Spiritual Intelligence
Short Description
Download Spiritual Intelligence...
Description
A Viable Model and and Sel-Report Measure Measure o Spiritual Intelligence David B. King
eresa L. DeCicco
rent University Peterborough, ON, Canada A our-actor model o spiritual spiritual intelligence is rst proposed. Supportive evidence is is reviewed or or the capacities o critical existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awareness, and conscious state expansion. Based on this model, a 24-item sel-report measure was developed and modied across two consecutive studies (N = 619 and N = 304, respectively). Te nal version o the scale, the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), displayed excellent internal reliability and good t to the proposed model. Correlational analyses with additional measures o meaning, metapersonal sel-construal, mysticism, religiosity, and social desirability oer support or construct and criterion-related validity. According to both intelligence criteria and current psychometric standards, ndings validate the proposed model and measure o spiritual intelligence. Future directions are discussed.
he nature o human intelligence and its psychological study st udy have been areas o continuous scientic debate (or a review, see Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004). Many have argued that the sum o human intelligence is best described as a single construct, constr uct, such as the intelligence quotient (IQ), while others have suggested multiple intelligences (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004; Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1988). Howard Gardner, a leading advocate o the latter standpoint, has proposed eight intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, naturalist, and bodily-kinesthetic (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 1999). Recent decades have also witnessed extensive literature on social and emotional intelligences, which describe cognitive abilities o emotional perception and management on intra- and inter-personal levels (e.g., Gardner, 1983; Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In order to evaluate potential additional intelligences (e.g., moral intelligence; Gardner, 1993), leading theorists have suggested rigid criteria that must rst be satised. It is generally established that an intelligence should (1) include a set o moderately interrelated mental abilities (i.e., core capacities or which cognition is primary; those which are distinct rom preerred behaviors or traits), (2) acilitate adaptation,
68
problem-solving, and reasoning in all environmental contexts, and (3) develop with age and experience (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Gardner (1983) also recommended neurological/ biological evidence, evolutionary e volutionary plausibility, and support support rom psychometrics and experimental psychology. Spiritual Intelligen I ntelligence ce the additional intelligences proposed, the t he concept o spiritual intelligence has remained a orerunner in the past decade (Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004; Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000). Emmons (2000a) provided support or spiritual intelligence according to Gardner’s (1983) criteria, proposing ve core abilities: 1) the capacity or transcendent awareness (o a divine being or onesel); 2) the ability to enter spiritual states o consciousness; 3) the ability to sanctiy everyday experiences; 4) the ability to utilize spirituality to solve problems; and 5) the capacity to engage in virtuous behaviors (e.g., orgiveness). Te last o these capacities has since been removed (Emmons, 2000b) due to its more accurate interpretation as preerred behavior (Mayer, 2000). Noble (2000) concurred with Emmons’ (2000a) conception o spiritual intelligence and added two additional core abilities: (1) “the conscious recognition
O
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies , 28 , 2009, pp. 68-85
King & DeCicco
that physical reality is embedded within a larger, multidimensional multidimensio nal reality” rea lity” (p. 46); and a nd (2) “the conscious pursuit o psychological health, not only or ourselves but or…the global community” (p. 46). Te rst o these abilities can be readily amalgamated with Emmons’ (2000a) capacity or transcendent awareness, while the second more closely c losely resembles preerred behavior. Te capacity or transcendent awareness has been equally emphasized by Wolman (2001) and Vaughan (2002). Others have added the capacity or existential thinking and questioning (e.g., Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000) as a core aspect o spiritual intelligence. Zohar and Marshall (2000) urther contended that spiritual intelligence represents the brain’s unitive processes which serve to reconceptualize experience and produce meaning. Nasel (2004) described the construct as “the application o spiritual abilities and resources to practical contexts” (p. 4), identiying two main components o existential questioning and the awareness o divine presence. His 1717item Spiritual Intelligence Scale incorporates traditional Christian values and New Age spirituality, yet ails to oer a universal measure o spiritual abilities as opposed to experiences and behaviors. More recently, Amram (2007) identied seven major themes o spiritual intelligence, including meaning, consciousness, grace, transcendence, truth, peaceul surrender to Sel, and inner-directed reedom. His Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale consists o 22 subscales organized into ve theoretical domains o consciousness, grace, meaning, transcendence, and truth (Amram & Dryer, 2007). Like Nasel (2004), however, Amram (2007) ailed to distinguish careul careully ly among spiritual ability, behavior, and experience, resulting