Solid State Insurrection How The Science of Substance Made American Physics Matter
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SOLID STATE INSURRECTION
SOLID STATE INSURRECTION HOW THE SCIE NCE OF SUBSTANCE SUBST ANCE
M A D E A M E RI C A N P H YS I C S
MATTER JOSEPH D . M A R T I N
U N I V E R S I T Y OF P I T T S BU B U R GH P R E S S
Published by the University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 15260
Copyht © 2018, Unvsty o Pttsbh Pss All hts svd Manactd n th Untd Stats o Amca Pntd on acd- pap 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Catalon-n-Pblcaton data s avalabl om th Lbay o Conss ISBN 13: 978-0-8229-4538-3 ISBN 10: 0-8229-4538-X Cov at: Dav Bald/Natonal MaLab Cov dsn: Jol Jo l W. W. Cons
Fo my moth, who taht m to thnk bo askn why
CONTENTS
Acknowldmnts ix Lst o Abbvatons xiii INTRODUCTION
What Is Sold Stat Physcs and Why Dos It Matt? 1. 2. 3.
Th P Scnc Idal and Its Malcontnts How Physcs Bcam “What Physcsts Do” Balkanzn Physcs 54
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
3
18 32
76
Th Pblcaton B Sold Stat Physcs PhPoblm yscs at th Natonal Mant Laboatoy Sold Stat and Matals Scnc 119 Rsponss to th Rdctonst Woldvw Woldvw 135 Bcomn Condnsd Matt Physcs 152 Moblzn aanst Mascnc 170
CONCLUSIONS
Nots 213 Bbloaphy Indx 267
199
243
102
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Th cozst o co shops and pbs somtms ddcat a w sqa t o wall to th books that patons hav pnnd at th tabls, and a wt mht qt wth a tp o th hat to a mütlch tat that hlpd ovcom paalyzn bots o wt’s block. I wsh I cold conz on clan, wll-lhtd plac, bt ths pojct ntsctd wth a ppattc phas o my l; t took shap n Mnnapols and Sant Pal, Mnnsota; Phladlpha, Pnnsylvana; Watvll, Man; East Lansn, Mchan; and Lds, Knlwoth, and Cambd, Enland—and whl I was to-n and o-n amon thm. Wth that n mnd, I thank nstad th (daly dpatd) Fdal Fdal Avaton Admnstaton ban onc, on ththat socd o lctonc tako, towad and landn. Mo than sptdvcs snt mydn mnd tax, mandn som o ths book’s cntal amnts, whch ond th alst om n antc scawl on a scknss bas. Thos momnts bo t only bcas I was tavln btwn nstttons poplatd wth th bst sot o popl. Th Poam o Hstoy o Scnc, Tchnoloy, and Mdcn at th Unvsty o Mnnsota mad vn concvn o ths pojct possbl. Mchl Janssn and Sally Goy Kohlstdt std t dtly om ts jjn bnnn to somthn appoachn matty, wth halthy asssts om Alan Lov, Bob Sdl, Kn Wats, and Bll Wmsatt. Th Physcs Intst Gop and th wokn paps smna o th Mnnsota Cnt o Phlosophy o Scnc pt sval o ths chapts thoh th pacs and I bntd om convsatons wth Wll Basman, Vcto Boantza, Nathan Cow, Los Los Hndckson, Ma Hos, Adan Fsh, Amy Fsh, Xan Gn, Camon Lazao-Pck, Babaa Los, Chals Mdwnt, Am Slaht, Jacob St-Wllams, and many oths. I hav spnt two nvalabl yas n sdnc at th Consotm o Hstoy o Scnc, Tchnoloy, and Mdcn (onc whn t was stll th Phladlpha Aa Cnt o Hstoy o Scnc). I commnd t to vyon I mt. Babak Asha s a scholaly oc mltpl; on top o bn on o th clast-thnkn ctcs I hav ncontd, h has blt a commnty dal
x
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
o nchn pojcts lk ths on. My llow Phlly llows Saah Basham, Rosanna Dnt, Lawnc Kssl, Kt MacMllan, Alca Plons, and Mchll Smly consstntly challnd m to thnk n nw ways, and ths book s th btt o t. Whl n Phladlpha, I had th pvl to hant th halls o th Chmcal Hta Fondaton (CHF), hom to som o th shapst ads n th East. I am atl o nvalabl dback om th CHF wtn op, wh Can Bkowtz, Bn Goss, Ro Eadly-Po, Eadly-Po, Jams Volkl, Volkl, and nmos oth patcpants pomptd m to hon vaos chapts. My collas at a t Colby Coll—Jm Flmn, Pal Josphson, and Lnny Rch—and Mchan Stat Unvsty—Rch Bllon, Jams Bman, Masa Bandt, Man Halpn, Rbcca Kaplan, Dan Mnchk, Rchad Paks, Isaac Rcod, and Cathn Wstall—povdd m wth ston, sppotv commnts as ths book was takn shap. Cathn n patcla has bn my