Sprint Quality Handbook
January 11, 2017 | Author: Maf Judge | Category: N/A
Short Description
Download Sprint Quality Handbook...
Description
Sprint Quality
THE
HANDBOOK Tools for Improving Meetings Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas
© 1998, Sprint and Marshall♦Qualtec. No portion of this document may be distributed or reproduced without the express permission of Sprint and Marshall♦Qualtec.
Using Your Handbook Sprint Quality provides many tools and techniques, ranging from the basic to the complex, detailed in the following sections of this handbook. Structured Problem Solving • Plan-Do-Check-Act • Quality Improvement Story Tools for Improving Meetings • Action Plan • Mission • Brainstorming • Multivoting • Code of Conduct • PAL • Consensus • Parking Lot • Drivers and Restrainers • Plus/Delta • Meetings Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers • Check Sheet • Pareto Chart • Control Charts • Process Indicators • Cost/Benefit Analysis • Quality Indicators • Cost of Quality • Scatter Diagram • Cycle Time • Sigma • Data • Standard Deviation • Graphs (bar, line, pie) • Targets • Histogram • Valid Customer • Mean Requirements Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas • Activity Network Diagram • Process • Affinity Diagram • Process Block Diagram • Baldrige (Malcolm) Award • Process Decision Program • Benchmarking Chart • Brown Paper • Process Decomposition • Chairman’s Quality Award Diagram • Checklist • Process Improvement • Control Sytem • Process Maturity • Flowcharts • Process Workbench • Interrelationship Diagram • QI Story Checklist • Ishikawa Diagram • QI Storyboard • Levels of Quality • Seven Management and • Matrix Diagram Planning Tools • Potential Improvements • Seven Quality Control Tools Matrix • Task-on-Arrow • Prioritization Matrix • Theme Selection Matrix • Problem Statement • Tree Diagram over ➤
Icons
To help you navigate through this handbook, we have used several graphic icons as informational signposts. These icons will help identify when and how to use the various Sprint Quality tools – to improve meetings, to problemsolve with numbers and to problem-solve with ideas. Following are the icons and the use that they signify: Tools for Improving Meetings Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas A Note about the Examples
The various tools and techniques that make up Sprint Quality can be valuable resources in our business activities and work assignments. Likewise, these same tools and techniques can be useful in our personal lives – from helping a son or daughter choose the right college, to chairing a committee, to running the PTA’s rummage sale. To illustrate this point and to make this handbook entertaining as well as educational, the examples involve a fictional couple, George and Betty, who both work at Sprint. Betty and George have a track record of bad vacations, linked to inadequate planning and poor communication. Their vacation blunders are impressive – a Caribbean beach resort during the height of hurricane season, forgetting to pack hiking boots for a backpacking trip, a visit to relatives where everyone argued, and even sampling the delights of a remote tropical locale while a revolution was under way. Last year’s vacation was the worst of all. One evening as they lingered over coffee, Betty came up with a brilliant idea – she and George would use Sprint Quality tools to plan and carry out their next vacation. As you look through this handbook, you can see just how Sprint Quality tools helped George and Betty plan the best vacation ever – and how these same tools can help you at work and at home.
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page i
World-Class That’s easy to say, a lot harder to achieve. But when the rewards are exceptional customer satisfaction, inspired innovative and empowered employees, and superior financial results, you may decide that taking steps to get there is worth some extra effort. This newly revised Sprint Quality Handbook can help make your journey easier. You’ll find sections on meeting tools, number tools and idea tools – all illustrated entertainingly with examples involving George and Betty, a couple who have saved enough time and made enough money by using Sprint Quality tools that they have the luxury of planning a perfect vacation. You’ve probably already been using some quality tools. If so, this guide can be a double-check to make sure you’re getting all that you can out of them. Other tools may sound vaguely familiar. Now is the time to satisfy your curiosity by finding out just what they are and how they can work for you. And there may be tools that you’ve never heard of. Take a few minutes to browse and stop at the ones that could make a difference in how you do business. Just as some people see the glass as half empty – others as half full – so will some associates see this handbook as so big that it’s overwhelming, while others will see it as so big that it offers enormous potential for moving ahead at Sprint.
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page iii
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page iv
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page v
Table of Contents Introduction
1
Introduction to Sprint Quality
2
Structured Problem Solving
9
Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers (cont.) Histogram
69
Mean
76
Plan-Do-Check-Act
10
Pareto Chart
77
Quality Improvement Story
11
Process Indicators
79
Tools for Improving Meetings
21
Quality Indicators
80
Action Plan
22
Scatter Diagram
81
Brainstorming
24
Sigma
83
Code of Conduct
27
Standard Deviation
86
Consensus
28
Targets
87
Drivers and Restrainers
31
Valid Customer Requirements
88
Meetings
32
Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas
89
Activity Network Diagram
90
Affinity Diagram
92 94 96
Evaluation Form
33
Minutes Form
34
Observation Sheet
35
Pre-meeting Checklist
36
Post-meeting Checklist
37
Baldrige (Malcolm) National Quality Award
Mission
38
Benchmarking
Multivoting
39
Brown Paper
PAL
40
Chairman’s Quality Award
100
Parking Lot
42
Checklist
101
Plus/Delta
43
Control System
102
Flowcharts
104
Interrelationship Diagram
108
Ishikawa Diagram
111
Levels of Quality
118
Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers
45
Check Sheet
46
Control Charts
48
Cost/Benefit Analysis
58
Cost of Quality
60
Cycle Time
61
Data
62
Graphs – Bar, Line and Pie
63
98
The Sprint Quality Handbook i
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page vi
Table of Contents Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas (cont.)
Appendix
161
Matrix Diagram
120
Courses on Sprint Quality
162
Potential Improvements Matrix
122
Prioritization Matrix
125
Enrolling at the University of Excellence
164
Problem Statement
128
Ordering Sprint Quality Materials
165
Process
130
Sprint Quality Reading List
166
Sprint Quality Handbook – Evaluation Form
169
Process Block Diagram
131
Process Decision Program Chart
133
Process Decomposition Diagram
135
Process Improvement
137
Process Maturity
140
Process Workbench
142
QI Story Checklist
150
QI Storyboard
151
Seven Management and Planning Tools
152
Seven Quality Control Tools
155
Task-on-Arrow
156
Theme Selection Matrix
157
Tree Diagram
159
ii The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page vii
The Sprint Quality Tool Box An alphabetical index of tools.
Mission
38
Action Plan
22
Multivoting
39
Activity Network Diagram
90
PAL
40
Affinity Diagram
92
Pareto Chart
77
Baldrige (Malcolm) National Quality Award
Parking Lot
42
94
Plus/Delta
43
Benchmarking
96
Potential Improvements Matrix
122
Brainstorming
24
Prioritization Matrix
125
Brown Paper
98
Problem Statement
128
Chairman’s Quality Award
100
Process
130
Checklist
101
Process Block Diagram
131
Process Decision Program Chart
133
Process Decomposition Diagram
135
Check Sheet
46
Control Charts
48
Control System
102
Cost/Benefit Analysis
58
Process Indicators
Cost of Quality
60
Process Improvement
137
Cycle Time
61
Process Maturity
140
Code of Conduct
27
Process Workbench
142
Consensus
28
Quality Indicators
80
Data
62
QI Story Checklist
150
31
QI Storyboard
151
Drivers and Restrainers Flowcharts
104
Graphs – Bar, Line and Pie
63
Histogram
69
Scatter Diagram
79
81
Seven Management and Planning Tools
152
108
Seven Quality Control Tools
155
Ishikawa Diagram
111
Sigma
83
Levels of Quality
118
Standard Deviation
86
120
Targets
87
Interrelationship Diagram
Matrix Diagram
76
Task-on-Arrow
156
32
Theme Selection Matrix
157
33
Tree Diagram
159
Minutes Form
34
Valid Customer Requirements
Observation Sheet
35
Pre-meeting Checklist
36
Post-meeting Checklist
37
Mean Meetings Evaluation Form
88
The Sprint Quality Handbook iii
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
iv The Sprint Quality Handbook
Page viii
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page ix
Introduction
The Sprint Quality Handbook 1
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 2
Introduction to Sprint Quality Sprint Quality (Sprint kw˘o´l ˘ı-t¯e) n. 1. The way we run our business at Sprint. 2. The set of tools and techniques for problem solving, process improvement, reengineering, and management used by Sprint. 3. Symbolized by the Sprint Quality “diamond.”
2 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 3
Introduction
To successfully run a business like Sprint, we must do many things well – we must create and communicate a vision for the entire company, establish overarching goals and Sprint’s Vision: values, establish and execute business strategies, develop “To be a world-class telecomproducts and services that meet munications company – the the needs of our customers, hire standard by which others and train employees, solve dayare measured.” to-day problems, and more. Sprint Quality addresses how we should accomplish such tasks. A company’s vision statement is the most fundamental expression of how it will grow profitable market share. Our vision is supported by the mission statements of each of our business units and corporate departments. Achieving our vision will rely on the successful pursuit of our goals and values. Our desire to be “the standard by which others are measured” implies that we will continually redefine our industry by setting new standards for a telecommunications company’s image, products and services, and business practices ... something we have been doing for years.
The Sprint Quality Diamond The symbol of Sprint Quality is the Sprint Quality Diamond. It serves as a visual reminder of the key elements of Sprint Quality.
Goals Customers Employees Shareholders
Essentials
Strategic Integration
on
ri
nt
Q
ua
lit
y
D
ia
m
Management by Fact Sp
Customer Focus
e
Respect for People
Th
Principles
Continuous Quality Improvement d™
Teamwork
Structured Problem Solving
The Sprint Quality Handbook 3
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 4
Goals The top of the diamond underscores Sprint’s Goals:
Sprint’s Goals: •Exceptional Customer Satisfaction •Inspired, Innovative and Empowered Employees •Superior Financial Results
In all our decision making – in fact, in everything we do to conduct business – we must attempt to keep a balance between the three goals. It has been shown that companies maintaining this balance outperform other companies that focus on only one or two of the three goals (Corporate Culture and Performance. John P. Kotter and James L. Heskett. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1992). Exceptional Customer Satisfaction occurs when we deliver precisely what the customer expects – more often, it occurs when we “delight” our customers.
Delighting a customer can cost very little. Often the personal initiative of an “inspired, innovative and empowered employee” can lead to a delighted customer, with no increase in cost to us or the customer. In our efforts to delight the customer, we must take care not to spend resources on things that fail to add value for the customer. Well-intentioned but inappropriately overzealous service can cost more than the value perceived by the customer. We call this situation “gold-plated quality” and, of course, want to avoid it. Measures of customer satisfaction come from several sources – surveys directly evaluate customer satisfaction; complaints indicate customer dissatisfaction; and process measures (such as cycle time and defects) can often predict customer satisfaction. In our efforts to measure customer satisfaction, it is critical to remember that there is only one true measure of customer satisfaction – the ultimate “report card,” if you will – and that is market share growth.
4 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 5
Introduction
In a free economy, customers buy from companies that make the best overall offer and that provide the best overall value. We must be careful not to become so focused on surveys that we forget they only indicate aspects of customer satisfaction. Market share growth is the key direct measure of overall satisfaction. For continued success, we must profitably increase our share of the markets where we’ve chosen to compete. And we grow market share by keeping existing customers, by selling more to existing customers and by acquiring new customers. Inspired, Innovative and Empowered Employees At Sprint, our greatest
asset is our employees. We hold a deep belief that if we are to be successful as a company, we must have employees who are truly “inspired, innovative and empowered.” We foster teamwork, encourage open communication, provide a feedback-rich environment, give employees individual responsibility and authority to act, and provide rewards and recognition that support our goals. We provide training, education and development to enable employees to achieve their full potential. As with everything that is important, we gauge our progress toward this goal by using direct measures, such as the annual Employee Attitude Survey, together with indirect measures, such as voluntary turnover. Superior Financial Results As a public corporation, we are entrusted with the money that shareholders have invested in our company. It is essential that we achieve superior financial returns for our shareholders.
We are proud of the fact that our total return to shareholders for the 10+ years ended December 31, 1997, exceeded stock market averages and the results of our major competitors.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 5
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 6
Essentials At the next level of the diamond, we find the three Sprint Quality Essentials:
Sprint Quality Essentials: •Teamwork •Strategic Integration •Continuous Quality Improvement Teamwork is essential for a large organization such as Sprint to operate
effectively. This handbook includes tools and techniques that help teams work effectively. Strategic Integration is our method of meeting customer needs. It is
essential for us to determine what our customers want, honestly evaluate what we currently provide them and gain insight into any gap between the two. We then work toward closing this gap by improving our key processes. Continuous Quality Improvement depends on individual and team efforts, since improvement often results from thousands of small efforts and a few breakthroughs.
We need to continuously improve every aspect of our business. It is not acceptable to rest on a plateau or be merely “good enough.” If we stop improving – or even slow down – while our competitors continue to improve, we are essentially falling behind.
6 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 7
Introduction
Principles In addition to its Goals and Essentials, Sprint Quality includes four guiding beliefs or Principles. Found in the lower half of the Sprint Quality Diamond, these four Principles are:
Sprint Quality Principles: •Customer Focus •Respect for People •Management by Fact •Structured Problem Solving
• Customer Focus Becoming successful requires focusing on customers and understanding their needs. • Respect for People People deserve respect and exhibit far higher performance when they receive it. • Management by Fact Basing decisions and actions on fact, rather than speculation, produces far better business results. • Structured Problem Solving Solving problems in an organized, systematic way greatly improves the chances of finding the best solution. (See Structured Problem Solving in your handbook.)
The Sprint Quality Handbook 7
Section 1 - Intro.final
5/19/98 11:57 AM
Page 8
Sprint’s Values: Our values provide guidance to help us set priorities and make decisions.
The values we share at Sprint are tremendously important to all of us. By creating a set of values, we don’t have to write policies and procedures for every possible situation that we will face in our business lives at Sprint. Customer First We anticipate, understand, meet and exceed our customers’
needs and expectations to achieve exceptional customer satisfaction. Integrity in All We Do Our actions and decisions reflect the highest ethical, legal and professional standards. Excellence Through Quality We will individually and collectively use
Sprint Quality in our daily activities to achieve excellence as a company. Respect for Each Other We care about our company, our work, our customers and each other. This caring is a unique source of our company’s energy, strength and excellence. Growth Through Change We will grow as a company, as individuals and as
professionals by creating, anticipating and responding to change. Community Commitment We willingly serve the charitable and civic needs
of our communities. Productive Work Environment We provide a safe and accessible work
environment. Representative Work Force We recruit and develop individuals who reflect
the diversity of our communities. Shareholder Value We will increase shareholder value, build the financial
strength of our company and, as a result, prosper as individuals.
8 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:54 PM
Page 1
Structured Problem Solving
The Sprint Quality Handbook 9
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:54 PM
Page 10
Plan-Do-Check-Act Sprint Quality tools and techniques can be most helpful when they’re used within a problem-solving structure. There are two general methods you might consider: PDCA and the QI Story. PDCA – Plan-DoCheck-Act – will work for most of the problems you encounter. Here’s how you use PDCA: Plan your improvements. Who will handle the improvements? When
will they take place? How will you check your progress? Do it. Try out your improvements on a small scale to make sure
they work. Check what you did. Compare the Plan and the Do. Did you meet your objectives? What did you do well, and what could be improved? What did you learn? Act to further improve what you did. Document and standardize the improvements that worked. Apply these improvements wherever they would be helpful.
When you use PDCA, be sure that you understand the current situation, recognize the possible negative consequences of your improvements and identify the resources you need to implement your improvements. PDCA can be a fast, ongoing way to make sure your processes are constantly getting better.
10 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:54 PM
Page 11
Structured Problem Solving
Quality Improvement Story Although PDCA works well for most problems, you may need to use another strategy for more complex problems. The QualityImprovement Story – QI Story, for short – is a more detailed version of PDCA. The QI Story is useful when you’re faced with an especially large and complex problem, or with a problem that didn’t improve to your satisfaction when you used PDCA. The QI Story helps you define a problem, identify root causes, determine possible improvements and check how well those improvements worked.
Seven Steps of the QI Story 1. Reason for Improvement 2. Problem Identification 3. Root Cause Analysis 4. Potential Improvements 5. Verification 6. Full Implementation 7. Future Plans The QI Story Checklist and QI Storyboard (see Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas) serve as additional tools to speed and document progress through the QI Story.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 11
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:54 PM
Page 12
Step 1: Reason for Improvement Identify the general problem area (the “theme”) and the reason for working on it. Key questions to ask include – What do we do (ie. what work/products do we produce)? For whom do we do it (who is our customer)? How well are we doing (what is our customer’s view)? How do we know (what is our indicator)? Key Activities
• Research for themes: – Review departmental processes and indicators. – Survey external/internal customers. – Identify what the team already knows (brainstorm). – Interview associates from the work area. • Determine clear management ownership for process(es) being considered as themes (Checkpoint #1). • Document the “as is” process(es) used in the problem areas (Checkpoint #2). • Consider customer needs to help select the theme (Checkpoint #3). • Set an indicator to track the theme (Checkpoint #4). • Determine how much improvement is needed using data (Checkpoint #5). • Demonstrate the impact the theme will have if improved. • Schedule QI Story activities. Consider the urgency of solving the problem when establishing the schedule (Checkpoint #6).