in a model which is best described as a lived spirituality. Previous models have made similar errors. For example, Wolman Wo lman (200 (2001 1) contend contended ed that pheno phenomenolo menological gical experience is a critical component o spiritual intelligence, while others have involved theological interpretatio interpretations ns (e.g.,, Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004), resulting in limited (e.g. theories which cannot be universally universal ly applied. Gardner (1993, 2000) has remained hesitant to accept a spiritual intelligence in his own model o multiple intelligences, arguing that the concept is too conounded with phenomenological experience and religious belie. He has, however however,, expressed preeren preerence ce or an existential intelligence, which Halama and Strizenec (2004) described as a related and overlapping construct to spiritual intelligence. Te current paper will oer
evidence to support the notion that spiritual intelligence not only involves involves existential exi stential capacities, but that it exists as a set o mental abilities that are distinct rom behavioral traits and experiences, satisying established intelligence criteria (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Te subsequent model also assumes a contemporary interpretation o spirituality that distinguishes it rom the construct o religiosity (King, Speck, & Tomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2000; Love, 2002; 20 02; Sinnott, 2002; Wink & Dillon, 2002; Wul, 1991 1991). ). Religion is viewed as “an organized system o belies, practices, rituals, and symbols” (Koenig et al., 2000, p. 18), 18), while spirituality is regarded as a s “the personal quest or understanding answers to ultimate questions about lie, about meaning, and about relationship to the sacred or transcendent” (p. 18). As many authors (e.g., Helminiak, 2001; Worthington & Sandage, 2001) have noted, however, however, religion and a nd spirituality remain intimately connected, with religion being “the social vehicle that, at its best, proclaims and supports spirituality” (Helminiak, 2001, p. 165). While religion and spiritual intelligence are also likely related, this is a topic o discussion which cannot be adequately addressed within the connes o the current paper. Nevertheless, it is maintained that spiritual intelligence and religiosity are distinct but related psychological constructs. As such, the current model may or may not be consistent with established religious approaches or systems o belie. Tis is not a setback o the current model; rather, it is the result o a commitment to the identication o cognitive abilities as opposed to belies and attitudes, which is necessary in the establishment o a universal human intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). A Viable Model o o Spiritual Intelligence Intell igence n the current model, spiritual intelligence is dened as a set o mental capacities which contribute to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application o the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects o one’s existence, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reection, enhancement o meaning, recognition o a transcendent sel, and mastery o spiritual states (King, 2008). An extensive review o the literature supports our core components: componen ts: (1) (1) critical existential thinking, thi nking, (2) personal meaning production, (3) transcendental awareness, and (4) conscious state expansion. Following a discussion o each o these capacities, additional support or adaptive applications and development over the liespan will be reviewed.
Spiritual Intelligence
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies 69
I
Critical Existential Tinking (CE) Te rst component o spiritual intelligence involves the capacity to critically contemplate meaning, purpose, and other existential or metaphysical issues (e.g., reality, the universe, space, time, death). In addition to the mounting support or Gardner’s (1993) suggestion o an existential intelligence (e.g., Halama & Strizenec, 2004; Shearer, 2006; Simmons, 2006), existential thinking is commonplace in denitions o both spirituality (e.g., Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2000; Matheis, ulsky, & Matheis, 2006; Wink & Dillon, 2002) and spiritual intelligence (Nasel, 2004; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar & Marshall, 2000). It is currently argued that critical existential thinking can be applied to any lie issue, as any object or event can be viewed in relation to one’s existence. While some discuss disc uss a “quest “quest or understanding answers” ans wers” (Koenig et al., 2000, p. 18) to these seemingly ultimate questions (e.g., Noble, 2000), this can more practically be considered as a related pattern o behavior. o a large extent, aspects o cognition are inherent in the discussion o existential tendencies, with requent reerences to existential thinking (e.g., Garo, 2006), existential exi stential contemplation (e.g., Lavoie & de Vries, 2004), and existential reasoning rea soning (e.g., Evans & Wellman, Wellman, 2006), leading to the more plausible inerence o mental capacity. Furthermore, sel-estimates o intelligence have revealed that perceived existential intelligence is a signicant predictor o perceived overall intelligence (Furnham, Wytykowska, & Petrides, 2002). It is urther contended that simply questioning existence does not demonstrate complete mastery o this ability. One must be able to contemplate such exis tential issues using critical thinking, and in some cases come to original conclusions or personal philosophies regarding existence, integrating scientic knowledge and personal experience. Critical thinking, dened as “actively and skilully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating inormation gathered rom, or generated by, observation, experience, reect ion, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul, 1992), more accurately reects intelligence. Personal Meaning Production (PMP) Te second core component is dened as the ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a lie purpose. Like existential thinking, personal meaning is requently described as a component o spirituality (e.g., King, Speck, & Tomas,
