Speed Encyclopedia Final1
Short Description
Improve strength and speed...
Description
The Speed Encyclopedia By: Travis Hansen
The Speed Encyclopedia By: Travis Hansen Editors: Scott Wilson and Scott Underwood Cover: Cassie Drake Copyright 2013, Travis Hansen All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written consent of the author except for the use of brief quotations in a book review. The information contained in this book is meant to supplement training for a sport. Like with any type of training, the training discussed within this book does pose some inherent risk. The author advises readers to take full responsibility for their safety and know their limits. Before practicing the exercises described in this book, be sure that your equipment is well maintained, and do not take risks far beyond your level of experience, aptitude, training, and comfort. As with any form of exercise, please consult your physician prior to commencing any strenuous activity.
3 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
THE SPEED ENCYCLOPEDIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………..8 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..9 TESTIMONIALS………………………………………….……10 VERTICAL + HORIZONTAL FORCE=TOP SPEED………18 THE NEED FOR ACCELERATION MORE THAN TOP SPEED IN MOST SPORTS…………………………………..24 BUILD YOUR HORSEPOWER………………………………26 -The Power Development Model STRENGTH TRAINING WHY EVERY ATHLETE SHOULD TRAIN SIMILAR TO A POWERLIFTER………………………………………………..31 -Maximal Strength Training for Maximal Speed -Strength Principles -Supplemental Strength Training to build your acceleration and speed musculature -Specific Strength Training to perfect sprinting technique POWER TRAINING OLYMPIC LIFTING FOR AN EXPLOSIVE START…..……57 -Explosive strength training -Jump tests 4 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
SPEED TRAINING PLYOMETRICS……………………………...………………...68 -High-frequency drills -Low-frequency drills -Medicine ball training SPRINTING…………………………………………………….75 -Speed Principles *Principle of Specificity *Overspeed” Principle -Sprinting Technique -Sprint Start Technique *Sprint Start Setup *Sprint Start SPRINTING EXERCISES………………………………….102 -10, 20, 40, and 60-yard dash -Flying sprints AGILITY AND QUICKNESS……………...…………………106 -Agility and quickness techniques -Rehearsed exercises -Reactive exercises JUMPING……………………………………………………..113 -Jumping technique- Mastering the 3 phases of a jump -Jumping exercises SPEED VS. CONDITIONING…………………………….…115 5 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
SPECIALIZED SPEED TRAINING METHODS………….120 -Complex Training -Assisted Sprinting -Hip Flexor Training -Technical Drills PROGRAM DESIGN………………………………………..125 -Sprinting Frequency -Sprinting Volume TEMPO TRAINING…………………………………………..131 FAT LOSS SYSTEM……………………….………………..136 GET SHREDDED ‐Energy Balance -Fat Loss Fundamentals -Fat Loss Cardio -Fat Loss Supplements -Fat Loss Nutrition *Carbohydrates *Protein *Fats 5-step Fat Loss Nutrition Plan MUSCLE BUILDING SYSTEMGROW YOUR WAY TO BECOMING FASTER………….161 -Energy Balance -Muscle Building Fundamentals -Muscle Building Cardio 6 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
-Muscle Building Supplements -Muscle Building Nutrition *Carbohydrates *Protein *Fats 5-step Muscle Building Nutrition Plan BEGINNER/INTERMEDIATE AND ADVANCED SPEED PROGRAM………………………….………………187 SPEED WORKOUTS………………………………………..192 EXERCISE INDEX…………………………………………...209 FAQ’S………………………………………………………….211 SCIENTIFIC REFERENCES………………………………..232 ABOUT THE AUTHOR………………………………………242
7 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Before we get started there are several thanks I would like to deliver. First, to my wife, Anna. I love you. Secondly, to my family for their support with this book and my business, and their contribution to purchasing and constructing equipment that allowed some of the results in this book to occur. Next, I would like to thank the entire South Reno Athletic Club Staff who have invested and supported my mission of athletic development since the beginning. Without their collective effort this book would have been far more difficult to create and my pocketbook would be hurting to say the least. Thank you! Next, I would like to thank Kelly Baggett, Charlie Weingroff, Charlie Francis, Vladimir Zatsiorsky, Yuri Verkoshansky, Joe DeFranco, Latiff Thomas, Barry Ross, Lee Taft, Lyle McDonald, Tom Venuto, Jason Ferrugia, Jim Wendler, Mark Rippetoe, Louie Simmons, Bret Contreras, Eric Cressey, Mike Boyle, Sol Orwell, and the rest of the “Underground” scientific community for their hard work and relentless effort to make the industry better. Without these people I would have never have been able to generate this book. This group is not nearly recognized as much as they should be in the mainstream, and it’s sad and frustrating. These are the real experts in fitness and training that you have probably never heard of, or will hear about. I would also like to thank my sales page design team, Deckermedia, who did a phenomenal job in helping promote the book, Cassie Drake for the wonderful cover design job she did, and Jon Goodman for his referral and support. Lastly, I would like to thank the thousands of clients who invested in my training system and approach. Without you none of this would have ever been possible.
8 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
INTRODUCTION
For the past several years, I have dreamed of researching and creating a guide for team sport athletes that could deliver fast results for anyone. I think that this final product accomplishes that, and I hope you will agree after you read it and apply the information inside. I really think that team sport athletes are in need of a resource that can provide them quality and unbiased scientific information that they can rely on throughout their respective athletic careers. So much of the credit needs to be paid to every researcher you see cited in this book, and the countless hours and study they put in to basically not be recognized by our society. Much of the information has existed for decades. It was just a matter of going out and finding it and then applying it. It is my hope that the information contained within is technical but simple enough, so that you can apply it immediately to make you or your athletes better. I’m honest when I say that I have poured every bit of myself into this project because I love speed science and want to help you succeed. Everything about speed is fascinating and amazing to me, especially learning , watching, and analyzing the most elite speedsters out there, and then studying what features they possess that make them so great. Speed truly is one of the most athletic actions an athlete can possess and express, and it is also one of the most coveted. Everyone wants it, and I will show you exactly how to get it! It requires such a high degree of athleticism, including speed, power, strength, coordination, technique, patience, repetition and so much more to master it. You need a complete program to make it happen. Be ready to put in the work and you will be rewarded.
9 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
SPEED ENCYCLOPEDIA TESTIMONIALS #1: Nolan Wilcock-College Student-Former Athlete BEFORE: 155 lbs.
AFTER: 183 lbs.
* Squatted 410 lbs. at 170 lbs. * Improved his 40-yard dash time from 5.1 seconds to 4.6 seconds. * Nearly maintained original body fat percentage while gaining 29 lbs. in 12 weeks!
10 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#2: Scott Underwood-Minor League Baseball Player BEFORE: 175 Lbs.
AFTER: 205 lbs.
* Improved exit throwing velocity (outfield to home plate) from 85 MPH to 94 MPH. * Bench press increased from 225 lbs. to 305 lbs. * Squat increased from 300 lbs. to 410 lbs. * Deadlift increased from 350 lbs. to 505 lbs. * His 40-yard dash has gone from 4.9 seconds to 4.5 seconds. * 60-yard dash has improved from 7.0 seconds to 6.47 seconds. Scott was timed twice by scouts in the 6.4-6.5 second range. * His vertical jump has gone from 30” to 35”. * Lastly, Scott has bulked up 30 lbs. naturally while maintaining a low body fat percentage!
11 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#3: Erik Underwood-Minor League Baseball Player
*Bench press increased from 195 lbs. to 265 lbs. *Deadlift increased from 225 lbs. to 430 lbs. *Vertical jump increased from 27” to 32” *40-yard dash improved from 5.2 to 4.6 seconds (fully electronic) *60-yard dash improved from 7.2 to 6.5 seconds *Eric also amassed 25 lbs. of muscle. #4: Brent Koontz-Former Collegiate and Arena League Football Player
Brent improved his 40-yard dash time by almost a half-second. When he first began training he recorded an unofficial 5.2-second run. At his tryout with the San Jose Sabercats of the AFL, Brent ran an unofficial 4.86-second 40-yard dash.
12 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#5:Garrett Grenert-High School Baseball
Garrett has improved his fully electronic 20-yard dash from 2.97 seconds to 2.79 seconds, his 40-yard dash from 5.10 seconds to 4.69 seconds, and has gained 16 lbs. of muscle in the process. #6: Josh Barrett-New England Patriots
“As an NFL athlete I've trained all over America, and working with Travis, his hands-on approach, challenged me as an athlete. His knowledge, passion and work ethic is amazing. I recommend Travis to anyone who aspires to reach their athletic goals.”
13 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#7:
Me @ 5’11”!
While following this program for the past 3 years I have been able to take my athletic performance to a whole new level. *My standing vertical jump has improved from 30” to 37”, and my running vertical jump has soared from 39” to 46”. *My fully electronic 40-yard dash has gone from 4.92 to 4.54 seconds. *I’m 30 lbs. bigger (170 lbs. to 200 lbs.) * Bench press has gone from 225 lbs. to 300 lbs. * Deadlift 350 lbs. to 475 lbs. * Squat 275 lbs. to 400 lbs. #8: Sean Cochran-College Student-Former Athlete
*Sean’s fully electronic 40-yard dash has gone from 5.08 (4.84 handheld) seconds to 4.76 seconds (4.52 handheld) *His vertical jump has increased from 27” to 33” *Sean has experienced 50% improvements in strength since he began the program as well. He now squats 365 lbs. and deadlifts 440 lbs. at 180 lbs. 14 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#9: Jake Morris-Lacrosse and Football Player
*Jake’s 40-yard dash has improved from 5.2 to 4.8 seconds! *Jake recorded the fastest shuttle run on his team as a lineman at 4 seconds flat. His vertical jump has increased from 19” to 26”.
#10: Skylar Schroeder-High School Basketball Player
*Skylar has taken his fully electronic 40-yard dash time from 5.2 seconds to 4.74 seconds *His vertical jump has improved from 23” to 31” *He’s gained 31 lbs. of muscle!
15 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#11: Rene Capps-Amateur Bodybuilder and football player
*Rene improved her 40-yard dash from 5.2 to 4.9 seconds! It’s great to watch her tear it up and beat many of the guys in the gym. *She also squatted double her bodyweight and bench pressed plates for the first time on this program.
#12: Ally Gunderson-Junior High Volleyball Player
Ally has increased her vertical jump from 19” to 24” and taken her fully electronic 20-yard dash from 3.42 seconds to 3.28 seconds. 16 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
As you can clearly see, these are REAL testimonies. None of this “I feel better,” or “my trainer motivates me,” or “my trainer is the best” nonsense. This is what a program is all about. Results! These testimonies are just some of the dozens of athletes that have made remarkable progress on this training system. I apologize to anyone who I omitted above.
17 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
VERTICAL + HORIZONTAL FORCE=TOP SPEED
The debate between whether or not vertical or horizontal force display is the superior type of directional force for faster running is still alive. Some experts advocate for vertical while the others insist horizontal is king. So who is right? Neither of them. Before I get started, I must admit that I, too, was guilty of this for years until it was recently brought to my attention by experts through very discrete aspects of research that I simply missed. The truth is that both are powerhouses for dictating speed potential. Biomechanically, sprinting involves both the total amount of force we apply into the ground (power), as well as the different types of forces (vertical and horizontal) that are transmitted. We will never be our fastest without a solid combination of both types of forces in the highest amounts possible. I’m going to do my best to disclose and explain all of the research which strongly supports both types and then categorize each one into specific training categories. The bottom line is that there is going to be lots of research and facts, as well as a list of exercises you can use immediately to make fast gains in speed! We will discuss vertical force production and its role in speed first. From a general and cumulative standpoint, vertical force is always going to be higher in sprinting than horizontal. Below are two tables adopted from various sprint studies in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. The first illustrates vertical force outputs, which can top out at around 2500 Newtons according to one study, while the second table discloses horizontal productions which can top out around 800 Newtons according to that same study. It’s no match. Vertical output is up to three times greater than horizontal force production.
(Chart courtesy of strengthandconditioningresearch.com)
18 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
(Chart courtesy of strengthandconditioningresearch.com)
Please keep in mind that the absolute value, although important, is not the be all and end all to speed regulation. Horizontal forces are going to play a critical and essential role later on. Moreover, some might be concerned with the notion that vertical force is higher, when sprinting certainly could be perceived as an activity that is horizontally dominant. Biomechanically, the reason for this is due to gravity. When we are sprinting, our landing foot hits the surface. As this occurs, there are horizontal braking forces that push back against us, which is countered by our momentum, which is obviously moving forward horizontally. The only way to continue motion is to drive up vertically past gravity. This is only one scenario, but it logically explains why vertical force is present in sprinting, and I first heard it from track and field coach Barry Ross. There are more than a half‐dozen studies that indicate the significance of vertical force for speed. 2,3,4,5,6,7,8 For example, in The Journal of Applied Physiology in 2000, Peter Weyand identified that faster runners generated as much as 1.26 times as much vertical force at top speed. 8 Lastly, as you will see later on, the vertical jump shares a strong correlation and is based primarily off of vertical force production. Now it may seem intuitive to assume that horizontal forces are a key player since our body mass is moving in a horizontal direction while sprinting, but after reading the research above, it can become hard to see the equal value horizontal force has in sprinting. Recall that the absolute amount of force favors vertical, so it’s then easy to assume that it’s the hands‐down favorite. At least that was the case for me. It’s a little more complicated than that, though. The manner in which force is distributed throughout a sprint is the complicated part. To help understand this, 19 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
let’s break the sprint down into the standard 3 parts; acceleration, top speed, and top speed maintenance/deceleration That’s the natural progression of events that would occur during a sprint if it’s long enough in duration and distance. In the first stage of the model, horizontal and vertical forces are going to both be high. Consider the near 45‐degree body angle as we leave the blocks or a 3‐ or 4‐ point stance and it’s easy to see that there is a lot more hip drive and horizontal force produced since we are lying more flat. Here is a study from Mero in 1988 in Exercise and Sport Science that supported more horizontal force production for greater acceleration due to an increased forward body lean position. 9 Vertical force will still be very present since gravity is constant. According to Mero, vertical force production will be about 1.60 x BW, and horizontal was .73 x BW during the acceleration phase. Where horizontal force production will matter the most is in the middle to end portions of a sprint; top speed and deceleration‐speed maintenance, specifically.
(Photo courtesy of Eckhard Pecher) Because of the position of our body in an upright stride, the runner will naturally drive more horizontal force into the ground as they drive the stance leg back behind them. See the runner closest.
You can clearly see that in the upright position the hip will hyperextend past the body more than in a lean stride, since the body does not have to travel as far forward over the foot to hyperextend the hip. This will create more hip hyperextension and horizontal force. This helps to explain why horizontal forces continue to be generated at higher speeds when the body is upright. Below is a table from Brughelli (2011) that shows percentage increases of each type of force from 40 to 100% of maximum velocity. 20 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
(Chart courtesy of strengthandconditioningresearch.com)
Quite frankly, this single table is all that is necessary to realize the extreme value horizontal forces will play in a sprint. If you break it down into pure numbers, what it means is that very little force is continuing to be exhibited vertically at 40% of top speed on. 40% is not very fast, so it plays a role quick in the sprint. This is what I was missing, and why I was always a huge advocate of vertical force production being superior to horizontal in sprinting for many years. You simply cannot continue to accelerate beyond a moderate speed or effort without a dominant amount of horizontal force production. It’s really that simple. It sealed the deal. Furthermore, maximal running speed was correlated significantly with mass‐specific horizontal force, and there are almost a dozen other studies that show a relationship between speed and horizontal force production. 3 5 6 10 11 For example, a simulation was conducted by Hunter, Marshall, and Mcnair in 2004 in The Journal of Biomechanics. 11 They selected 28 team sport athletes in the first part of the study, 36 athletes in part 2, and they were paired by gender average sprint speed and other factors. What they found after this simulation was that both vertical and horizontal force outputs are key to running performance. Next, we will break the training of each force type into two specific categories that you can use. Almost every single exercise you do for your lower body can be 21 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
classified into one or the other. I first heard this classification style from Bret Contreras, so he gets the credit here. Axial Loading=Vertical Force Exercises Anterior‐posterior=Horizontal Force Exercises Axial loading is termed for the fact that you are applying resistance or an external load on the axial skeleton and driving force up “vertically” for the most part. You still create horizontal force with this type of exercise, but not as much as the anterior‐posterior variations. This axial sub‐skeletal system consists of mainly the cranium, the spine, and rib cage. I will be discussing all of the benefits of this type of exercise mainly in the “Maximal Strength” portion of the book, along with lots of research and studies, so stay tuned! Examples include squats, deadlifts, lunges, and high box step‐ups.
Axial loading via the back squat is a key exercise for greater speed!
Anterior‐posterior exercises are where you apply resistance or an external load and require your body to move the load in a horizontal direction, or more front to back. Anterior‐posterior also produce vertical force, but not near as much as the axial type exercises. I will be discussing the benefits of this type of training in the strength section of the book as well, specifically in the “Hip Dominant” portion. Examples include barbell hip thrusts, sled pulls or sprints, and hamstring curls. 22 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Erik is feeling the wrath of the barbell hip thrust!
So if we address and regularly implement both types of exercise, the athlete is guaranteed to have strong legs through a full range of motion, achieve both force types, leaving no weak links and greater speed! This program has plenty of both, so not to worry.
23 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
`THE NEED FOR ACCELERATION MORE THAN TOP SPEED IN MOST
SPORTS
Just like the title states, most circumstances in athletics involve a greater need for acceleration versus top speed. What’s the difference, you might ask? Mark Rippetoe in his book “Starting Strength” states that acceleration is “the increase in speed.” 12 In other words, acceleration is how quickly we can create speed or move faster. Top speed is how fast we can move, and does not necessarily factor in the time it takes to get there. We can have great speed or have the capacity to move fast, and not produce it immediately if our acceleration is poor or less than optimal. The main thing I would like to point out here is that a majority of field and court sports and other activities are functions of acceleration first and speed and top speed second, if at all. “In sports where average sprint distances range from 10 to 30m, it would appear that the ability to achieve maximum velocity within the shortest time frame is more important than the maximum velocity itself. That is, acceleration rather than maximum velocity would seem to be of greater importance to many sportsmen and women.” 1 Of course there is greater speed when you have faster acceleration because you are increasing speed, but the main issue is one of how quickly an athlete can accelerate and increase speed in a given direction, and not how fast an athlete is capable of sprinting if allowed more time.