12 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 13
Structured Problem Solving
Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Brainstorming/Multivoting • Brown Paper, Process Flowchart (“As Is”), Process Workbench, Task-on-Arrow • Control Charts • Control System • Graphs and Check Sheet • Interrelationship Diagram • Theme Selection Matrix Examples Graph
Flow Chart
Good
Target
The Sprint Quality Handbook 13
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 14
Step 2: Problem Identification Select a specific problem from the general problem area (the “theme”) identified in Step 1 and set a target for improvement. Step 2, combined with Step 1, enables us to focus on a specific problem rather than a broad area. Having this focus will make it easier to determine root causes in Step 3. Key Activities
• Collect data on all aspects of the theme. • Stratify the theme to a level specific enough to permit analysis (Checkpoint #7). • Select a problem from the theme’s subgroups. • Identify the Valid Customer Requirements (Checkpoint #8). • Write a clear problem statement that addresses the gap between the current and targeted values (Checkpoint #9). • Establish a method for setting goals or targets (Checkpoint #10). • Present theme and problem statement to management and/or sponsor. Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Check Sheet • Control Charts • Graphs • Histogram • Pareto Chart • Problem Statement Matrix Examples Pareto Chart
Graph Good
Target
14 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 15
Structured Problem Solving
Step 3: Root Cause Analysis Identify and verify the root causes of the specific problem identified in Step 2. Root cause analysis will be easier to do if the problem has been significantly narrowed in Steps 1 and 2. Key Activities
• Analyze the problem’s causes and effects (Checkpoint #11). • Continue analysis to the level of actionable root causes (Checkpoint #12). • Select the root causes with greatest probable impact (Checkpoint #13). • Verify the selected root causes with data (Checkpoint #14). Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Check Sheet • Drivers and Restrainers • Graphs • Histogram • Ishikawa Diagram • Pareto Chart • Scatter Diagram Examples Ishikawa Diagram
Pareto Chart
Scatter Diagram
The Sprint Quality Handbook 15
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 16
Step 4: Potential Improvements Plan improvements that will correct the root causes identified in Step 3; then test these improvements on a small scale. Key Activities
• Develop and evaluate potential improvements which: – Attack verified root causes (Checkpoint #15). – Meet Valid Customer Requirements (Checkpoint #16). – Are cost beneficial (Checkpoint #17). • Develop an action plan that: – Answers who, what, when, where, and how (Checkpoint #18). – Reflects the forces (Drivers and Restrainers) impacting successful implementation (Checkpoint #19). • Present potential improvements to management and/or sponsor to gain their approval and cooperation. • Test or pilot the potential improvements on a small scale. Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Action Plan • Cost/Benefit Analysis • Drivers and Restrainers • Potential Improvements Matrix • Tree Diagram Examples Potential Improvements Matrix 3 3 1 3 2
2 1 3 1 2
6 3 3 3 4
16 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Action Plan
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 17
Structured Problem Solving
Step 5: Verification Verify that you have reduced a problem and its root causes and/or improved a process, and confirm that you have met the target for improvement. If what you tried didn’t work or didn’t work as well as you expected, study what worked and didn’t work, and go through Step 3 and Step 4 again. Key Activities
• Confirm the effects of potential improvements, making sure the root causes have been reduced (Checkpoint #20). • Confirm you used the same tracking indicator you used in Step 1 (Checkpoint #21). • Compare the results to the target established in Step 2, and verify that the results met or exceeded the target (Checkpoint #22). • Implement additional improvements if results are not satisfactory. Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Control Charts • Graphs • Histogram • Pareto Chart Examples Graph
Pareto Chart
Good
Effect Target Before
Before
After
After
The Sprint Quality Handbook 17
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 18
Step 6: Full Implementation Prevent the problem and its root causes from recurring. Implement the improvements wherever possible. Key Activities
• Make your improvements part of daily work (Checkpoint #23): – Create/revise the work process. – Create/revise standards. – Train employees on the revised process and/or standards. • Establish periodic checks with assigned responsibilities to monitor the improvements (Checkpoint #24). • Consider other areas for implementation (Checkpoint #25). • Present the results of your improvement to management and/or sponsor with recommendations on other areas that might benefit from the improvements. Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Control Charts • Control System • Graphs Examples Control System Control System
18 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Control Chart
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 19
Structured Problem Solving
Step 7: Future Plans Plan what to do about any remaining problems. Evaluate the effectiveness of the problem-solving process, including the effectiveness of the team. Key Activities
• Analyze and evaluate any remaining problems related to the theme (Checkpoint #26). • Plan further actions, if necessary. • Review what you’ve learned relating to problem-solving skills and group dynamics (i.e., team effectiveness) (Checkpoint #27). – What was done well? – What could you improve? – What could you have done differently? Helpful Tools/Techniques
• Action Plan • PDCA • Plus/Delta Examples Action Plan
Plus/Delta
+
∆
The Sprint Quality Handbook 19
Section 2 - Prob. Solv. final
20 The Sprint Quality Handbook
5/19/98 12:55 PM
Page 20
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 1
Tools for Improving Meetings
The Sprint Quality Handbook 21
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 22
Action Plan An Action Plan is a prioritized list of what needs to be done, when it needs to be done and who needs to do it.
Use You can use an Action Plan to help explain an improvement plan and clarify roles, responsibilities and deadlines. You can review the Action Plan at any time – or at the end of PDCA or QI Story steps – to determine whether the plan is on track or needs to be changed.
Example To prepare the house for their absence during their vacation, George and Betty made an Action Plan of everything they needed to do before they left.
Action Plan
Prepared by George Date 5/16/97 Page 1 of 1 (Review daily; file for future reference) Location/Project Vacation Period Summer No. Task/Project
Due Date
Assigned to
Date Assigned
Status/Remarks
1
Ask Janice to feed cat
6/30/97
Betty
5/16/97
Tell her about cat’s medicine
2
Call Bruno to get mail & newspaper
6/30/97
George
5/16/97
He can recycle newspapers
3
Ask Horace to check on house
6/30/97
Betty
5/16/97
Tell him security alarm code
4
Get rid of spoilable food Turn off airconditioning
7/11/97
George
5/16/97
7/12/97
Betty
5/16/97
Give to local shelter This will save money
5
22 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 23
Tools for Improving Meetings
Steps 1. Break down the task into steps. 2. Consider the hardware, software, people and other resources involved in each step. 3. Brainstorm, if necessary, for other items of possible significance. 4. Add to the list until you feel it is complete. Although an Action Plan may have different formats, it should answer: • Who • What • When • Where • How
The Sprint Quality Handbook 23
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 24
Brainstorming Brainstorming is a technique used to quickly generate, clarify and evaluate a large list of ideas, problems and issues. Team members tap into their creativity to find the best solutions for problem solving and decision making. Brainstorming facilitates respect for people on the team by allowing everyone to contribute to the problemsolving process and to be heard without criticism or judgment.
Use Use Brainstorming as a technique to: • Collect improvement opportunities and/or problem areas. • Identify possible causes when constructing an Ishikawa (or Fishbone) Diagram. • Suggest Potential Improvements. • Identify Drivers and Restrainers. • Collect comments when creating a Plus/Delta chart.
24 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 25
Tools for Improving Meetings
Example How Can We Make This Year’s Vacation Better? Determined to make this year’s vacation better than last year’s, George and Betty brainstormed a list of improvements. 1. Better hotel service. 2. Bring something to do if it rains. 3. Go someplace with better climate (not so hot). 4. Fight less. 5. Work with friendlier travel agency. 6. Double-check hotel and plane reservations. 7. Go someplace where we know the language. 8. Stay healthy. 9. Stay at cleaner hotel. 10. Get traveler’s checks. 11. Eat better food; research restaurants more. 12. Maintain more cheerful attitudes. 13. Get more sleep; quieter hotel. 14. Rent car to get around. 15. Know more about area where we’re going. 16. Have friend check on house while we’re away. 17. Plan more activities (don’t want to be bored). 18. Pack less.
Steps First Phase: Generation
1. State the topic to be brainstormed in specific terms, and write it on a flip chart.
Hints for Effective Brainstorming Clearly state the purpose. One thought at a time. Do not criticize any ideas. Pass if needed. Add to or build on the ideas of others. The Sprint Quality Handbook 25
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 26
2. Select a recorder to capture ideas on the flip chart. 3. Generate ideas, with each team member taking a turn, until all ideas are exhausted. Note: An alternative is the “popcorn” approach, in which team members speak out whenever they have an idea. Second Phase: Clarification
4. Go over the brainstormed list as a team to eliminate duplication and make sure everyone understands all of the items. Third Phase: Evaluation
5. Evaluate ideas and select those for further action by using Multivoting, a Prioritization Matrix or other Consensus techniques.
26 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 27
Tools for Improving Meetings
Code of Conduct A Code of Conduct reinforces the Sprint Quality Principle of “Respect for People” in meetings and in daily communication with others. You may use the Code of Conduct shown below or modify the Code to best suit your needs. T HE WAY W E RUN O UR B USINESS
SPRINT QUALITY CODE OF CONDUCT >Respect Each Person >Share Responsibility >Question and Participate >Attend All Meetings; Be on Time >Listen Courteously >Keep an Open Mind > > > >
The Sprint Quality Handbook 27
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 28
Consensus Consensus is a method of group decision making in which a group actively discusses the issues and supports a common decision.
Use Use Consensus to: • Eliminate a “we-they” feeling. • Reach a “win-win” decision – this guarantees that nobody will lose. • Develop ownership of the decision and support for implementation of the decision. • Focus on the problem, not on personalities. • Pool knowledge and experience. • Gain support of entire group. • Integrate ideas and feelings of all group members. • Make better quality decisions.
Steps 1. Prior to the meeting, prepare your position using your knowledge of the problem. 2. Express and explain opinions so the group knows how each person feels and benefits from everyone’s thoughts. 3. Listen to everyone’s opinions and feelings. Then apply logic and understanding to modify individual positions. 4. Avoid using techniques such as voting or simply giving in to save time; realize that differences in opinion help reach a better decision.
28 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 29
Tools for Improving Meetings
More Consensus is not the same as voting, as shown by the comparison below: Consensus
Voting
• Everyone agrees (to varying degrees) on solution.
• Majority wins, others lose.
• Win/win method.
• Win/lose method, unless unanimous.
• Ensures commitment by all to course of action.
• Ensures commitment by majority to course of action.
• Time-consuming, can be frustrating.
• Done within a limited period.
• Useful when quality and acceptance of decision both important.
• Useful when large numbers of people must be involved in decision.
Both methods of making a decision can be useful, but the differences should be well understood. Voting is clear-cut in its results and can be done within a limited time period, making it the most efficient way of arriving at a decision. Furthermore, when a large number of people are involved and want some voice, voting may be the only workable system. Consensus requires that all decision-makers discuss an issue until everyone agrees to some degree on a solution. Consensus does not mean that everyone shares an equal degree of enthusiasm; it simply means that everyone is at least willing, in good conscience, to go along with the decision. No one should have reservations serious enough to stop the decision or take a different course of action after the meeting’s conclusion.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 29
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 30
Consensus is a win-win method. It guarantees that no one will lose badly because it requires that the decision not be made until everyone can, at a minimum, “live with” that decision. Note: The purpose of Consensus is to allow a team to agree on a general course of action based on facts presented through discussion. Consensus does not necessarily imply or require absolute agreement; in fact, attempting to achieve absolute agreement on every issue can paralyze a team and consume an unreasonable amount of time. Rather, the intent of consensus is to ensure that team members agree enough with the decision to fully support it.
30 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 31
Tools for Improving Meetings
Drivers and Restrainers Drivers and Restrainers is a tool that identifies information for and against a plan of action.
Use Consider the following categories when using Drivers and Restrainers: • People
• Time
• Environment
• Methods
• Dollars
• Materials
Example Should We Go to the Floating Restaurant? While on their vacation, George and Betty debated whether or not to try out a floating restaurant they passed during one of their walks on the dock. They made a list of Drivers and Restrainers to help them decide.
Drivers
Restrainers
George loves the menu
Betty only so-so about the menu
Good view of the ocean
George gets seasick easily
Comfortable atmosphere
Entrees rather pricey
Recommended by travel agent
Storm blowing in, rough waves Long wait to get seated
Steps 1. List reasons that support taking an action (Drivers) and compare them to the reasons that hold you back from taking the action (Restrainers). 2. Once this tool has helped you choose a plan of action, decide how you will overcome (or minimize) the Restrainers and maximize the Drivers.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 31
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 32
Meetings Meetings provide an arena for employees to identify problems, investigate their causes and develop workable solutions.
Use Meetings foster improved levels of communication and cooperation among team members. Components of a Meeting
• Select appropriate meeting time and location to maximize member participation. • Prepare and distribute PAL (written agenda) before meeting. • Have meeting recorder take minutes and note action items, responsibilities and expected completion dates. • Distribute minutes as soon as possible after meeting. • Post minutes, if appropriate. • Evaluate meetings using Plus/Delta or Meeting Evaluation Form. • Designate recorder to capture ideas on flip chart or other group visual tool. • Designate timekeeper to work with team leader to ensure that all agenda items are covered in allotted time. • Develop team Code of Conduct.
32 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 33
Tools for Improving Meetings
Meetings: Evaluation Form Use When handed out at the close of a meeting, this form allows team members to anonymously express their opinions of a meeting’s effectiveness. Team leaders can use this form to evaluate past meetings and appropriately improve future meetings.
Sample of a Meeting Evaluation Form ly ng e ro re St Ag e re Ag ed cid de e Un gre sa Di gly n e ro re St sag Di
Meeting: Date: Time: Circle one number for each statement.
1. I was notified of this meeting in sufficient time to prepare for it.
1
2
3
4
5
2. I understood why this meeting was being held (i.e., information sharing, planning, problem solving, decision making, open discussion, etc.) and what specific outcomes were expected.
1
2
3
4
5
3. I understood what was expected of me as a participant and what was expected of the other participants (including the leader, coordinator, chairperson, facilitator, etc.).
1
2
3
4
5
4. I understood how the meeting was intended to flow (i.e., agenda, schedule, design, etc.) and when it would terminate.
1
2
3
4
5
5. Most participants listened carefully to each other.
1
2
3
4
5
6. Most participants expressed themselves openly, honestly and directly. .
1
2
3
4
5
7. Agreements were explicit and clear, and conflicts were openly explored and constructively managed.
1
2
3
4
5
8. The meeting generally proceeded as intended (i.e., the agenda was followed; it ended on time) and achieved its intended purpose.
1
2
3
4
5
9. My participation contributed to the outcomes achieved by the meeting.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
10. Overall, I am satisfied with this meeting and feel my time here has been well spent.
Adapted from The 1981 Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators, University Associates.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 33
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 34
Meetings: Minutes Form Use This form helps a recorder keep track of attendees, action items and decisions reached. You may use the form shown below or modify it to best suit your needs.
Sample of a Meeting Minutes Form TEAM NAME
TEAM MEMBERS
MEETING DATE
PRESENT
TEAM MEMBERS
PRESENT
TOPICS DISCUSSED, ACTION ITEMS AND DECISIONS REACHED (Data, Lists, Matrices, etc.) 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Next Meeting Date: Time: Location:
34 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 35
Tools for Improving Meetings
Meetings: Observation Sheet Use This sheet can help a meeting facilitator keep track of team members’ participation.
Sample of a Meeting Observation Sheet
Names Behavior 1. Suggests procedures 2. Requests facts 3. Provides facts 4.
5.
Summarizes or clarifes information Pulls related ideas together
6. Shows concern 7. Encourages others 8. Expresses own feelings 9. Solicits others’ feelings 10. Attempts to reconcile disagreement 11. Checks with group to determine agreement 12. Offers compromise idea at risk of own
The Sprint Quality Handbook 35
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 36
Meetings: Pre-meeting Checklist A Pre-meeting Checklist can help a team leader focus on key issues before a meeting so the meeting runs efficiently. The Checklist can help meeting participants make the most of their time.
Sample of a Pre-meeting Checklist The Purpose of the Meeting
Why is the team meeting today? What would you like to see the team accomplish? Can all of that realistically be done at the meeting? The Meeting Agenda
Review the agenda you have planned. If none, plan one now. How much time is planned for each item? Is there sufficient time at the end to critique the meeting itself? The Team Leader Role
How do you intend to open the meeting? What quality improvement techniques will you use? Do you feel comfortable using them? If not, where can you get help? The Team Member Role
Do you have any specific task or people worries concerning the meeting? What can be done about them in this meeting? What can you – or they – do about them in the long term? The Facilitator Role
Is there anything specific you still need from your facilitator before the meeting? When can you spend time with your facilitator after the meeting?
36 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 37
Tools for Improving Meetings
Meetings: Post-meeting Checklist Use This checklist can help a team leader evaluate a meeting from a process viewpoint, note items that could have been improved and modify goals for future meetings.
Sample of a Post-meeting Checklist Meeting Purpose
Do you think the meeting achieved its purpose? People Dynamics
Did you notice which members contributed – and how? Were you satisfied with how the team interacted? What would you like to see changed? How can that change be brought about? Observing Effective Performance
Describe the effective behavior. Explain the importance of the behavior. What can be done to reinforce the behavior? The Team Leader’s Impact
How do you feel about how you led the meeting? What, if anything, would you do differently? Improving Ineffective Performance
Describe any evident problem behaviors. What alternate behaviors would help the situation? Facilitator’s Role
How do you feel about your facilitator’s role at the meeting? (Appropriate? Timely? Helpful? Supportive to your leadership?) Were there times when you would have liked your facilitator to do something differently? (When? How? Why?) The Sprint Quality Handbook 37
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 38
Mission A Mission statement states the core reason for existence of an organization, a department or a process. Every organization, department and process should have its own Mission statement, and each Mission statement should meet the following criteria: • States core reason for organization, department or process to exist. • Supports strategic direction of entire organization. • Describes strategy of organization, department or process in achieving the vision (What we do). • Reflects organization, department or process distinctive competence (How we do it). • Externally focused – identifies customer (For whom). • Clear and understandable. • Serves as an energy force/is compelling. • Actionable. • Able to be measured. • Dynamic. • Broad enough to be flexible. • Serves as decision-making template.