2001; Koenig et al., 2001; a l., 2000; Sinnott, 2002; Wink & Dillon, 2002; Worthington & Sandage, 2001), requiring its consideration in a model o spiritual intelligence. Nasel (2004) concurred, suggesting that spiritual intelligence “involves contemplation o the symbolic meaning o personal events and circumstances, in order to nd purpose and meaning in all lie experiences” (p. 52). In essence, Emmons’ (2000a) capacity or sanctication is one particular method o personal meaning production. Personal meaning has been dened as “having a purpose in lie, having a sense o direction, a sense o order and a reason or existence” (Reker, 1997, p. 710). Meddin (1998) identied a cognitive component o personal meaning, dened as “an integrative organizing principle (or set o principles) which enables one to make sense (cognition) o one’s inner lie and outer environment” (p. 164), which closely resembles Zohar and Marshall’s (2000) description o the brain’s tertiary processes. A cognitive component was also suggested by Wong (1989), who dened personal meaning as “an individually constructed cognitive system, that is… capable o endowing lie with personal signicance and satisaction” (p. 517). Reker’s (1997) denition highlights the undamental relationship between meaning and purpose. In addition to deriving purpose rom daily events and experiences (i.e., situational meaning), one is also capable o dening a purpose or his/her lie (i.e., global meaning), utilizing more coherent and creative orms o meaning production. Te mastery o a lie purpose reers to one’s ability to iner his/her purpose in all events and experiences. A seemingly innite number o sources o meaning and purpose have been described in the literature, including leisure activities (Reker & Wong, Wo ng, 1988) 988),, work (Tompson, 1992) 992),, reminiscence (Wong, 1989), and dreams (aylor, 2001), to name a ew. Te ability to create meaning and purpose in all mental and physical experiences occupies the highest level o this particular ability. ranscendental Awareness (A) Te third component involves the capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions o the sel (e.g., a transcendent sel), o others, and o the physical world (e.g., nonmaterialism, interconnectedness) during the normal, waking state o consciousness. Te transc endent is commonplace in denitions o spirituality (e.g., King et al., 2001; Koenig et al., 2000; 200 0; Martsol Mart sol & Mickley, Mick ley, 1998; 1998; Sinnott, 2002), with one aspect o particular interest to the current model: awareness (Martsol & Mickley,
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies
King & DeCicco
70
1988). Pascual (1990) proposed that transcendental awareness, particularly the awareness o a transcenden transcendental tal sel, is a key actor o spiritual intelligence. Wolman (2001) explained this more broadly as the ability to sense a spiritual dimension o lie, reecting what James (1 (1902/2002) 902/2002) had previously described as “a sense o present reality more diused and general than that which our specia speciall senses yield” (p. 72) 72).. Other authors have concurred (e.g., Emmons, 2000a; Nasel, 2004; Noble; 2001). Building on the work o Abraham Maslow, Hamel, Leclerc, Leclerc , and Lerançois (2003) have described an additional addition al process o transcenden transcendent-actualizatio t-actualization, n, which they dene as “a sel-realization sel-realizat ion ounded on an awareness and experience o a Spiritual Center, also called calle d the Inner Being or the Sel” (p. 4). Csikszentmihalyi (1993) also reerred to the transcendent sel, describing successul individuals as transcenders who “move beyond the boundaries o their personal limitations by integrating individual goals with larger ones, such as the welare o the amily, the community, humanity, the planet, or the cosmos” co smos” (p. 219) 219).. Similarly, Simil arly, Le and Levenson L evenson (2005) described sel-transcendence as “the ability to move beyond sel-centered consciousness, and to see things… with a considerable measure mea sure o reedom rom rom biological biologica l and social conditioning” (p. 444). Te recognition and ongoing awareness o a transcendent sel is a key component o this capacity. Hamel et al. (2003) recently identied two components o Maslow’s (1971) metacognition (i.e., an expanded unitive consciousness). Te rst component is in-depth perception, described as the “ability to discern and explore the dierent aspects o one’s lie and lie in general, going beyond appearances” (Hamel et al., 2003, p. 11) and developing “a perception o realities that ordinary consciousness cannot perceive but that are common in contemplation” (p. 12). Te second component is holistic perception, dened as the “ability to perceive one’s lie and lie in general rom a viewpoint independent o numerous attachments” (p. 11). It is urther urt her described as “an apprehension o realit realityy with all its contradictions and incompatibilities, a global integrative vision o the essential core o beings and events” (p. 12). Tese components describe cognitive abilities o perception and awareness, the targets o which are oten said to exist outside o ordinary consciousness (to the extent that they are a re not perceived by the physical senses), including nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness, and transcendent aspects o the sel and others.