(Photo courtesy of Keith Allison) Tony Parker is a great example of someone that can go 0‐60 like nothing. His ability to accelerate and increase his speed in any direction immediately enables him to blow by his opponents at will!
Think about this example for a second. John has great speed and top speed, and can move faster than anyone. Unfortunately, it takes John awhile to accelerate and increase his speed appreciably (40‐100 yards). Consequently, John seems slow 24 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
and suffers in his sport because a majority of the activity occurs very quickly across really short distances (5‐40 yards) and requires rapid acceleration. In order for John to be successful he has to increase speed and reach his speed potential much sooner, and the only way he can do this is by increasing his acceleration (0‐40) and training as such. Not only is this the case for John, but the vast majority of athletes in society need to perform great and focus their training on very short distances, and it’s rarely the case in my experience. So the next time you hear a mom, dad, or coach say they want to improve their son, daughter, or athlete’s speed or “game speed,” what they really are looking for is faster acceleration from their kid. Being able to move faster as soon as possible is absolutely key! As an interesting side note, the body actually does not reach top speed until the 40‐80 yard mark, depending on the level of the athlete, so top speed does not even occur in most cases. “Deceleration only becomes a factor after a sprinter passes his point of maximum speed. For the top sprinter, this might be at sixty meters, and he would not decelerate appreciably for another twenty. The intermediate sprinter reaches maximum speed at about 45 meters, and thus has a much greater deceleration potential. And the beginner begins decelerating fairly rapidly after he hits his maximum speed at 35 meters.” 13 According to this scientific fact, many athletes generally never come close to reaching top speed in competition, but they constantly have to accelerate, decelerate, and re‐accelerate as fast as possible in multiple directions. I just feel it is important to clarify terms and define the actual needs of an athlete, so that we are better able to design a program and prescribe the right type of training for our athletes to afford them the best chance to excel in competition. And now that we know more about the value of acceleration and speed, how do we go about obtaining these abilities in our training?? The answer is to develop more POWER, since it will be the make or break skill in this department.
25 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
BUILD YOUR HORSEPOWER
I am sure just about anyone who is reading this has previously heard the term “power” used before. This is the master regulator of sprinting speed. You generally hear it when an elite Olympic line of sprinters blast out of the blocks during the 100‐ meter dash, or when an NBA superstar posterizes his opponent, or when a major league baseball player skies up to nab a would‐be home run above the fence line, or when an NFL athlete jumps 40” or more in the vertical jump test at the annual NFL Combine. There is no question, it is truly one of the most impressive and highly coveted abilities, and there are many who are willing to do just about anything this day and age to get it. Fortunately for us, power can be taught, learned, and improved by ANYONE with the right training approach. But before we can train and gain power, I think it’s important to define it and have a basic understanding of what power really is. By doing so, you will have a deeper core understanding of the term. With this generally comes a stronger appreciation and willingness to want to perform it in potential times of doubt, resulting in greater adherence to the program and increased long‐term success. Power, by definition, is the end product of force x velocity. To simplify terms, I am going to use Strength x Speed because everyone is typically more familiar with these. The more of each of these we possess, the greater our power levels. *Strength= The amount of force we produce. The more force we produce, the stronger we are and vice versa. *Speed= How fast we produce force. The faster we produce force, the greater our speed and vice versa. Maximizing your strength and speed will always yield the highest output of power and athletic ability, period. The bottom line is that if you want phenomenal power and explosiveness, then you have to be able to generate the highest amount of strength in the shortest period of time. It does not matter if you are lifting heavy weights, lighter weights, or just your bodyweight, you have to produce strength and produce it as fast as you are capable. Power is without a shadow of a doubt, the “master regulator” of sport performance. If you want to jump out of the gym, cut on a dime, sprint faster than you ever thought possible, or increase the efficiency of your movements, to name a few, then you have to elevate your power output. In 1999, McBride and his team of researchers conducted a study to measure power levels in certain types of athletes. 14 The study involved a control group, and a series of powerlifters, sprinters, and Olympic lifters. Researchers wanted to measure relative power ratios (bodyweight to power), and absolute power measures from all of the participants in each group. 26 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Subjects performed a vertical jump, a smith machine squat, and a smith machine squat jump. The results showed that the sprinters had the highest relative power (power to bodyweight ratio) and best vertical jump height, while the Olympic lifters generated the highest total power output, and powerlifters had the highest levels of absolute strength. Surprisingly, though, sprinters and Olympic lifters did possess similar levels of strength in this particular study. What was most convincing about this study was how much more total power the three groups achieved relative to the control group, indicating a really strong need for power. It was dramatically higher in the three types of athletes, and indicates just how important this skill is to general athletic performance, and in the case of this book, speed!. Here is one of the charts of the study that shows sprinters as having the highest level of power output in the vertical jump test. I would also like to mention that the sprinters in this study weighed 170 lbs. on average, and squatted 450 lbs. on average. That’s more than 2.5 times their own bodyweight! 24
(Chart courtesy of strengthandconditioningresearch.com)
If you still naturally question, or have any doubt on whether or not elite sprinters, or those who are fast require greater levels of power (strength x speed) to enable faster running speeds, then there is a host of studies and data that will support this notion later on in this manual. Real power training is one of the most rewarding training styles available to the public, once you dismiss the apprehension surrounding it and you become familiar with the exercises and how they should be performed. This manual will show you how. There are various methods we can select to improve our power development. Some are better than others for developing power in specific areas of the body, some are safer than others, and some are less technical and complex than others. But the one thing all methods share in common is that they ALWAYS demand you to 27 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
summon as much force and energy as possible, as fast as you can, each and every time you attempt to move. I cannot state the importance of this enough! Next, we will look at a universally accepted and technical model that serves as a representation of power. If you have ever studied human movement science before, then I’m sure you have probably seen the diagram I’m about to show you. It’s called The Force‐Velocity Curve. Just think of it as the portrayal of the actual power definition where you have force (strength) on one end and velocity (speed) on the other. The two together form power. By applying this useful model properly through sound training over the long term, we can effectively maximize our power output and thus sprinting and speed skill. How do we do this? Basically, we need to integrate the essential and supremely underrated triad of powerlifting, Olympic lifting, and sprinting to maximize both our power output and running speed. Of course, there are other techniques and training types performed in this program, but these three are the primary ones that will always get you faster on the field, track, or court. Each one of these disciplines has a lot to bring to the table, and we will never be as fast as we can be if we neglect or underachieve on any one of these skills. Never. THE FORCE-VELOCITY CURVE
(Chart courtesy of articles.elitefts.com) Training all along this entire curve is key to running faster!
Now we have some solid scientific evidence and a specific accompanying model to show just how important power is to developing speed. It’s now a good time to reveal the practical and permanent training model we will need to utilize to implement everything mentioned previously. To reflect all of this, I went ahead and created The Power Development Model for my athletes or those deciding to try our system who wanted to get faster. The beauty of this model is its consistency,
28 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
simplicity, and reliability of it. It has a strong and unshakable structure that emphasizes all that we need to drive up our total body power and then some! THE POWER DEVELOPMENT MODEL:
UPPER BODY SPEED TRAINING + UPPER BODY POWER TRAINING + UPPER BODY STRENGTH TRAINING *Plyometrics Olympic Lifting Maximal Strength ‐Medicine ball drill ‐Hang snatches and cleans ‐Bench press ‐Hitting or throwing Explosive Strength Supplemental Strength ‐Plyo pushups ‐Speed bench press ‐Chins/pulls, military press, row variations LOWER BODY SPEED TRAINING + LOWER BODY POWER TRAINING + LOWER BODY STRENGTH TRAINING *Plyometrics Olympic Lifting Maximal Strength ‐Jumping ‐Hang snatches and cleans ‐Squat or Deadlift ‐Sprinting Explosive Strength Supplemental Strength ‐Agility and quickness ‐Speed squat or deadlift ‐Single leg movements, GHR, RDL’s ‐Jump Squats Specific Strength ‐Sled sprints, pulls, or marching
With this model, you will always be incorporating a majority of the training you need to be powerful throughout both the upper and lower body. Ultimately, both regions of the body are going to be utilized in any movement pattern, with generally one half being primary in certain movements and the other half secondary. Therefore we will definitely need both halves functioning at a high level if we truly want to maximize a movement pattern, especially in the case of sprinting or speed‐based movements. The luxury of this approach is that you could literally optimize any target movement by training within the confines of this model, as long as you successfully address each aspect. As a testament to this, I’ve utilized this model with long ball hitters, golfers, boxers, baseball players, lacrosse players, soccer players, skiers, basketball players, football players, etc. several times and the results were fantastic. I should quickly note that the only real differences between devising this approach for a football player and a tennis player would be alterations in the speed and specific strength categories. A large majority of sport‐specific movement patterns are lower or upper body speed‐based motions (throwing, kicking, hitting, running , jumping, cutting etc.). A tennis player’s speed work prescription to swing a tennis racket should arguably differ from a football player, who may potentially do less swinging and more throwing or pressing activities. Honestly, though, each of these activities are going to create the same speed or plyometric effect in similar areas of the upper body. The only other discrepancy would be the “Specific Strength” category under lower body strength training, which I will discuss in detail later on. 29 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Next, we will examine the model in full detail so you’ll see what will actually help make you faster. I will introduce and discuss each component of the model (strength, speed, and power) directly, along with key principles, research, and techniques for each. Once I’m finished here, it is my hope that you will have an overwhelming acceptance of just how influential power can be for the sake of making athletes or anyone faster across any sport. Before I do, though, I want to leave you with a quote from a team of highly credible researchers in the field about the future and direction of their research on speed development and two confirming studies. “It is generally accepted that maximal running velocity requires high force production. 15 16 17 As such, strength and power training methods are almost universally promoted as a means of training to improve running velocity. 15 18 19 Therefore, the relationship between strength and power and velocity are of considerable interest in attempting to identify possible mechanisms for the enhancement of running performance.” 15 18 20 21 1 In 2012, Morin and his colleagues published a study in The European Journal of Applied Physiology that examined a series of sprinters from different skill levels, including 9 non‐sprinters, 3 French national‐level sprinters, and a world‐class sprinter. The world‐class sprinter was Christophe LeMaitre, who is the fastest European sprinter ever to date. The conclusion of the study was that Lemaitre’s power output, especially in the horizontal direction, was the difference maker in his elite times comparative to slower runners. The researchers did mention that vertical force at top speed correlated significantly, but horizontal force was more important. 22 24 In 2012, Beneke and Taylor published a study in The Journal of Biomechanics called “What gives Bolt the Edge‐A.V. Hill knew it already!” They assessed Usain Bolt’s past performances in the 100‐meter dash, and eventually identified that the reason Bolt is superior is primarily due to the fact that he is able to maximize his position on the Force‐Velocity Curve and generate more power into the ground than any of his competitors! 23 24 In fact, the researchers compared the difference in power between someone running a 9.96 second 100‐meter dash versus Bolt’s 9.58, and it was about 6%. That’s quite a bit when you figure we are discussing tenths of a second. They also noted in the study that Bolt is reaching what previous researchers indicated as the human limit of physical power output. 24 Pretty incredible.
30 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
WHY EVERY ATHLETE SHOULD TRAIN SIMILAR TO A POWERLIFTER
Strength training is simply the ability of the body to develop more force in movement. This style of training is also most athletes’ missing link to getting faster. VERY rarely do I witness athletes lifting hard and heavy like they should, especially enough to increase speed. NO ONE, and I mean no one, embodies this approach better than a powerlifter. Yes, you read that right: a powerlifter! To clarify, powerlifters gear their programs and approach around improving three core lifts: the bench press, deadlift, and squat. That’s it. There are other exercises involved of course, but everything they do is centered on performances in these three exercises. Their methods have been explored and validated, and they absolutely work and always will. Now I’m pretty certain that many will be rolling their eyes, shaking their heads, and quite possibly shouting obscenities as they read this, since heavy weightlifting is automatically associated with injury and extreme fear from the general public. Fair enough. I used to perceive the sport in the same way until I realized my own ignorance and all of the unprecedented value powerlifting provides to an athlete, and we should be crediting this culture for their philosophy. All I ask is that you please hear me out and get outside your comfort zone for a moment, and honestly consider all that I am about to share with you. I absolutely sympathize and understand why so many do not embrace the notion of lifting heavy weights, but there is no question on the positive and substantial effect that a modified style of this type of training can have on athletes. If you are not training heavy then you are making your athletes weaker, slower, unhealthier, and less capable and athletic in competition. Period. There generally tends to be two primary reasons why coaches, athletes, trainers, and parents dismiss this type of training from their athletes’ training model, regardless of the type of sport. The first is injury risk. This is a fair assumption since many tend to get injured at some point in the training process. I’ve been there. However, if your program design and technique are where they should be then this should not be a problem, and the risk of injury is drastically reduced. Many studies have measured the rate of injuries associated with weight training compared with the rate in other sports. For example, a study published in the November/December 2001 issue of The Journal of American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons cited research showing that in children ages 5 to 14 years, the number of injuries from bicycling was almost 400 percent greater than the number of injuries from weightlifting. There’s more. In a review paper on resistance training for prepubescent and adolescent athletes published in 2002 in Strength and Conditioning Coach, author Mark Shillington reported in a screening of sports‐related injuries in school‐aged children that resistance training was the likely cause of only 0.7 percent (or 1,576) of injuries compared with 19 percent for football and 15 percent for baseball. 25 31 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
The truth is that weight training and competitive lifting sports are among the safest activities an athlete can participate in. This fact is known worldwide. For example, renowned Russian sports scientist Vladimir Zatsiorsky in his book Science and Practice of Strength Training has this to say about the dangers of weight training. “The risk of injury from a well coached strength training program has been estimated to be about one per 10,000 athlete‐exposures, with an athlete‐exposure being defined as one athlete taking part in one training session or competition. Compared to tackle football, alpine skiing, baseball pitching, and even sprint running, strength training is almost free of risk.” 25 Every single time someone comes to me with a present underlying injury, there is always something definitively wrong with either their lifting technique or program design, or both. And just so we are on the same page, program design refers to the specific structuring of all of the training‐related variables (exercise selection, training frequency, rest period, training volume, type of workout, skill focus, etc.) that dictates how our body will respond and adapt to the training we are performing. If any of this is improperly assigned then we will not benefit as much from our training and we could risk potential injury. After a decade of training athletes, I’ve more than realized that this is the most difficult part of being an effective coach and getting the results you and the athlete both want. Program design is an art that requires careful and precise understanding of all scientific parameters or guidelines. I view it as a tax return. If one number is out of whack then the whole return is compromised and we receive a bad outcome, by either paying more money or not receiving as much of a return. Training works in much the same way. Many times, a model will be strong in certain areas, but lacking in others and the result is not what it could be. Lastly, strength training is one of the best forms of exercise for injury prevention and general rehabilitation treatment, contrary to popular belief. The reason is pretty simple. With bigger and stronger tissues (tendons, ligaments, muscles) derived from strength training, our collective body structure will be more resistant to all of the external forces and demands being placed upon it in sport and training, and we will be far less likely to get injured. I always elect to use the analogy of a bigger rubber band versus a smaller one to my athletes when attempting to convey the message that strength training will make us healthier. Which one will tear first if there is an equal amount of effort placed upon each? Obviously, the answer is the smaller rubber band. So as long as our program design and technique are fantastic, then building a dense body structure is going to help keep athletes healthy over the long term. The next concern that coaches or others have with powerlifting or lifting heavy weights is “specificity.” In other words, they feel that squatting and deadlifting have no bearing whatsoever on whether or not an athlete can run faster or perform sport‐specific movements better. But wait, everyone believes in stretching and that is not specific to the act of sprinting, right? Again, I can understand this perspective 32 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
in that many are fearful of heavy weightlifting, or they are simply ignorant, but the fact of the matter is that movements do not have to always be exactly the same to translate and benefit one another. Powerlifting and speed training are no exception, to say the least. Let me pose this question before I get into the science. Why does nearly every legitimate Division 1 football program integrate heavy weightlifting into their off‐season programs, and why are these guys constantly the fastest people in sport outside of sprinters, who also utilize heavy weightlifting? Of course it gets them stronger, but if you were to ask any of the unbiased, informed, and objective athletes and coaches, I am sure they would tell you that it helps make them much faster as well. Aside from personal experience here, I’ve heard it from too many of my athletes in the past and present. It’s something that you truly have to experience to appreciate completely. A large majority of speed development systems to date completely disregard heavy weightlifting, and it’s at the expense of each and every athlete entering that program looking to get faster and it re‐embeds the long‐held notion that speed cannot be taught, learned, or improved that much, when it definitely can. Now to help refute this commonly held misperception, we need to consider and introduce 3 unique functions of muscles in the human body to better appreciate what “non‐specific” training exercises can bring to the table. #1‐Muscle can move in multiple directions. #2‐Muscles move through large ranges of motion. #3‐Muscles move through a variety of different joint angles. This is extremely important information in refuting always being “training specific” in the context of developing speed, and even other areas of training. I will be providing you with specific evidence here shortly, but the fact is that the muscles that we utilize heavily while deadlifting or squatting are the exact same ones that we will call upon when the time comes to run sprints of all distances, contrary to popular belief. Of course the direct activity levels of each of the individual muscles are going to be a little bit different at different phases of each movement, as well as the angles and ranges of motion, but the simple reality is that it’s the same muscle groups working. Always keep in mind that muscles are very versatile and adaptable in nature. This helps simplify many of the confusing movement comparisons listed in literature. To help reinforce this notion, below is a series of EMG reports for what would be typically known as very “different” movements. Electromyography is a technique used mainly by researchers to test the specific skeletal muscle activity in target motions. Please note that all muscles in the entire body are active in these movements, but I’m only going to share the results of the lower body since this is the main driver in sprinting. 33 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Back Squat: In 2002, Caterisano and his colleagues found that “as squat depth got deeper, the gluteus maximus becomes more active during the concentric contraction phase of the lift. Muscular contribution shifts from the biceps femoris, vastus medialis and lateralis to the gluteus maximus. This suggests that the gluteus maximus is the prime mover during the concentric phase of the squat, and the other muscles play a secondary role.” What this study found is that the hips, especially the glutes, are more active than the quads in a back squat movement performed correctly. 26 Conventional Deadlift: In 2002, Escamilla performed a study in Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. This study found the majority of muscle activity was in the quadriceps and gluteus maximus when greater knee flexion angles were present, whereas the hamstrings were very dominant with less knee flexion during the deadlift. 27 Vertical Jump: There was a study conducted in 2011 that analyzed muscular activity of various muscles in the squat, deadlift, and vertical jump. The results indicated that the hips, primarily the glutes, were the prime movers in the vertical jump. I could not find the specifics as to how much they were dominant, but other authorities have cited the glutes along with the hamstring muscles as contributing up to 60% in the vertical jump pattern. 28 Sprinting: In a study in 1995, Dr. Wiemann and Dr. Tidow utilized EMG testing to see the various skeletal muscle activity levels at the knee and hip during sprinting. They concluded that the muscles mainly responsible for forward propulsion in full speed sprinting are the hamstrings, the gluteus maximus and the adductor longus. The hamstrings are singled out as the most important contributors to produce the highest level of speed. 29 So now you clearly see how powerful your hips are in movement and the strong relationship between many movements of the lower body. With all of this in mind, increasing strength potential in these muscles through now arguably labeled non‐specific exercises like deadlifts and squats will allow you to effectively be able to drive more force into the ground and run faster since these muscle groups will be much stronger. Moreover, the squat and deadlift are more similar to sprinting than we usually give them credit for. This has to deal with “torque‐angle curves” that will be discussed in greater detail in the Hip Dominant Training section. Don’t worry about the big fancy word. It just means being range–of‐motion specific. If you analyze when we sprint, from the landing up until mid‐stance our hips, knees, and 34 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
ankles will be bent or flexed, just like with a squat or deadlift. The more force we can drive out of a squat, the more force we will produce in this phase of the movement. The third similarity that powerlifting and sprinting share is the structural likeness that each type of athlete generally possesses. Below is a chart taken from Tudor Bompa that shows very similar levels of fast‐twitch muscle fiber that both weightlifters and sprinters share.