Example George and Betty’s Mission is shown below: To organize fun vacations by planning ahead and staying within our budget. We will do this by using Sprint Quality tools and techniques.
38 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 39
Tools for Improving Meetings
Multivoting The Multivoting technique uses a structured series of votes by a team to help reduce a large number of ideas to a manageable few (usually three to five).
Use Multivoting is often used after a team has discussed items on a Brainstorm list, and the list is still too lengthy for everything to be addressed.
Steps 1. First vote: Team members vote for as many items as they wish but vote only once per item. Members agree on the number of votes that determines whether an item should remain on the list. They circle the items receiving a higher number of votes than the other items. Example: A team of eight members generates a list of 14 items after round one. The team decides to circle items receiving six or more votes. In this example, the team circles eight items. 2. Second vote: Each person should vote a number of times equal to half the circled items. Example continued: Each person gets to vote four times during the second vote. 3. Continue the Multivoting until the list is reduced to three to five items. Never Multivote down to only one item, because this reduces the process to a “one winner” scenario and creates a win/lose situation. Multivoting reduces the list to a workable number for group discussion and helps a group reach Consensus.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 39
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 40
PAL PAL is an acronym to help remember the three key points to planning and managing a meeting: • P – Purpose • A – Agenda • L – Limits
Use A PAL tells participants what they are supposed to accomplish in a meeting and helps them complete the activities that will lead them toward that accomplishment. A PAL can also include the date of the meeting, a list of the attendees and the exact location of the meeting. Purpose: Establishing the purpose in advance lets everyone know the expected outcome of the meeting. If the meeting gets off track, suggest a relevancy check to get it back on track. If the issue being discussed is irrelevant, stop discussing it. If the issue is important but not part of the agenda, either put the issue in the Parking Lot or gain agreement from the participants to change the purpose of the meeting. Agenda: Create an agenda with as much detail as appropriate to help keep the meeting on track. Meeting minutes should reflect action items and decisions resulting from the meeting agenda. (Hint: creating a PAL in advance often makes it easier to record meeting minutes.) Limits: Establishing a specific meeting length in advance is respectful of people. Starting on time and ending on time is a golden rule of meeting management. If you need more time to complete the agenda, negotiate with the meeting attendees and gain their agreement to continue beyond the original time limits. Note: Providing the PAL to attendees in advance of the meeting will
help participants come to the meeting fully prepared.
40 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 41
Tools for Improving Meetings
Example George and Betty made a PAL to make sure all of their questions were answered and needs were communicated during a meeting with their travel agent.
PAL – Meeting with Rhonda World, travel agent Purpose:
To plan George and Betty’s trip to Sprintsville Beach, Florida
Agenda:
• Introductions • George and Betty’s expectations (explain last year’s fiasco)
• Options (hotels, airfare, activities) • Pricing • Set up next meeting date Limits:
2 p.m. – 3 p.m.
Date:
March 18, 1997
Place:
Wide World Travel Agency
Attendees:
George, Betty, Rhonda World
The Sprint Quality Handbook 41
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 42
Parking Lot A Parking Lot is a tool to keep meetings, classes, etc., on track while allowing flexibility to deal with unanticipated issues.
Use A Parking Lot provides an easy way for participants to keep the meeting focused on the proper agenda items.
Steps 1. If an item not covered on the agenda is being discussed and the group needs to move on, write the issue on a sticky note and place it in the Parking Lot. The Parking Lot can be a blank flip chart page, a paper on a wall, a desktop, etc. 2. Revisit the Parking Lot after the agenda items have been completed. 3. If there is not enough time to discuss the Parking Lot issues, plan a second meeting, if appropriate. 4. If the Parking Lot items should be handled by another group, pass the information to the appropriate department.
42 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 43
Tools for Improving Meetings
Plus/Delta The Plus/Delta technique determines the positive features of meetings, projects or other events, and it can help identify changes that would make future events more effective. Plus/Delta also provides an easy way to perform the “Check” step in PDCA (see Structured Problem Solving).
Use Plus/Delta is used in meetings and can be used to critique and improve projects and processes as well.
Example After they returned home from their vacation, Betty and George created a Plus/Delta to evaluate their experience:
∆
+ • Great travel agency • George learned to water-ski • Didn’t overpack • Great food _ chose restaurants well
• Exceptional hotel service • Resolved disagreements quickly • Educational _ learned about
• Bring more money for gifts or create gift budget
• Betty needs more comfortable shoes
• Use sunscreen every day to avoid sunburn
• Research activities even more to avoid boredom
Sprintsville Beach history
• Much better trip than last year • Feel completely rested and almost ready for work
• Planning with Sprint Quality tools made trip go smoothly
The Sprint Quality Handbook 43
Section 3 - Meetings.final
5/19/98 1:18 PM
Page 44
Steps 1. Using a flip chart, draw a line down the middle from top to bottom. On the top left-hand side, put a +. On the top right-hand side, put a ∆ (the Greek letter delta – the symbol for change).
+
∆
2. Ask the participants to provide their feedback on the positive features of the event. List these comments on the left-hand side of the flip chart under +. 3. Ask participants which features need to be changed and what the changes should be to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the next event. List on the right-hand side of the flip chart under ∆. Using Plus/Delta provides valuable feedback and is part of the PDCA process. • Plan – Meeting purpose, agenda and limits (PAL) • Do – Conduct the meeting • Check – Plus/Delta • Act – Modify next meeting to improve on Deltas and retain Pluses Note: Plus/Delta is useful if you review it before your next meeting.
Use the suggested improvements, assuming they are practical.
44 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 1
Tools for Problem Solving with Numbers The Sprint Quality Handbook 45
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 46
Check Sheet A Check Sheet (as opposed to a Checklist) is a simple form on which data are recorded using tick marks.
Use Design the Check Sheet to display the different kinds of data that you will collect. Determine categories of data by asking fact-finding questions: What (what happens)? Who (who does it, who receives it, who is responsible)? Where (what place, what part, what section)? When (what time of day/month, how often)? How (how does it happen, how much, how long)?
The Check Sheet should clearly indicate who collected the data and where, when and how it was collected.
46 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 47
Problem Solving with Numbers
Example Led astray one time too many by incompetent travel agents, Betty and George were determined to find a good agency. Convinced that managing by fact would help them, they collected data on several agencies to find one with a reputation for providing exceptional satisfaction. To do this, they determined how many times an agency was mentioned positively and negatively in several local publications.
MAGAZINES
AGENCIES U Travel, We Book Baldrige Travel
Funtime Travel
Positive
Jan-Feb 1997
Jan-Feb 1997
Jan-Feb 1997
Traveler’s Journal
Journey Companion
The Travel Buff
Totals 3
Negative
4
Positive
12
Negative
0
Positive
1
Negative
6 DATA COLLECTED BY: George and Betty ON: January-February 1997 AT: their home FORMULA: N/A
The Sprint Quality Handbook 47
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 48
Control Charts Control Charts are line graphs used to track the performance of a process over time. Process results fall into statistically predictable patterns, called “distributions.” A bell-shaped curve, in which most observations fall in the center and fewer and fewer observations fall evenly on either side of the center, is an example of a “normal distribution.” Control Charts illustrate the variability of a process within a pair of statistically calculated limits called control limits. All processes are subject to variation, and Control Charts help determine how much variation is acceptable and what kinds of variation are controllable and, therefore, can be improved. The measure of the variation in a set of data is called “range,” which is calculated by subtracting the lowest value in the set of data from the highest. There are two main sources of variation: • A “common cause” is a source of variation that is always present, a part of the random variation inherent in the process itself. • A “special cause” is a source of variation that is not always present; it is sometimes called an assignable cause. A special cause is identified by a point beyond the control limits or by a non-random pattern within the control limits. Statistical control occurs when all special causes have been removed from a process. This condition is illustrated on a Control Chart by the absence of points beyond the control limits and by the presence of only random patterns within the control limits. When the fluctuations within the process occur in a non-random pattern or go outside a control limit, the process is “out of statistical control.”
48 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 49
Problem Solving with Numbers
Control limits are statistically derived from samples of a stable process. They are not to be confused with specification limits, which are determined by Valid Customer Requirements, regardless of what the process is capable of achieving. Ideally, the control limits are well within the specification limits, so there is confidence in the reliability of the process. If the control limits are very close to or outside the specification limits, the process is indicating that it may not be reliable in achieving the customer’s needs.
Use Control Charts monitor the performance of an ongoing process and determine answers to the following questions: • Is the process in statistical control? • Does action need to be taken to keep the process in control or bring it back into control? • Is the variation a result of common causes, special causes or both? • Does an opportunity for process or system improvement exist? • Have implemented potential improvements truly improved the process? Control Charts are used throughout PDCA and the QI Story process and can be particularly helpful in identifying problem areas and tracking results. Important Note:
Control Charts are most useful when they are created while the process is operating. In this way, the process can be controlled in near-real time. Creating a Control Chart after the fact will indicate if a process produced excessive variation in the past, but there is no way to eliminate the defects produced by that variation.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 49
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 50
Examples Control Charts can be classified into two main groups, depending on the type of data generated from the process. The chart below summarizes the types of Control Charts discussed on the following pages. DATA
VARIABLE
ATTRIBUTE
MEASURABLE
YES/NO GOOD/BAD PASS/FAIL
DEFECTS
SAMPLE SIZE (2-5)
X,R CHART
SAMPLE SIZE (1)
DEFECTIVE UNITS
FIXED SAMPLE SIZE
VARIABLE SAMPLE SIZE
FIXED SAMPLE SIZE
VARIABLE SAMPLE SIZE
C CHART U CHART
U CHART
NP CHART P CHART
P CHART
X, MR CHART
A Variable Control Chart deals with quantitative data – characteristics which can be measured. An example of variable data might be the number of days it takes Betty’s postcard to get to her friend, Janice, – or the weight in pounds of George’s suitcase. You can construct an “X , R” or “X, MR” chart to record data of this type. An Attribute Control Chart deals with qualitative data that can be counted for recording and analysis. An example of attribute data might be whether or not Betty’s postcard got to her friend or the presence or absence of luggage tags on George’s suitcase. When the results are recorded in a simple yes/no fashion, you can construct c, u, np or p charts. For additional information on Attribute Control Charts, you may want to refer to pages 61-85 of Guide to Quality Control by Kaoru Ishikawa, available from the Sprint Corporate Research Center.
50 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 51
Problem Solving with Numbers
Note: Because setting up Control Charts can involve a high degree of
complexity, you may want to contact a Statistical Process Control (SPC) specialist if you need help. Variable Control Charts – X (X-bar), R Chart – This two-part Control Chart monitors processes with variable data. The data used on these charts are reported in small subgroups containing at least two (at most five) individual data readings. Example: George and Betty sent five postcards per day. When they got home, they called their friends to find out when their cards – arrived. On an X Chart, George and Betty plotted the average number of days it took a particular day’s cards to get through the mail. They did this for each day of their vacation. They also computed the range in number of days it took each day’s cards to reach their friends. – The X Chart tracks how the process average varies from one point to another. The R (or range) chart tracks the variation that occurs. X, MR (Moving Range) Chart – This two-part Control Chart also – monitors processes with variable data. This is similar to the X , R Chart, except that it observes one item at a time. In other words, the X, MR Chart tracks how each process data point varies from another.
Example: George and Betty plotted the number of days it took each card to reach its destination.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 51
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 52
Steps 1. Decide on a measure to use in monitoring performance. Put this on the vertical axis. 2. Choose a time interval for taking measurements. Put this on the horizontal axis. 3. Calculate control limits. First, find the average and standard deviation for the data. The upper control limit (UCL) is the average plus approximately three standard deviations, while the lower control limit (LCL) is the average minus approximately three standard deviations. Mark these “control limits” on the vertical axis and draw a line for each horizontally along the length of the chart. Be aware that the upper and lower control limits are not the same as the customer specification limits. 4. Enter your measurements (data points) chronologically on the chart. 5. Draw a line connecting the data points.
52 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 53
Problem Solving with Numbers
After constructing the Control Chart, examine it to see where the data points are located. If the process continues to be fairly consistent and stable, most of the data points will randomly fall within the established control limits. Fluctuations within the process that occur in a non-random pattern or points that fall outside one of the control limits should be reported or investigated as special causes.
More Components of Control Charts
Be sure to include these lines on your control chart –
1. A Mean (X) represents the average value of the process. 2. An Upper Control Limit (UCL) drawn at a calculated distance (approximately three standard deviations) above the central line represents the maximum variation that can be expected if only common causes of variation are present. 3. A Lower Control Limit (LCL) drawn at a calculated distance (approximately three standard deviations) below the central line represents the minimum variation that can be expected if only common causes of variation are present. The horizontal axis tracks time or sequential order, and the vertical axis tracks the factor being studied.
Vertical Axis
UCL
X
LCL
Horizontal Axis
The Sprint Quality Handbook 53
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 54
Understanding Control Charts
All of the following patterns indicate that something is occurring in the process that should be investigated. These patterns indicate that the variation results from a special cause. Points Outside the Limit:
Control limits are calculated to measure the natural variability of a process. Any point on or outside the limits indicates a special cause of variation and requires investigation. UCL
X
LCL
Run:
A Control Chart shows a run when points occur continually on one side of the center line. A run of seven points is considered abnormal. Also considered abnormal are 10 out of 11, 12 out of 14, or 16 out of 20 points on one side of the center line. UCL
X
LCL
54 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 55
Problem Solving with Numbers
Trending:
Seven points in a continuous upward or downward direction signify a trend. UCL
X
LCL
Cycling (periodicity):
Fourteen or more points which alternate up and down are considered abnormal and require investigation.
UCL
X
LCL
The Sprint Quality Handbook 55
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 56
Hugging the Center Line:
– On a Control Chart, “hugging” the center line (X ) occurs when most points fall very close to the center line. This circumstance usually means that different kinds of data have become mixed with the data of the test group; the data then must be resorted before constructing another graph. To determine if your Control Chart exhibits hugging, try drawing one line halfway between the center line and the UCL, and one line halfway between the center line and the LCL. If most of the points on your Control Chart appear between these lines and the center line, your Control Chart is probably hugging the center line.
UCL 1/2 UCL X 1/2 LCL LCL
56 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:13 PM
Page 57
Problem Solving with Numbers
Hugging the Control Limits:
A line may also hug the control limits. If you draw one line that is – two-thirds of the way between X and the UCL, and one line that is – two-thirds of the way between X and the LCL, and if two out of three points (or three out of seven points or four out of 10 points) graphed lie between the drawn lines and the closest control limit, your graph exhibits hugging of the control limits. UCL 2/3 UCL
X
2/3 LCL LCL
Note: Control Charts can be powerful diagnostic tools. If special causes are detected, determine root causes and correct the problems. If no special causes are present, it is not generally productive to investigate the causes of individual data points on the Control Chart. Instead, look at the entire process and improve the process using Flow Charts and other Process Improvement tools and techniques.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 57
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 58
Cost/Benefit Analysis Use Cost/Benefit Analysis is a technique for determining the dollar impact of problems and potential improvements. This knowledge helps you prioritize and select improvements. It is not necessary to have detailed accounting data in order to get a general idea of the financial impact of a problem or issue; it is all right to make some assumptions and verify them as you gather data.
Steps There are two approaches to estimating costs: the “bottom-up approach” and the “top-down approach.” Bottom-up Approach: Start with smaller units and build the estimate toward an overall amount.
1. Estimate how many times the problem occurs per unit of time. (Example: 12 occurrences/week) 2. Estimate cost per occurrence. (Example: $200 per occurrence) 3. Estimate total time involved. (Example: 52 weeks) 4. Calculate total annual cost by multiplying above factors. (Example: 12 X $200 X 52 = $124,800)
58 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 59
Problem Solving with Numbers
Top-down Approach: Start with the overall cost of some budget item
or other known variable and an estimate of the percentage of the total which represents the problem. Then calculate unit cost as shown below. 1. Estimate the percentage of some expenditure that applies to the problem area (for example, percent of total labor devoted to the problem, percent of total “downtime” attributed to the problem). 2. Multiply the percentage by the budgeted annual cost to get the estimated amount spent on the problem in one year. (Example: 10% of total labor x $185,000/year budgeted = $18,500/year) 3. Divide by unit of time. (Example: $18,500/year divided by 52 weeks/year = approximately $356/week)
The Sprint Quality Handbook 59
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 60
Cost of Quality The Cost of Quality is the amount a company, division or department spends for overall quality. Estimates put the Cost of Quality at 15% 30% of revenue for the average company. Cost of Quality Consists of Three Components:
• The Cost of Conformance is the money and time spent to ensure that Valid Customer Requirements are being met. It includes money and time spent on both prevention (finding mistakes before they happen) and inspection (finding mistakes after they happen but before delivery). • The Cost of Lost Opportunity is the profit impact of lost revenues that result from failure to meet customer requirements. If a company loses business because it has a reputation for poor quality, it loses revenue. The profit it could have made on that revenue is the cost of lost opportunity. • The Cost of Nonconformance is the money spent to fix products and services that do not meet Valid Customer Requirements. This cost includes money spent on warranties, credits and other customer concessions paid as a result of poor product or service performance.