Collectively, these various abstractions represent what is currently described as transcendent. Conscious state expansion expa nsion (CSE) Te nal component o the current model is the ability to enter spiritual states o consciousness (e.g., pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at one’s own discretion. From a psychological perspective, the distinction between transcendental awareness and conscious state st ate expansion is i s well supported (art, 1975) 1975).. Te ormer must occur during the normal waking state, while the latter involves the ability to transc transcend end this state and enter higher or spiritual states. A growing body o research has demonstrated signicant dierences in brain unctioning between all levels and states o consciousness, consciousn ess, including those associated with spiritual experiences and meditation (or a review, see Cahn & Polich, 2006; Vaitl et al., 2005). States commonly reerred to as spiritual include cosmic consciousness (Bucke, as cited in James, 1902/2002), pure consciousness (e.g., Gackenbach, 1992), 1992), and unitive consciousness c onsciousness (Maslow, (M aslow, 1964). Expanded or altere a ltered d states o consciousness consciousness are deeply rooted rooted aspects o religion and spirituality (James, 1902/2002; Maslow, 1964). As such, it is necessary to consider a potential mental ability that might underlie the experience o these states, as Emmons (2000a) correctly did in his own model o spiritual intelligence. Due to their phenomenological quality and potential spontaneous occurrence (James, 1902/2002; Maslow, 1964; Vaitl et al., 2005), however, the mere experience o such states does not constitute mental ability. What is ar less debatable is the capacit capacityy or entering these states at one’s own discretion. Vaitl et al. (2005) identied a set o altered states o consciousness which are triggere triggered d by one’ one’ss own mental exercises, as in meditation and relaxation. Over a century earlier, James (1 (1902/2002) 902/2002) made a simila similarr observat observation, ion, noting that “the oncoming o mystical states may be acilitated by preliminary voluntary operations” (p. 415). He also described a “methodical cultivation” (p. 436) o such altered states in various religions, some o which involve an a n “intellec “intellectual tual concentration” (p. 436). 436 ). Maslow (1964) agreed, stating that peak experiences are “to some extent under our own control” (p. 32). More recent psychological literature has reported individuals who are highly skil skilled led at entering spiritual or mystica mysticall states o consciousness (e.g., Holmes, Solomon, Cappo, & Greenberg, 1983; Lehmann et al., 2001). Although Gardner (2000) contended that the ability to enter such
Spiritual Intelligence
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies 71
states is reective o h is bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, intelligence, a cognitive component is no less evident and undamental to this capacity (James, 1902/2002; Vaitl et al., 2005). Adaptive Adapti ve applicat ions Myriad studies have demonstrated an adaptive role o spirituality in individuals suering rom a variety o health conditions, including cancer (e.g., Holland et al., 1999), spinal cord injuries (e.g., Matheis et al., 2006), and substance abuse disorders (e.g., Piedmont, 2004), among others. Positive relationships have also been observed between spirituality and adaptability to parental loss (Gree & Human, 2004) and career transitions (Duy & Blustein, 2005). It is rom these studies that the adaptive role o spiritual intelligence can be generally inerred. Tere are particular situatio situations ns in which spiritual intelligence would prove highly adaptive: the existential neurosis and the existential crisis. An existential neurosis is “characterized by the belie that one’s lie is meaningless” (Maddi, 1967, p. 313). Similarly, an existential vacuum can result rom a loss o meaning in lie or “the rustration o the will wi ll to meaning” meani ng” (Frankl, 1969, 1969, p. 45). Such existential crises can result rom isolation, the inevitability o death (Yalom, 1980), trauma (e.g., Goddard, 2004), rapid cultural change (e.g., Madison, 2006), and job loss (Hilpert, 1987). Highly developed levels o critical existential thinking and personal meaning production would prove particularly valuable, acilitating both contemplation o the crisis and creation o meaning within its ramework, potentially preventing many crises rom ever ully developing. Maddi (1967) suggested that one possible source o an existential neurosis is a premorbid identity, in which “the person [considers] himsel to be nothing more than…an embodiment o biological needs” (p. 315), a conviction which would wou ld be inhibited (i not entirely prevented) by the perception o a transcendent sel. Additional resea research rch has sugge suggested sted that the ability to construct meaning is adaptive in a variety o circumstances, including depression, neuroticism, and suicidal ideation (e.g., Mascaro & Rosen, 2005). When aced with a stressor, personal meaning production acts as a coping method by allowing an individual to construct meaning and purpose within the stressul situation, thereby transorming it and reducing its negative impact. It has also been demonstrated that perceptions o interconnectedness and a transcendent sel are highly adaptive in substance abuse recovery (Piedmont, 2004), depression (Ellermann & Reed,
2001), and coping with HIV/AIDS (e.g., Mellors, 1999). Although research is limited, transcendental awareness likely invokes a sense o security, acting as a source o coping when material resources are lacking or insufcient. In regards to conscious state expansion, a variety o adaptive applications can be inerred rom research on meditation, which has revealed correlations with reduced physiological indicators o stress (e.g., Alexander Alex ander et e t al., a l., 1989). 1989). One can c an urther urther postul postulate ate that th at this capacity would serve as a valuable coping method when aced with a crisis (existential (existentia l or otherwise) due to its anxiety-inhibiting eects (Vaitl et al., 2005). Liespan developm development ent Accumulating evidence suggests that spiritual capacities can emerge in childhood. Piechowski (2001) noted many common themes in the spiritual experiences o children, including states o oneness and a sense o sel beyond physical reality. Hay and Nye (1998) identied children aged six to ten years who could describe their own techniques or entering higher states o consciousness, including silent gazing, prayer, and contemplating one’s origins and the origins o the world. Gackenbach (1992) maintained that the whole range o higher states o consciousness can be experienced by children, in some cases at an adult level, indicating the existence o consciousn consciousness ess savants. Evans and Wellman (2006) also discussed a childhood potential or existential reasoning which is contingent on the development o theory o mind. Adolescence and young adulthood appear to be marked by an expansion o all spiritual capacities, resulting in part rom identity ormation and the emergence o abstract reasoning (Ellsworth, 1999; Fitzgerald, 2005; Helminiak, 1987). According to Parks (1986, 2000), individuals between the ages o 17 and 30 develop in their meaning-making abilities and become more aware o their conception o reality. Cook and Oltjenbruns (1982) also observed evidence o signicant development in existential skills during high school. Tis development continues throughout adulthood, as abilities deepen and contribute to the awareness o a transcendent sel (Hamel et al., 2003; Helminiak, 1987). In later adulthood, abilities peak in many individuals as death approaches. According to ornstam (2005), later stages o lie are characterized by a redenition o the perception o time, space, lie, and death; the transcendence o the ego, o the physical body, and o material interests; and an increase in time spent meditating on lie.