Lastly is the value of “vertical force” that is present in squatting, deadlifting, and sprinting. You saw earlier just how important vertical force production is for speed. Squatting and deadlifting produce horizontal force, just not as much. It sounds ridiculous because we seem to be moving almost PURELY in the horizontal direction as we sprint, and our moving mass is definitely traveling in this direction, but there is still some vertical‐based force assisting us in getting there. Hence, a squat or deadlift, which can only be achieved through POWERLIFTING! The squat and deadlift are the two exercises that are going to allow us to develop the most of a certain type of directional force necessary to run faster. “Ben Johnson won because he had the most vertical displacement. When he was pulling away from his competitors, he exhibited measurably greater vertical displacement than they did; when he slowed down towards the end of the race and cruised to victory, he had less vertical displacement than he had featured at maximum velocity. In fact, every sprinter in the talent‐packed finals at Seoul had some measure of vertical displacement.” 13 This quote is referring to former 100‐meter world record holder Ben Johnson of Canada, and how his ability to propel and lift his body up in the vertical direction while sprinting was integral to his amazing performance. Oh, and Johnson also squatted 600 lbs. for reps at a body weight under 200 lbs. before he ran his gold medal‐winning 9.79 second 100 meter run at the Seoul Olympic games. Ben Johnson was the fastest during the ‘70‐‘80s era, and Usain Bolt is now. What’s interesting is that Usain Bolt too exhibited the highest degree of vertical force out of all of his competitors, and he is the best 35 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
currently in this era. A study in 2012 in The International Journal of Sports Medicine identified the fastest 3 men on planet earth. Usain Bolt exhibited far more vertical force than either of the top 2 competitors, Osafa Powell and Tyson Gay. 24 31 Now let’s look at some of the popular studies as well as a personal case study I did to help solidify the need for higher levels of strength for improved speed performance. The first study was performed in 2009 and was found in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. This study involved 17 Division 1‐AA collegiate football players. Each player performed a 1 rep maximum squat with 70 degrees of knee bend. Within the next week, a 5‐, 10‐, and 40‐yard dash time was taken for each participant utilizing electronic timing measures. The researchers concluded that there was a very strong correlation between 10‐ and 40‐yard dash times, and strong correlation across 5 yards. Subjects of the study were divided into 2 groups: those who squatted 2.10 x their bodyweight or more, and those who squatted 1.90 x their bodyweight and less. The former had significantly lower sprint times in comparison with the weaker group. 32 The second study I found was also located in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research and was published in 2012. This study contained an introduction that mentioned previous research had expressed a relationship between maximal squat strength and sprint performance. This study aimed to test that theory once more. Nineteen professional rugby players were tested in the back squat for 1 rep, and 5‐, 10‐, and 20‐meter dash at the onset of the study. Next, each player was put through a strength mesocycle (one month) and power mesocycle. After that period of time, both absolute and relative strength levels had increased considerably, as well as performance across all 3 distances. Pre‐strength levels were at an average of 1.78 x body weight, and 2.05 x body weight after. 5‐meter performance average was 1.05 before and .097 after. 10‐meter was 1.78 before and 1.65 after, and 20‐meter was 3.03 and 2.85 before and after. 33 The third study comes from Mann and his team of researchers, who filmed a series of male and female sprinters at various competitions to assess them biomechanically. What they found during their analysis was that horizontal velocity is key for maximal speed and that is best satisfied through both strength acquisition and technical proficiency. 34 The fourth study analyzed data and information from the 100‐meter races at the 1988 Olympic Games. Researchers recognized that functions of strength at the beginning of a race during the acceleration phase are different than after maximum speed has been attained. Thus, strength training for each phase of the race could utilize a different approach. The concentric or shortening action of primarily the quadriceps is huge during acceleration. This is an acceleration‐based program, so this information serves great for this program, and this is why squats and max strength work are beneficial. Furthermore, eccentric loading was smaller and reserved for after longer strides and impacts have been created (Top speed). Thus, 36 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
more eccentric and reactive strength work would improve this phase of the sprint. The authors mentioned drop jumps here. 35 The fifth study was conducted by Bret in 2001 in The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness.36 In this study, 19 national male sprinters competed in a 100‐ meter race. The race was broken down into three phases for analysis, as well as the speed differences for each. The results showed that concentric half squat strength was the best indicator of the 100‐meter sprint, and leg stiffness played a major role in the second half of the race. Last is my own personal study. I decided to test this same concept and research the two sports that regularly and undoubtedly possess the fastest people on the planet year in and year out. Below is a brief list of elite sprinters and pro football players, along with their specific weight, 1 rep max squat, strength to bodyweight ratio and fastest 100‐meter and or 40‐yard dash time. Please note that these results were not referenced from scientific journals like most everything else, but rather university websites, NFL sites, and other online sources. As you are reading these, keep in mind the study from 1999 by McBride with the sprinters, Olympic lifters, and powerlifters. Sprinters in that study averaged a strength to bodyweight ratio of over 2.5 times their own bodyweight in the squat, which supports the information below. 24 Athlete: Weight (lbs.): 1RM Back Squat: Strength: BW: 40: 100: Tyson Gay 177 400 2.2 N/A 9.69 Asafa Powell 194 500 2.5 N/A 9.77 Ben Johnson 180 600 3.3 4.38 9.79 Maurice Greene 170 505 2.9 N/A 9.79 Donovan Bailey 200 505 2.5 N/A 9.84 Dwayne Chambers 200 506 2.5 N/A 9.87 Linford Christie 190 660 3.4 N/A 9.87 Walter Dix 195 400 2.0 N/A 9.88 Chris Johnson 195 425 2.1 4.24 10.38 Taylor Mayes 230 600 2.6 4.24 N/A Michael Vick 214 515 2.4 4.25 N/A Randy Moss 210 425 2.0 4.25 N/A Lamichael James 195 485 2.4 4.27 10.41 Devin Hester 190 415 2.1 4.27 N/A Desean Jackson 175 395 2.2 4.29 N/A Bob Sanders 206 497 2.4 4.30 N/A Patrick Peterson 219 535 2.4 4.32 N/A Reggie Bush 203 550 2.7 4.33 N/A Knile Davis 225 570 2.5 4.37 N/A Adrian Peterson 217 540 2.4 4.38 N/A 37 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Vernon Davis 250 685 2.7 4.38 N/A I found this to be pretty fascinating to see and I hope you do too. Please keep in mind that this is just a small sample size selection. I probably could have located hundreds of more examples like this, and hopefully it is more than enough to convince you as a reader of the influence strength has on speed. Conversely, of course, there are examples of individuals who have less than stellar strength skill, but still run very fast. Obviously, these individuals possess some specific genetic factors that can enable greater physical functioning that will create elite speed. I would be willing to bet, though, that these same individuals would absolutely benefit more if they incorporated strength work into their program on a routine basis and distinguished themselves even more, just like these genetically predisposed individuals in this small case study did. However, examples of these anomalies are very rare it seems, and it really discredits all of the hard work committed by so many in an attempt to take it to the extreme and be the best they can be, genetics or not. Plus, we cannot use these scarce examples as a model for athletes who need other outlets to improve, especially those who are on the cusp in a sport, where speed can be the difference between making it to the next level or not. Speed training has been traditionally viewed as a skill that your parents either gave you or didn’t, and that is all there is to it. Pretty simple, but far too simple. Fortunately, nothing could be further from the truth. We can develop it just like any other physical skill with the right type of training. The extent to which we can develop speed will be primarily dictated by our lineage, however, everyone can get substantially faster with the right mindset and training program. The bottom line is that sound strength work can make the average person above average in speed. And it can make the above average elite. Or it can work in the reverse manner if it’s omitted. I’ve seen this so many times in my own practice. The reality is that most athletes are born and then made through hard work over time. Moreover, don’t start to believe that strength is the sole factor in accomplishing blazing speed. It’s simply one of the primary factors along with power and speed training, and not to mention other secondary training methods that will help get the job done. Next we will look at the 3 types of strength training that will be performed on this program. In addition, I will introduce more principles, research, and useful models that you will need to rely upon to stay healthy and make the absolute most out of the time spent in the weight room. Maximal Strength Training for Maximal Speed: Maximal strength training is really reiterating all of the heavy powerlifting that was just discussed previously, so you should have a pretty thorough understanding 38 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
at this point. Once more, the primary objective with this style of training is to train the neuromuscular system to generate “maximum” force when lifting. We will adopt the powerlifting approach in this particular program, and utilize the main 3 lifts; the squat, deadlift and bench press to effectively achieve this extremely important training objective. More specifically, we adopt a modified version of Westside Barbell’s strength system popularized by training mastermind Louie Simmons. These guys are scientific and regularly breed some of the strongest human beings in the world, so it would only make sense to do what they do to get as strong as possible. Specifics on why and how we modified their system to coincide with an athletic and speed‐based system is discussed in the FAQ section in detail if you are interested and want know more. I did not get to elaborate on the underrated value of upper body strength on speed performance, so I am going to elaborate a bit on that shortly, as well as put the icing on the cake and provide you with three more final reasons why maximum lower body strength is essential for optimal speed! After that there should be no question of the role strength has on speed. Two will be discussed in the next two paragraphs and you will find the last one in the “Lift” technique in the sprinting technique section later on. It may seem as though I’m overreacting towards the strength side of the force‐velocity curve, which was discussed earlier, but I assure you I’m not applying any bias here whatsoever. Scientific research has just happened to truly favor strength as it pertains to speed. I think it’s a good sign and a step in the right direction because everything in the current speed development market excessively advocates the other end of the spectrum. If strength is being encouraged, there is generally a lack of concentration on the term maximum, or the implementation of it is poor, or the promotion of the skill is minimal at best. The increased input of information on strength training here should help to balance things out. I’ve already dwelled on a variety of reasons why strength is key, but there is still more. Another important reason why maximum lower body strength is key is because it reflects Newton’s Second Law of Motion: F=MxA. Basically the more force we can generate from our muscles at a given bodyweight the greater we will accelerate. Strength is the ability to produce force, so there is a direct link between increasing strength to improve acceleration and speed, according to Newton’s Second Law. This same scientific law is often expressed through the term “Relative Strength “ in the industry. This is just another way of saying our strength to bodyweight ratio. The better this ratio the more successful we will be not only in sprinting faster but in anything that involves handling our body mass. Quite honestly, most athletes should not even really worry about running extremely fast until they can lift heavy for their size in both the upper and lower body. Furthermore, most trainees tend to automatically just associate “absolute” or maximum strength ability when assessing their strength. This is wrong. For example, a guy who weighs 130 lbs. but back squats 275 lbs. is supremely stronger 39 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
relative to a guy who weighs 325 lbs. and squats 550 lbs. The important thing here is to compare the weight you are lifting to your bodyweight, make the most of this, and not worry what others are doing. The smaller guy would have no chance of matching his bigger opponent. The bigger guy simply has a huge advantage with the amount of mass he has on his body, but I assure you that he will not be that fast if his “relative” strength is poor. In this case gym goers should be far more impressed with the smaller guy’s stats, but this is rarely the case, as most are concerned about total loads, regardless of everything that structurally influences performance. I could have introduced this popular statement made by coaches, trainers, etc. in the “specificity” section, but I decided to do it here. Often coaches will say that heavy lifting performed slowly will make you slow, and the goal is to get faster so you need to lift faster. Along these same lines, researchers constantly make mention of RFD (Rate of Force Development) for faster running speeds. This is undoubtedly true. If we can’t produce force fast we cannot run fast. But what about if we produce force fast, but produce small amounts of force? So you can see that too much of a good thing can be bad or limiting, and that is the case here. Paraphrasing the “Principle of Specificity,” performing a specific movement will help performance in that movement. In other words, sprinting helps sprinting. Pretty simple, and most understand and appreciate this perhaps too much. The problem comes when all you do is sprint and practice running drills in the hopes of maximizing your speed. Recall all of the data and research I just provided and you’ll see that “Non‐ specific” exercise can help specific movements. You cannot argue that when we operate under a heavy bar, we are moving slower because there is much more resistance, slowing our ability to move faster. This reflects the force‐velocity curve that I introduced in the “Building Your Horsepower” section. The more force or resistance on the body, the lower the velocity and vice versa. They are at separate ends of spectrum, but the proportional combination of both strength and speed will increase power and thus speed. Once the athlete removes the heavy load from the body, factor in the increased level of strength and muscle recruitment, and you get greater speed when you return back to bodyweight‐based activities such as sprinting, jumping, and agility. Ultimately, you should have a solid mix of specific and non‐specific exercises in your speed training program to build all muscle groups and essential skills needed for faster running, otherwise your performance will definitely be less than optimal. One of the remaining pieces of proof of strength for speed is a famous study that is commonly referred to as the “Weyand Study.” Peter Weyand and his colleagues took 33 subjects and had them run on a treadmill that measured force production. What they found was that the force production of individuals who ran at 11.1 m/sec. was 1.26 times greater than those who ran at 6.2 m/sec. Concluding that higher running speeds are associated with greater forces into the ground. 37 The take home message would be, “Get stronger!” 40 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
OK, now let’s switch course and focus some well‐deserved attention on the upper body for increased speed performance. Again, this is an instance in which we need to consider that secondary areas, such as the upper body can still have a major influence on the function of our sprints, even though sprinting is primarily a lower body‐based activity. Below are 5 reasons why upper body strength levels are critical for speed. #1‐Majority of fast athletes possess big and strong upper bodies. #2‐Power is key to speed, and strength is half of the power equation. #3‐Increases arm drive #4‐Resists torque created from your lower body #5‐Increases our upper bodyweight to strength ratio #6‐Enables a more aggressive start out of the blocks #7‐Maintains or creates shoulder health I don’t think it is any surprise that sprinters have big and strong upper bodies, yet so many question the need for upper body strength training for acceleration and speed development. This is a no‐brainer, and athletes need to learn to crave bench pressing, chins, pulls, military pressing, and everything else that will create a big, strong, and explosive upper half. Recall that in order to have more power, the skill is heavily reliant upon strength, and the upper body is no exception. Proof can be found in a study from The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research back in 1994. This study examined 24 Australian National League Baseball players for 8 weeks. The study divided the participants into 3 groups: a control group, a medicine ball group, and a weight training group. The weight training group trumped the others by increasing throwing velocity by 4 percent, whereas the med ball group improved velocity by 1.5%, and the control just under 1%. 38 If you question whether or not explosive arm drive is essential to faster running, then just perform a few sprints with your arms behind your back. Arm drive will invariably produce more force in the target direction, which will elevate acceleration and speed levels. Research indicates that the arms might contribute up to 10% of the total vertical propulsive forces an athlete is capable of applying to the ground. 39 However, a strong claim was made years later by Arnaud Froidmont in his Physics and Astronomy Thesis Defense Paper. Arnaud stated that the original researcher did not possess the computer power that we do now, and that arm drive contributes significantly more than originally was thought. This seems very logical to me. The next factor is a pretty underrated, yet critical function of sprinting. When we drive at our lower body, it automatically creates a state of rotation that will want to cause use to do just that, rotate. In order to offset this, our core and 41 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
upper body will have to match the effort of our lower body to help stabilize our body and make sure that no energy leaks occur that could cause us to rotate and move in a non‐linear direction, creating slower times. 39 41 In order to ensure that our upper body can match the effort of our lower body and unlock greater speed potential, we have no choice but to build more upper body strength in the weight room, so this quiet yet devastating flaw in technique does not prevent us from maximizing our speed potential. Another luxury of possessing great upper body strength and size is that it allows us to really lean our body forward more out over our shoulder when we set up in sprint blocks or a 3 or 4 point stance. This automatically puts us closer to the finish line and improves efficiency if we come out of the start correctly. I will discuss sprint start specifics later on. Lastly, when we improve strength and size up top we build a more resilient and durable upper half which promotes injury prevention. This concept can also have indirect ramifications on how we function elsewhere through the body. If there happens to be any glaring weaknesses or imbalances in our upper body, not only are we impaired in everything I just mentioned, but it can create a chain reaction in our lower body that causes imbalances and weaknesses to counteract what is occurring in our upper half, which further contributes to the problem. The famous saying that we are only as strong and capable as our weakest link could not be more correct. On a final note, just let your athletes lift heavy and watch how they react and embrace this type of training. They start to feel and love it once they become more comfortable, and it allows them to compete with themselves and others, which is what athletics is all about! Next, we will examine the key strength principles that we need to perform to develop speed and strength incredibly fast and stay healthy. STRENGTH PRINCIPLES: To be able to develop strength at an extremely fast rate with minimal plateaus while still being able to stay healthy over the long term is no easy task. With that being said, it becomes imperative that you follow a foundation of scientific principles that reinforce this. Below is the list of principles that I am going to discuss next. Principle #1‐ POP‐The Progressive Overload Principle Principle #2‐ Intensity Cycling Principle #3‐ 5‐3‐1 Principle #4‐ “The Big 6” Principle #5‐ Structural Balance 42 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Principle #6‐ The Joint by Joint Approach Principle #7‐ Prilepin’s Table Now I’m sure that some other intelligent coaches, trainers, etc. could probably conjure up a few more that I neglected to mention, but these are confirmed principles in the scientific community that serve as a major reason why my clients and I have been and will continue to be successful in the weight room. Let’s examine each. The first principle is really the root principle out of all of the ones listed. If we really want to get stronger and faster, then we have no option but to consistently add more weight to the bar or lift heavier loads over the course of time to create a need for our body to adapt and get stronger. “ Progressive resistance exercise provides a practical application of the overload principle and forms the basis of most resistance‐training programs.” 42 If you are squatting 150 lbs. today then a reasonable goal would be to aim to squat 225 lbs. a year out from now, or something along that line. This is purely hypothetical, as there are a number of training‐related variables that will regulate the rate and amount of strength development that can happen, but the take‐home message is the weight you lift needs to steadily increase to induce desirable positive change. The obvious reason is because our body views this heavy chunk of iron, or whatever else, as an immediate threat to our survival, and it decides to grow itself and get stronger, so that it is less likely to get hurt. Pretty simple. This change also satisfies conservation. If we are bigger and stronger then we do not have to use as much energy to lift that same weight and we are more efficient. Often times many will first hear these words and decide to go nuts and lift as much as possible. Trust me, I did exactly this at one point. I would be lying if I said that this approach does not work in the short‐term. It definitely will, but the results will be short lived, especially after you accumulate massive levels of structural fatigue and arrive in a state of recovery debt that you simply cannot pay back unless you actually recover just as much as you train heavy, learn some patience, hold back a bit, and stay positive and relentless. If I’ve learned anything in this field it’s that slow and steady wins the race! Sure you will have rare times that you could count on a single hand, where you make an unexpected huge gain, but the reality is that it does not come that easy, or that fast. This program will also test your commitment. If you want real results then you have no choice but to work hard and train hard week in and week out for a long time. If this is not what you are looking for from this book then I strongly encourage you to stop reading right now, and keep searching for a quick fix program that simply does not exist. If you do decide to continue reading, then you’ll get what you earned. Anyways, once we reach overtraining a few things inevitably will occur. Some of the common symptoms of overtraining include but are not limited to: burnout, 43 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