60 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 61
Problem Solving with Numbers
Cycle Time Cycle Time is the time that elapses from the moment a process begins to the moment the process ends. Reducing Cycle Time can lead to a competitive advantage.
Use Cycle Time reduction can affect such areas as new product development, production and delivery. Goals are frequently expressed in multiples (for example, Motorola’s “10X” program, which aims to reduce cycle times by 10 times).
Adapted from Quality Outlook 1997-1998, The Conference Board.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 61
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 62
Data Data are “facts or figures from which conclusions can be drawn, a basis of reasoning, discussion or calculation.” Data, when properly organized and analyzed, provide useful information and serve as the basis for decision-making and action.
Use Data can be organized as follows: Words
Objective
Pictures
Data
Attribute Subjective
Numbers Variable
There are two kinds of numerical, objective data: Attribute and Variable. Attribute Data:
When characteristics are identified only by name or label, rather than by numeric value, they are called “Attribute Data.” For example, during a test of circuit breakers, the breakers either pass or fail; there are no possible values between classifications. The important point is that the situation is either “go” or “no-go,” “green” or “not green,” “over $150” or “not over $150.” Variable Data:
When it is important to identify, rank and precisely measure the distribution (the distance or interval between items), we collect “Variable Data.” Variable Data are strictly quantitative; they are concerned with measurements (length of a board in meters, rate of disabling accidents in accidents/week, etc.). These types of data are usually more expensive to collect, but they provide much more information about the subject.
62 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 63
Problem Solving with Numbers
Graphs: Bar, Line and Pie Graphs are visual displays that summarize a set of numbers or statistics.
Use Use graphs to display data, to aid in understanding and interpreting data, and to manage with facts. You may also use graphs to illustrate targets, goals and benchmarks. Bar Charts make it easier to recognize small differences in quantities
and to compare one category with another. They are easy to construct. Line Graphs make trends and data variations over time easy to track.
They highlight change and can track more than one set of data at a time. Pie Charts show relative proportion of each category to the whole. Elements of Good Graphs
In general, good line graphs have the elements shown in the chart below:
Title Y N= or n=
Frequency
Target = Benchmark =
Data Collected:
= Good
By: On: At: Formula:
X Units
The Sprint Quality Handbook 63
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 64
Every Graph should indicate: • When the data were gathered. • Where the data were gathered. • Who gathered the data. • Whether they are raw data, percentages, or averages. • How the data were calculated (a formula).
Steps 1. The scale used in a Graph can be adjusted to show the situation: it can be expanded to emphasize variation or compressed to show control. All graphs should indicate the total number of data points represented. If all the data points (the “population”) are represented, this is indicated by a capital N =____. A sample number is indicated by a lowercase n =____. 2. It is generally considered good practice to include the “0” (zero) point. If you want to magnify some portion of the graph to show detailed variation, show the “0” (zero) point and indicate a departure from the scale with some wavy lines. 3. If there is a “good” direction, indicate this with an arrow. (For example, an arrow pointed up would indicate that a high mark on the Y-axis is desirable, perhaps indicative of large profits.) Checklist for a Complete Graph
Title Vertical axis – labeled Horizontal axis – labeled Zero shown for both axes “Good” direction indicated Goal or target, if applicable Benchmarks or comparisons Forecast of likely future trend Data collection information Population or sample size
64 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 65
Problem Solving with Numbers
Graphs: Bar Chart A Bar Chart is a graph that compares quantities using rectangles (bars) with heights representing numbers.
Example George and Betty love watching pelicans and are hoping to see some on their trip. They asked the Sprintsville Beach Chamber of Commerce for information on how many pelicans had visited the beach during July in the last three years. The Chamber sent its reply in a bar chart format: Pelicans ’93-’96
150
Number of Pelicans Sighted
125
Good
100 75
Data Collected: By: Jill Cardwell
50
On: 5/8/97 At: Sprintsville Beach, FL
25 0
Formula: N/A
1993
1994
1995
1996
Year
Steps 1. The horizontal axis shows the items being compared using vertical bars of uniform width. 2. The vertical axis indicates the quantities by the heights of the bars.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 65
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 66
Graphs: Line Graph A Line Graph uses connected data points to display data for comparison or trending purposes.
Example At George and Betty’s request, the Sprintsville Beach Quality Resort analyzed how many satisfied customers had stayed at their resort over the past four years as compared to two of its competitors. The Quality Resort sent George and Betty a line graph to display this data. Number of Satisfied Customers Per Year
Quality Resort Stopawhile Inn Sand N’ Surf Motel
120 N = 552 100 Good
80
QR = 274 SI = 52 SS = 226
60 40 Data Collected: By: Paul Rogers On: 3/8/97 At: Quality Resort
20 0 ’94
’95
’96
’97
Formula: N/A
Steps 1. Use a trend line to display some variable over a period of time. 2. If using multiple lines, use some method (dashes, dots, etc.) to distinguish between them. The solid black line should receive the greatest emphasis, representing your own department or actual data. 3. If the Line Graph tracks over a period of time, show the most recent data when presenting results. 4. When possible, include a forecast of the likely future trend for your data and for your comparison data.
66 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 67
Problem Solving with Numbers
Graphs: Pie Chart A Pie Chart is a graph that depicts the percentage an item contributes to the whole.
Example To see how they spent their money on vacation, George and Betty constructed a Pie Chart as shown below:
Expenses Breakdown N = $2,000 Gifts and Souvenirs 11% Activities 13%
Hotel 46%
Plane Tickets 14% Food 16%
Data Collected: By: George and Betty On: 8/1/97 At: Home Formula: N/A
The Sprint Quality Handbook 67
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 68
Steps 1. Divide a circle (pie) into a number of wedges so that each wedge represents a proportion of the total number of items. 2. Calculate the proportion of the item by dividing the item by the total. For example, the proportion for Gifts and Souvenirs shown on the previous page is $220 in gifts divided by $2,000 total expenses = 0.11, or 11%. 3. Convert the proportions into wedges by multiplying the proportions by 360 degrees (example: 0.11 x 360 = 39.6 degrees). 4. Start with the largest wedge, beginning at the vertical position and going in a clockwise direction. Measure off the wedge sizes with a protractor. 5. When using pie charts, follow these rules: • Order your categories from largest to smallest. The “other” category, if one exists, is last, regardless of its size. • Begin your first wedge with a starting line at the “12 o’clock” position. • Construct the remaining wedges in descending order by size and in a clockwise direction with “other” last.
68 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 69
Problem Solving with Numbers
Histogram A Histogram, also called a frequency distribution, is a visual representation of the distribution of data. It is a special case of a bar chart. For example, a Histogram might show the height, in inches, of 36 tourists. Information in a Histogram is represented by rectangles or bars of equal width. The heights of these bars indicate the relative number of data points in each class. To evaluate a Histogram, you need to know the central tendency (where most values fall), as well as the dispersion of the data. Mean 68.94"
10
Mode 70"
9
N = 36
8
Number of Tourists
8 Median 6
6
6 69.5"
4
4 3 Central Tendency 2
0 59.5
62.5
65.5
68.5
71.5
74.5
77.5
Height (Inches)
The Sprint Quality Handbook 69
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 70
Measures of Central Tendency
(The calculations shown below use the data from the Histogram on the previous page.) Mean (average) – The sum of all the measured data divided by the total
number of data points. In the example, all the data points added together equal 2,482 divided by 36 = 68.94 inches. Mode – The value repeated most often in the raw data. In this example, it is 70 inches. Median – The middle of all the measured or counted data points. For
example, in the data of 36 measurements, the median is the average of the middle values (69 + 70 = 139 divided by 2 = 69.5 inches). Measures of Dispersion Range – The maximum value minus the minimum value. Standard Deviation (SD) or Sigma – A measurement that shows how widely
dispersed any set of data is from the mean (average) of the entire data distribution. The standard deviation takes into account all the data points. It is far less sensitive to the addition of another data point than is the range, so it is a more consistent measure of variability.
Use Use a Histogram to provide information on the degree of variation of data and to indicate the distribution pattern. Drawing a curve around the heights of the bars of a Histogram shows the general shape of the distribution. Depending on the subject on which data have been collected, dispersion of data can produce a variety of Histogram shapes. Some of the more common shapes are shown on the following pages.
70 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 71
Problem Solving with Numbers
Shapes of Histograms Symmetric
Most values fall toward the center of the distribution with the variation balanced on both sides of the center. Center
Precipiced
Most of the values appear on one side of the center line, as shown below. This type of distribution could occur where there is a natural barrier, or in cases where the data have been sorted. Precipiced distribution could occur when products which do not meet a particular specification limit have been removed from the data set. Center
The Sprint Quality Handbook 71
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 72
Skewed
A skewed shape has a long tail on one side. There is more variation on one side than on the other, indicating a shift of some variable during the process. Center
Bi-Modal
In a bi-modal (or twin-peaked) shape, two peaks (modes) appear. This usually occurs when two different data groups are mixed (for example, a population of very short people is added to a population of extremely tall people). In effect, there are two Histograms pushed together. Center
72 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 73
Problem Solving with Numbers
Example After packing their luggage, George thought the suitcases felt abnormally heavy. To reassure him, Betty called their airline and asked for weights of typical customers’ suitcases. In response, the airline sent data which George and Betty used to create this Histogram.
12
Mean = 38.25 lbs n = 36 10
10
Median = 37.5 lbs
Mode = 39 lbs
8 Number of Suitcases
7 6
6
5
5 4
3 2
0 30.5
33.5
36.5
39.5
42.5
45.5
Weight (lbs) BY: ON: AT:
48.5 DATA COLLECTED Max and Lulu, baggage handlers 7/8/97 QualitAir FORMULA: N/A
George and Betty saw that their suitcases, each weighing 38 pounds, were about average, and that George had nothing to worry about.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 73
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 74
Steps 1. To construct a Histogram, draw horizontal and vertical axes. The horizontal (X-axis) shows class intervals; the vertical (Y-axis) shows frequencies. 2. Draw a bar to represent the frequency of data in each class. The bars should be touching. STEP
EQUATION
EXAMPLE 35, 34, 46, 31, 42, 39, 39, 36, 43, 40, 32, 38, 31, 41, 44, 32, 39, 45, 33, 46, 38, 34, 41, 43, 35, 39, 41, 31, 34, 43, 37, 35, 38, 39, 37, 46
Start with an unorganized set of at least 30 data points.
31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 33, 34, 34, 34, 35, 35, 35, 36, 37, 37, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 39, 39, 39, 40, 41, 41, 41, 42, 43, 43, 43, 44, 45, 46, 46, 46
Arrange the numbers in ascending or descending order.
Each number is a data point. Count the number of data points.
N
The range (R) of the set is the largest (maximum) data point minus the smallest (minimum) data point.
R=MAX-MIN
N = 36
The class (K) is used to calculate the number of bars. Class equals the square root of N. As a rule of thumb, K is a number from 6 to 12.
K=
The class width (H) is used to calculate the width of the bars. It is calculated by dividing the range by the class.
H = R/K
To begin constructing the Histogram, establish the starting point for the first class. This is equal to the minimum data point minus (the measurement unit divided by 2).
Measurement Unit (M) M = 1** Min - M/2
N
R = 46-31 = 15
K=
36 = 6 (round up)*
H = 15/6 = 2.5 (round up)* = 3
31 = 1/2 = 30.5
* It is important to round numbers up to ensure that all data points will fall between the lines on the Histogram. ** A measurement unit (M) adds precision to the development of a Histogram. If the data being measured have values of 4.53, measurement unit is 0.01. If the data values are whole numbers, the measurement unit is 1. If the data values are in tenths, the measurement unit is 0.1.
74 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 75
Problem Solving with Numbers
Now that you have established the starting point for the first class, construct a frequency table: EQUATION
STEP
EXAMPLE 30.5 + 3 = 33.5, so class limits are 30.5 to 33.5, 33.5 to 36.5, etc.
In Column 1 of the frequency table, add the class width (H) to your starting point.
Starting point + H
In Column 2, calculate the midpoint of each class.
Lower class limit + upper class limit 2
In Column 3, go back to your original set of data points and tally the number of points that fall within each class.
30.5 + 33.5 = 32 2 = midpoint of first class Suitcase weights fall within first class
Six suitcases weigh between 30.5 and 33.5 lbs.
In Column 4, add the tallies from Column 3 and record them as the frequencies of their class.
Frequency Table Class Limits
Class Midpoint
30.5 to 33.5
32
33.5 to 36.5
35
7
36.5 to 39.5
38
10
39.5 to 42.5
41
5
42.5 to 45.5
44
5
45.5 to 48.5
47
3
Tally
Frequency 6
The Sprint Quality Handbook 75
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 76
Mean–
A Mean ( X ) is the arithmetic average of a set of data. – Note: X is pronounced “X bar.”
Use Use a Mean when you want one number to represent many different numbers or when you need to know the central tendency of a group of data.
Steps 1. Add up the data points. 2. Divide the sum by the total number of data points.
X=
Sum of Data Points Total Number of Data Points
76 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 77
Problem Solving with Numbers
Pareto Chart A Pareto Chart is a type of bar chart in which the bars are arranged in descending order from the left. The basis for Pareto analysis is the “80-20” rule – 80 percent of the problems result from 20 percent of the causes.
Use Because it organizes data to show what major factors cause the problem being analyzed, use the Pareto Chart to highlight “the vital few,” not the “the trivial many.”
Example One day during their vacation, George and Betty strolled past a flower shop where exquisite daffodils were on display. Since Betty loves daffodils, she and George stopped to talk with the shop owner. He expressed concern that very few of his daffodil bulbs had survived long enough to bloom. “Aha!” thought George and Betty. “Here’s a chance for some Sprint Quality problem solving!” The shop owner explained that there are three reasons for failed blooms – too much water, too little water or a rare plant disease called daffodilli killi. “But I don’t know which of these is causing the most problems,” explained the shop owner, “so I don’t know which one to correct.” George and Betty went to the garden and examined all of the daffodil bulbs that hadn’t bloomed. After determining which problem killed each bulb, they created the Pareto Chart on the next page.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 77
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 78
Daffodil Bulb Problems Number of Bulbs Affected
70
100% 97%
87%
60 50
75%
N = 68 bulbs
40 50% 30 20
25%
10 0
0% Too Much Water
Daffodilli Killi
Problems
Too Little Water DATA COLLECTED BY: Shop owner, George and Betty ON: 7/16/97 AT: The garden FORMULA: N/A
The Pareto Chart showed that “too much water” represented 87% of the overall problem.
Steps 1. Define categories (defects by shift, location, type, etc.) and sort the data into the categories. 2. If possible, further stratify the data. (“Shift” may be broken down into “day,” “night,” and “graveyard.”) 3. Make a Bar Graph with the bars ordered in decreasing frequency from the left. Verify that the following items are done: • Bars touching. • Cumulative line from zero. • Left axis for actual data. • Right axis for percentage of total. 4. Check the chart for the Pareto pattern. A “flat” Pareto (i.e., categories with similar percentages) may indicate the need for different stratification of data. Or, a flat Pareto Chart may indicate that no special causes of variation are present. Note: If an “other” category is used, this is placed last (farthest to the
right) on the Pareto. The rule for the “other” category is that it should not be larger than any of the labeled bars on the Pareto. 78 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 79
Problem Solving with Numbers
Process Indicators Process Indicators are in-process measures of conformance to process requirements.
Use Process indicators determine if a process is on track to meet the target of an end-of-process indicator. Process indicators help signal whether Valid Customer Requirements will be met.
Example • Must book tickets by 2/97. • Must plan activities by 5/97. • Must pack by 7/10/97. This will meet the Quality Indicator of “Completely prepared for vacation on 7/11/97.”
Frequently, Process Indicators are dates by which you must complete certain processes. For example, if an end-of-process indicator is to “produce bills on time,” then Process Indicators are specific times and dates by which certain jobs in the billing process must be completed.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 79
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 80
Quality Indicators Quality Indicators (often called end-of-process indicators) are measures of how well the customer’s needs and reasonable expectations are being met. They measure conformance to valid requirements.
Use Select Quality Indicators and establish the current status (baseline). Improve the indicator by improving specific processes. When conformance to Valid Customer Requirements is above 80%, you should then focus on nonconformance to aid your improvement efforts. By focusing on nonconformance, you maintain constant pressure to improve. When measurements show that you have attained 95.6% “goodness,” there is less motivation to improve than if your measure shows that at 95.6% you still have 7,522 defects per month. Your focus must be on eliminating the 7000+ defects (assuming that it is cost-effective and adds value for the customer to do so), not on how “good” you are.
Example For George and Betty, examples of their Quality Indicators are: • Variance from budget. • Overall satisfaction with vacation. • Amount of knowledge gained. • Degree of improvement over last vacation.
80 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 81
Problem Solving with Numbers
Scatter Diagram A Scatter Diagram shows the relationship between two variables (for example: speed and gas consumption, hours worked and production output). It provides an easy way to analyze data. A Scatter Diagram clearly shows if there is a correlation between two variables: Positive correlation: as X increases, so does Y. Negative correlation: as X increases, Y decreases. No correlation: one quantity has no particular relation to the other.
Use Scatter Diagrams are typically used to verify a root cause theory. Examples of Scatter Diagrams Example 2
Example 1
Y
Y
N = 42
N = 31
Positive (Direct) Correlation: When X increases, Y increases.
X
Source: By: When:
Negative (Inverse) Correlation: When X increases, Y decreases.
X
Source: By: When:
Example 3
Y
N = 72
No Correlation: There is no immediate evidence that Y is directly affected by a change in X.