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies
King & DeCicco
72
Tis is not to say, however, that abilities cannot peak in earlier stages o development. As suggested by Noble (2000) and Vaughan (2002), (2002), spiritual experiences contribute to the individual development o spiritual intelligence. Evidence, although limited, also supports the existence o individuals who are highly skilled and/ or gited in their spiritua l abilities (e.g., Emmons, 2000a; Gackenbach, 1992; Holmes et al., 1993; Lehmann et al., 2001; Lovecky, 1998; Piechowski, 1998), suggesting that spiritual intelligence increases with both age and experience. Tus ar, spiritual intelligence has satised the three primary primar y criteria or or intelligence: a set o charac characteristic teristic mental abilities that are distinct distinc t rom preerred behaviors, the acilitation o adaptation and problem-solving, and development over the liespan (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Empirical evidence urther suggests that spiritual experiences and their related sensations display physiological correlates in the brain, primarily in (but not limited to) the temporal lobes and limbic system (or reviews and more detailed summaries o related ndings, see d’Aquili & Newberg, 1999; Persinger, 1983, 1983, 2001; 2001; Ramachand R amachandran, ran, 1998). 1998). It has ha s also al so been discovered that altered brain activity occurs during heightened states o consciousness (e.g., Cahn & Polich, 2006; Persinger, 1983; art, 1975; or a review, see Vaitl et al., 2005). Although urther research is required on spiritual capacities in particular, these ndings provide preliminary support or potential biological oundations o spiritual intelligence. As Emmons (2000a) noted, there is also a air amount o evidence or the evolutionary plausibility o spiritual intelligence, with religious doctrine and dogma developing out o a need to conceptualize, articulate, and interpret related spiritual experiences (Love, 2002). Te current model is not simply a reormulation or redenition o spirituality. Rather, its primary purpose is the identication o those mental capacities and abilities related to human spirituality. o date, two sel-report measures o spiritual intelligence have been proposed (Amram & Dryer, 2007; Nasel, 2004), yet neither has ully complied with leading criteria or intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). While it has been suggested that measures o spirituality also tap aspects o spiritual intelligence (Halama & Strizenec, 2004), Gardner’s (1983) criterion o psychometric evidence appears to be lacking. lackin g. Te subsequent studies were carried out in order to address these issues.