sickness, decreased performance, insomnia, muscle loss, lack of motivation, injury, or any combination of these. If you’ve ever pushed beyond your limits in the weight room then you will know it’s not a very fun experience. You are killing yourself each and every time you come in, but progress stalls and all of the aforementioned symptoms start to emerge, which really tests your ability to push forward and either satisfy the definition of insanity, or take a hard look at yourself, realize what you are doing may not be ideal, and then work and search for ways to revise your approach and learn what you could have done different to resume progress. Or instead of making this painful mistake, you could really listen and consider what I’m about to share with you next, or learn the hard way. These principles are not mine, but rather gleaned from generations of thousands and thousands of people who have lived weightlifting and figured out what works. Trust me, I appreciate the determination to want to be your absolute best and train to failure as much as the next person, but the fact of the matter is that our body’s physiology has definitive limitations on how much volume at high intensities it can tolerate and adapt to. It’s not that much relative to many traditional strength programs. This fact explains the need to train both harder and smarter, which conveniently brings us to the next principle. I wrote an article pertaining to this awhile back. Powerlifter Jim Wendler once said that you do not always need to train at your absolute maximum to improve your maximum. “A muscle strengthens when trained close to its current force generating capacity.” 42 If you have been in the iron game before then you’ll appreciate that truer words have never been spoken. It sounds counterintuitive, but it’s true. Sometimes the body acts logical while other times it does not and we just have to deal with it and adjust accordingly. The principle that practically applies this notion is referred to as “Intensity Cycling.” Just as the term states, during our training we will naturally cycle the amount of weight we lift and volume we perform week to week to prevent severe overtraining from occurring, and keep the gains coming. You can’t go full bore all of the time unfortunately, but thankfully you can still get stronger lifting slightly lighter at certain times. The next principle is 5‐3‐1. These numbers represent exactly how we overload our movement system and stimulate change. More specifically, these numbers define exactly how much weight we need to lift to get stronger and bigger consistently over time. We do a 5 rep max, 3 rep max, and 1 rep max in 3 subsequent weeks. Or a variation of the three. Of course you could use less weight initially and get stronger for a while, but eventually you are going to have to follow this range to develop more. More importantly, this range will get you as strong as possible as fast as possible, and who would not want that? With this in mind, we have to lift weights that are between 85‐100% of our one‐rep maximum to use all of our available muscle mass and push more weight. Research has shown that workouts out with 85% of the weight we can do one time will recruit ALL motor 44 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
units. 43 In case you are curious, a motor unit is the component of the nervous system that feeds a signal for contraction to all the muscles fibers to which it’s linked. This bracket works out to be between 1‐6 reps. The higher the training percentage the lower the rep number, and the first number in the series represents week one, second, week two, and so on. The real beauty of this scheme is that it’s easy to remember and it contains a natural aspect of deload and overload which is very important for effective long‐term training. We need remember that there is always an inverse relationship between training volume and intensity. When one goes up, the other must go down. On this program, we will start at a higher rep value (accumulation) at the beginning of the training cycle or month, and then progressively reduce reps (intensification) over the weeks to follow, which will allow us to build a lot of strength, momentum, and confidence without encountering all of the prior problems that I discussed. Too often, lifters trying to get faster and stronger start too heavy to soon and our body simply cannot adapt and stay fresh, and a plateau then ensues. Another benefit of this approach is what each number brings to the table. 5 reps naturally helps build more endurance, muscle, and technique than 1 rep, but still builds a lot of max strength. Another underrated value of 3‐5 reps is that it builds the “weak links” in the movement. If you have a weakness underlying in a movement and you train 3‐5 reps then it’s easier to maintain form and still build strength so that you can support 1 rep attempts later on. The downfall to just doing 3‐5 reps is the body does not maintain other neurological functions that are important to building max strength and you start to weaken. And in comes the 1 rep max! The 1 rep is obviously the most specific to maximum strength development and lets you showcase all of the hard work and improvements made in the two prior weeks at higher reps. When you perform your 1 rep max with this sequence of numbers you should be peaking. If you’re training week in and week out like you should be in your quest to become faster and more athletic, then you may start to grow bored of this same sequence repeating over and over again. Thankfully, you can switch things up and re‐arrange the sequence. Below are all of the options for re‐sequencing. Alternative Maximum Strength Cycles: 1‐3‐5 1‐5‐3 5‐1‐3 3‐1‐5 3‐5‐1 45 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
For as long as anyone can probably remember, “The Big 6” have been the go‐ to bunch of exercises for those seriously looking to maximize their strength and size. The big 6 will always be a mainstay in the weight room for as long as we are all alive. “No matter what level you are at the basics of strength training exercises will remain the same; squat, bench, deadlift, military, rows and chins. The exercises will remain the same but the application and how they are done is what will change. 44 We have been performing these exercises for almost a decade now where I train along with their variations, and the results and movements never seem to get old. I also know for certain that 10 to 20 years from now we will be doing these still, not because we are neglecting something bigger and better, but because they are superior and work so well. They will never die, nor be beaten by something else. They’ve been alive for over a century at least. One of the best things about “The Big 6” is that they are easy to implement and they naturally build in structural balance to your body, which is essential to unlocking maximum strength, speed, and physical health. With this group, you have 2 upper body pressing motions, 2 upper body pulling motions, and a pull and push for your lower body. Becoming or staying structurally balanced when training is arguably the most important factor in being able to stay healthy and continue to improve over the long term. Here are 3 scientific reasons for staying structurally balanced if we desire to get big and strong. #1‐Adaptive Shortening “Adaptive shortening is tightness that results from the muscle remaining in a shortened position.” 45 Basically, if we stay in a position for too long then our body tends to stay in that position. This process can occur quickly and unless we are in a perfect posture when this occurs, we become imbalanced. One muscle group generally becomes tight and hyperactive, while the opposing muscle group becomes loose and underactive. This is referred to as reciprocal inhibition. “Reciprocal inhibition is the neuromuscular phenomenon that occurs when increased neural drive in a specific muscle causes decreased neural drive to that muscle’s functional antagonist. “46 This is why balanced training of our body becomes so critical to offset this natural effect and help prevent injuries and decreased speed and athletic performance. #2‐Length‐Tension Relationship LTR is our muscles’ stretch to strength ratio. There is an ideal length where our muscles can produce the most force. If our muscles stretch too much or too little, we lose strength potential. Ideally, we are looking for a moderate degree of stretch for explosive movement action. Analyze a person jumping vertically and you’ll see this scientific phenomenon at work. The jumper won’t squat too high or too low before they jump, otherwise they will definitely not be as powerful. 46 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Remember that I am just referring to our muscles being too long or short when we move in sport or elsewhere, not when we actually stretch. Maximizing flexibility everywhere we need it is a great thing. We want to have the potential of moving a muscle as far as we need to, but no more than we have to regarding movement. Without adequate flexibility, this is not possible. This is yet another reason why we should be balanced with our training so we stay balanced with our movements and maximize our stretch–to‐strength ratio. #3‐The Tension Effect This concept was first introduced to me by Joe DeFranco. The tension effect occurs when our body recognizes that a weaker and smaller muscle cannot support heavier weight that the bigger and stronger muscles want to move. A prime example of this effect would be seen with the pectoral or chest muscles (prime mover) and the rotator cuff muscles (stabilizer) on the back of the shoulder when we bench press. If the pectorals are too strong for the rotator cuff, and the rotator cuff cannot support the weight when we press, then the pectorals will shut down and relax, so that we do not injure the stabilizing rotator cuff. Unfortunately, this is one hidden reason why we cannot maximize strength and size, thus our speed if we are not in balance, and it applies to every other strength exercise as well. The only way to prevent this effect from happening is by strengthening the underdeveloped rotator cuff of the upper back so that it can support heavy weight, stay healthy, and allow other muscles to reach their potential. The Joint by Joint Approach is the next remaining principle on the list. This approach was pioneered by physical therapist Gray Cook several years ago. It quite simply promotes training according to our anatomical design. More specifically, certain joints are primarily designed for stability or lack of motion, while others are geared towards mobility or more motion. Below is the Joint by Joint Model.
47 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
(Photo courtesy of robertsontrainingsystems.com)
If you view the model you will see that some joints want stability and the others seek mobility, and this occurs in a predictable, alternating pattern. Ankles mostly need mobility, knees stability, hip mobility, low back stability, mid back mobility, scapula stability, shoulder mobility, and neck stability. If we violate this principle then bad things will happen. It’s not a matter of if, but when it happens. A classic violation of this model can be seen between the knee, hip, and lower back. Normally, when people reference pain at their knee or lower back, then they automatically presume that it’s a direct reflection of something that is wrong with these areas, when in fact it could be deficits at other adjacent segments that could be contributing to pain at these areas. Simply put, if the hips lose mobility in any plane or direction, then the body is put in an unfavorable position to have to create mobility elsewhere to continue movement and daily function. The body will naturally turn to the next available joint, which would be the knee and lower back. Unfortunately these areas are not innately constructed for high ranges of motion, and when we demand this from these places they will eventually give. Keep in mind this is not to say that knee issues cannot be derived from direct issues at the knee, it’s just that the joint by joint model is also another significant approach that can contribute to injuries if violated in training and everyday life. Lastly, please be aware that just because a joint is highlighted red, which indicates its strong need for mobility, this does not mean that it does not require some stability. Joints need both functions for healthy productive movement. Its role is determined by which it requires more. 48 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Dr. Charlie Weingroff introduced Prilepin’s table to me years ago. I will provide this table for you below, but first I will briefly discuss its purpose in any strength and speed development program. Basically, a Russian researcher by the name of A.S. Prilepin was able to determine how much work we need to do at specific weights or intensities to get stronger. Here it is: Prilepin’s Table: 47 Percent Reps per set Optimal Range 55–65 3–6 24 18–30 70–75 3–6 18 12–24 80–85 2–4 15 10–20 above 90 1–2 7 4–10 Upon observation, many will recognize that this is pretty intuitive or coincidental in training, but many times trainees are either doing too much or too little to create gains in the weight room which will ultimately hurt your speed. To make sure neither one of these happen while you are putting in the hard work, we will remove all guesswork and rely on this principle. If you are understandably confused by the list of numbers on this table and what they mean, then no need to worry. This table is already installed to this program, so all you need to do is follow it in the workouts I give you at the end of the manual.
Supplemental Strength Training to Build your Speed Musculature:
Supplemental strength training is exactly what the term states. It’s a type of strength training that “supplements” what the other types of strength training are really incapable of optimally providing and complements any total strength program. It focuses on weaknesses to help support our heavy work and speed. You may be more familiar with the terms assistance exercises, accessory training, auxiliary lifts, or repeated effort (RE) training which all carry the same meaning as the supplemental category that I am going to use in this portion of the manual. Some programs prefer one term over another, and new expressions of this type of training seem to keep emerging. Supplemental training is primarily responsible for improving hypertrophy (size) and strength endurance in muscle groups. Strength endurance is the ability to generate a high level of strength for a longer duration. Most view traditional cardiovascular training methods as superior and are specific to building endurance. Although some of these methods are valid, proper strength training can be brutally fatiguing and build up conditioning levels just like 49 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
traditional methods and potentially more so in certain cases. We will utilize it all on this program. This style of training involves moderate to higher reps with moderately heavy weights relative to your maximum strength. Supplemental lifts will also continue to build strength all over the body, but not to the same degree as the max strength work. Examples of supplemental lifts would be single leg work, glute‐ham raises, hip thrusts, and sled work for the lower body. Examples for the upper body would consist of pushups, pullups, chinups, military pressing, dips, or shrugs. Basically, a majority of every strength exercise other than the max strength exercises discussed earlier will be classified as supplemental movements. Next, I’m going to give some preferential attention to certain types of supplemental movements in the context of building more speed. I want to briefly discuss the extreme value of two types of supplemental lifts that will assist in maximizing our acceleration and speed potential. Those two are single leg training and hip dominant training. It should be obvious that single leg training would have a huge impact on sprinting ability since sprinting is a single leg‐based movement in nature. More specifically, single leg strength work will improve our ability to transfer force from one limb to the ground and then the other. Any deficiency here will undoubtedly sap our speed. This will probably be a review for many who are reading this book, but it’s important to explain the actual difference between training in a single leg stance versus double leg, because many still do not fully know the difference. The primary difference lies in our anatomy, and the lateral oblique subsystem!
(Photo courtesy of brentbrookbush.com)
50 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
As soon as one foot leaves the ground, muscle activity across different muscle groups all around the ankle, knee, and hip drastically change. The muscle groups you rely upon with both feet on the training surface are different than when one foot is removed and we decrease our base of support. This image shows three muscle groups that increase their supportive action when we decide to function on one leg. They all reside on the inside and outside of the body and counteract each other with equal effort so the muscles on the front and back can continue to keep us moving in a linear direction. So why is this significant? The simple reason is because single leg strength levels will be strongly regulated by the strength of these specific muscles when running, cutting, or jumping off one limb. 48 So if we really want to express and use the horsepower we acquired through the heavy double leg exercises like squats and deadlifts, then we need to attempt to perfect our ability to operate in a single leg environment, otherwise strength transfer will be limited through the ground. Single leg‐pistol squats, high box step‐ups, split squats, single leg RDLs, and lunge varieties are staples that will make us much more proficient in this movement situation, so we get the most production out of the lateral system and improve our speed. Next we will discuss why hip dominant training is so integral to the speed development process. Hip dominant training refers to exercises that emphasize mainly the glutes and hamstrings. Other areas are involved, but these are the two groups I’m going to invest my time on here since they have a tremendous role in speed capacity. I realize that just a few paragraphs back I mentioned glute‐ham raises and hip thrusts. I’m quite certain that many people reading this associated these terms with a foreign language. This is fine for now, but hopefully these terms along with many other drills that fall into this exercise category become synonymous with speed training one day, because they are that essential and powerful to the process. Just how valuable are these muscles to sprint performance? Famed speed and strength coach Charles Poliquin has conducted research at his training laboratory that suggests the hamstrings should be extremely stronger than the quadriceps, but that does not seem to be the common case with the promotion of higher ratios of quadriceps to hamstring exercises and volumes. I know that may not be the intent, but this is what I see. Here is a quote from Poliquin: “In fact, using the proper measuring devices that allow greater velocities of testing, speed athletes such as sprinters, bobsledders, and running backs should have a hamstrings to quads ratio of 125%.” 49 Poliquin also mentioned that other authorities suggested a value of 66%. 50 Regardless of who is right or wrong, the consensus is that you need to overdevelop your hamstrings in terms of strength comparative to your quadricep muscles. As testament to these figures, our athletes who ran the fastest electronically verified times would possess a very strong hamstring complex relative to slower runners. Without the proper technology, which hopefully I can get someday, these values are very impractical to general equipment owners trying 51 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
to implement a sound speed program like myself. In this case, just make sure your exercise selection of hamstring: quad exercises is 2:1 or 1:1 with balanced training volumes and intensities. Over time, the higher ratio for hamstring work should imbalance the strength in favor of the hamstrings. The programs at the end of this manual reflect this concept, so all you need to do is follow them and you will be fine. Earlier in the manual I presented you with the various activity levels of all lower body muscle groups via EMG reports during sprinting, squatting, etc. After the very initial period of acceleration out of the blocks and a few yards thereafter, the hamstrings become the hands‐down king. So now that we know that the hamstring muscles are often neglected in strength programs and their tremendous impact on potential running speed, how exactly should we develop them to elicit the best result possible? To help understand this, I feel it is very important to first introduce or review their arrangement at the lower extremities, and explain their role in sprinting.