X
Source: By: When:
The Sprint Quality Handbook 81
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 82
Steps 1. Collect at least 30 pairs of data (X and Y) or at least enough to observe a significantly long trend. 2. Find the lowest and highest values for X and Y. Determine the scales for the axes. (Try to have between three and 10 graduations.) 3. Arrange the axes so the suspected driving factor (independent variable) is on the X-axis and the one influenced by it (the dependent variable) is on the Y-axis. 4. Plot the data on the chart point by point. Be sure to complete the chart with the title, dates, places, etc. 5. Identify the degree of correlation between the two variables by observing the pattern formed by the points.
82 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 83
Problem Solving with Numbers
Sigma Sigma is a measure of the capability of a process to produce perfect work. A defect is any mistake that results in customer dissatisfaction. Sigma indicates how often defects are likely to occur. The higher the Sigma level, the lower the defect rate. The lower the defect rate, the higher the quality. The mean (average) value of a distribution is usually designed to be as close as possible to what the customer requires. One measure of variation around the mean is “standard deviation” or Sigma. By mathematical derivation, 68.26% (about two-thirds) of a normal distribution will be within the first standard deviation (±1 Sigma; see chart below); 95.44% will be within ±2 Sigma; etc. This relation is used to express the number of defects expected in the products of a process. In a “one Sigma process,” 32% of the output would be defective. In a “two Sigma process,” 5% of the output would be defective. In a “six Sigma process,” only .0000002% of the output would be defective.
s= Sigma
-6s
-5s
-4s
-3s
-2s
-1s
+1s
+2s
+3s
+4s
+5s
+6s
68.26% of all items 95.44% of all items 99.73% of all items 99.9937% of all items 99.999943% of all items 99.9999998% of all items
The Sprint Quality Handbook 83
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 84
Taking the natural variation of even well-controlled processes into account, we define a “six Sigma process” as one that is 99.99966% defect-free. This means that a “six Sigma process” generates 3.4 defects per million opportunities.
Use • Helps compare different products and services on an “apples to apples” basis. • Provides a common basis for benchmarking between Sprint and others. • Measures how well an operation is performing. The higher the Sigma level, the better the performance. (Also see Standard Deviation in this section.)
84 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 85
Problem Solving with Numbers
Correlation of Defects Per Million Opportunities and Sigma Levels
This table shows that for any level of defect occurrence, there is a mathematically associated Sigma level. Number of Defects Per Million Opportunities for Error
Associated Sigma Level
66,810
3.00
38,950
3.25
22,750
3.50
11,870
3.75
6,210
4.00
2,890
4.25
1,350
4.50
560
4.75
233
5.00
86
5.25
32
5.50
10.5
5.75
3.4 6.00 Note that the magnitude of improvement is not linear between Sigma levels: • 3 Sigma to 4 Sigma requires a 10-times improvement. • 4 Sigma to 5 Sigma requires a 30-times improvement. • 5 Sigma to 6 Sigma requires a 70-times improvement.
Adapted from Understanding Six Sigma, © Motorola, Inc. 1988.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 85
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 86
Standard Deviation Standard Deviation is a measure of how close data come to the mean (average). Standard Deviation is represented by σ (Sigma).
Use Use Standard Deviation to summarize and/or compare certain characteristics of data. Use it to construct a Control Chart to determine the upper and lower control limits of a process. Use it also as part of the “checking stage” in the PDCA cycle after you have gathered the data.
Steps 1. Start with a group of data. – 2. Compute the mean (X). 3. From each data point (x1, x2, .....xN), subtract the value of the mean – (X). 4. Square each of these values and add together. 5. Divide by the number of data points less one (N-1). 6. Take the square root of this result. This is the Standard Deviation for this group of data.
=
{(x1-X)2+(x2-X)2+...(xN-X)2} (N-1) N = number of data points
86 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 87
Problem Solving with Numbers
Targets Targets are milestones, places of evaluation on the way to accomplishing a larger goal.
Example Indicator
Target
Goal
How far in advance vacation is planned.
Plan next vacation four months in advance.
Plan vacation six months in advance.
Number of suitcases.
For next vacation, take two suitcases and two carry-ons.
Take one suitcase and two carry-ons.
Money saved.
For next vacation, save enough money to stay 21/2 weeks.
Save enough money to stay three weeks.
Target
Goal
Steps Targets should be challenging but achievable during a reasonable amount of time – normally not more than a year. In setting Targets: 1. Consider the needs and reasonable expectations of the customer. If the customer’s needs are not immediately achievable, they should be kept as an ultimate goal. 2. Consider the performance of similar operations or competitors. Compare this Target to your present performance to see if it is achievable. If not, it may become a goal. Set interim Targets to ultimately achieve this goal. 3. Past performance can be used to set a Target. If your performance was once significantly better, set that as a Target and discover what has changed to make performance worse. 4. Set a Target by analyzing processes for waste. For example, if you break a process down into its components (i.e., processing, reviewing, shipping and waiting), you could try to reduce the waiting time, since it may not be necessary to the process.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 87
Section 4 - Numbers.final
5/19/98 3:14 PM
Page 88
Valid Customer Requirements Valid Customer Requirements are standards of work quality agreed upon by customers and their suppliers. Valid Customer Requirements must: • Meet the S.M.A.R.T. criteria: – Specific – Measurable – Attainable – Relevant – Timebound • Meet customer needs and reasonable expectations. • Meet corporate responsibilities (in keeping with Sprint’s Values; see Introduction to Sprint Quality).
Use As a supplier, negotiate the Valid Customer Requirements with your customers. Start by asking them to identify their needs and desires. Through questioning and consensus, agree on those requirements they need and can reasonably expect. Once established, the Valid Customer Requirements serve as a goal for producing quality products and services.
88 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:56 PM
Page 89
Tools for Problem Solving with Ideas
The Sprint Quality Handbook 89
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 90
Activity Network Diagram An Activity Network Diagram is a schedule for the completion of complex jobs.
Use It can reduce the amount of time needed to develop a plan by allowing changes to be made easily during early planning stages. Use the Activity Network Diagram to establish a finely tuned plan. It can also help you to recognize dependencies or conflicts quickly, and adjust accordingly.
Example George and Betty created an Activity Network Diagram to schedule their vacation plans. 1
Choose vacation site and date 1 week
2
2/97
Choose travel agency 1 week
3
2/97
Book plane and hotel reservations 1 week
4
5
Purchase clothes, supplies, etc. 3 months
6
Research: library, bookstores, Internet, travel agencies, ask others 3/97 1 month 4/97
Develop itinerary and budget 1 week
3/97 - 6/97
7
4/97
5/97
Arrange house, cat sitter 1 week
5/97
6/97
Pack
8 1 week
90 The Sprint Quality Handbook
2/97
9 7/97
Go on vacation and enjoy! 2 weeks
7/97
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 91
Problem Solving with Ideas
Steps 1. Record all of the tasks necessary to complete the plan. This list could come from a Tree Diagram or a Brainstorming session. 2. Write each task in the upper right-hand portion of a job card. Job Card Example:
Task 1 Duration
EST LST
3. Arrange the job cards in sequential and parallel order. Ask: “Which tasks must be completed before this task? Which tasks can be completed while this task is being completed?” A. Remove duplicate cards or add new ones as necessary. B. When the cards are arranged, assign each task a number and write it on the job card. C. Draw arrows from each job card to the one immediately following it. 4. Estimate how long it will take to complete each job. 5. Record the estimated time to complete each task on the bottom-left of the job card (“Duration”). 6. Determine the critical path by finding which path has the longest completion time from start to finish. This tells you how long it will take to complete the project. 7. Beginning at the start node, calculate the earliest start time (EST) for each task, given its predecessors. Write the EST number on the job card. 8. Beginning at the end node, determine the latest start time (LST) each task could be started to still finish the project on schedule. Write that number below the EST. 9. Schedule dates for final plan.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 91
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 92
Affinity Diagram An Affinity Diagram is a collection of ideas and/or issues organized into related groups for analysis.
Use It aids in decision-making. Determined to make their vacation a success, Betty and George brain-
Example stormed on “how we can make this vacation better than last year’s.” They organized their responses into an Affinity Diagram. Travel Preparation
Site Planning
Personal Attitudes
Better hotel service
Bring something to do if it rains
Go someplace with better climate; not so hot
Fight less
Work with friendlier travel agency
Double-check hotel and plane reser vations
Go someplace where we know language
Stay healthy
Stay at cleaner hotel
Get traveler’s checks
Eat better food; research restaurants more
Maintain more cheerful attitude
Get more sleep; quieter hotel
Rent car to get around
Know more about area where we’re going
Have friend check on house while we’re gone
Plan more activities; don’t want to be bored
Service
Pack less
92 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 93
Problem Solving with Ideas
Steps 1. Choose a recorder. 2. Write the problem or issue on a flip chart. All members should agree on this statement before the group proceeds. 3. Generate ideas about the problem or issue by open discussion, brainstorming or generating ideas silently. If you discuss or brainstorm, write down members’ responses as stated (one per sticky note or index card). Members should write their own responses if they generate ideas silently. 4. Put the sticky notes onto the wall or flip chart in any order. If you are using index cards, spread them out on a table. 5. Silently, team members should move similar sticky notes/index cards into clusters. Move a response as many times as necessary until you find a permanent home for it. A cluster may have only one item in it. Collect items that do not fit into any clusters and form a “miscellaneous” cluster. 6. Label each cluster with a header card through team discussion. The label can be one of the responses in the cluster, but it does not have to be. Once clusters are labeled, the team should review the items in the “miscellaneous” cluster to determine if they fit within an identified group. 7. Identify clusters. If you are using sticky notes, draw a circle around each cluster. If you are using index cards, tape the clusters to the flip chart paper, and then draw a circle around each cluster. 8. Discuss each cluster, its individual items and the relationship of the clusters to the problem to gain a better understanding of the issues and plan future steps.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 93
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 94
Baldrige (Malcolm) National Quality Award The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is an annual award to recognize U.S. companies for performance excellence. The President of the United States presents the awards, which may be given in each of three categories: • Manufacturing Companies • Service Companies • Small Businesses The Baldrige Award uses criteria in seven areas to select recipients: 1. Leadership 2. Strategic Planning 3. Customer and Market Focus 4. Information and Analysis 5. Human Resource Focus 6. Process Management 7. Business Results These criteria serve several roles: • Give feedback to applicants on strengths and areas for improvement. • Help improve performance practices and capabilities. • Facilitate communication and sharing of best practices. • Serve as a working tool for understanding and managing performance, planning, training and assessment. The criteria are designed to help companies enhance their competitiveness through focus on dual, results-oriented goals: • Delivery of ever-improving value to customers, resulting in marketplace success. • Improvement of overall company performance and capabilities. Adapted from the 1998 Criteria for Performance Excellence, Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Awards.
94 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 95
Problem Solving with Ideas
Criteria Framework for Baldrige Award Customer and Market Focused Strategy and Action Plans 2 Strategic Planning
5 Human Resource Focus
7 Business Results
1 Leadership
3 Customer and Market Focus
6 Process Management
4 Information and Analysis
The Sprint Quality Handbook 95
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 96
Benchmarking Benchmarking is the process of searching for the best methods and processes, learning about them and using that knowledge to improve your own processes.
Use Use Benchmarking as part of process improvement. Examine the practices of companies that perform at higher levels than Sprint. Benchmarking can be conducted within the same industry, but sometimes the most innovative improvements result from studying completely different industries. Benchmarking allows organizations to: • See a need for change (compare company performance to other companies’ performance). • Develop a vision for the future (and understand operations within those other companies). • Know what needs to be changed (adapt practices from those companies exhibiting higher performance). Sprint Benchmarking • Develop Action Plans
• Determine what process to study
• Implement and monitor • Focus on continuous improvement
• Determine performance gap and goals (current and future) • Identify enabling practices • Select and recommend improvements
96 The Sprint Quality Handbook
A
P
C
D
• Understand own process, measurements and current performance • Plan Benchmarking project
• Collect secondary data • Determine Benchmarking participants • Conduct study
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 97
Problem Solving with Ideas
The Benchmarking code of conduct is used by many high-performing companies to ensure a mutually beneficial relationship between the organizations involved in the Benchmarking. Rules for Benchmarking Legality – Avoid discussions or actions that might lead to or imply
restraint of trade. Do not discuss costs if costs are an element of pricing. Exchange – Be willing to provide the same level of information that
you request. Confidentiality – Treat interchanges as something confidential to the
individuals and organizations involved. Use – Only use the information obtained to improve the participating
companies themselves. Contact – Make contacts through proper channels. Preparation – Be prepared at each step in the Benchmarking process, particularly at initial company contact.
More Sprint has a corporate Benchmarking office that serves as the Benchmarking educational, consulting and coordinating resource for the entire company. If you wish to learn more about pursuing Sprint Benchmarking or if you are being contacted about participating in Benchmarking, contact the corporate Benchmarking office for information and assistance. Note: It is highly recommended that Sprint management and associates
contact the Benchmarking department before contacting any external company. Benchmarking with external companies requires substantial preparation and coordination to gain the desired results.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 97
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 98
Brown Paper A Brown Paper is a flowchart technique. Teams draw a process on large paper that is taped to a wall. Then they review and change the process to make it operate as effectively as possible.
Use The Brown Paper technique is used to: • Document steps, forms, interfaces, tools, decision points and information sources of a process. • Show the big picture: “the forest and the trees.” • Improve understanding of a process. • Train people. • Encourage participation and feedback. • Define conditions such as: – As is (actual process in use today). – Should be (improved process). – Could be (ideal process).
Steps 1. Assemble the people who perform the process. 2. Identify one stream of activity and flow it from start to finish. (It’s confusing to try to understand and document several different flows at once.) 3. Gather facts: ask “why” and evaluate the information after the Brown Paper is complete. 4. Understand that different people often perform the same process differently – try to incorporate all ways of performing the process.
98 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 99
Problem Solving with Ideas
5. Ask questions to cover all areas: What high-level processes do we perform? What causes the process to begin? How do we perform the processes? Where does the service or material come from? To whom do we send materials or provide service? When do we do this? What decisions do we make? What forms do we use? 6. Start process steps with an action verb. 7. Each time the process can split into more than one path, document how often each path is taken.
More Here are some additional tips for creating an effective Brown Paper: • Place paper pieces 6"- 8" apart because: – They’re easier to read. – Details might be forgotten and will need to be added later. – Feedback from others is encouraged and comments can be added. • Flow in a horizontal direction. • Use different colors of markers for short alternative paths. • Do not draw flow arrows until the Brown Paper is finished. • Post in a public area and encourage comments.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 99
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 100
Chairman’s Quality Award The Chairman’s Quality Award (CQA) is an improvement strategy which includes an annual award presented by the Chairman and CEO of Sprint. The purpose of the CQA is “to provide recognition of exceptional department/business unit performance in order to accelerate Sprint’s achievements” (Chairman’s Quality Award, 1998). Applicants for the Award can receive commendation in three areas: 1. Chairman’s Quality Award (Gold, Silver, Bronze and Honorable Mention) 2. Facet of Excellence Award (exceptional performance in any of several areas) 3. Annual Improvement Award (score increase of 100 points or more, year over year) The CQA Criteria match those of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award: • Leadership
• Human Resource Focus
• Strategic Planning
• Process Management
• Customer and Market Focus
• Business Results
• Information and Analysis The CQA is also based on several core concepts: • Customer Driven Quality
• Long-range View of the Future
• Leadership
• Management by Fact
• Continuous Improvement and Learning
• Partnership Development
• Valuing Employees
• Corporate Responsibility and Citizenship
• Fast Response
• Results Focus
• Design Quality and Prevention Applicants for the Chairman’s Quality Award receive a feedback report detailing strengths and areas for improvement in each of the areas that make up the criteria.
100 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 101
Problem Solving with Ideas
Checklist A Checklist (as opposed to a Check Sheet) is a list of items that need attention or steps that need action. For example: the QI Story Review Form is a Checklist for the QI Story process.
Use You can use a technique such as Brainstorming to generate a good list.
Example Recalling how annoying it was to arrive with no toothpaste or mascara, Betty made a Checklist of her toiletries to pack. Pack the Following
Completed
1. Toothbrush
✔
2. Toothpaste
✔
3. Contacts
✔
4. Contact solution
✔
5. Face soap
✔
6. Razor
✔
7. Shampoo
✔
8. Conditioner
✔
9. Comb
✔
10. Brush
✔
11. Makeup
✔
The Sprint Quality Handbook 101
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 102
Control System A Control System combines a process flow chart (see Flowcharts) with information such as measurements, responsibilities, time, standards or procedures, etc.
Use Use a Control System to document procedures. Make entries corresponding to the appropriate steps and decision points. Each entry describes a Process Indicator (P1, P2, etc.) or a Quality Indicator (QI1, QI2, etc.).
Example For a more detailed layout of their process for researching Sprintsville Beach, George and Betty created a Control System. Step
1
George and Betty
Library
START
Identify good travel books
Bookstore
Travel Agency
PI1 YES Need to buy?
2
Purchase books PI2
NO
Borrow from library
3
PI3
4
Complete research
QI1, QI2
5
102 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Make reservations
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 103
Problem Solving with Ideas
Information contained in the entries may include the following: The indicator – how data are calculated, frequency of measurement,
responsibility for checking targets or limits, supporting standards or procedures. The activity – purpose, frequency, responsibility, standards or procedures. The time – length of time to complete (how much this process activity contributes to total cycle time). The standards or procedures – formal documentation of work process,
where you might go to find how to handle “special causes.”