champon snc th vy aly stas o ths pojct. Sh showd m how th hstoy o sold stat physcs cold nd an adnc. Most cntly, th Dpatmnt o Hstoy andnvonmnt Phlosophy onScnc thths Unvsty Cambd has od an dal whch toats pojct o thoh ts nal stas. I hav also bn th bncay o tl commnts om and convsatons wth Joan Bomb, Bob Cas, Clayton Clayton Gahat, G Good, Lllan Hoddson, Cathn Jackson, Jmah Jams, Chstan Joas, Lo Kadano, Bll Lsl, Kathy Olsko, Pt Psc, G Radck, Mchal Rodan, Ann Robnson, Rchad Staly, Jams Smn, Andy Wawck, Bn Wlson, and Andy Zanwll. My os a n spt o thm. Rsach o ths book was mad possbl p ossbl by th nosty o th Unvsty o Mnnsota Gadat School; th Fnds o th Cnt o Hstoy o Physcs, Amcan Insttt o Physcs; th Amcan Phlosophcal Socty; th Chmcal Hta Fondaton; th Consotm o Hstoy o Scnc, Tchnoloy chnoloy,, and Mdcn; th Mnnsota Cnt o o th Phlosophy o Scnc; and th Unvsty o Chcao Spcal Collctons Rsach Cnt. Ths oanzatons ndd th sach that pmttd m to contbt th to th town dbt th hstocal posson ows to th ablos achvsts and lbaans who hav assmd th nnvabl task o bnn th montans o pap th Cold Wa natd to hl. Abby Coll and th Unvsty o Pttsbh Pss hav bn a dlht to wok wth thohot. I am soly n hock to Abby o h patnc, pcptvnss, and nalnly ood advc, and to th pss’s vws and
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xi
copydto o th cal adn o th manscpt and thohtl ctcsms that mch potd th nal vson. Fnally, my dpst thanks to Maat Chaloy, who maks t all wothwhl. Thos hts that had m scbbln antcally onto a scknss bas, o n th vanshn mans o n-ht maazn ads o “Amca’s Bst Doctos,” w mostly bcas th aly phass o o cas kpt s spaatd by many mls, and, at tms, contnnts. Wth patnc and a nd acty, acty, sh ad la potons o th wtn that sltd. Ths book s h alt.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACS AEC AIME AIP AIPH
AIPK
AIPM
AIPS
APS APSM APSR ARPA ARPA ASM AvHP
Amcan Chmcal Socty Atomc Eny Commsson Amcan Insttt o Mchancal Enns Amcan Insttt o Physcs Amcan Insttt o Physcs. Oc o th Dcto Dcto,, Rcods o Elm Htchsson, 1948–1966. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Amcan Insttt o Physcs. Oc o th Dcto Dcto,, Rcods o H. Wllam Koch, 1932–1988. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Amcan Insttt o Physcs. Govnn Boad Mtn Mnts, 1931–1990. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Amcan Insttt o Physcs. Oc o th Sctay Rcods, 1931–2000. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Amcan Physcal Socty Amcan Physcal Nls Socty Mtn Mnts and Mmbshp Lsts, 1902–2003. Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Amcan Physcal Socty Socty.. Rcods. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy Amcan Socty o Mtals Ath von Hppl Paps. MIT Achvs and Spcal Collctons, Cambd, MA
xiv
BAR
BES BKS
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Unvsty o Chcao, Oc o th Psdnt, Badl Admnstaton Rcods. Unvsty o Chcao Spcal Collctons Rsach Cnt, Chcao Basc Eny Scncs (Untd Stats Dpatmnt o Eny) Boh-Kams-Slat thoy
COSMAT Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn CRS Amcan Physcal Socty Socty,, Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs. Cospondnc o Roman Smolchowsk, 1943–1947. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD CSSP Cyl Stanly Smth Paps. MIT Achvs and Spcal Collctons, Cambd, MA DFD Dvson o Fld Dynamcs (Amcan Physcal Socty) DFT Dnsty nctonal thoy DOD Dpatmnt o Dns DOE DSSP EPWP
IRE
Dpatmnt o Eny Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (Amcan Physcal Socty) En P. Wn Pap Paps. s. Pnc Pncton ton Unvs Unvsty ty Achvs, Pncton, NJ Fancs Btt Paps, 1925–1967. MIT Achvs and Spcal Collctons, Cambd, MA Flx Bloch Paps. Stano Stanodd Unvsty Achvs, Stanod Stanod,, CA Fdck Stz Paps. Unvsty o Illnos Achvs, Ubana Gaylod P. Hanwll Pap Paps. s. Unvs Unvsty ty o Pnnsylvana Achvs, Phladlpha Unvsty o Chcao, Oc o th Psdnt, Htchns Admnstaton Rcods. Unvsty o Chcao Spcal Collctons Rsach Rsa ch Cnt, Chcao Havy Books Paps. Havad Unvsty Achvs, Cambd, MA Intdscplnay laboatoy (Advancd Rsach Pojct Ancy) Insttt o Rado Enns