The hamstring complex is made up of 3 muscles shown above. They lie along your backside inserting underneath your lower glutes, and then run and cross over your knee joint, attaching at certain points at your lower leg. They are classified as “biarticular muscles” since they cross and function at two joints. They possess a number of movement roles at the lower body, but specific to speed and for the sake of simplicity we will focus our attention on two of these roles, since they are most important to sprinting performance. At the knee we will focus on knee flexion, and at the hip we will focus on hip extension and hip hyperextension. For the knee, flexing or bending is going to be 52 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
critical at certain phases of sprinting. When we are sprinting and swing our leg forward in an effort to take our next step, our knee will remain bent at about 90 degrees as we do so, and this is primarily due to this essential ability of the hamstrings. The hamstrings prevent our knee from extending too much, which would cause us to land with our foot too far in front of our body, which would eventually lead to overstriding and hamstring injury, in addition to much slower speed. This action is referred to as decelerating knee extension, or an “eccentric” contraction of the hamstring muscles. For those who do not know a lot about all of the functions of muscles, here is a basic breakdown of the different types of skeletal muscle contractions that occur during movement, along with key common features of each: Type of Contraction: Muscle Action: Purpose: Example‐Hamstrings Concentric Shortening Acceleration Lifting weight up in a leg curl Isometric No change in length Stabilization Holding the weight at the top of a leg curl Eccentric Stretching Deceleration Lowering the weight down in a leg curl
Leg curl exercises with a major focus on straightening your legs slowly as you lower the weight to the rack would help develop this eccentric action. There are definitely other variations of this, but I am confident that this is one that everyone would be familiar with. A majority of people generally do not lack this ability as much as the hip movement, since leg curls are more commonly assigned and practiced in modern strength and conditioning programs. Now let’s detail the importance of what goes on at the hip as we sprint. As soon as our foot lands on the running surface, our hamstrings will switch a majority of their role and begin to function at the back of the hip. Knee flexion will still occur to a small degree at the lower end of the hamstrings, just after we hit the ground and begin to drive our body forward, but this will only last for a moment. From here it will be up to the higher portion of the hamstring muscles at the hip to continue motion. As we continue to transfer our body weight forward over our foot, it is mostly the high hamstrings that will create this through hip extension. As we continue hip extension and bring our body forward further, we then eventually enter a state of hip hyperextension as our foot moves behind our body mass. It’s at this juncture where we reach maximal drive of our legs and power! Afterwards, our foot will exit the ground and this cycle will repeat itself until the sprint is finished. You may have never heard of this scenario before, but it’s the other half of the hamstring development equation that you have to consider and implement to stay healthy and be successful in sprinting, especially over the long term. The present absence of this type of joint and muscle action is also one of the main reasons why there is a high incidence of hamstring injuries during sprinting in athletics today, and it needs to change. It’s just sheer hamstring weakness at specific points, and negligence that is very preventable. 53 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Moving forward, we will break down our hip training into 2 general categories, and then follow that with a breakdown into 3 specific categories. Hip training will build horizontal force first, and vertical force second. First, we will break down hip training into bent‐knee hip work and straight‐knee hip work. The reason for this is because each position allows either the glutes or the hamstrings to receive more of the load and we need both to be as strong as possible. Bent‐knee hip work targets the glutes more due to the kinesiological (movement) principle of “active insufficiency.” When the muscle becomes shortened to the point it cannot generate or maintain active tension, active insufficiency is reached. 51 In this position the hamstrings are shortened at the knee so they are not as strong at the hip. By default, the glutes work harder to move the load. The next category is straight‐ knee hip extension. This will obviously remove most of the slack at the knee joint and induce more strain on the hamstrings, and still work the glutes. Both are necessary to maximize the development throughout the hip region. Further breakdown and analysis of hip training requires 3 training categories. In their research study; Contreras, Schoenfeld, and Cronin discovered and identified training according to what are called “torque‐angle curves.” This is fancy talk for being range of motion‐specific with your hip dominant training and all lower body exercise. 52 Their research supported the need to train the hip throughout the entire range of motion, since sprinting and other movements involve moving through a large range of motion. The 3 categories they use to classify hip training are short, medium, and long length exercises. Length here means how long the muscle is when you train it. I alluded to this previously with the squat and deadlift and I will continue that discussion here. Short involves training the hip from near extension to a hyper‐extended position (mid‐stance in an upright stride till takeoff), medium involves training the hip from a half flexed‐extended position to an extended position (landing in an upright stride till mid‐stance), and a long position is where the hip is almost fully flexed to an extended position (the start). Examples of strength exercises for short length would be reverse hypers, sled training for medium length, and squat and deadlifts for long length exercises. There are strength exercises that will be performed in all of these positions on this program so there are zero weak links, and I just wanted to disclose the research and show you the various categories for the sake of completeness. Hip training will do the best job of addressing these 3 critical categories of training. You can forget about this now if you want, because it’s in the program and your bases are covered! World famous strength coach Mike Boyle was the first one I heard discuss the need to focus on strength drills that mimic the mechanics of sprinting. This is another fundamental characteristic that makes up a great sprinter. These individuals are able to drive more force into the ground faster than their opponent 54 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
through this precise joint and muscle action. He referred to this type of training as Specific Strength Training. The purpose of Specific Strength drills is to accomplish 2 things. First, develop the technique of the specific movement you are looking to perform, and secondly build strength in that specific movement that you want to improve at the same time, which in the case of this manual is sprinting. So when prescribing drills that coincide with this variation, they need to exhibit the same body positioning, joint angles, and collective muscle action that the target movement would.
Tino running a regular sprint (left) and a sled sprint (right). See the similarities in body position and joint angles? Sleds are a great way to transfer strength in a specific manner to sprinting.
As you would expect, the movements are identical in form, but a little different in function. Unloaded sprints utilizing only our body weight only will train the velocity side of the force‐velocity curve, whereas the sled in this case will start to emphasize the other end of the curve and build more strength and power in our sprint. To simplify, if we aspire to build specific strength we just need to sprint against resistance, or implement what are called “resisted sprint variations.” Partner or independent band sprints, parachute sprinting, the tredsled, and sled sprinting are training options that would get the job done here. Is one method better than the other? My preference would be sleds mostly because you can monitor and customize the workload to the specific athlete to generate the desired training effect. Loading parameters are an essential training variable to assure that the target skill is being addressed and training volume and intensity are controlled. Heavier loads will create more strength and vice versa. There has been a long‐held debate mainly among trainers and coaches that the sled needs to be light enough so that it does not detract from the sprinter’s technique. There is this arbitrary “10 55 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Percent Rule” that was created. This means athletes should only load the sled with 10% of their body weight, otherwise motor learning becomes more difficult. Unfortunately, this statement is not true. Lighter sleds can and should be used to develop the speed part of the power development equation, however the research supports heavier sled training for building maximal acceleration. In the most recent study in 2013, Kawamori published a study in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research that supported heavier sleds being superior to lighter sled training for acceleration. The study assessed 5‐ and 10‐meter performances with a light sled training group (13% of body weight), and a heavier sled training group (43% of body weight). The lighter group improved performance on each by 2‐3%, while the heavier sled group improved both times by 5‐6%. The percentages may seem minimal, however at short distances a single percent improvement can make a huge difference. 53 There is one more reason why I absolutely love sled drills for speed development. First and foremost, the sled has unprecedented value when it comes to teaching the athlete to master sprint technique. You will not be able to budge a heavy sled if you are not in the proper position to accelerate it, or it will be extremely difficult to the point where you continue to reposition yourself until you locate that sweet spot where you can move it efficiently and effectively. Often times, if I’m struggling to convey a sprint cue to one of my athletes, or they just are not getting it, I will just have him or her load up the sled and get after it. Sometimes things that were hard to realize before now become apparent since the movement feels different to them on the sled, and the problem is forever solved since they now have a proprioceptive or sensory recognition of it that they can retrieve if that mistake resurfaces at some point in the future. It’s amazing to see the immediate impact on various techniques this training tool can have. Regardless of the tool you are using to perform this training technique, you are ensuring that all of the hard‐earned strength you have acquired in the weight room is being converted onto the track, field, or court, and you continue building more where you need it. Evidence suggests that strength from the weight room seems to carry over quite well to sprinting speed, so I’m confident there is no “gap” that exists and needs to be filled between the two, like many coaches hypothesize, but it’s some extra insurance just to be safe. Resisted sprint variations will be performed in the Linear Conditioning, Hip Supplemental Lift, and Complex Training categories.
56 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
OLYMPIC LIFTING FOR AN EXPLOSIVE START Olympic lifting is a very popular sport that involves a host of different movement patterns that are performed in the most explosive and strongest fashion, and may the best man or woman win. In this day and age coaches and trainers tend to really overreact and either love this style of training, or despise it for a variety of different reasons. So who is right? Neither, if the focus is in getting faster. In this case you should be somewhere in the middle and appreciate what if offers, but also know that its effect on speed is limiting. Olympic lifting is part of the essential triad that I discussed back in the beginning of the manual that is key to more speed. Below are 3 specific reasons why Olympic lifting is essential to the speed development process. #1‐OLifts build EXTREME amounts of “Vertical” power and explosiveness. #2‐OLifts help convert the strength we build in the weight room to usable power and speed on the field, track, or court. #3‐OLifts build high levels of starting strength which is essential to a faster start off the blocks or any other stance variation.
(Photo courtesy of Rob Macklem)
I do not think it is any secret that Olympic lifting just looks “powerful.” It is because any of the Olympic lifting exercises demand the entire body from head to toe to summon as much strength as you are capable of, as fast as possible in the vertical direction, which we now undoubtedly know is imperative to improving speed. Moreover, you build power “concentrically,” or through extending your 57 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
entire lower body. This is the same exact manner in which your body has to express power in all athletic movements, whether it be sprinting, jumping, etc. DO NOT yield and dip under the bar as you are performing these movements like literally everyone does. This inhibits much of the power transfer into other movements, and defeats the purpose of this style of lifting. The movements that you perform in Olympic lifting exercises are very unique relative to other movements, simply because they cannot be performed slow or you just will not move the weight, so the sequences you will perform lend themselves well naturally to building power. Put differently, they “force” you to be powerful or you won’t be successful on your attempts. This type of training ensures that much of the strength we gain in our squat, deadlift, and bench press is being properly transferred into usable power and speed. This is why these type of lifts could also be referred to as “Conversion Weights.” Strength is essential, but only if we can use it when we sprint or run, and Olympic lifting is one of the few methods that will bridge this very common gap that plagues many athletes who are trying to get faster and possess great speed. This actual “gap” or limitation of power and speed that many seem to recognize is what we are going to talk about next. This unfortunate limitation is real and it’s known as ESD or The Explosive Strength Deficit. This function was introduced by Russian sports scientist Vladimir Zatsiorsky years ago, but still struggles to surface to popular discussion in the training industry. The ESD is the amount or percentage of your maximum strength that you can use in bodyweight based activities like running, sprinting, jumping, etc. Unfortunately, all of the strength that we will build in the weight room will not all be used in speed based activities. What this means is that only about 50% of our strength created in the weight room will be applied during sprinting. 54 It sucks but makes sense. Think about it. There is no massive weight on the body and therefore no need to use all its strength, and there is far less time to generate all of our strength at high speeds. So does this mean that we do not need to lift heavy or train as hard? Absolutely not! You will see why shortly. What we need to do, since there exists a real physiological barrier that prevents our body from reaching cheetah like velocity, is to teach and condition our neuromuscular system to make the most of this fact and minimize this natural deficit to the highest amount possible. Fortunately for us, Olympic lifting is one of the main ways we can reduce this deficit and use more of our strength during speed based work. One of the most common claims that I hear from popular researchers, coaches, etc. is that heavy weightlifting does not really matter because of the ESD, or the fact that you produce sub‐maximal or less than your best strength during sprinting. They are absolutely true with this logic, but it does not matter and we should always strive to get as strong as possible. Here is why. Zatsiorsky identified that ESD tops out at about 50% of our maximum effort. So after we spend some appreciable time and effort improving our Olympic lifts and other speed and power based techniques to 58 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
use as much of our acquired strength as possible, the best we can expect our ESD to be is 50% of our maximum strength. The next question then should be is there anything else we can do to maximize ESD, rather than settling? Thankfully there is one more thing we can do, and it is what all the others were missing when assessing the situation: improve our maximum strength. See the hypothetical scenario below to illustrate my point. Name: Scott Name: Erik Weight: 200 lbs. Weight: 200 lbs. Maximum Squat: 500 lbs. Maximum Squat: 425 lbs. ESD: 50% ESD: 50% Sprinting Force: 250 lbs. Sprinting Force: 213 lbs. So who is the faster athlete? It’s a no brainer that Scott would be, given identical force potential during sprinting. With the same exact ESD Scott would be generating almost 40 lbs. more force with each stride when he runs and will begin to break away from Erik if they were running side by side in no time. So the 2 things we need to do if we want to convert more of our strength into actual speed and improve the ESD is regularly practice power and speed based activities, along with maximizing our strength in our powerlifts. The last thing I want to mention is that I do think there is an approximate limit for building strength to maximize speed, based on present day performances. The broad range is 2‐3x bodyweight based on all of the studies I provided you earlier, in addition to the personal case study I did. Shorter guys will obviously need to be more at the higher end of the range to overcome their natural structural disadvantages (i.e. shorter Achilles tendon, stride length, and limb length) versus their taller counterparts. Taller individuals need to be in the mid to lower range. Many of the strongest and fastest athletes across the country and perhaps internationally are in this range right now, but who knows. Maybe these ranges will move up even higher in the future, as athletes remarkably and undoubtedly always seem to re‐adjust the performance bar higher and higher as generations pass. Also, once you reach this level of performance your work: reward ratio is extremely low. Meaning that you are training your ass off for a full calendar year, week in and week out just to gain 10 lbs. on your squat. It’s not really worth it, and it would not really affect a scenario like the one I just gave you. So unless something unpredictable and crazy happens to our physiology in the years to come, it’s probably safe to say that this is an acceptable standard limit of strength for any type of athlete looking to become as fast as they possibly can. The last remaining component that really helps speed that is primarily originated from Olympic Lifting performance is Starting Strength. I need to credit 59 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
world famous strength and conditioning coach Jim Smith for introducing this unique type of strength to me. Paraphrasing Smith, we can classify strength production into 2 general categories when it comes to human movement. These categories are either Starting Strength or Reactive Strength. #1‐Starting Strength: The ability to “self‐generate” as much force as you can without any motion or assistance before you begin motion. #2‐Reactive Strength: Is the ability of our muscles to store more potential energy in themselves as we stretch those same muscles and create some motion and assistance before a motion begins. So we can classify every movement known to us into each of these categories. Examples of exercises that are dominant in the need for more starting strength would be Olympic lifting, starting off of the blocks in a sprint, a vertical jump test, box jumps, and deadlifts. Examples of reactive strength movements would be a running vertical jump, the flying 20 (sprinting from the 20‐40 yard mark), bounding exercises, bench press, and the squat to name a few. Also keep in mind there are some drills that possess a combination of both, but are more dominant in one versus the other. An example would be the vertical jump. There is some stretching and motion that occurs before the jump, but far less than what is witnessed in a running vertical jump, which makes it more of a starting strength exercise. Movements in sport are mostly reactive based, but this does not matter, as starting strength helps build more power and is still present from time to time. Olympic lifting is a great form of starting strength exercise. It’s also a phenomenal way to maximize your start off the blocks or any stance and increase acceleration much faster. With Olympic lifts, you are teaching the body to generate high levels of immediate tension from the muscles as fast as possible. Our best starters that trained on this program also possessed good and respectable performances in their Olympic lift variations. Of course Olympic lifting is a direct form of power training in nature and improves acceleration and speed as a result, but I think where it shines the most is off the blocks, or in improving that “First Step” which so many want and absolutely need in sport! Another issue surrounding Olympic lifting for athletes, or performing this type of training in a speed oriented program, is one of what kind of Olympic lifting works best. Actually this is probably “The” issue if I had to pick one based on all the debate between philosophies and coaches throughout the country. For simplicity sake, we are just going to debate whether or not athletes looking to build greater speed need to perform Cleans and Snatches from the floor, or from the hang. Many might be saying, hang what? This is unfortunate and alarming since it’s such a valuable exercise in our training arsenal. The “hang” is a term that represents 60 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
performing the Olympic lift variations as the bar “hangs” at your hands at approximately mid‐thigh level depending on a person’s arm length. And just so everyone is one the same page, a clean and snatch are the 2 primary Olympic lifting exercises, and we can perform each of these either from the floor or from the hang. I will be covering the technique of each in full detail at the end of the book in the Exercise Index section, but for now, all you need to know to distinguish the two of them is that they are exactly the same movements, except for the final movement or finish. Olympic lifts are really just a series of common strength exercises collaborated together in an explosive fashion. Every one of these movements involves 2 pulls, and a catch. More precisely, a hip pull, a jump or high pull, and then a catch overhead (snatch), or on the front of the shoulders (clean). So a common debate in the speed realm is whether or not a hang clean or snatch is better than a power clean or snatch? A hang clean can be referred to as a power clean as well, but for this discussion I’m going to label the power clean as an Olympic lift performed off the floor. Also, I have not located near as much research that supports the snatch in comparison to the clean in either position in the context of developing acceleration and speed, so I will be comparing the hang clean versus the power clean as a result. I’m confident that if you were a coach or person that is familiar with performance enhancement, you would probably guess that the power clean would be superior to the hang clean in developing speed. This along with the power snatch is the type of Olympic lifting exercise you will always see being performed in the Olympics, Crossfit, and in a majority of conventional athletic development systems. Surprisingly though, the hang clean shows a very strong correlation with sprinting speed in many reports, rather than the power clean, and I believe there is some specific scientific explanations to support this. In fact, I could not find a single study that indicated a stronger correlation between power cleans and sprinting speed relative to the hang clean! I first think that it is important to note that a speed development system is very different from Crossfit and the traditional Olympic lifting sport. Rather, in a speed program we adopt what will work to improve speed best, and make that training style fit this type of training system. There are at least 2 reports that show a very strong correlation between hang clean performance and sprinting speed. In the first report in 2008 in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, Hori and members found that hang clean power performance showed a significant correlation with jumping and sprinting ability. 55 And in the second study, Baker and Nance tested the relationship or lack of relationship between maximal strength training, Olympic lifting, and sprinting speed. 56 It is yet another example on top of the several I supplied you with previously that supports heavy weightlifting for the lower body to decrease sprint times. What was really interesting about the Baker and Nance study was that the hang clean carried a slightly higher correlation with sprinting performance versus heavy back squats, but it’s not by much. It’s not really 61 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
surprising though, since the nature of sprinting is more similar or specific to the hang clean. Both require a lot of speed and power. Here is the first chart from that study that reported the levels of correlation: Table 4 Relationship between Estimates of Maximum Strength & Sprint Times
(Baker and Nance 1999)
Strength Measure
10m
40m
3RM squat
-0.06
-0.19
3RM squat/BdM
-0.39
-0.66
3RM HC
-0.36
-0.24
3RM HC/BdM
-0.56
-0.72
BdM = BODY MASS HC = HANG CLEAN
.7 was labeled as a “very strong” correlation. So as you can see, sprinting speed is well regulated by hang clean skill through greater power production! Let’s now examine some of the strong potential reasons why research would support hang cleans over power cleans for the purpose of increasing speed. There are several reasons why I vouch for the former, but mainly 3 reasons why it’s more effective. First, the hang clean is hip dominant! I already thoroughly discussed the need for powerful hips in the “supplemental strength” section earlier. At this point, hopefully you have no doubt that hips are key to blazing speed. Below is a photo during the “loading” phase or bottom position of both the hang clean and power clean.