Standards or Remarks Procedures
Process Indicator
Limit or Target
Criteria
PI1 Number of travel books identified
5
Number of books that provide useful info
$40
Total spent
Per vacation
George and Betty
Summarize checkbook
PI3 Overdue book fines
$0
Resulting from late return
Daily
George and Betty
Keep track of expenses
QI1 Number of activities
1 per day
Satisfy expectations
Per vacation
George and Betty
QI2 Time it takes to complete process
30 days
From start of planning to reservations
Per vacation
George and Betty
PI2 Money spent on travel books
Frequency
Responsibility
George and Betty
The Sprint Quality Handbook 103
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 104
Flowcharts Flowcharts are graphic representations of a process that show how it proceeds.
Use Flowcharts help you: • Identify how, when, or where to measure an existing process to see if it complies with valid requirements. • Document or describe an existing process. • Develop modifications to an existing process or investigate where problems might occur. • Design an entirely new process. Think of a Flowchart as a map of steps for completing a task or job. Specific symbols are used to indicate certain activities: Oval
Line or Arrow
Square or Rectangle
Diamond
or
Start and end points
Triangle
Indicates establishment of file and process of filing something; identify different files with letters
Connects events, directs flow
Document
Indicates documents and number of copies
104 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Operation or activity identified with brief description
Decision point, characterized by question
Continuation
Continuation
A
1
Means continued on same page
Means continued on other page
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 105
Problem Solving with Ideas
Example Choosing Things to Do So much to do, so little time. Betty and George used a flowchart to define the process they’ll use to choose activities at Sprintsville Beach.
START
NO Research: library, bookstores, Internet, travel agency, ask others
Are there available spaces?
YES
Decide on possible activities
Book activity reservations
Check on prices
END
Do activities fit within our price range?
NO
YES
Call places that offer activities; check times and availability
Do activities fit into our schedule?
NO
YES
The Sprint Quality Handbook 105
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 106
Steps 1. Identify the department and define the process to be flowcharted. 2. Determine where the process begins and who starts the process. If others participate in the process, arrange for them to be interviewed. 3. Identify and list process steps, extending detail at this time only to the level needed for understanding. 4. Continue and complete all steps of the process. 5. Use a draft Flowchart for review and corrections, if needed. The final Flowchart may be used for improvements to the system. Draw a Flowchart of the improved process for future use.
Adapted from Total Management Team, Lewis Tisher, Amhurst, N.H.
106 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 107
Problem Solving with Ideas
More Flowchart Variations
Some variations of Flowcharts are Brown Papers, Control Systems, Process Flowcharts and Task-on-Arrow diagrams. A Process Flowchart indicates who or what department is responsible for each step. Headings for each department are located across the top of the page. Time is represented by the process steps, shown running down the left-hand side of the flowchart. The process flows from left to right and from top to bottom. Below is a flowchart showing the process George and Betty used to select Sprintsville Beach as their vacation destination. Step
1
George and Betty
Library
START
Identify good travel books
Bookstore
Travel Agency
YES Need to buy?
2
Purchase books
NO
Borrow from library
3
4
5
Complete research
Make reservations
Note: See Brown Paper, Control System and Task-on-Arrow for more
information. The Sprint Quality Handbook 107
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 108
Interrelationship Diagram An Interrelationship Diagram is a creative process that shows how every idea can be logically linked with more than one other idea at a time. It takes a central idea, issue, or problem and maps out sequential links among related items.
Use Use the Interrelationship Diagram to develop policies, implement improvements, promote group activities, rework departmental processes, etc.
Example An Affinity Diagram helped George and Betty answer the question “What would make this year’s vacation better?” but they also wanted to find out the key cause-and-effect factors for creating a better vacation. To do that, they created an Interrelationship Diagram. 3/3 Personal Attitudes
2/2 Travel Preparation
How can we make this year’s vacation better than last year’s?
3/2
4/1 Service
Site Planning
After studying their diagram, George and Betty discovered that “site planning” was the key cause of their past horrible vacation, and “personal attitudes” was the key effect.
108 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 109
Problem Solving with Ideas
Steps 1. After generating an Affinity Diagram, place the problem or issue in the middle of a flip chart, drawing a double-lined circle around the problem. 2. Arrange the header cards from the Affinity Diagram in a circle around the problem. 3. Draw an arrow connecting related ideas. The idea with the arrow pointing to it is the effect, and the idea with the arrow pointing away from it is the cause. 4. Once all cause-and-effect relationships have been established, count the number of arrows pointing away from and toward each card. Place these numbers on top of the idea card (i.e., number away/number toward). 5. Identify the key cause by determining the idea card with the most arrows pointing away from it. Draw a double box around this idea card. 6. Identify the key effect by determining the idea card with the most arrows pointing toward it. 7. Figure out the sequence of intermediate causes between the key causal and key effect factors.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 109
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 110
More To create variations of an Interrelationship diagram: • Construct an Interrelationship Diagram using one header card from the Affinity Diagram and the cards listed under it. This method focuses the Interrelationship Diagram on the relationships between the ideas that comprise one of the basic building blocks of the problem. You may want to Brainstorm for more ideas to fill in any gaps about the problem. • Construct an Interrelationship Diagram using all the cards from the Affinity Diagram. This method focuses the Interrelationship Diagram on all aspects of the problem, although it may yield a cumbersome diagram because of the number of items involved. • Use a problem statement from a source other than an Affinity Diagram. If you use this method, you will need to Brainstorm for ideas related to the problem statement and write them on individual cards/sticky notes. Use these ideas to construct the Interrelationship Diagram.
110 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 111
Problem Solving with Ideas
Ishikawa Diagram (Cause-and-Effect or Fishbone) An Ishikawa Diagram (also known as a Cause-and-Effect Diagram or a Fishbone Diagram) is a picture composed of lines and words designed to show a meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes. This tool is often used after you have constructed a Pareto Chart to better define a problem area.
Use This tool helps you identify a problem’s root causes so that you can take corrective action. B
A
Effect D
C
Example: To avoid making the same mistakes again, George and Betty analyzed their last vacation to see what went wrong. To help them determine root causes, they constructed an Ishikawa Diagram. People
Methods Poor hotel service
Fought all the time
We chose poorly
George got sick Drank contaminated water
Not enough research into lodgings
Tired/irritable
Disagreed on what to do Not enough time to prepare
Didn’t discuss expectations beforehand
Too hot Delayed flights Didn’t bring right clothes Didn’t check weather
Environment
Had a horrible vacation at Servis Terribla
Transportation problems
No money No traveler’s checks Wallet stolen
Plane malfunctions
No car
Didn’t know we’d need one
Didn’t pay attention Kept wallet in back pocket
Machines
Materials
The Sprint Quality Handbook 111
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 112
Steps 1. Draw the Ishikawa Diagram. Starting at the right, build the major categories (bones) toward the left. 2. Write the problem statement in the head box of the Ishikawa Diagram. 3. Determine the major categories of the Ishikawa Diagram that relate to the effect. Here are three ways to determine the categories: A. Review the generic categories of: • People • Methods • Machines • Materials • Environment Match them, if possible, with major contributors to the problem. For example, George and Betty wanted to figure out the root causes for last year’s unsatisfactory vacation, so they used “transportation,” “the weather” and the other examples shown below as the major bones of their Fishbone: Generic Categories:
Major Contributors:
People Methods Machines Materials Environment
George and Betty Hotel Transportation Money Weather
B. Break down the process into its major activities by creating a Flowchart. Then assign each activity a major bone. C. Brainstorm possible causes of the problem. Review in detail at least one instance of the problem. Be sure to understand how it occurred and what the situation was when it occurred. After generating the list, segment the ideas into major categories and use as major bones. Note: Before attempting to draw the actual Ishikawa Diagram, it
is helpful to use Brainstorming techniques and record the feedback on flip charts. This method frequently reduces rework.
112 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 113
Problem Solving with Ideas
4. Prioritize the major categories in descending order, beginning with the category that has the highest likelihood of producing a root cause. Position the categories with the highest priority closest to the effect. B
A
Effect D
C
In the Ishikawa Diagram with four major categories or bones shown above, the prioritization order would be A, C, B, D. (A is the major bone aligned most closely to the head of the fish, followed by C, B and D.) 5. Once you establish the major categories, begin with the category you’ve identified as most likely to produce the actionable root cause (the category aligned most closely to the head of the fish) and begin to ask “why”: • Why does this occur? • Why does this condition exist? Show the answers to these “why” questions as smaller bones off the main bone. Try to break each bone into at least five sub-bones to get to the root of the problem.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 113
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 114
Be sure to check the logic of your diagram in both directions, as shown below. (Item a1 is caused by a2, which is caused by a3. Then, in reverse, a3 caused a2, which caused a1.) Errors in logic often will not surface until you try the second direction. B
A a1 a2 a3
a4 a5
Effect
D
C
Now revisit each sub-bone for additional causes; move back to a2 and ask again, “Why does a2 occur?” Next, ask, “Why does a1 occur?” Continue this process of asking “why” back to the major bone. 6. Complete the entire Ishikawa Diagram before moving to the next step. 7. Identify the likely, actionable root cause(s) and circle (or cloud) the last element in the chain. 8. Collect data to verify the most likely root cause.
114 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 115
Problem Solving with Ideas
An Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming Process 1. Hand out pads of sticky notes to each team member. 2. Each team member should Brainstorm potential root causes, one idea per sticky note. Follow the rules of Brainstorming (no ideas are dumb, no clarification at this point, etc.). Continue Brainstorming until all team members feel they have exhausted their ideas. 3. Team members put their sticky notes onto a flip chart page. One member reads all the ideas. Again, do not critique any ideas, but allow brief clarification. 4. Similar ideas are grouped by logical categories, (i.e., resource issues, management issues, etc.). Do not group ideas according to people, method, materials, machinery and environment. Instead, use whatever categories seem logical. 5. Where duplicate ideas are identified, reach Consensus on keeping one idea and discarding the others. 6. Where ideas are similar but not really duplicates, reach Consensus on consolidating ideas into one. (This may not be possible in all cases and should not be overdone.) 7. If a new idea surfaces during this phase, write it on a new sticky note and add it to the rest. 8. Reach final Consensus on Ishikawa categories. Strive for approximately five categories (three, at minimum). 9. Reach final Consensus on what the sub-bones will say. 10. By category, place fishbones on flip chart worksheets with space designated for multiples of five “why questions” under each bone (see George and Betty’s example on the next page). 11. Verify the logic of each fishbone until all fishbones on the worksheets are complete. 12. Transfer the worksheet information onto a true Ishikawa Diagram, and circle or cloud root causes.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 115
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 116
Example Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming Process Chart Categories for why George and Betty had an awful vacation last year: No money No traveler’s checks
Wallet stolen
Fought all the time George got sick
Tired/irritable
Transportation problems Delayed flights
No car
Poor hotel service We chose poorly
Too hot Didn’t bring right clothes
116 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Disagreed on what to do
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 117
Problem Solving with Ideas
Alternative Ishikawa Diagramming Process Chart A flip chart for the category of ’fought all the time.‘
Fought all the time George got sick
Bone from Brainstorming
Worksheet for “Why”s
Tired/irritable
Disageed on what to do
The Sprint Quality Handbook 117
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 118
Levels of Quality We can think of quality as consisting of three levels that, when combined, determine the degree to which an organization can achieve performance excellence. The three levels are: Organizational Quality – where top management identifies the traits required to be competitive, determines an appropriate strategy and establishes the necessary policies, budgets, goals and measures. Process Quality – where service is produced, including design,
production, order-entry, materials acquisition, etc. Individual Quality – where people create and provide services.
118 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 119
Problem Solving with Ideas
The Three Levels of Quality SPRINT QUALITY
COMPONENTS
ORGANIZATION LEVEL OF QUALITY
Establish Organization Strategy
• Vision & Mission Statements • Objectives Based on Customer Requirements
Describe Operational System
• Organizational Chart • Key Responsibilities/Job Descriptions (Led by your senior level management)
PROCESS LEVEL OF QUALITY
Manage Processes (QI Story Step 1)
Improve Processes (QI Story Steps 2-7)
Develop Process Standards
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL OF QUALITY
OUTPUTS
• • • •
Process Identification and Assessment Process/Subprocess Owners Established Improvement Opportunities Ranking Process Improvement Teams
• “As is” Process Assessment • Improving Opportunity and Appropriate Methodology Selection • Business Review Document/QI Stories • Business Review Meetings • Measurements • Documented Standards (Led by your middle management)
Define Individual Responsibilities
• Job Responsibility/Process Matrix • Job Responsibility/Standards
Communicate Expectations
• Performance Expectations • Employee Performance Measures
Create Recognition & Rewards Systems
• Management Support • Performance Assessment
Develop Employee Skills & Knowledge
• Development Plan • Performance Improvement
Provide Resources
• Resource Monitoring System • Appropriate Budget
Provide Feedback
• Performance Monitoring System • Performance Review
Measure Employee Satisfaction
Establish Career Plans
• Employee Survey • Action Plans • Assessment • Career Development Plan
(All employees participate in these activities)
The Sprint Quality Handbook 119
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 120
Matrix Diagram A Matrix Diagram is a chart that helps identify the most important items within a large quantity of information.
Use Use the Matrix Diagram to clarify responsibilities and to identify priorities for improvements.
Example One part of their last vacation that George and Betty particularly disliked was the number of fights they had. To figure out what they could do to reduce disagreements, they constructed a Matrix Diagram. Friends Travel Agent Betty George Problem
Major Causes
Details
Assignable Tasks Ask travel agent
Library
Didn’t discuss expectations beforehand Disagreed on which activities to do
Fought too much
Didn’t know full range of activities available
Research area’s activities
Bookstores
Bring guidebook
Ask friends who’ve traveled
Both tired Internet
George got sick
Primary Responsibility From Tree Diagram
Secondary Responsibility Keep Informed
120 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #1.final
5/19/98 2:57 PM
Page 121
Problem Solving with Ideas
Steps 1. Select a problem or issue. 2. Identify the specific issues and their interrelationships that you will study. 3. Decide on the matrix format. 4. Place details about the issues on the Matrix Diagram so that they form the axes of the matrix. (These may come from Tree Diagrams.) 5. Draw in the lines of the matrix. 6. Determine the symbols you will use to illustrate relationships. Include a legend of the symbols on the Matrix Diagram. • The most common symbols used to depict functional responsibilities are: Primary Responsibility Secondary Responsibility Tertiary Responsibility • The most common symbols used to depict relationships between quality characteristics are: Extremely Important Important Less Important 7. Enter the appropriate symbol in each cell of the Matrix Diagram. The symbol should describe the nature of the relationship between the idea on the horizontal axis and the idea on the vertical axis. 8. Analyze the matrix by: • Studying and understanding the relationships between the problems. • Locating and plugging any holes between the issues being studied.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 121
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 122
Potential Improvements Matrix The Potential Improvements Matrix helps you show the relationship between effects, root causes and potential improvements. It also helps you choose which potential improvements to implement.
Example After George and Betty created their Ishikawa Diagram and figured out the root causes of their terrible vacation last year, they wanted to pin down specific actions to make this year’s vacation better. To help themselves decide which improvements to make, they constructed a Potential Improvements Matrix. Practical Methods Potential Improvement
Root Cause
Get more sleep
Go to sleep earlier
Low energy made us cranky
Problem Had a horrible vacation
Take nap during day
Get more exercise
Exercise regularly before we go
Make time
Take more time off beforehand
Start earlier
Start planning 6 months in advance
Not enough time to prepare
After studying their Potential Improvements Matrix, George and Betty decided to go to sleep earlier and start planning the vacation six months in advance.
122 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 123
Problem Solving with Ideas
Feasibility
Effectiveness x Feasibility
Action
5
3
15
N
5
5
25
Y
4
3
12
N
4
2
8
N
5
5
25
Y
Effectiveness
The Sprint Quality Handbook 123
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 124
Steps 1. After verifying the significant root causes, fill in the first two columns of the matrix (“problem” and “root cause”). 2. Next, identify potential improvements that address each of the root causes. 3. In the “practical methods” column, list specific tasks to accomplish the potential improvement. 4. Consider the likely effectiveness and feasibility of each potential improvement and rate it accordingly. Assign higher ratings to those potential improvements that are more effective and more feasible. 5. Multiply the ratings and rank the potential improvements for implementation. 6. Determine how many of the potential improvements should be implemented. They should be within your resources and allow you to achieve your target. 7. Write “yes” or “no” in the action column to indicate if the potential improvement will be implemented. Note: When determining the ratings for effectiveness and feasibility, it
helps to come to Consensus on the ratings rather than using an average of each participant’s ratings.
124 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 125
Problem Solving with Ideas
Prioritization Matrix A Prioritization Matrix helps evaluate several alternatives based on three or more quality dimensions.
Example George and Betty researched several hotels in the Sprintsville Beach area. To help choose where to stay, they created a Prioritization Matrix. Alternatives Quality Dimensions
Sand ‘N’ Surf Motel
Quality Resort
Stopawhile Inn
Beachhead Resort
3
4
5
2
B. Proximity to Beach
3
5
1
5
C. Service Reputation
2
5
3
4
D. Room Size
3
5
2
4
E. Variety of Activities Offered
2
4
1
5
108
2000
30
800
A. Price
Overall Score
After looking at each hotel’s score, George and Betty decided to stay at the Quality Resort.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 125
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 126
Steps 1. Identify the quality dimensions that are important. 2. Describe an “ideal” item that would satisfy these quality dimensions. 3. Rate the alternatives against each of the specified quality dimensions using a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being closest to ideal. Do this by collecting actual data if it exists or by rating the alternatives subjectively. 4. Summarize the data in a table. 5. Compute an overall score by multiplying individual ratings down the columns. For an alternate display of the information, plot the data from the Prioritization Matrix. With spokes representing the quality dimensions, plot each of the alternative’s score and connect the dots. (See next page for an example.)