Spiritual Intelligence
Study 1: Scale Development s suggested by Clark and Watson (1995), the development o a sound theoretical model on which test te st items are based is a crucial rst step in scale sc ale development. Te vast majority o researchers rely on a thorough literature review o the subject in order to iner rom previous research a model o the construct. Tis has been the current approach. Te purpose o Study 1 was to develop and test a preliminar preliminaryy sel-report sel-report measure o spiritual intelligence. Method Item generation. An original origina l pool o 84 items was developed based on the current theoretical conception c onception o spiritual intelligence. Many Ma ny items were were modelled based on previously established measures o spirituality, meaning, and transcendence, while others were generated in order to complete the ull ranges o the our capacities. Te initial item pool was over-inclusive so as to avoid the exclusion o potential indicators o the construct (Clark & Watson, 1995). A multiple-choice, Likert-type scale was utilized, with responses ranging on a scale o 0 to 4, representing the extent to which each statement was true or the respondent. In total, 12 reverse-coded items were included as indicators o internal reliability. Te initial item pool was reviewed by 34 adults (including proessors o psychology, students, and members o the community) or logic and readability. Items were edited based on eedback, resulting in a preliminary dra t o the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI). Participants. Respondents were 488 emales and 131 males (N = 619) enrolled in undergraduate psychology courses c ourses at rent rent University in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 22.51 years (SD = 5.51; range = 17 to 59). Measures.. Participants were asked to provide Measures demographic inormation (including sex and age) beore completing the preliminary 84-item Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (with 21 items measuring each o the our components o spiritual intelligence). i ntelligence). Procedure. Participation took place in classroom settings and lasted approximately 25 minutes. Each participant was asked to read and sign a consent orm prior to participation ensuring condentiality and the right to withdraw at any time without penalty penalt y. Results Properties of the original 84-item SISRI. Descriptive statistics and response distributions were rst examined or all 84 items. Although none reached signicance, slight skewness was observed or 15 o
A
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies 73
the items, which were deemed good candidates or removal. Cronbach’s alpha was .97, suggesting very high internal consistency and reliability (a minimum o .80 is recommended; Clark & Watson, 1995; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Te average inter-item correlation was .30, which alls a lls in i n the suggested range o .15 .15 to .50 (Clark & Watson, 1995). Exploratory factor analysis. All responses or the 84-item pool were subjected to a principal components analysis (EFA) with Varimax normalized rotation. Six actors were initially extracted and actor loadings o .35 or higher were deemed signicant (Clark & Watson, 1995). All eigenvalues met the suggested minimum value o 1.0 in order or their corresponding actors to be considered or retention (Clark & Watson, 1995; Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). Te third actor extracted was composed o all 12 reverse-coded items, suggesting that these items were unstable. One o these items displayed a cross-loading on Factor 4 and was considered or retention. Te three items loading on the sixth actor had no theoretical connection, leading to this actor’s removal. Items loading on actors 1, 2, 4, and 5 corresponded primarily to critical existential thinking, conscious state expansion, personal meaning production, and transcendental awareness, respectively. Item Retention. Te primary criterion or item retention was theoretical necessity (as suggested by Clark & Watson, 1995). As such, items were removed only i such removal did not result in inadequate model representation. All items with converging cross-loadings (with dierences o less than .15; Clark & Watson, 1995) were considered or removal, as were those which loaded on theoretically unrelated actors or displayed no signicant loadings whatsoever. Finally, a number o items were removed in order to reduce redundancy and to obtain a desirable scale length. In total, 42 items were retained, including 12 items items measuring critical existentia l thinking, 11 items measuring conscious state expansion, 9 items measuring personal meaning mea ning production, and 10 items measuring transcendental awareness. Properties of the Reduced 42-Item SISRI. Alpha or the 42-item pool was .96, which was slightly lower than in the original 84-item pool but considered an improvement to the data (Clark & Watson, 1995). Te average inter-item correlation was .36. When subjected to a second principal components EFA, all our actors displayed eigenvalues above 1.0 and no residual correlations exceeded .14, adding condence to the actors and items retained (Clark & Watson, 1995). 1995).
Study 2: Scale Validity he primary purpose o Study 2 was to investigate the actor structure o the Spiritual Intelligence Sel-Report Inventory (SISRI) in a subsequent sample. Construct validity val idity was examined by including additional measures o theoretically related and unrelated constructs (DeVellis, 1991). As is standard in scale development, social desirability desirability was also examined. exa mined. Hypothesis 1. Based on the theoretical conception o spiritual intelligence and the actor structure observed in Study 1, it was hypothesized that a our-actor model o spiritual intelligence would reveal adequate t to the data. Hypothesis 2. Based on the current denition o personal meaning production, it was hypothesized hypothesi zed that t hat a signicant signi cant positive relationship relat ionship would be observed between this subscale o the SISRI and a measure o personal meaning. mea ning. Hypothesis 3. Given that metapersonal sel-construal has been described as a more spiritual orm o sel-reerence (DeCicco & Stroink, 2007), it was hypothesized that a signicant positive relationship would be observed between the SISRI and the metapersonal sel. Hypothesis 4. Based on the current denition o conscious state expansion, it was hypothesized hypothesi zed that t hat a signicant signi cant positive relationship relat ionship would be observed between mystical experiences and this subscale o the SISRI. Hypothesis 5. Te SISRI was expected to display a non-signicant to low correlation with extrinsic religiosity and a positive yet low to moderate correlation with intrinsic religiosity. Tese predictions were based on denitions o religiosity which tend to relate the intrinsic orientation more closely to spirituality (e.g., Pargament, 1997). 1997). Method Participants. Respondents were 231 emales and 74 males (N = 305) enrolled in undergraduate psychology courses c ourses at rent University in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. Te mean age was 25.56 years (SD = 10.93; range = 18 to 63). Demographics. A one-page survey o basic demographic inormation accounted or sex, age, ethnicity, relationship status, and level o education. Measures. A total o six measures were utilized to evaluate participants.
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies
King & DeCicco
74
Te Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI). Te 42-item drat o the SISRI, as a s developed in Study 1, was utilized in Study 2. Te Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). Te MLQ is a 10-item sel-report measure o personal meaning
composed o two subscales: presence o meaning (a = .88) and search or meaning ( a = .90). Validity and reliability have been supported by Steger et al. (2006).