62 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Minor league baseball player Scott Underwood shows us that the hang clean (left) creates the same angle of the trunk with less bend at the knee, making it hip dominant and better suited for sprinting!
As you can see there is about equal bend or flexion present at the front of the hip based on the angle of the trunk in both movements. However, there is naturally much less knee bend in the hang clean, thus removing quadriceps activity and increasing relative hip activity. Secondly, the hang clean focuses on applying your strength in less time than the power clean. Much less time to be exact. The hang clean requires about half as much range of motion as the power clean, which in turn gives you far less time to complete it. This strength per unit of time factor (aka power) is also the case in bodyweight sprinting, so there would be more natural carryover and relation between the two. In 2010 Peter Weyand and his team of researchers stated that the main biological limiting factor to sprinting speed is how fast we can recruit our muscles and produce force. 57 The hang clean and everything that was just mentioned supports this finding. This is obviously not the case in the power clean. Moreover, In their 2007 study, Irwin, Kerwin, Rosenblatt, and Wiltshire deemed the power clean as a poor sprint specific exercise. 58 There is one more study that does not support the power clean. 59 This study was a university study that indicated weak relationships between the power clean and the 20 and 40 meter sprint tests. Check out this chart which represents my point that the hang clean forces you to be powerful and get off the ground faster just like sprinting. Sample Ground Contact Times based on Activity Activity
Time (sec)
Walking
0.62
Jogging
0.26 63 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
Running
0.20
Sprinting
0.14
Source: AM J Sports Med. 1986 Nov‐Dec; 14(6): 501‐10. According to some reports of Peter Weyand’s famous 2000 sprint study 37, elite sprinters are only on the ground for .08 hundredths of a second! This issue of rapid strength expression then becomes even more relevant. The reality is that much heavier loads are able to be moved in the power clean since you are using your quads more, so it tends to naturally develop more strength and power, versus speed and power in the hang clean and sprinting. We already perform a tremendous amount of strength oriented work on this program, so this is another reason why I do not like the power clean in a speed program. I will discuss this concept in detail in the program design section, but Central Nervous System Fatigue, or Central Fatigue is a huge deterrent to running faster. If you have ever worked with high level athletes or trained hard yourself then this should come to no surprise. Strength training is the most taxing form of training once an athlete becomes respectably strong, and a heavy and relatively slower power clean potentially exacerbates this problem far more than a lighter hang clean. This situation along with the next 2 are mainly based on my preference and experience as a coach. The hang clean is far less technical and better with larger groups, and it decreases back stress. We do plenty of bending over under loads in this program, and if there is ever a chance to remove something that is not essential to optimal performance and is riskier, then there is no question that I will discontinue or prevent its entrance into our system. Again this is another modification or case where you have to consider this is not an Olympic lifting program, but instead a speed program that incorporates modified variations of Olympic lifting. The next essential and direct from of power training is “Explosive Strength Training.” This is literally every other activity outside of Olympic lifting that is performed in a fast, strong, and powerful nature. Examples include dumbell or kettlebell swings, jump squats, jump hex bar deadlifts, speed squats and deadlifts, speed bench presses, sled work, etc. This category of training is almost identical to Olympic lifting in terms of the acquired benefits. The only real difference between the two is that a majority of explosive strength exercises will focus on developing reactive strength rather than starting strength, since they are performed in a continuous fashion and at a higher frequency. This is good because these types of exercises will help complement Olympic lifting and your overall power development because you need both types of strength to be successful. I should also mention that this type of training is synonymous with “Dynamic Effort” methods that are practiced in the powerlifting culture. They both mean the same thing though. You 64 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
will see Explosive Strength categorized as DE Lower or Upper in the workouts at the end of the book. A study from Kale in 2009 in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research supported jump squats, an explosive strength exercise, as a good influence on sprinting speed. 60 The final remaining topic to be discussed in this section of the manual deals with “Jump Tests. As mentioned before, all of these activities involve a very dominant speed and power component, so they will impact speed positively in one way or another. They also focus on recruiting the entire lower body when we move, as they all are complex multi‐joint movements, and many are hip dominant in nature. Most importantly, performance between each shows a pattern. Just quickly glance at the top performers in the NFL combine from past several years to see that if someone ran a fast 20 and 40 yard dash, then they usually also scored well in the vertical and or broad jump too, and vice versa. What we are going to examine here is which jump variations are shown to work the best according to research. Let’s first analyze the vertical jump and its effect on sprinting speed. There was a study in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning research in 2012, by Shalfawi that took 33 professional basketball players and measured how vertical jump test height was linked to the 10, 20, and 40 meter dash. 61 After being assessed on the 10, 20, and 40 meter dash, as well as a countermovement jump and a squat jump, researchers concluded that there existed a significant relationship between performances in the 10, 20, and 40 meter dash as well as the vertical jump. Although performances in all of these are not solely responsible for one another, as we now know other skills exist, they did relate rather well. These all work by way of improving the SSC (Stretch‐Shortening Cycle) that will be discussed later in the plyometrics section of the book. Meaning that with these types of jumps we enhance the function of the muscles and tendons to be able to store more energy and fire our muscles with more speed. The nature of these drills is very characteristic of sprinting, especially as speed increases. We can already appreciate the extreme value “vertical force” production will have on sprinting performance from everything that was discussed earlier in the book, and the “vertical” jump helps improve just that. The vertical jump provides one type of force we will need to be more successful in sprinting while also building more speed and power. The broad jump on the other hand demands us to recruit our muscles and angle our joints in a very similar fashion to sprinting, provides the other critical type of force, while also assisting to develop more power and speed. You could also easily classify this exercise as a specific strength exercise like sled training if you wanted to, but I decided to place it here. In 2013 Hudgins, Triplett, and others published a study in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research that took a horizontal based 3 jump test and compared that performance across different distances. The study involved 10 sprinters, 11 mid‐distance runners, and 12 long 65 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
distance subjects. They concluded that the horizontal jump test was a strong indicator of running ability. 24 62 Now that we know that jump tests can improve our speed, what is the best way to make the most out of these tests in our training? Literally everything that was discussed in regards to what helps build sprinting speed will apply here. That means Olympic lifting, powerlifting, and speed work is absolutely key for improvement in jump testing. For example, a 1992 study in The Journal of Applied Sports Sciences was performed that examined the effect heavy squats, plyometric‐jump training, and a combination of each had on vertical jump performance. 48 male subjects with at least a years’ worth of lifting experience enrolled in the study. On Tuesday’s and Friday’s subjects would perform a series of various plyometrics, along with sets of squats ranging from 50‐100% of maximum effort throughout the six week training cycle. In the end, the group who only squatted increased their vertical jump by 3.30 centimeters or 1.3 inches. The plyometric only group improved their vertical jump by about 1.5 inches, while the squat‐plyometric group improved their vertical jump by 10.67 centimeters, or 4.2 inches! 25 The reason why the squat works so well with the vertical jump is because it offers a unique blend of both maximal strength and specific strength development to that movement. Remember, maximal strength training improves the total amount of force targeting areas can express in a general fashion, while specific strength builds strength in muscles in the exact same form they will have to in the movement we are looking to improve, which in this case is the vertical jump. There was another study conducted at Central Missouri University involving 3 groups of high school athletes that were randomly assigned to each group. 63 Pre and post‐testing of vertical jump was assessed at the beginning and end of the six week training cycle utilizing a vertec. The vertec is one of the most common means of vertical jump testing. The squat group performed six sets of squats per week ranging from 50‐95% of an estimated 1rm, the hang clean group performed six sets of hang cleans per week from 50‐95% of an estimated 1rm, while the other group performed 3 sets of each with the same intensity guidelines. Progressive intensities were used across all lifts over the course of the six week cycle. The squat‐hang clean group improved their vertical jump by an average of 1.48 inches. The hang‐clean group improved their vertical jump by an average of 1.05 inches, and the squat only group improved only by .26 inches. I’m certain that if these participants worked in the 80‐100% of 1RM range for the entirety of the study, results across the board would have been much better. Not until week #3 did they enter into these training intensity zones. I located one more study from Carlock in 2004 that showed a solid relationship between weightlifting performance and vertical jump ability. The study 66 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
analyzed 64 USA national‐level weightlifters and recorded their current strength levels verified by their coaches. 64 And what about the power clean and its impact on jumping performance? There were studies that showed improvements in vertical jump ability due primarily to improved performance in this movement, however, no study I found reported that the power clean was in fact superior to the hang clean in improving vertical jump performance, as was the case with sprinting. The same factors as to why this happened in sprinting would absolutely apply here to the vertical jump, since the qualities needed for success in each are identical. The vertical jump is hip dominant if you reference back to EMG reports at the beginning of the manual, and so is the hang clean. Also, the vertical jump and hang clean both tend to reside on the velocity side of the force‐velocity curve, meaning they are more speed based. Next we will get into the bread and butter and cover everything that deals with speed training, which is really why you are reading this book! Just remember that power and strength training are equally important, and if we don’t have these we will never be as fast as we could.
67 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
PLYOMETRICS A plyometric consists of a movement where there is a quick stretching action of the muscle, followed immediately by an explosive shortening action of that same muscle. The stretch movement is referred to as the “eccentric” phase, while the shortening motion is the “concentric” phase. Preceding a motion with a stretch rather than without will often times result in much greater acceleration, and this is why plyometrics are so valuable. We perform a plyometric in an attempt to move our limbs or an object attached to a limb in an intended direction. Classic examples of plyometrics are sprinting, cutting, jumping, hitting, throwing, swinging, etc. or anything that involves a “rebounding” action between the body and/or object and the training surface. There are 2 physiological mechanisms or functions through which plyometrics increase sprinting and general performance. #1‐Plyometrics increase the amount of potential energy stored in our tendons. #2‐Plyometrics increase our bodies’ Myotatic Stretch Reflex. As an example, when we perform a vertical jump, we start the movement by rapidly descending into a squat position. As this occurs, our muscles will load more energy through the stretching motion along with increased storage of energy in the tendons attaching to those same muscles. After the period of stretching ceases and we begin to transition our muscles into acceleration and they begin to shorten, all of this energy stored at the musculo‐tendinous junction will be released and the result is much more speed and power! The second function that results during plyometrics is eliciting of our muscles’ natural built‐in stretch reflex through the SSC (Stretch‐Shortening Cycle) and greater elasticity. The faster our muscles stretch before they contract the greater the reflex. This reflex is a protective mechanism that prevents the muscles from overstretching and tearing. When the reflex is signaled, certain aspects of our neuromuscular system will react and we receive a stronger subsequent contraction from these areas, resulting in greater acceleration and speed. According to Ross, Leveritt, and Riek, 2001, the reflex is a key process to increasing force production and sprint performance. 65 And there is one more from Cavagna in 2006. 66 This study explained the specific scenario of running and concluded that the increased momentum of our mass, as during take‐off and flight, places a faster and greater stretch on our muscles, igniting the reflex. This reflex then is responsible for a lot of the force and speed generated at especially higher speeds. There are at least 7 reasons why plyometric training is essential to the speed development process. 68 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#1‐They directly improve speed. #2‐Like with power training, they help convert all of the strength and power we built with other exercises into usable speed. #3‐They are sport‐specific. #4‐They build very strong feet and ankles. #5‐They develop proper landing skill and deceleration. #6‐They develop high levels of intramuscular and inter‐muscular coordination and motor control. #7‐They activate our neuromuscular system. Plyometrics are a direct and complete form of speed training, so they are obviously going to greatly impact the development of this specific skill. All of these movements will be performed in a condition where the weight or resistance being moved is comparatively less than what you will encounter in the weight room, thus the body will have to learn to generate the force you have and express it quickly. Next, the drills that fit in this method of training will help convert the actual strength and power you do build into greater speed. It’s one thing to have a high level of strength, but if you are not able to effectively elicit that strength when you run, then it is pretty much pointless. It’s probably no surprise that sport‐specific movements are plyometrics at work. Plyometric training will then supply us with some extra or perhaps supplemental training, so that we are able to perform better when the time comes to practice or compete. Another underrated value of plyometrics is the effect they have on the foot and ankle region. Although we’ve already seen that the areas of the hip and knee are more active in sprinting and other activities, the foot and ankle still play a critical role by guaranteeing we maintain a proper alignment to properly absorb forces from the ground and put our other joints and muscles in a more advantageous position, so that these areas can do their jobs. These areas will also add some speed and power as well, and reduce impact and help prevent injury. On a final note, many of the plyometrics are foot and ankle dominant, and are great tests as to whether or not the athlete has good feet or needs to improve in this region. Deceleration training is a very important facet of any athlete’s program, and it’s really misunderstood and absent from most performance‐enhancement systems. We need to develop those brakes and teach the body to slow or stop speed immediately. I will dive into deceleration skill in more depth in the agility and quickness section, but right now I will tell you that plyometrics can help sharpen this skill by focusing on the proper body positioning needed to lower impacts, reduce injury, lower structural stress, and build the type of strength (eccentric) needed to slow speed or momentum. By demonstrating solid landing skill and the 69 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
ability to decelerate better, you will automatically be more effective at maximizing the re‐acceleration in the movement to follow. Plyometrics do a phenomenal job in improving an individual’s coordination levels. For those who are interested and unsure, there are 2 general types of coordination in the human body. #1‐Intramuscular coordination: This type of coordination involves a single muscle learning to operate effectively by itself. An example would be a bicep curl where the muscle at the crossing the elbow joint needs to apply the right effort at the right time to perform the movement. #2‐Inter‐muscular coordination: This type of coordination involves multiple muscle groups working together and communicating properly between each other. An example would be a squat where the hip joint, knee joint, and ankle joint, and all of the muscles surrounding these areas, apply the right effort at the right time to perform the movement. I think a series of drills that fit into the plyometric category could arguably do the best job at improving this skill. When a parent, coach, or trainer approaches me and says they want me to improve their athlete’s, son’s, or daughter’s footwork, these drills automatically pop into my mind to address that proposed need, as they do a fantastic job of teaching the athlete’s foot to interact with the ground properly. I suppose it is the nature of this style of training that does it. The movements are fast and elaborate and make the athlete really think and process what they are doing. This will also assist and enhance an athlete’s ability to learn other sport‐specific skills (i.e. dribbling, hitting, etc.) as well since they are learning and activating the same centers of the brain when attempting to engrain these movements into their nervous system. Many movements in other training types are often new and technical, but my athletes definitely seem to spend the most time learning how to move their feet through the speed ladder correctly, or jump rope, etc., regardless of skill or experience level. Performance is limited by the body’s ability to communicate within itself (coordination), and plyometrics do a great job at removing this natural threshold. It’s not an exaggeration when I say that many times, we could dedicate a half a week to a week just learning how to properly execute all of the ladder drills on our comprehensive exercise menu. The next reason is probably one of my favorite reasons for performing plyometrics. I discussed this feature in my warm‐up manual which you purchased. Plyometrics, as you already know, turn on our bodies’ natural reflex, but they also heighten and increase responsiveness of the entire body at the same time. By integrating a series of plyometrics, most preferably at the conclusion of your dynamic warmup, you can increase production for all of the skill training to be 70 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
performed afterwards (i.e. speed, agility, strength, and power). I use this with my athletes and constantly report greater results than if we omitted this segment. Next we will broadly examine all of the different plyometric drills you can use to increase speed and power, and then format all of them by listing them into one of two categories. These categories are High Frequency and Low Frequency Plyometrics. HIGH FREQUENCY PLYOMETRICS: LOW FREQUENCY PLYOMETRICS: Ankling or stutter step drills Box jump variations Ladder drills Vertical and horizontal jump tests Lower hurdle/box drills Bounding variations Jumproping Sprinting Skipping Cone drills‐agility Hopping Tuck jumps Plyomat drills Drop jumps‐shock plyo Low height pogo jumps High height pogo jumps Lateral barrier jumps Depth jumps‐shock plyo Two things I want to mention before proceeding. First, this is a list of all available plyometrics that we use, but not every single one of these will be supplied in the exercise index. Consider all of the other types of training, and I could publish a hundred‐plus‐page manual on just the exercise menu alone. I will give you enough to keep you busy for a while and make great gains, and then update the index by inserting more of these drills into my website either via articles or in the video section of the site. In The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research in 2013, Hudgins and his team of researchers performed a study on sprinters, middle distance runners, and long distance runners, and tried to find relationships with their performance and difference jump variations. Their results showed that the vertical jump correlated very well with sprint performance, and the drop jump even more so. Depth jumps and rebounding‐type jumps that are listed in each category I provided you also affected different aspects of sprint performance such as stride length and ground contact time. 62 There is another study from Mero and Komi in 1994. They found that bounding exercises shared a strong relationship to sprinting due to its high power output, short ground contact time and other relevant speed outcome factors. 67 Secondly, all of the plyometrics listed here are very explosive and frequent, but the High Frequency ones get you into absolute “hyper” mode. High Frequency Plyos involve multiple smaller efforts performed as fast as humanly possible, while Low Frequency Plyos consist of a single or multiple higher efforts peformed as fast as possible. They are without a doubt frequent, but their responses are not as 71 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
frequent as the HF Plyos. What I’ve found is that HF Plyos focus on the velocity side of the Force‐Velocity Curve as these are “pure” speed based techniques. LF Plyos focus more on the other side of the Force‐Velocity Curve, and incorporate more of a strength component which helps convert the strength you build in the weight room into power. However, both are primary methods for developing high levels of speed relative to all of the strength and power exercises that were covered earlier in the manual. Another reason why I break the plyos down into categories is because it provides a way for me to really manage the collective program better, since there are so many training categories and exercises. The final reason why I feel it is imperative to categorize plyometrics is because each style of plyometric enhances the stretch reflex which I discussed. According to The National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), there are 3 regulators of how well our reflex will respond when we perform a plyometric. Below are the 3 regulators. #1‐Time: The less time we take to stretch, the greater the reflex and our speed! #2‐Magnitude of Stretch: The greater the “amount” of stretch the greater the reflex and our speed! #3‐Velocity of Stretch: The greater the “speed” of our stretch the greater the reflex and our speed! If we consider the 2 categories of plyometrics and the 3 regulators, then we have all our bases covered, and we will then get the absolute most out of the stretch reflex that contributes to acceleration and speed. High frequency drills naturally require us to increase the rate or velocity of our stretch. Let’s take jumping rope as an example. As soon as the feet leave the ground into the air they are almost immediately right back down on the ground again. This enables the potential for a ridiculously high number of foot contacts, and nothing can stretch the target muscle groups with a faster effort or more frequently than HF Plyos. So this category satisfies one of the 3 essential elements that manage our stretch reflex and speed. Low frequency Plyos satisfy the other end of the spectrum and increase the magnitude of the stretch. Let’s take sprinting as an example here. After we complete the propulsion phase (aka takeoff ), our body mass picks up momentum and we eventually arrive back down on the track or field again. When impact occurs there is going to be far more magnitude or effort, as we bend our joints and stretch our muscles again in preparation for the next takeoff. This increased magnitude places more effort into the stretch resulting in a faster stretch, and satisfies the second element of the reflex. The third element of time is implied in both of these, as the only way to reduce time is to stretch our muscles faster and harder. So the take home message here is that if you truly want to maximize the potential of your stretch reflex then you had better perform an equal blend of exercises within these 72 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