126 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 127
Problem Solving with Ideas
Example For an alternate display of their Prioritization Matrix, George and Betty constructed a plot of the hotel data they had compiled.
A E B
D
C
Criteria
Hotel
A. Price
Sand ‘N’ Surf Motel
B. Proximity to Beach C. Service Reputation
Quality Resort
D. Room Size
Stopawhile Inn
E. Variety of Activities Offered
Beachhead Resort
George and Betty knew that an ideal Prioritization Matrix Plot would show a line hitting the outer end of all five spokes of the plot. The Quality Resort came the closest to resembling this ideal.
Note: The following assumptions are made when constructing a
Prioritization Matrix: • The dimensions are independent of each other. • The dimensions are equally important to the problem under study. • It is possible to describe an ideal item with respect to the dimensions under study.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 127
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 128
Problem Statement A Problem Statement defines a problem using facts and data. It describes the present undesirable situation in specific, concrete terms. A good Problem Statement includes the following: • It states the effect. It states what is wrong and defines the actual problem rather than the symptoms. • It focuses on the gap between what is and what should be. The gap may be a deviation from the standard or the customer’s expectation. • It is measurable. It says how often, how much and when. • It is specific. It avoids ambiguous words like “some,” “sometimes,” “a few,” “many,” etc. • It is a statement. It does not pose problems as questions. • It focuses on the pain. The Problem Statement highlights areas of discomfort, hurt or annoyance.
Example To make sure they improve this year’s vacation, George and Betty developed some Problem Statements about their dissatisfaction with last year’s vacation.
Last year’s vacation resulted in our feeling that we were rushed, overpacked, poorly informed about the area’s activities, and we booked reservations at a shoddy hotel. On last year’s vacation, our wallets were stolen and we lost $500.
128 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 129
Problem Solving with Ideas
A Problem Statement Checklist
Use a Problem Statement Checklist to evaluate Problem Statements. Problem Statements do not need to meet all six categories, but the more categories each potential Problem Statement meets, the clearer it is likely to be. Problem Statement
(A)
It asks Who, What, When, Where - but NOT Why.
It states the effect, NOT the cause.
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
It focuses on It is specific It is stated – It is the gap – avoids avoids measurable. between “what ambiguous questions. is” and “what words. should be.”
(F)
It focuses on the pain HOW things are affected.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 129
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 130
Process A Process is a sequence of activities using specific inputs to produce desired outputs. Processes involve one or more of these components: • People • Machines (tools, equipment, PCs, etc.) • Methods (procedures, policies, technology, etc.) • Materials (forms, software, wire, etc.) • Environment Process analysis is the study of a process to identify and understand its inputs, components and outputs. Process capability is a measure of the ability of a process to produce a consistent product or service. A Process owner is an individual who, using a team approach, coordinates a process and is ultimately accountable for its effectiveness.
130 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 131
Problem Solving with Ideas
Process Block Diagram A Process Block Diagram is a Flow Chart that helps develop a highlevel understanding of a process. It shows how major work groups within the process interact with other organizations.
Use You can use a Process Block Diagram to: • Break a complex process down into subprocesses for more manageable analysis. • Give a “big picture” view of how processes fit together. • Trace various paths that materials and information can take from supplier input to final output. • Show the hand-off points between sub-processes. • Establish process ownership.
Example George and Betty have made a final decision to stay at the Quality Resort in Sprintsville Beach. They made a Process Block Diagram for the travel reservation process: Make Plane and Hotel Reservations George and Betty
Travel Agent
Airline Agent
Call travel agent; give dates for travel and hotel stay
Call airline agent; make reservation for George and Betty
Reserve seats for George and Betty on specified dates
Call hotel agent, make reservation for George and Betty
Write down flight and reservation numbers to take on trip
Hotel Agent
Reserve rooms for George and Betty on specified dates
Call George and Betty to confirm reservations
The Sprint Quality Handbook 131
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 132
Steps 1. Getting Started – Questions to keep in mind: • What activity triggers the process? • What major job activities are performed? • What other organizations are involved? • Who “owns” those pieces of the process? • What products or services are you accountable for? • What are the activities you perform to produce these products or services? 2. Process Naming • Use the verb-noun format. Avoid the words “for,” “in,” or “with.” (These may show goals or objectives.) Example: Reserve Rooms • Use present tense verbs. Don’t use “-ing,” “-tion,” or “-ment.” (These may show function rather than process.) • Avoid multiple verbs and nouns joined by “and” or “or.” (These may indicate hidden sub-processes.) • Identify “what” is being performed, not “how” or “why.”
132 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 133
Problem Solving with Ideas
Process Decision Program Chart A Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) is a tool for identifying and preventing potential problems.
Use The PDPC can be used to set up LINK objectives, map out contingencies, plan projects or implement improvements.
Example To investigate and prepare for problems that could arise during their vacation, George and Betty constructed a Process Decision Program Chart: Can’t agree Choose vacation site
Star t discussing sites early
All sites already full
Can’t get time off work Make basic choices Choose vacation date Planning a vacation
As vacation approaches, get too busy to leave
Choose off-peak date and inform work in advance
Research Will choose same date as everyone else – crowds Make arrangements for absence All hotels already full Develop budget
Choose hotel
Go to site with many hotels to choose from
Won’t be able to find quality hotel in site area
The Sprint Quality Handbook 133
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 134
Steps 1. Lay out the basic flow of planned activities using a Tree Diagram. 2. Working with each branch of the Tree Diagram and starting with the left-most item, Brainstorm the answer to “What are the potential problems that could arise while completing this action item?” 3. Record the problems on a new set of branches on the right side of the Tree Diagram. 4. Brainstorm causes for each problem. Add these to the diagram. 5. When you have broken down the problems into root causes, Brainstorm contingency plans for each of them. Record the contingency plans opposite the appropriate spot on the Tree Diagram. Enclose the contingency plans in small clouds. 6. Continue in this manner, moving to the right, until you have analyzed all branches of the Tree Diagram.
134 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 135
Problem Solving with Ideas
Process Decomposition Diagram A Process Decomposition Diagram depicts processes broken down into lower levels of detail (sub-processes).
Use The Process Decomposition Diagram is used to: • Break down a complex process for easier analysis. • Give a “big picture” view of how processes fit together. • Provide a foundation for process ownership.
Example When Betty expressed interest in the Quality Resort’s process of providing lodging, the part-time desk clerk, who was studying quality in college, used a Tree Diagram to draw up a Process Decomposition Diagram for her. Tier 1 Process
Tier 2 Process
Tier 3 Process
Book room reservations
Keep accurate records
Bill customers
Provide lodging
Housekeeping staff
Food service staff
Desk staff Manage staff Bellhop staff
Activities staff
Beach staff
The Sprint Quality Handbook 135
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 136
Steps 1. Getting Started – Questions to keep in mind: • What is your assigned purpose? • What major job activities do you perform? • What are your major roles and responsibilities? • What products or services are you accountable for? • What are the activities you perform to produce these products or services? 2. Process Naming Decompose to the lowest economical level that establishes accountability, responsibility and control. You probably will not need to identify elementary processes such as “open the mail” or “turn on the computer.” Remember:
• Decomposition Diagrams depict hierarchy – not sequence, decision matrices or organization charts. • Follow the 5-to-9 guideline: Normally, a process should not be decomposed into more than nine sub-processes or less than five sub-processes. Avoid one-to-one relationships. • If a process has multiple sets of procedures, then multiple subprocesses may exist. • If a process has one procedure step, then the process has been decomposed too much.
136 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 137
Problem Solving with Ideas
Process Improvement Process Improvement is a systematic way to analyze and improve Sprint’s processes, thereby improving the way Sprint operates. See Levels of Quality in this handbook for an approach to Process Improvement.
Use Process Improvement helps: • Reduce time devoted to crisis management and fire-fighting. • Clarify work priorities. • Eliminate rework and complexity. • Identify and remove root causes. Process Improvement addresses: • How a process does work. • How a process should work. • Unnecessary steps and errors. • Variation in inputs and outputs. Process Improvement will improve: • Customer Satisfaction • Effectiveness • Efficiency • Morale • Adaptability Process Improvement will reduce: • Cost • Cycle Time • Variation • Bureaucracy
The Sprint Quality Handbook 137
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 138
Understanding Process Improvement
Senior management selects high-level, high-impact processes that affect customers and the business and that need to be improved. Senior management selects these processes using a type of process selection matrix that consists of: • Customer Impact • Willingness to Change • Current Performance • Business Impact • Cost of Nonconformance Organizations should consider quality issues not only in their own work areas, but also throughout all areas covered by the process. They should also be familiar with the three levels of quality shown below. • Organizational • Process • Individual Before you can improve a process, you must bring it into “control.” Control Charts provide an excellent tool for observing the state of a process. If the process is “out of control,” you should form teams to solve the problems that are responsible for the “special causes” – those points that fall outside the upper and lower control limits (or which indicate a special cause pattern) on a Control Chart. Challenge or quality teams could tackle these special causes.
138 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 139
Problem Solving with Ideas
If the process is “in control,” the next question is: “Is the process producing the desired output?” A process may be “in control” but still may not provide the output desired by the customer. For example, Cycle Time may be “in control” but may take too long for a particular customer. Or, defects may be “in control” but may be too great to meet the Valid Customer Requirements. At this point, form teams to perform Process Improvement (vs. problem solving). There is a small but significant distinction here: Problem solving works to eliminate the “special causes” of variation, while Process Improvement works to improve a process that has no special cause variation, only “common cause” variation.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 139
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 140
Process Maturity Process Maturity is a tool that helps processes become more stable and reliable. Process Maturity provides a foundation for continuous quality improvement.
Use The Process Maturity Measurement Model is used to analyze the status of a process and the level of user knowledge about that process. The model: • Identifies process accountability, ownership and responsibility. • Sets the grounds for measurement. The Process Maturity model has five levels: Level 1
Initial
Level 2
Repeatable
Level 3
Defined
Level 4
Managed
Level 5
Optimized
The five levels and their characteristics are shown in the figure on the next page. The steps required to move to higher levels of Process Maturity are described in Process Workbench.
140 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 141
Problem Solving with Ideas
The Process Maturity Measurement Model Level 5 - Optimized Continuous process improvement.
Level 4 - Managed Process measured and controlled.
Developed by Watts Humphrey at Carnegie Mellon University, Software Engineering Institute, for the Department of Defense
Level 3 - Defined Process characterized, fairly well understood.
Measure, analyze, and improve.
Introduce quality control.
Y
IT
IL
S
AB ST
ES
Level 2 - Repeatable Unstable but can repeat previously mastered tasks.
C RO
Formalize procedures.
G
P
IN
S EA
CR
Level
Level 1 - Initial Unpredictable and poorly controlled.
IN Identify roles and responsibilities.
Characteristics How to move to next level
The Sprint Quality Handbook 141
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 142
Process Workbench A Process Workbench is a tool for: • Analyzing and documenting processes. • Negotiating Valid Customer Requirements. • Determining vendor/supplier requirements. • Defining roles and responsibilities. • Defining standards, procedures and measurements for quality control.
Use There are three views of the Process Workbench to consider: the customer’s view, the supplier’s view and the producer’s view. • The customer views the Process Workbench from the output side (right side of the diagram). Exit criteria define the quality of the output in measurable terms based on the Valid Customer Requirements. • The supplier views the Process Workbench from the input side (left side of the diagram). Entrance criteria define the required quality of the input in measurable terms. This is how the supplier knows what is required of his or her organization. • The producer views the Process Workbench from the inside. This person produces the end product or the output. Work procedures inform the producer about: – Receiving input from the supplier(s) – Verifying the quality of input using the entrance criteria – Rejecting input that fails to pass the entrance criteria – Converting the input into the desired output, including which tools to use and when – Verifying the quality of output using the exit criteria (standards) – Reworking or otherwise properly handling output that fails to pass verification – Delivering output to the customer(s)
142 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 143
Problem Solving with Ideas
The steps of the procedure need to be detailed enough to identify all the tasks required by the process, but not detailed to the extent of defining every technical task.
Example George and Betty wondered whether they had covered every aspect of the research process to find out what types of activities Sprintsville Beach has to offer. To help them fully define their process, they created a Process Workbench. Process Name: Researching activities at Sprintsville Beach Process Purpose: To identify activities Process Owners: George and Betty Producers: George and Betty
REWORK
REJECT
Entrance Criteria Met?
Last Updated: 3/15/97 By: George and Betty
Work Procedures
Exit Criteria Met?
Tools
Standards
Suppliers: 1. Library 2. Bookstores 3. Internet 4. Travel agency 5. Other people
Inputs: 1. Destination 2. Budget 3. Expectations 4. Time schedule
Quality Indicators: 1. QI1 – Number of activities 2. QI2 – Overall satisfaction
Process Indicators: 1. PI1 – Number of books that provide useful info 2. PI2 – Money spent on travel books 3. PI3 – Time spent researching
Outputs: 1. Activities
Customer: 1. George and Betty
Entrance Criteria: 1. Destination – one where both George and Betty want to go 2. Budget – not in excess of vacation savings 3. Expectations – clearly expressed 4. Time schedule – fits work vacation schedule Standards: 1. Total spending is less than or equal to budget 2. Rating on vacation compared to last year
Tools: 1. Books 2. Itineraries 3. Brochures 4. Surveys
Required Quality Attributes: 1. Effectiveness 2. Satisfaction 3. Timeliness
The Sprint Quality Handbook 143
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 144
Level 1 – Initial Process Supplier View
Process: Process Purpose: Producer: Owner:
Customer View
Producer View
Outputs:
Inputs:
Characteristics: Process is unpredictable and poorly controlled. Components:
Process name, purpose, owner, producer, output and inputs.
How to get to Level 1 (Initial) of the Process Maturity Model:
Step 1 – Identify process name, purpose, producer and owner. Step 2 – Identify outputs. Step 3 – Identify inputs.
144 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 145
Problem Solving with Ideas
Level 2 – Repeatable Process Supplier View Suppliers:
Process: Process Purpose: Producer: Owner:
Customer View Customers:
Producer View REWORK
Work Procedures Outputs:
Inputs:
Characteristics: Process is unstable but can repeat previously
mastered tasks. Components:
Customers, suppliers and tasks performed in process (as in process flow).
How to mature process from Level 1 (Initial) to Level 2 (Repeatable):
Step 1 – Identify customers (recipients of output). Step 2 – Identify suppliers (providers of input). Step 3 – Identify “as is” process flow (steps, sequence, decision points, alternate paths and repetitive steps). Note: Since Valid Customer Requirements concerning output have not
been negotiated at this point, costly rework may become part of the process if and when the customer rejects output.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 145
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 146
Level 3 – Defined Process Supplier View Suppliers:
Process: Process Purpose: Producer: Owner:
Customer View Customers:
Producer View REWORK
Inputs:
Entrance Criteria Met?
REWORK
Work Procedures
Outputs:
Tools Entrance Criteria:
Exit Criteria:
Characteristics: Process characterized, fairly well understood Components:
Output requirements (exit criteria) as perceived by producer and input requirements (entrance criteria). Documentation of steps necessary (work procedures) to perform process, including any required tools.
Note: Entrance criteria should not be enforced, and inputs should be
reworked in work procedures by producer until criteria can be negotiated with supplier, which occurs in the Level 4 (Managed) process.
146 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 147
Problem Solving with Ideas
How to mature process from Level 2 (Repeatable) to Level 3 (Defined):
Step 1 – Identify output requirements (exit criteria). Step 2 – Identify input requirements (entrance criteria). Step 3 – Document work procedures (including necessary tools to execute them) and communicate them to all who perform work procedures. Step 4 – Train producers on following work procedures. Note: Even though entrance criteria have been identified, they may not
have been negotiated or communicated to suppliers. Therefore, producer will probably do some rework as part of work procedures. Although exit criteria have been established by producer, they have not been negotiated with customer. As such, customer will return certain amount of output to producer for rework.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 147
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 148
Level 4 – Managed Process Supplier View Suppliers:
Process: Process Purpose: Producer: Owner:
Customer View Customers:
Producer View REWORK
REJECT
Inputs:
Entrance Criteria Met?
Work Procedures
Tools Entrance Criteria:
Exit Criteria Met?
Outputs:
Standards Exit Criteria:
Characteristics: Process is measured and controlled. Components:
Exit criteria negotiated with customer. Standards developed from exit criteria to be measured against output. Process measurements developed to identify and record occurrences and conditions of defects and rework.
How to mature process from Level 3 (Defined) to Level 4 (Managed):
Step 1 – Negotiate exit criteria with customer, establishing Valid Customer Requirements. (See “Valid Customer Requirements.”) Step 2 – Develop product standards based on Valid Customer Requirements. Step 3 – Using quality checkpoints within work procedures, identify and eliminate defects. Step 4 – Enforce entrance criteria after negotiating with suppliers. Step 5 – Return input to supplier if it does not meet entrance criteria. Step 6 – Develop process measurements to identify and record occurrences and conditions of rework. 148 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 149
Problem Solving with Ideas
Level 5 – Optimized process
Supplier View Suppliers:
Process: Process Purpose: Producer: Owner:
Customer View Measurement Analysis and Continuous Process Improvement
Customers:
Producer View REWORK
REJECT
Inputs:
Entrance Criteria Met?