Te Metapersonal Self Scale (MPS; DeCicco & Stroink, 2007). Te MPS is a 10-item (a = .89) selreport measure o metapersonal sel-construal, which is the interpretation o one’s sel as connected to all lie. Tis scale was ound to be high in convergent and discriminant validity by DeCicco and Stroink (2007). Te Mysticism Scale – Research Form D (MSD; Hood, 1975). Te MSD is a 32-item (a = .94) selreport measure o mystical and spiritual experiences, particularly those involving oneness, peace, timelessness, and wonder. While Hood (1975) suggested two actors o intense experience o unity and aectively charged religious revelation, Hood, Morris, and Watson (1993) later proposed three actors o extrovertive mysticism, religious interpretation, and introvertive mysticism. Scale validity and reliability have been well-supported by Hood (1975) and Hood et al. (1993). Te Age Universal Intrinsic-Extrinsic Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religiosity Scale (AUIE; Gorsuch & Venable, 1983). Te AUIE is a 19-item, two-actor sel-report measure o intrinsic (a = .89) and extrinsic (a = .77) religious orientations. Validity and reliability were supported by Gorsuch and Venable (1983). Te Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR; Paulhus, 1984). Te BIDR is a 40-item selreport measure composed o two actors related to socially desirable responding: sel-deception (a = .72) and impression management (a = .72). Internal and external validity o the BIDR have been supported by Paulhus (1984) (1984) and Lanyon L anyon and Carle Ca rle (2007). Procedure. Participation took place in classroom settings and lasted approximately 45 minutes. Each participant was asked to read and sign a consent
orm prior to participation ensuring condentiality and the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Te ordering o questionnaires varied across participants so as to reduce potential eects on response patterns (e.g., priming). Results Properties of the 42-Item SISRI. Descriptive statistics and response distributions were rst examined or the 42-item pool. No items displayed signicant skewness or kurtosis. Alpha or the SISRI-42 was .96, which reects observations in Study 1. Te average interinteritem correlation was .36. Confrmatory actor analysis. Te structural equation modelling (SEM) module o Statistica 7.0 (Statsot, 2006) was utilized or the conrmatory actor analysis (CFA). Te our-actor model observed in Study 1 was investigated or its t to the data in Study 2. Parameter estimates (maximum likelihood) or all 42 maniest variables were signicant. Te discrepancy unction unction or the our-actor model was 6.96. In addition to the chi-square goodness-o-t (X ²), the ollowing t indices were examined (see able 1): the root mean square error o approximation (RMSEA), the goodness-o-t goodness- o-t index (GFI), (GFI), the adjusted goodnesso-t index (AGFI), (AGFI), the standardized standardiz ed root mean square squa re residual (SRMSR), and the c omparative t index (CFI). Tese t indices are commonly employed measures o CFA model t (Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003; abachnick abachnick & Fidell, 2007). Te ollowing cuto values were employed to determine adequacy: a maximum X ²/d ratio o 2.0; a maximum SRMSR o .08; a minimum CFI o .95; a maximum RMSEA o .10; an RMSEA lower condence limit o close to .05; a minimum AGFI o .85; and a minimum GFI o .90 (Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003; abachnick & Fidell, 2007).
able 1
Fit Indices or Confrmatory Factor Analysis o the 42-Item SISRI
_________________________ ____________ _________________________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ _______________ __ X ²
RMSEA LCL UCL UCL SRMSR GFI AGFI CFI d _________________________ ____________ _________________________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ _______________ __ Value 2108.72* .080 .077 .084 .067 .726 .695 .832 813 _________________________ ____________ _________________________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ _______________ __ Note. LCL = RMSEA Lower Condence Limit; UCL = R MSEA Upper Condence Limit. * p < .0001
Spiritual Intelligence
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies 75
abachnick and Fidell (2007) noted that with large sample sizes (over 200), the chi-square value is almost always signicant, signi cant, and is thereore a poor indicator indicator o model t. Te chi-square/d ratio was calculated in order to gain a more meaningul summary o these statistics. statistic s. Te our-actor model displayed a ratio o 2.59, 2.59, which exceeded the recommended maxi maximum mum value o 2.0 or good t (abachnick & Fidell, 2007). While the SRMSR and RMSEA met cut-os or adequate t, the GFI, AGFI, and CFI did not, suggesting poor model t (see able 1). Scale modifcation. Based on high residual correlations, high item correlations, and redundancy, ve items were removed rom the CE subscale; our items were removed rom the PMP subscale; three items were