two categories on a regular basis over the long term. The results will be greater acceleration and speed across all movements! With a majority of the attention being placed on the lower body thus far, I figured we could switch gears for a moment and concentrate some more attention on the upper body. The upper body is of course secondary in priority when it comes to speed training, but still very important nonetheless, as was discussed earlier. A popular contemporary method of upper body plyometrics is “Medicine Ball Training.” Below are 5 key functions of med ball work. #1‐Medicine ball training will help promote greater arm drive through increased speed and upper body power. #2‐Medicine ball training will help convert our upper body strength into usable speed and power in sprinting and other plyometric activities. #3‐Medicine ball training is safe and very easy to teach to athletes. #4‐Medicine ball training helps develop a lot of unique speed and power in all areas of our core. #5‐Medicine ball training will help prevent energy leaks and deceleration from occurring during sprinting. I will address all of the specifics of proper arm drive in the “sprinting technique” section of this book, but for now all I will say is that by performing heavy medicine ball throws you will skyrocket your upper body speed and power levels. Moreover, all of the strength you built in exercises like the bench press, chinup, row variations, military press and hang clean will now be showcased in medicine ball drills. These drills will also do a great job in making sure that as much of your strength as possible is being imparted when the time comes to sprint. In a study conducted by Ignjatovic in 2012 in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, he found that upper body power levels and strength both improved in young female handball players who participated in medicine ball training. 68. And the last study comes from Szymanski in 2007 from The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 69 He and several other researchers selected 49 high school baseball players and put them into two separate groups. Group 1 was resistance training only, while group 2 performed resistance training and medicine ball training. Dominant and non‐dominant torso rotational strength and sequential hip‐ torso‐arm strength were measured pre‐ and post‐testing. The second group scored better on all tests, indicating the need for medicine ball training to enhance function 73 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
in these areas. There areas are also key for sprinting performance, so medicine ball training should be a part of anyone’s collective speed program. One of the things I like most about this form of training is that it’s relatively very easy to teach to clients. You really just need a turf, concrete wall or hard surface to throw against, durable med balls, perhaps some pent‐up aggression and then unleash it on the ball! Clients normally love it for this reason. It’s a lot like hitting a punching bag and it has merit on speed development. And we all know how empowering and good that feels sometimes. Building speed and power in the entire core is actually quite difficult, and medicine ball training does a great job in accomplishing this unique training objective. There are a few areas where we can go wrong in terms of sprinting technique if aspects of our core are weak, so med ball work is a primary way in preventing this problem from happening. This is what I am referring to with the prior statement of energy leaks and resultant deceleration, two things that definitely work against us and makes attaining high speed a much more difficult task. If we have a strong core, it will shine, and we will be much more effective at transferring energy to and from the ground, back and forth through our body as we run. Ironically, this is the primary role of the core in gross human movement based on its design. More on this later. 74 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
SPRINTING
Now I’m quite confident and certain that this is the primary reason that a majority of folks would be reading this book. Soon we will explore all of the techniques and principles that make you an effective sprinter, provide you an edge against competitors in your respective sport, or just get you faster from a recreational or fitness standpoint. SPEED PRINCIPLES: #1‐Principle of Specificity #2‐Overspeed Principle PRINCIPLE OF SPECIFICITY This first one, like many other principles, can be given a host of different names, sometimes because someone wants to slightly modify the principle and make the name their own, but it all means the same thing. There is not a large need to spend a lot of time discussing this particular principle since everyone understands that in order to develop a skill or movement, you need to practice and master that movement. Most programs not only implement this principle successfully, but only utilize this single principle, and after everything you learned to this point you should know now that this method is highly limiting to performance. With that being said, if you want to be fast then your training needs to reflect this idea. The body usually only knows what you ask of it, or how you choose to use it. If you train slow, you will be slow. If you train fast, you will be fast. If you lift heavy weights you get stronger. Training for long periods of time at a high frequency you will get more conditioned. However, I have identified two common errors that occur with a principle that is supposed to be the easiest to implement. First, coaches and athletes do not test the skill they want to improve on a regular basis. The typical story is that a coach will test their athlete or team’s speed once at the onset of a training program, and then re‐test months later if they remember or feel like it. The flaw with this approach is that there are several factors that affect performance during the course of that time (nutritional status, recovery, stress, general adaptation, competing demands, program design, etc.) and the odds of the coach recording a performance increase, or the best increase of each and every athlete, is like finding a needle in a haystack. This really does your athlete an injustice and limits him or her. Weekly and reliable speed testing and data tracking 75 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
not only holds you and your athletes accountable, but it provides much‐needed incentive. We operate better with goals, but the athlete has no idea or direction of where they are going and how their bodies are responding to the program without being tested on a regular basis. The main reason why testing is so significant is the competitive factor it brings to the table. Athletes and coaches both love to compete. That is why they do what they do, and testing allows the athlete to compete with themselves and others, and the coach now becomes accountable and learns whether or not their approach is working for the athlete, and they are competing with themselves and others in making their approach the best it can be. The whole training environment also elevates, and you simulate sport and competition to an extent. There is pressure involved, it’s fun, and you will be certain to get the most out of the athletes who are serious. Lastly, the remaining issue on this front is the type of testing. Handheld testing is garbage and highly unpredictable due to human reaction error. The most famous study which confirms this statement was conducted at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games. Researchers utilized “expert” timers with quick reflexes and a complete understanding of how to initiate and stop the timer according to runner’s specific actions, and compared their results to FAT (Fully Automated Timing) Systems. The average difference between the two approaches was .24 seconds, meaning that handheld times would yield a result that was more than 2 tenths faster than the actual time. So if someone ran a 4.5 handheld it would be at least 4.7 seconds with a fully electronic timing system. There are validity and standard requirements across every skill in the performance world this day and age, except for speed. To say that we have cheapened the term and removed integrity would be a massive understatement. Everyone understands that in order for a squat to count it has to be performed to parallel, or you have to fully lockout a deadlift, or keep your butt down on a bench press, or we use a vertec to properly assess vertical jump along with a specific protocol to properly measure the athlete’s specific displacement. For whatever reason, though, a handheld timer prone to guaranteed error suffices in the speed world, except for in track and field. I really have to credit and tip my cap to this population for doing things the right way. Continuing on with my rant, it is really frustrating when you have a system that works and has generated great results on a fully‐electronic system, but the times are disapproved and misunderstood because no one else uses this measure. On a positive note, some of the notable universities (University of Oregon) and various national combines have elected to do things the right way, face the facts, and adopt the fully electronic method of testing for athletes. That is awesome, and hopefully more will continue the trend in the future. We have not used handheld timing in the last year except for research purposes and comparisons to the FAT Models we used. The results we attained from this system would confirm the studies that were performed back in Munich 4 decades ago. 76 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
The last issue surrounding this Principle of Specificity that I need to discuss is ensuring that your athletes are training as specifically as they need to when attempting to improve speed. Seems simple, but it’s really not. To help monitor this function, there is a simple relationship I created that helps us assess to see if we are being specific with our training like we should be. This relationship is referred to as “Training Speed vs. Top Speed.” These two are completely relative to the athlete, and if there is any difference between the two that is greater than very minimal, then speed will not be increased. World class speed coach Charlie Francis states in his book “Key Concepts Elite”13 that in order for a change in acceleration or speed to take place we have to train at 95‐100% of our max speed, and this percentage is based on the highest recorded time of the athlete to date. If the athlete is not running at 95% of their maximum speed or greater then they will not get faster. For example, if Nate runs a 4.41 second 40‐ yard dash, we know that he has to at the very least run at 95% of that performance, or 4.64 seconds, to generate an increase in acceleration and speed performance. More is obviously better, but 95% is the minimum. This is usually not the case because athletes and coaches mistakenly turn speed training into conditioning, either intentionally or due to their ignorance of certain variables and permanent physiological limitations of the human body that heavily impact speed production. Also, if you are not testing you have no way of knowing whether or not you are improving or really moving as fast as you should at any given time. The second problem is simple, but the first is more technical. I will go into detail on this matter in the “Program Design” section and “Speed vs. Conditioning” section, so stay tuned. Here is a helpful diagram to show the relationship between these two factors and possible outcomes for speed. If there is even a slight margin between training speed vs. your top speed then you are not training hard and fast enough to increase speed. Next we will examine the second key principle if you want to ensure your body gets faster if everything else you are doing is correct. Training Speed Top Speed= Increased Speed OVERSPEED PRINCIPLE As far as speed training is concerned, this rule is going to make or break you in your attempt to truly get faster! If you read my sales page for this book, then you may have seen that I mentioned there are 2 things you can do to get faster immediately. This is the first and most important. I decided to derive and slightly modify the “Overload Principle” for strength development, so that it resonates 77 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
better when focusing on speed. It just makes more sense. Now this principle may sound very simple and straightforward to implement into a speed training program, however most fail to get it right for a number of reasons. One of the main reasons has to with a relationship that I term “perceived effort vs. actual effort.” An athlete or coach may think that they are creating “overspeed” based off their sole perception, but this is rarely the case in my experience. Specific recovery factors and maximum effort are not innate in many people. To resolve this issue and remove all guesswork, all you would need to do is invest in a FAT System such as the Brower TC Timing System, and compare times of each runner. The first speed principle was very broad, because I told you that you needed to run faster, and showed you the minimum level of effort or speed that qualifies to generate adaptations or changes in the body that result in greater speed. The Overspeed Principle will tell you exactly how hard you should be trying each and every time your perform a rep, so that you improve your speed to the highest degree possible as fast as possible. I’m sure many have heard the popular phrase “How can you expect to get better results if you always do the same thing you’ve always done?” Most people nod their heads in agreement with this statement, although their training philosophy and results do not correspond. You have to request relatively MORE from your body in order for it to adapt and do more over the long‐term. Pretty simple fact that is so effective. There exists a proposed Law of Conservation, so our body naturally does not want to do more than it has to for whatever reason in most cases. 70 Logically, this is probably due to survival purposes. Energy is a valuable commodity for our body and we need it to continue life. Training threatens our energy reserves and our survival to a degree, and more energy is required to create increased speed, so naturally our body will battle against this effort, but will still allow it in mostly small increments over time to accommodate us. The bottom line is that we have to force our body to do what it doesn’t really want to. And please do not confuse more with different. These are two totally different terms. There is absolutely zero physiological evidence to support “muscle confusion” or doing something different than what we are doing to promote progress in any training‐ related endeavor (speed, strength, power, fat loss, muscle building, etc.). Our body adapts to workload and not movements, contrary to overwhelming popular belief. 71 Of course there is a short period of time where our body is not readily familiar with an introduced movement (i.e. sprinting), and it has to learn to improve coordination and efficiency, but NEVER do we stop continuing to make gains in that pattern. Sprinters start sprinting at an early age and continue to make progress in that movement well into their twenties and thirties. Powerlifters perform the same 3 movements, and like the sprinters, progress indefinitely. Fat loss enthusiasts eat less calories than what they burn either through a degree of caloric deprivation or MORE work in the gym. The list goes on and on. Training variation was derived 78 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
primarily out of boredom for the lazy and unmotivated, or the ignorant. People either simply are not aware of this scientific fact, they dislike training, they’re bored, or they’re frustrated they are not getting the results they want and think they need a source of variation to keep coming to the gym, and cross their fingers and figure that something different might happen. Well the harsh reality is that life can get boring, it’s a routine, and these individuals need to deal with it. Acceptable variations of foundational, safe, and superior movements are perfectly fine, but the common attempt at being too creative will absolutely yield poor results. I guarantee it. This is just as much of a problem with experts and coaches with their prescriptions. One year back squatting is bad, next year its good, wait, no it’s bad again? The other scenario I like is those who say that we are discovering so much more about exercise science that it’s altering our whole approach to how we use to do things. No it’s not. I’ll piss off a lot of people who use this angle, but the proper way in which we do things for many areas of development are not going to change that much. We will discover much more impractical minutiae on various topics, but the things that work are here and will always last. These individuals either have not found the training solutions for their objective or they are in denial. Fortunately for you, though, the same things that have been proven to work you will find in this book! Your inevitable option as an athlete or coach is to embrace results, potential and periodic boredom, along with sound science, or stay where you are, get more creative, and keep searching for the next miraculous trend that promises the world, but delivers mostly nothing. The call is yours. Back to my original point: If you want to get as fast as you were meant to be, then there is no other option but to follow the Overspeed Principle on a regular basis. Each and every time you test and attempt to develop your speed, you have to act as though if that rep was your last, and pour every ounce of effort into that particular run. Do this and I’m sure you’ll eventually be pleasantly surprised at what this rule can do for you. You might be asking yourself: Why do we have to attempt to create overspeed each time we run? It’s a great question. The answer lies in that our body has a built‐in speed governor. “The nervous system only recruits muscles at speeds at which it has been trained. If it is not trained to recruit muscles quickly, when met with a demand for fast reaction, the nervous system will not be able to respond appropriately.” 72 Just like in the case of a car or truck. When we reach a certain level of speed while driving, the car will maintain that speed and prevent further increases in it. Unlike a car, though, the only way to remove this governor from that current speed in the human body is to attempt to drive past that governor and increase speed even more. When this occurs, our body will incrementally “reset” our level of speed a little bit higher, and we are left with a newfound level of speed that we did not have before. This mechanism is actually how our body improves its speed. 79 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
SPRINTING TECHNIQUE:
I’m excited to share my findings on this highly controversial and heavily discussed area of acceleration and speed training, to say the least. Some of what I will discuss will probably be review for you and some of it probably new. Proper sprint technique is obviously necessary to be able to maximize your performance. 73 Keep in mind, though, that technique is just one piece to the puzzle and there are other things that are even more important in order to sprint correctly. Yes, you read that right. Power (Strength x Speed) is fundamental to being able to effectively learn and express all of the techniques I’m about to discuss. Whether it’s forefoot dominance, proper frontside‐backside mechanics, or proper arm drive, we have to have more power to perform these correctly and to perform them fast. Basically, my message to athletes or others is to not even attempt to learn these techniques unless you are following the rest of the program first. Nothing could be a bigger waste of your time. To hammer this message home, consider a 12–year‐old boy who looks pretty and fluid when he runs, but goes nowhere because he lacks a sufficient amount of power. Conversely, a professional athlete who has phenomenal power output but is unaware of a certain technique can still run nationally competitive in the 40‐yard dash. I’ve seen this several times, and you would be surprised how many ultra‐fast people actually demonstrate technically poor form, but overcompensate for that deficiency with greater power. Power is primary, and sprinting technique is secondary for increased speed. Let’s now examine the techniques our athletes need to improve their speed in potentially slight to moderate amounts. #1‐Stride Rate vs. Stride Length Speed is commonly said to be the product of stride rate x stride length. “Stride rate is the number of strides taken in a given amount of time or distance, while stride length is the distance covered in one stride, during running. Research has found that optimum stride length at maximum velocity has a high correlation to leg length. It is approximately 2.1 to 2.5 times leg length. 46 48 So stride rate is how often we take a stride or step, and stride length is the amount of ground we cover with each stride or step. Experts like to break each element down into smaller phases, but I really do not think there is a need to, and a general definition is adequate. First, the 2.1‐2.5 times our leg length statement is impractical, unfortunately. What is really cool is that there is a strong relationship between speed, stride length, and stride rate in sub‐elite runners. In 2000 in The Journal of Applied Physiology, Peter Weyand and his team found that strides were 1.69 times longer at 11.1 m/sec versus 6.2 m/sec, and stride rate or frequency was 1.16 times faster! Keep in mind that this study compared fast runners to slower ones. 37 80 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
However, there does not seem to be a clear consensus, and studies seem to be split on which one is more important at an ELITE level. For anything less, you want a solid combination of both elements. For example, research on elite sprinters indicates that the best ones spend less time on the ground. 24 74 75 On the other hand, Debaere and his team found that the difference between stride rates between sprinters at the beginning of a sprint was 95% of the stride rate at maximum speed. They compared men and women. Moreover, the difference between stride length was 10.3% initially and then 11.5% at maximum speed, indicating stride length as the dominant feature for faster running. 76 Another study shows a split between the two. 77 In Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2011, Salo, Bezodis, Batterham, and Kerwin analyzed 11 elite male 100‐meter runners from Olympic, World, and European Championships. 17 of each runner’s races were assessed and the mean race time was 10.12 seconds! Of the 11 athletes total, 9 of them ran under 10.00s in at least one of their races. Researchers came to the conclusion that some of the runners relied upon greater stride length compensation while other relied on stride rate. Another study on this topic comes from: Majumdar and Robergs in 2011 called "The Science of Speed: Determinants of Performance in the 100 m Sprint. 78 They reported that male sprinters rely more on stride length, while females rely on greater stride rate. Whether it be that some possess greater stride length through phenomenal hip and overall strength and power, or others have incredible muscle recruitment speed which enables a superior stride rate, the permanent suggestion at this level is inconclusive at this point. Logically, it would make sense that each runner work on their relative weakness to further decrease running times and increase speed. The researchers supported this notion as well. Practically consider whether the athlete in question has greater strength or speed in movement and address accordingly. For example, if they run fast and perform jump plyometrics fast and explosively, but are not as skilled at weightlifting then they would need to focus more of their training efforts on the latter, and vice versa. So now that we know both of these functions of stride length and rate are significant, you can further see that POWER is what you need. #2‐Front and Backside Mechanics Front and Backside Mechanics refers to the position of the hip, knee, and ankle of the stance leg (front) and swing leg (back) during a sprint. Ideally, after we take a step, our back leg, which is swinging forward should form a 90 degree angle at the ankle, knee and hip collectively. The front leg, which is driving backwards, should be fully extending or straight at the ankle, knee, and hip, meaning that you could not straighten any of these any more than we already have. Below is a good illustration of this technique. 81 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
(Photo courtesy of Steve Mcsweeny) This is what you should look like in your lower body just before the back foot leaves the ground in sprinting. Great frontside and backside mechanics here!