Work Procedures
Tools
Entrance Criteria:
Exit Criteria Met?
Outputs:
Standards Exit Criteria:
Characteristics: Continuous process improvement. Components:
Measurement analysis and process optimization for continuous quality improvement.
How to mature process from Level 4 (Managed) to Level 5 (Optimized):
Step 1 – Implement continuous analysis of measurement data. Step 2 – Use measurement data to determine root cause for rework. Step 3 – Implement process improvements. Step 4 – Use process and quality indicators to verify improvement.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 149
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 150
QI Story Checklist The Quality Improvement (QI) Story Checklist contains all of the steps, tools and checkpoints used in the QI Story. Team Number
QI Story Checklist Team Name: Problem Statement: QI Story Steps
Tools/Techniques
Objective/Checkpoints
(enter appropriate checkpoint no.)
To identify general problem area and the reason for working on it. 1 Reason for Improvement
2 Problem Identification
3 Root Cause Analysis
4 Potential Improvements
5 Verification
Brainstorming/ Multivoting Graph Control Chart Flow Chart Theme Selection Matrix Other
Control Chart Histogram Graph Pareto Chart Checksheet Problem Statement Matrix Other Cause & Effect Analysis Histogram Graph Pareto Chart Scatter Diagram Checksheet Other
Cost Estimation Potential Improvement Matrix D&R Action Plan Other
Graph Control Chart Pareto Chart Histogram Other
1. Management ownership of the process(es) was clearly established. 2. “As Is” process(es) were documented. 3. The criteria for selection were customer oriented. 4. The indicator correctly represented the theme. 5. The need for improvement was demonstrated using data. 6. A schedule for completing the QI Story steps was developed. To select a problem and set a target for improvement. 7. The situation was stratified to a component level specific enough to analyze. 8. Customer valid requirements were identified. 9. Problem statement addressed the gap between the current and targeted values. 10. The methodology in establishing goals/target was identified. To identify and verify the root causes of the problem. 11. Cause-and-effect analysis was performed on the problem. 12. Root causes were taken to an actionable level. 13. Root causes with probable greatest impact were selected. 14. Data was used to verify the problem. To plan and implement potential improvements that will correct the root causes of the problem. 15. Selected options attacked verified root causes. 16. Options were consistent with meeting customer valid requirements. 17. Options were cost beneficial. 18. Action plan answered who, what, when, where, & how. 19. Action plan reflected the Drivers & Restrainers necessary for successful implementation. To confirm that the problem and its root causes have been decreased and the target for improvement has been met. 20. Root causes have been reduced. 21. Tracking indicator was the same one used in Step 1. 22. Results met or exceeded target. (If not, cause was addressed.)
6 Full Implementation
7 Future Plans
Control Chart Graph Control System Procedure Training Other
To prevent the problem and its root causes from recurring. 23. Method to assure solution becomes part of daily work was developed (include applicable training). 24. Periodic checks were put in place with assigned responsibility to monitor the solution. 25. Specific areas for replication were considered.
Action Plan PDCA Other
To plan what to do about any remaining problems and to evaluate the problem-solving process. 26. Any remaining problems of the theme will be addressed. 27. Applied PDCA to lessons learned.
© Marshall◆Qualtec
150 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Comments
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 151
Problem Solving with Ideas
QI Storyboard A Quality Improvement (QI) Storyboard is used to illustrate the steps taken by a team in the improvement process. It provides a standard way of communicating team progress. Quality Improvement Story Team Information Project Planning Worksheet
1 Reason for Improvement
2 Problem Identification Pareto Chart
Flow Chart
Graph
Graph Good
Good
Target
3 Root Cause Analysis
4 Potential Improvements
3 3 1 3 2 5 Verification Pareto Chart
2 1 3 1 2
6 3 3 3 4
6 Full Implementation Graph
7 Future Plans
Control System Good
Effect
A
P
C
D
Target
Before
After
Before
After
© Marshall♦Qualtec
Note: The “team information” square is typically used to display basic
information about the improvement process: a photo that tells who is doing the improvement, team meeting minutes that tell what and when, and the project planning worksheet that outlines how the team intends to improve the process.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 151
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 152
Seven Management and Planning Tools The Seven Management and Planning Tools assist in working with information which is subjective or qualitative (as compared to the Seven Quality Control Tools – Pareto Chart, Check Sheet, etc.). The Seven Management and Planning Tools are: • Affinity Diagram • Interrelationship Diagram • Tree Diagram • Prioritization Matrix • Matrix Diagram • Process Decision Program Chart • Activity Network Diagram Note: See entries on these tools elsewhere in this handbook.
Use These tools help formulate plans to close the gap between customer needs and process performance. You can use these tools in a threephase process as illustrated on the following page.
152 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 153
Problem Solving with Ideas
Typical Flow of the Seven Management and Planning Tools Affinity Diagram
Phase One
Interrelationship Diagram
Tree Diagram
Phase Two
Prioritization Matrix
Phase Three
Matrix Diagram
Process Decision Program Chart
Activity Network Diagram
Steps 1. Phase One – Identify the problem. You can begin with either the Affinity Diagram or the Interrelationship Diagram to narrow your focus to a few issues for study. While the Affinity Diagram uses Consensus to identify broad categories, the Interrelationship Diagram uses cause-and-effect arrows to identify root causes and the relationships between the problems parts. 2. Phase Two – Determine actions to resolve the problems discovered in Phase One. Use the Tree Diagram to break the issue into greater implementation detail and generate solutions. You can use a Prioritization Matrix to compare the options (what could be done about the problem) listed on the lowest level of the Tree Diagram. If the lowest level of your Tree lists actions (what must be done about the problem), you can use the Matrix Diagram to identify key items or responsibilities. The Matrix Diagram also works after the Prioritization Matrix.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 153
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 154
3. Phase Three – Develop an implementation plan for the actions developed in Phase Two. After you complete the Matrix Diagram, you have two options: the Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC) can anticipate potential problems, while the Activity Network Diagram can map out a sequence of tasks with time intervals for each. Both are helpful in forming a complete management plan.
Adapted from The Memory Jogger Plus, © Goal/QPC, 1989.
154 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 155
Problem Solving with Ideas
Seven Quality Control Tools The Quality Control (QC) Tools can help you examine and improve both work processes and results. The QC Tools provide a common means of communication and decision-making to ensure objectivity and clarity. The QC Tools separate data-based logic from opinions so you can manage with facts by: • knowing what the process involves – its inputs, activities and outputs. • tracking the facts about this process and keeping records which can be compared to see how well the process works and where it can improve. The Seven Quality Control Tools are: • Check Sheet • Control Chart • Graphs (Bar, Line, Pie) • Histogram • Ishikawa Diagram • Pareto Chart • Scatter Diagram
The Sprint Quality Handbook 155
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 156
Task-on-Arrow Task-on-Arrow (TOA) is a technique used to illustrate a sequence of tasks (represented by solid arrows) and outcomes (represented by circles). TOA is an alternative to other process documentation methods, such as Brown Papers, Process Flowcharts and Process Workbenches. Typically, TOA process models are developed with professional facilitation.
Use TOA models are used as a communication tool between executive process owners, process owners, subject matter experts, suppliers, and internal and external customers. Overlays show current or future information systems, employee roles, activity-based accounting, failure points, and performing locations, for example.
Example Taking Care of Woof George and Betty wanted to remember to leave everything that their cat, Woof, would need while they were away. With the help of a facilitator, they made a Task-on-Arrow diagram to map out their preparations: 10 Buy food
Food bought
(Re
qui
red
50 for
50)
feeder refilled
START Call vet
20
Medicine picked up
Vet called
Pick up medicine
30
156 The Sprint Quality Handbook
60
Leave foods/meds (in convenient place) Bird Woof’s
Refill bird feeder (outside Woof's window)
40
food/meds left
Leave directions (for Janice) Directions left
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 157
Problem Solving with Ideas
Theme Selection Matrix The Theme Selection Matrix helps quickly select a theme for study using factors such as need for improvement and impact on customer.
Use The matrix is used after the team, through Multivoting, has decided upon a list of three to five themes. The potential themes should then be placed on the matrix, and the team should complete the remaining categories to help gain Consensus on the most appropriate theme for study.
Example After they got back from Sprintsville Beach, George and Betty used a Theme Selection Matrix to decide what could make their next vacation better. Theme
Impact on George and Betty’s Satisfaction
X
Need to Improve from Last Year
More comfortable shoes for Betty
5
X
4
20
More money for gifts
2
X
3
6
Create gift budget
4
X
5
20
Use sunscreen daily
4
X
4
16
Research activities further
4
X
2
8
= Overall Score
Scale: 1 = None, 2 = Somewhat, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Very, 5 = Extreme
Using the Theme Selection Matrix, George and Betty decided to work on getting more comfortable shoes for Betty and creating a gift budget.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 157
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:02 PM
Page 158
The four sections of the matrix are: Themes – Teams should consider only themes within their responsibility and control. Impact on Customer – A rating based on the team’s present knowledge
and judgment of the direct effect this theme has on customer satisfaction. Give higher ratings to themes which have a more direct effect on customers. Need to Improve – A rating based on the team’s present knowledge and judgment of the difference between the present performance and the Valid Customer Requirements. Give higher ratings to themes with a greater need to improve. Overall – Impact on Customer multiplied by Need to Improve.
Investigate the theme that received the highest ranking.
158 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:03 PM
Page 159
Problem Solving with Ideas
Tree Diagram A Tree Diagram presents a map of the tasks you need to accomplish to solve a problem, achieve a goal or resolve an issue.
Use Use a Tree Diagram to deploy plans, generate problem-solving ideas and develop policies, objectives and improvement plans.
Example George and Betty constructed a Tree Diagram to help them avoid all the fights they had on previous vacations. Problem
Major Causes
George got sick
Fought too much
Details
Assignable Tasks
Didn’t get immunized
Both get immunized
Drank contaminated water
Betty call health agency, check safety of area’s water
Hotel room noisy
George call hotel and request room at end of hall
Both tired
Hotel in noisy area
Book at secluded hotel Bring earplugs
Didn’t discuss expectations beforehand Disagreed on which activities to do
Discuss expectations beforehand Research area’s activities
Didn’t know full range of activities available
Bring guidebook
The Sprint Quality Handbook 159
Section 5 - Ideas #2.final
5/19/98 3:03 PM
Page 160
Steps 1. Write the problem or issue on a sticky note or index card. 2. Generate a list of details and tasks to better understand the problem. Helpful questions include “Will xxx result in yyy”? Write each idea on a sticky note or index card. 3. Place the problem statement on the left side of a flip chart page. 4. Locate the ideas most closely related to the problem statement by asking questions such as “What must happen to achieve yyy”? or “What causes yyy”? Place them next to the problem statement card. 5. If no existing idea card provides the information needed to continue the flow on the Tree Diagram, brainstorm for new ideas. Write these on sticky notes/cards and arrange them on the Tree Diagram in their appropriate places. 6. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for each of the rightmost assignable task idea cards. Continue the process until all idea cards have been placed on the Tree Diagram. Repeat as many times as necessary to create a complete path between the problem or issue under study and ideas that are specific enough to be assignable tasks and action items. Note: Items generated while developing an Affinity Diagram may be
useful in creating the Tree Diagram.
160 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 161
Appendix
The Sprint Quality Handbook 161
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 162
Courses on Sprint Quality For further information on Sprint Quality and the tools and concepts discussed in this handbook, you might consider taking one or more of the numerous quality-related courses offered by the University of Excellence. A summary of courses is provided below. Course Number
Course Name
3998
Achieving Extraordinary Customer Relations
5323
Chairman’s Quality Award Overview
5370
Chairman’s Quality Award Self-Assessment Training
4422
Conflict Management
40311
Constructing Control Charts (CBT - Macintosh)
40313
Constructing Control Charts (CBT - Windows)
5319
Customer Relations: Clarify Needs
5320
Customer Relations: Diffuse Conflict
5318
Customer Relations: Maximize Effectiveness
5321
Customer Relations: Negotiate Demands
2106
Facilitative Leadership
8210
Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management – UE Lead
8205
Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management – Manager Lead
8211
Fundamentals of Fourth Generation Management – Participant Workbook for Manager Lead
Course listing as of February 1998.
162 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 163
Appendix
Course Number
Course Name
3472-IL
Fundamentals of Sprint Quality
6449-SP
Fundamentals of Sprint Quality (CBT - Macintosh)
6450-SP
Fundamentals of Sprint Quality (CBT - Windows)
5714
Internal Consulting Skills
5851
Leading and Managing Change
196
Leading Others Effectively
4028
Leading Sprint Quality
4032
LINK: Performance Management
192
National Management Practices
3789
Negotiate to Yes
202
Problem Solving and Decision Making
4027
Process Analysis and Maturity
5146
Quality Team Training
232
Seven Habits of Highly Effective People
4030
Statistical Process Control
198
Valuing Diversity
3919
Working Together
The Sprint Quality Handbook 163
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 164
Enrolling at the University of Excellence Enrollment Submit your course enrollment request using one of the ways shown below. Not all enrollment methods are available to all employees. Please choose the method that applies to you. • On-line enrollment through the Employee Development Management System (EDMS). This is the easiest way to register. Call 800-775-8633 for details. • Phone in your enrollment by calling University of Excellence coordinators at 800-775-8633. Have the course number or name, session number and location ready. • Fax enrollment by completing an enrollment form and faxing it. Call 800-775-8633 for details.
Instruction Formats The University of Excellence provides training in three forms: • Self-paced Learning – The University of Excellence provides a variety of independent study options that include workbooks, audio/video materials, hands-on learning, or personal computer-based exercises. • Distance Learning – Distance learning is the live broadcast of instructorled programs to remote classrooms, providing two-way interaction between instructor and participants. • Instructor-led Learning – The University of Excellence offers many programs presented in a classroom environment. Many instructor-led programs can be taught “on location” to accommodate work-group and scheduling requirements. Questions? Call 800-775-8633.
164 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 165
Appendix
Ordering Sprint Quality Materials
The Sprint Quality Handbook 165
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 166
Sprint Quality Reading List The following books, videotapes and audiotapes provide additional information on the quality tools presented in this handbook. Material is listed alphabetically by title.
Books A History of Managing for Quality: The Evolution, Trends, and Future Directions of Managing for Quality. J. M Juran, editor-in-chief. Milwaukee, Wisc.: ASQC Quality Press, 1995. Business Process Improvement. H. James Harrington. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. Corporate Culture and Performance. John P. Kotter and James L. Heskett. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1991. Corporate Strategy. Michael E. Porter. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1991. Deming Guide to Quality and Competitive Position, The. Howard S. and Shelly J. Gitlow. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1987. Deming Management Method, The. Mary Walton. New York, N.Y.: Perigee Books, 1986. Deming Route to Quality and Productivity, The. William W. Scherkenbach. Washington, D.C.: CEEPress Books, George Washington University, 1986. Flawless Consulting – A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used. Peter Block. San Diego, Calif.: University Associates, Inc., 1981. Fourth Generation Management: The New Business Consciousness. Brian L. Joiner. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994. Goal, The. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox. Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y.: North River Press, 1986. Guide to Quality Control. Kaoru Ishikawa. White Plains, N.Y.: Unipub Quality Resources, 1986.
166 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:23 PM
Page 167
Appendix
I Know It When I See It. John Guaspari. New York, N.Y.: American Management Association, 1985. Improvement Process, The. H. James Harrington. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1987. In Search of Excellence. Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1982. Juran on Leadership for Quality – An Executive Handbook. J.M. Juran. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1989. Kaizen. Masaeld Imai. New York, N.Y.: Random House, 1986. Leadership is an Art. Max DePree. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1989. Managing Quality. David A. Garvin. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1986. Memory Jogger Plus, The. Michael Brassard. Methuen, Mass.: GOAL/QPC, 1989. Out of the Crisis. W. Edwards Deming. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Center for Advanced Engineering Study, 1986. Power of Ethical Management, The. Kenneth Blanchard and Norman Vincent Peale. New York, N.Y.: William Morrow and Company, 1988. PIMS Principle Linking Strategy to Performance, The. Robert D. Bozzell and Bradley T. Gail. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press – A Division of MacMillan, Inc., 1987. Quality or Else. Lloyd Dobyns and Clare Crawford-Mason. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991. Quality is Free. Philip B. Crosby. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979. Race, The. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox. Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y.: North River Press, 1986.
The Sprint Quality Handbook 167
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:24 PM
Page 168
Service America – Doing Business in the New Economy. Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1985. Theory Why. John Guaspari. New York, N.Y.: American Management Association, 1986. Thriving on Chaos. Thomas J. Peters. New York, N.Y.: Alfred J. Knopf, Inc., 1987. Winning with Quality. John J. Hudiberg. White Plains, N.Y.: Quality Resources, 1991.
Tapes Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Winners. American Society of Quality (videotapes). 800-248-1946 The Quest of Excellence, An Executive Conference Featuring Winners of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. La Crescenta Calif.: Audio Archives International (multiple audio tapes). 818-957-0874
168 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:24 PM
Page 169
Appendix
Handbook Evaluation Form The Corporate Quality Development Team would appreciate your input. Please feel free to use the following Plus/Delta format to give us your feedback on the Sprint Quality Handbook. Please send to: Sprint Corporate Quality Development Mailstop KSWESB0214 2330 Shawnee Mission Parkway Westwood, KS 66205
+
∆
The Sprint Quality Handbook 169
Section 6 - Appendix.final
5/19/98 1:24 PM
172 The Sprint Quality Handbook
Page 172
The Sprint Quality Handbook A-FM26-0230
View more...
Comments