ISM
Insttt o th Stdy o Mtals (Unvsty o Chcao)
FBP FBPS FSP GPHP HAR
HBP IDL
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xv
JCP
Journal o Chemical Physics
JCSP
John C. Slat Paps. Amcan Phlosophcal Socty, Socty, Phladlpha Jams Fanck Insttt (Unvsty o Chcao) John H. Van Van Vlck Paps. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs,
JFI JHVVP KBP KKDP LAR
LIR LKP MAB MIT NAL NAS NML NMLR NRC NSF PTDR
RGPP RLE
Coll Pak, MD Knnth Banbd Paps. Havad Unvsty Achvs, Cambd, MA Kal K. Daow Paps. Nls Boh Lbay and Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Unvsty o Chcao, Oc o th Psdnt, Lv Admnstaton Rcods. Unvsty o Chcao Spcal Collctons Rsach Cnt, Chcao Laboatoy o Inslaton Rsach (Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy) Lo Kadano Paps. Unvsty o Chcao Spcal Collctons Rsach Rsa ch Cnt, Chcao Matals Advsoy Boad (Natonal Rsach Concl) Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy Natonal Acclato Laboatoy Natonal Acadmy o Scncs Natonal Mant Laboatoy Fancs Btt Natonal Mant Laboatoy Laboatoy.. Rcods. MIT Achvs and Spcal Collctons, Cambd, MA MA Natonal Rsach Concl Natonal Scnc Fondaton Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Physcs Today Dvson Rcods, 1948–1971. Nls Boh Lbay and an d Achvs, Coll Pak, MD Robt G. Pa Paps. Chmcal Hta Fondaton, Phladlpha Rsach Laboatoy o Elctoncs (Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy)
xvi
RRL RRLR SDI SLAC SSC WSP
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Rado Rsach Laboatoy (Havad Unvsty) Rado Rsach Laboatoy Laboatoy.. Rcods. Havad Unvsty Achvs, Cambd, MA Statc Dns Intatv Stanod Lna Acclato Spcondctn Sp Colld Wllam Shockly Paps. Stanod Unvsty Achvs, Stanod, CA
SOLID STATE INSURRECTION
introduction
WHAT IS SOLID ST WHAT STA ATE PHYSIC P HYSICS S AND WHY DOES IT MATTER? MATTER?
Sold stat physcs sonds knd o nny.
—GREGORY —GRE GORY H. WANNIE ANNIER, R, 1943
Th Spcondctn Sp Colld (SSC), th last scntc nstmnt v poposd, was also on o th most contovsal. Th nomos patcl acclato’s bam pp wold hav nccld hndds o sqa mls o Ells Conty, Txas. It was dsnd to podc vdnc o th last w lmnts o th standad modl o patcl physcs, and many hopd t mht nat nxpctd dscovs that wold lad byond. Advocats blld th SSC as th local apothoss o physcal sach. Opponnts asd th ybows at th aclty’s astonomcal pc ta, whch stood at $11.8 bllon by th tm Conss yankd ts ndn n 1993. Skptcs also objctd to th dctonst htoc sd to jsty th pojct—whch sstd that knowld o th vy small was th only knowld that cold b tly ndamntal—and w xaspatd whn SSC boosts ascbd tchnolocal dvlopmnts and mdcal advancs to hh ny physcs that thy thoht t hoht mo jstly cdtd to oth aas o scnc. To th chan o th SSC’s sppots, many sch skptcs w llow physcsts. Th most pomnnt amon thm was Phlp W. Andson, a Nobl Pz–wnnn thost. Andson had sn to pomnnc n th nw ld known as sold stat physcs at h jond th Bll Tlphon Laboatos n 1949, th nk on hs Havad Unvsty PhD stll damp. In a Hos o Rpsntatvs commtt han n Jly 1991, Andson, by thn at
4
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Pncton Unvsty, tstd: “Patcl physcs s a naow, nbd ld, and t s asy o th patcl physcsts to cat an xtnal appaanc o nanmty o oals.”1 Ths was not a sma aanst th ntllctal vablty o th SSC—Andson concdd that th scnc t wold nabl wold b nmpachably sond. Rath, t was a acton aanst th tndncy o som patcl physcsts to qat th sbdscplnay pots wth thos o physcs wt la. It was a challn to th poston hh ny physcs had njoyd as th most pstos banch o Amcan scnc o mch o th Cold Wa Wa.. Th opposton Andson and hs lk-mndd collas montd aanst th SSC thohot th lat 1980s and aly 1990s, whch