Easy and simple cues to teach this proper sprint pattern can be “Drive the back knee up, and push your front leg fully back and down into the ground. “ This specific technique will enable maximal amount of force into the ground, which will maximize our stride length and distance between each step. Also, you’ll notice that as one of these occurs, so will the other. For example, when the front leg fully extends, the back knee automatically lifts up because there is an equal inverse relationship between the two. You can try this standing up. Lift one knee up as high as you can with the knee and ankle on that same side at 90 degrees, and you will feel your balance foot drive into the ground and your glutes on that side light up. Another question or issue that commonly arises is whether or not to focus on the swing leg or stance leg more when sprinting. Research has also shown that the function of the stance leg is far more important in creating more force and increasing speed versus the swing leg. “Tests showed that the world’s fastest runner in the late 1990s reached a top speed of 11.1 meters per second, yet the amount of time he took to reposition his legs in the air was less than 3 hundredths of a second faster than sprinters who poked along at 6.2 meters per second, almost half the speed.” 30 37 However, in 2012, Morin identified that the swing does in fact correlate with 100 meter performance. 24 79 The reason that the previous study failed to show the relationship is because it did not assess the acceleration phase and the entire race like this most recent one did, researchers said. In 1983, Mann also supported that the success of sprinting was due in large part to the relative activity levels of both the hip extending (backside) and hip flexing (frontside). 24 80 As far as technique is concerned, make sure the proper 90‐degree angle of all joints of the swing leg is present to shorten the length of the leg, and make it easier to swing, which makes repositioning it back on the ground faster and everything else faster in the process. Speed and technique of the swing leg are both vitally 82 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
important. This technique also distributes the work more evenly across all hip flexors, reducing injury potential. Lastly, just make sure that you do not over‐stride or under‐stride, as this will cause impactful errors in frontside and backside mechanics. To prevent this, just make sure that the foot of the swing leg plants directly underneath the hip, so that you do not over‐stride and excessively increase stride length and reduce stride rate. Many hear “increase stride length” and they do this unnaturally. Just remember that your stride length should improve naturally as a byproduct of increased strength and power you build in the weight room. If your swing leg straightens at the knee too much, and you plant too far in front of your hip then you will over‐stride, and a braking action will occur. On the other hand, if your swing leg does not rotate forward enough, and you plant too far behind your hip, then you will under‐stride and move slower. To summarize, if our stride length is too long, we over‐stride, and our stride rate and acceleration are slower. If the stride rate is too fast, we under‐ stride, and our stride length and acceleration are reduced. Our goal should always be to display the proper stride length at the fastest rate possible without over‐ or under‐striding to maximize our acceleration and speed output! #3‐Forefoot Dominance This key technique calls for a majority of our bodyweight to be concentrated over the front of our foot. The more forward our weight is over our feet, the more forefoot dominant we are and vice versa. This technique encourages “leaning” while sprinting, but make sure you are not breaking at the hip. This concept becomes important in sprinting for a few reasons. First, in sprinting we are trying to move in a forward direction. If we simply shift our weight forward on our feet, we are already that much closer to where we want to go and it is easier to move in this direction. So our efficiency automatically improves with our body weight forward. Just stand up straight, lean, and fall forward (Rolling start) and you’ll see what I mean. Secondly, running on our forefoot or toes is a much healthier and more effective way to run faster. Kelly Baggett was I believe the very first to classify Forefoot Dominance in sprinting as moving from the hip, while Rearfoot Dominance in sprinting as knee running. Running from the toes activates the hips, still activates the knees, and brings these two body parts together more equally, while heel running overloads the knees and inhibits activity of the hip. You saw the dominant muscle groups in the EMG reports from the sprinting pattern earlier, and how the hips are key to greater speed, and Forefoot Dominance in sprinting reinforces this exactly! Also, running on the heel creates greater impacts, increases braking forces, weakens the calves since the heel is supported on the ground, stresses and potentially hyperextends the knees much more, applies some force in the wrong direction, creates overstriding, creates longer GCT (Ground Contact Time), creates more energy loss, and will slow us down. This slight 83 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
adjustment of Forefoot Dominance will cure all of these issues and increase your speed potential. In 1983, a researcher by the name of Kerr found and reported that runners who were faster in short, medium, and long distance events were FF dominant. 81 What else was interesting is that only 2 percent of participants exhibited this technique. Also please note that these studies are infrequent and utilized with long distance runners who are much slower. Like in the case of this famous study from Hasegawa in 2007. 82 This was a Japanese study that examined much slower marathon runners who were rearfoot dominant. What was interesting, though, is that a higher percentage of faster runners ran on their midfoot. I’m sure that if they were examined at high speeds like in the case of sprinters, the results would indicate that forefoot dominance was even more prevalent. The study also mentioned that a continuum in technique was present. As runners decreased speed, rearfoot running was more prevalent and vice versa. I’m certain after watching hundreds of athletes run over the years that if more studies were conducted on the matter, a constant finding from researchers would be that fast sprinters are forefoot dominant. Premature grounding of the swing leg typically means that the foot will still be moving forward with respect to the body when ground contact is made. This is referred to as excessive positive foot speed and it is potentially disruptive to efficient sprinting because it can increase braking forces at ground contact. Positive foot speed is associated with overstriding or having our foot too far out in front of our mass. Ideally, the foot should be moving backward with respect to the body when touchdown occurs. This is often referred to as negative foot speed at ground contact, and this movement pattern is highly correlated with increased sprinting speed. 75 Negative foot speed is also associated with forefoot running. #4‐Arm Drive OK, before I get started, keep in mind that sprinting and other speed‐based work such as agility and jumping is “lower body” dominant. This means that most of the focus should be concentrated on this region of the body. I say this because many coaches and athletes give far too much credit to the arms. They are important, but not as much as your lower half, which is primarily responsible for speed. You would not even move if it were not for your legs creating Ground Reaction Force (GRF). Many tend to think that arm drive is magic. It’s not, although it does provide a strong secondary support role. To illustrate the need for Arm Drive, just simply run with your arms behind your back. Based on my research, both Latiff Thomas and Charlie Francis have nailed down where our shoulders, elbows, and hands need to be in order for us to have an advantage in speed. Note that our arms and legs work together, so any motion, or lack of motion, in the arms can directly influence how our legs operate. For example, if our arms rotate too high forward or too far back 84 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
then there will be wasted motion, time, and a delay in our leg drive resulting in slower acceleration. When we think arms we need to think 90/90, meaning that our upper and lower arm needs to form a 90‐degree angle at the elbow to allow for rapid and efficient arm action rotating forward and back through a sprint. “Arm angle” which we just discussed, the “amount “of arm drive, and direction of arm drive are the three primary areas of interest relative to sprinting mechanics. Historically, coaches and trainers encouraged athletes to sprint and drive the arms and hands to eye level going forward, and making sure the elbow arrives behind the torso when rotating back. Think “eye socket to hip pocket” as each arm drives. Next is the direction of the arm drive. Look at Erik’s left arm below. See how his elbow is bent at his side? He is “Partial Crossing.” The elbows move out then in, ensuring that you produce a stronger arm drive. If the elbows stay too much into the body as you transition from your backswing into your forward swing, you will not be as strong and it requires too much focus. Many coaches preach keeping the elbows in throughout and it’s wrong. This effect is natural and there is no need to mess with it. To help explain why you want the arms to cross just envision or actually practice a closed grip bench press and a wide grip bench press. Obviously the wide grip is stronger and a more explosive pattern that is similar to the arm cross.
Erik (black and red) demonstrates the partial cross during his arm drive. His elbow drives up and out and then up in. You could envision that trajectory in the photo above.
#5‐Good Posture I’m going to keep this one short and sum it up by saying that optimal posture allows us to create proper muscle balance and activity in every motion or non‐ motion of the body. By having the neck, upper back, shoulder blades, and lower back in the right vertical position from a lateral vantage point we can maximize the use of all the muscles attaching to the arms and legs when we sprint. From the 85 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
front, the hips should be square, kneecaps pointing forward, along with the toes of the foot forward as well. If you recall from the strength section, staying structurally balanced in any movement is essential, and sprinting is no exception. If you are interested, you can refer back to the “Structural Balance Principle” in the strength section to see the negative outcomes that result from operating with poor posture. #6‐Strong Core “A powerful arm drive can cause excessive rotation of the pelvis if the oblique muscles are not strong enough to counteract the force created by the shoulder rotation. Strength that would be available for MSF is lost in an attempt to control the pelvis. Another problem that arises from a weak mid‐torso is excessive anterior pelvis tilt (the pelvis is tilted forward, causing an excessive lower back arch). An anterior pelvis tilt limits the hip range of motion, shortening stride length, and increasing ground contact time. The exact opposite of what we are trying to accomplish with MSF.” 30 To simplify all that was said here, when we run and move our arms and legs, the effort or force generated from each half can cause the torso and hips to rotate, especially if the rotational muscles of the core and torso are not strong enough to resist this tendency and “stabilize” these areas. Lucky for us, the vast majority of these muscles will run in an oblique (diagonal) or parallel line with the ground. What this means is that they all have the ability to rotate or in the case of sprinting and other speed‐based training, “prevent” rotation as we move.
86 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
The Core or Renegade Row is a great exercise to teach the body “anti-rotation” so that we can sprint and move faster.
When rotation occurs, an “energy leak” will occur and we will move in the wrong direction. These muscles need to match the strength of our upper and lower body to make sure the torso stays forward and all of our effort goes forward as well. Anterior pelvic tilt is a technical term for weak abdominals, glutes, and hamstrings, and strong hip flexors and lower back muscles. When “excessive” anterior tilt occurs, we cannot create the amount of stride length, which the glutes and hamstrings are responsible for, and we do not run as fast. The extra pelvic tilt also “overloads” the hamstrings and is a common cause of hamstring injury. This process of overload is known as “Synergistic Dominance.” The hamstrings are synergists or support muscles at the hip, which assist the glutes, which are the prime movers, or they are supposed to be. Unfortunately, when our pelvis tilts the hamstrings then assume the role as the main workers, which they are not designed to do, and a problem ensues. The abdominals are vital here since they help hold the pelvis in a position for the glutes and hamstrings to work more effectively, and prevent excessive anterior tilt. Note that I stated excessive tilt. As a speed athlete you want to exhibit some anterior tilt so you run on your forefoot. See photos.
87 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
(Photo courtesy of ericcressey.com) Anterior tilt is associated with forefoot dominance, And vice versa.
This is an example of “Rearing Up.” This shift of our mass to the rearfoot reduces leg power and speed potential.
#7‐LIFT This particular technique is still practically unheard of, but is valuable and potentially more valuable than any other. This technique takes into account that ground force on the body upon impact during sprinting can be in excess of 3x our bodyweight according to some of the reports I’ve seen! This means that the ability to withstand such an impact and maintain a higher center of mass and hold this established body position when landing (isometric strength) is going to be vital to 88 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
re‐accelerating higher, farther, and quicker into our next stride. The great athletes and sprinters do this the best because they are so strong, either naturally or via the weight room. Often times I’ll see many temporarily weak clients collapse as they hit the surface, especially at the knee, and you’ll see the delay in their next transition. This collapse and extra bend or increased joint angles increases GCT (Ground Contact Time) and energy loss as well. Aside from high levels of strength required in being able to counter the high landing force that occurs naturally during sprinting, clients need to consciously focus on keeping the hips high and knees tight and stiff. Any drop will result in a longer time on the ground and greater energy loss, since we have to move more to get back up off the ground and into flight again. Another term used to represent this technique is “leg stiffness.” There are actually 3 different types of stiffness in the research: joint, vertical, and leg stiffness. They are all essentially the same or present with one another so I’m just going to reference leg stiffness. Leg stiffness is very important for sprinting speed and the maintenance of momentum, among other things. 83 84
(Photo courtesy of Eckhard Pecher) Notice how stiff Bolt’s (left) and Gay’s (right) knees are when they land and how upright and vertical each are during their stride.
The next study I would like to share is called: The Effect of Speed on Leg Stiffness and Joint Kinetics in Human Running, by Arampatzis, Brueggemann and Metzler, in The Journal of Biomechanics back in 1999. In this study, researchers found that a majority of leg stiffness occurs in the knee, and there is a correlation between increased running speed and increased leg stiffness. 85 Please keep in mind that this research refers to stiffness during late acceleration and the max speed phase. Only when speed is high and GCT is short does leg stiffness become a factor to at least maintain and hopefully increase speed if our power levels are high. 89 Copyright, 2013, Travis Hansen, All rights reserved.
#8‐Multi‐Directional Control and Stability Dr. Charlie Weingroff, who has been a huge inspiration and mentor in my professional development, was the first to note this need for speed. If we have any weakness on the inside or outside of our body then the ability for the prime movers such as the quadriceps, hamstrings and glutes will be limited. These surrounding stabilizer muscles (adductors, glute medius, etc.) place our body in a position to utilize the bigger, stronger, and more powerful muscle groups to do their job at a higher level. I elaborated on this pretty well in the “Supplemental Strength” training section of the book. Moreover, here is a European study from Arin that supports this theory. 86 Arin found a strong correlation between unilateral or single leg strength, COD (Change of Direction), and linear speed across 10 and 20 meters. Being able to perform well in a single leg environment requires balance, which is regulated not only by balance itself, but rather by strength and power of each lower limb. Plus most people tend to associate stability and balance with awesome “unstable surface training.” I’m kidding. In his brilliant book “The Truth About Unstable Surface Training,” Eric Cressey shares information on a study that he and several others performed on 19 members of an NCAA D1 men’s soccer team. 87 88 The study examined the effects unstable and stable surface training had on different jump plyometrics, agility, and linear sprint times. Every single subject improved more with STABLE surface training. Yes, you read that right: stable surface training. Our society has been absolutely consumed by balancing on objects such as Bosu balls and stability balls, but if you do elect this approach, it’s at the expense of your speed, your son or daughter’s speed if you are a parent, or your athlete’s speed if you are a coach. Here is the table that presented the speed results from the study:
Table 3.2: Mean 40 and 10yard Sprint Times for Pre and PostTest and % Change. Assessment PreTest Post Test % Change 40yard sprint (s) Unstable 5.02 4.93 1.8%* Stable 5.06 4.87 3.9%*† 10yard split (s) Unstable 1.73 1.67 4.0%* Stable 1.75 1.63 7.6%* *Significant difference within groups over pretesting at p
View more...
Comments