removed rom t he A subscale; and six items were removed rom the CSE subscale. Tis let a total o 24 items or the nal drat o the SISRI (subsequently dubbed the SISRI-24; see Appendix). Properties o the SISRI-24. Te nal 24-item pool displayed an alpha o .92, which represents a more appropriate level o internal reliability (Clark & Wa Watson, tson, 1995) 995).. Individual Individua l subscales subsca les o CE CE,, PMP, PMP, A, and a nd CSE also displayed d isplayed adequate alpha coefcients co efcients o .78, .78, .87, .87, and .91, respectively. Te average inter-item correlation was .34, with split-hal reliability at the .9 .91 1 level. Tese analyses suggest excellent psychometric properties o the SISRI-24. A conrmatory actor analysis o the SISRI24 revealed signicant parameter estimates or all 24 variables (see Figure 1) with a discrepancy unction o 1.53, indicating better model t or the SISRI-24 compared to the 42-item version (abachnick & Fidell, 2007). Te X ²/d ratio was 1.89, which ell under the recommended maximum value o 2.0 or good model t (abachnick & Fidell, 2007). Te SRMSR, RMSEA,
and AGFI also met their recommended cut-o values (see able 2), urther supporting good model t. Given that the GFI and CFI closely approached their cut-o values, it can be concluded that the our-actor model displayed adequate t to the data. In order to ensure adequate item loadings, the nal 24-item pool was also subjected to a principal components analysis. Four actors were extracted with eigenvalues supporting retention o all our actors. All actor loadings were signicant above the .50 level (see able 3). Although six items cross-loaded, they diered rom their highest loadings by at least .13, with all o these loadings in the .35 to .40 range. Tese ndings add urther condence to the actor structure and item retention o the SISRI-24. All subsequent analyses were thereore based on participant responses or the 24-item pool. Scale validity. All bivariate correlations are presented in able 4. In relation to the MLQ search or meaning subscale, low to moderate correlations with the total spiritual intelligence score (SI) and subscale scores on the SISRI-24 were observed. In particular, CE was the most signica signicantly ntly related subscale, r = .39 (p < .001). Correlations with the MLQ presence o meaning subscale were ar more signicant overall. SI correlated at r = .44 (p < .001), .001), ollowed closely by A and CSE. CSE . CE did not correlate signicantly with presence o meaning. In complete contrast, PMP correlated positively and signicantly signica ntly with presence o mea ning, r = .65 (p < .01), .01), yet displayed no signicant correlation with search or meaning. Metapersonal sel-construal displayed moderate to high positive correlations with SI and all subscales. O the subscales, the highest correlation occurred with A, r = .63 (p < .01). otal mystical experiences, including all potential MSD subscales,
able 2
Fit Indices or Confrmatory Factor Analysis o the SISRI-24
_________________________ _____________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ ______________ _ X ²
RMSEA LCL UCL UCL SRMSR GFI AGFI CFI d _________________________ _____________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ ______________ _ Value 464.68* .055 .047 .062 .056 .886 .861 .934 246 _________________________ _____________ _________________________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ ______________ _ Note. LCL = RMSEA Lower Condence Limit; UCL = RMSEA Upper Condence Limit. * p < .0001
76
International Journal of ranspersonal Studies
King & DeCicco
Critical Existential Tinking
R.E.
1
.75
3
.70
5
.72
_______________________________________
9
.65
13 .68* 17 .50* 21
.52
Item
R.E.
7
.42
11
.66
15
.71
19
.50
23
.62
Item
R.E.
2
.46
6
.68
10
.44
14
.48
18 .72* 20 .73* 22
.54
Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 _______________________________________ 1 .65* .14 -.11 .14 2 .38 .14 .28 .59* 3 .73* .01 .07 .07 4 .18 .77* .21 .30 5 .52* .14 .39 .05 6 .07 .24 .04 .66* 7 .16 .22 .63* .36 8 .11 .85* .22 .21 9 .53* .22 .18 .20 10 .31 .16 .37 .59* 11 .06 .21 .78* -.03 12 .11 .83* .22 .15 13 .58* .15 .33 .25 14 .19 .30 .15 .66* 15 -.07 .05 .53* .40 16 .13 .81* .12 .17 17 .54* .29 .12 .31 18 .24 .08 .29 .63* 19 .21 .32 .68* .14 20 .29 .26 -.01 .70* 21 .65* -.02 -.03 -.03 .18 22 .21 .22 .20 .69* 23 .04 .12 .57* .39 24 .11 .75* .13 .25 Eigenvalues 8.86 2.12 1.63 1.33 _______________________________________ * All marked loadings > .50
Item
R.E.
4
.27
8
.17
12
.26
16
.39
24
.38
.50* .55* .53* .59* .69*
.54 .75
.60*
Personal Meaning Making
.77*
.76* .59* .54* .71* .62*
.53*
.74*
ranscendental .62* Awareness Awa reness
able 3
Item
.74* .57* .75* .72* .68*
.49 .47
Factor Loadings (Principal Components, Varimax Normalized) or the SISRI-24
.61*
Conscious State Expansion
Figure 1.
.85* .91* .86* .78* .72*
CFA our-actor our-actor model or the SISRI-24 R.E. = Residual Error *Parameter *Para meter estimates signicant at p
View more...
Comments
