of

the

region

affecting

4

"The

speaking soft rock in which the tombs are cut is strictly but a deposit at crumbles which in some parts not rock at all, broken the the touch, can be easily with and even when hardest " (Peet 1914, xv). pick. 'Cemetery

Weigall's forming blown

sand about

inches

fourteen

top

built-up

and sand deposits,

gravel

a depth

at

In

from

varying

it

general

gravel/sand

The largest

exposure

Wadi'

is

which

gap in

a foot

may be said

of Pleistocene

that

the

earlier

down to

the

the

the

had

been

compact

underlying

rocks

.

Abydos

at

consists

bedded sands. be

to

seems

of an ancient

of

of which

Pliocene

earlier

bed

"more

were,

area

sands

remains

"a

which

(Ibid.

feet"

cemetery

overlying

the

possibly

the

this

down to

forty

to

these

of

Eocene cliffs

the

deposits

Below

continue

which

promontory

south

1904,11)

et al

was composed of aeolian Kingdom.

the

of

composed of,

(Ayrton

deep"

the Middle

since

north

had a stratification feet

three

just

situated

'bay',

Abydos

the

S',

running

wadi,

'Great

the

from

a

river.

1.2 THE MAJOR LANDMARKSOF THE ABYDOS CEMETERIES

The first

point

cemeteries

is

that

note

the

refer

to

Nile

flows

way is

'local' at

the

site's

usage.

Local

following

bearings,

enshrined

in

description

i. e.

the

is

'North' local

literature (e. g. Peet

about of

the

topography

(e. g. the

is

1914,

west

prominent

in

referred

magnetic

features

in

the

which

indicators

and conforms of

thesis,

[magnetic]"),

direction

usually

xiv)

this

"north

orientational

as it

40 degrees most

is

in

Abydos

the

of

to

referred

otherwise

The use of

excavators north

points

stated

Abydos.

the

regarding

cardinal

when specifically

except

of

to

in to to

by most ancient

north. the

this

The Abydos

5

Local

North NORTH

OB