playd ot n conssonal commtts, scntc pblcatons, and popla mda, lad ba dp dvsons that had mand laly l aly hddn to nonphyscsts p to that pont. Physcsts smply dd not opnly oppos ndn o a pojct champond by collas n a nhbon spcalty, spcally an ndtakn so hh pol as th Sp Colld. That alty had psvd th llson that physcsts w nanmos n th oals o dcads. Andson and hs alls, a lls, xposn ts wthn th and physcs commnty , shattd that llson. Thybyntodcd polcymaks th commnty, Amcan pblc to sold stat and condnsd matt physcs.2 Ths lds, althoh thy had psntd a halthy plalty o physcsts snc at last th aly 1960s, had nvthlss mand compaatvly obsc. So, tho, had th ntsts. Incasd vsblty o sold stat and condnsd condn sd matt physcs n polcy ccls hhtnd awanss o th dstnct pspctv on th dntty and ppos o physcs, whch dd sbstantally om th on poltcally savvy ncla and hh ny physcsts had bn slln sl ln n th halls o pow, pow, wth consdabl sccss, snc th nd o th Scond Wold Wa. Th stando btwn th SSC’s advocats a dvocats and ts ctcs was jst th most cnt and most pblc ncont n a lon, ntcat, and otn tobld latonshp btwn thos physcsts who nvstatd complx physcal systms and thos who pobd th mntst consttnts o matt and ny. Andson’s tstmony ct to th hat o th contovsy bhnd th SSC: th hh ny n y physcs commnty, commnty, whch wldd ts ntllctal pst to sway patons and polcymaks alk, was wont to assm that ts paochal ntsts psntd th common msson o all o physcs. Bt physcs n th scond hal o th twntth cnty was a om monolthc, and, om Andson’s pspctv, cold not b adqatly svd wth monolthc laboatos. Ths book tlls th stoy o how sold stat physcsts, by dvlopn an
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS SOLID STA STATE TE PHYSICS AND WHY DOES IT MA MATTER? TTER?
5
dntty and a st o ntllctal pots that std th possonal oals, dnd th bondas and msson o Amcan physcs dn th Cold Wa a.. Th sach poam to whch th SSC SS C blond was ootd n a p scnc dal datn to th lat 1800s, whch had motvatd th ondn o th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) n 1899. Bt, almost om ts ncpton, th APS was bst by dmands that t do mo to psnt thos physcsts who pld th tad n ndsty. Sold stat physcs w om a tnson at th hat o Amcan physcs btwn th p scnc dal and th nds o ndstal and appld physcsts who constttd an ncasn popoton o ts mmbshp as th twntth cnty wo on. Onc stablshd wthn th APS n th lat 1940s, sold stat w apdly nto th last sbld o Amcan physcs, dvlopn a st o ntsts, otlooks, and oals that at tms alnd wth and at oth tms clashd wth th dals domnant n oth aas o physcs. Thos ntsts, otlooks, and oals hlpd dn th scop o Amcan physcs and shap th dntty o Amcan physcsts thoh th Cold Wa. WHAT IS SOLID STATE PHYSICS?
Ths dcptvly smpl qston has som dcptvly d cptvly smpl answs: sold stat physcs s th stdy o th physcal popts o sold matt; t s a sbld o physcs, th most poplos n th Untd Stats o mch o th lat twntth cnty; t s th banch o condnsd matt physcs that stds solds wth la cystal lattc stcts. Thos answs a t wthn th spctv domans, bt thy loss ov a bvy o bdvld dtals. Rsach nto th popts o solds has a lon hstoy, bt t was not ntl th md-twntth cnty that physcal sach on solds bcam th ocs o a nw dscpln. Ys, Ys, th physcsts who ondd on dd sold stat physcs and blt t nto th last smnt o th Amcan physcs p hyscs commnty w pmaly concnd wth ndstandn th bhavo o la solds, bt that casts only th palst llmnaton on thos actos that mak th ld wothy o hstocal attnton. Sold stat physcs s notabl o what t s not as mch as o what t s. Whn t omd n th 1940s, sold stat physcs dd dply ootd dolocal psmptons—most cntally th p scnc dal—that th Amcan physcs commnty hld da. As a slt, t hlpd dn th scop o physcs tsl n a way that wold shap ts ol n Cold Wa Wa Amca. Sold matt—d thoh t s—was ll-adaptd o bldn th bondas o a dscpln whn sold stat physcs md.3 Th physcal concpts, thotcal mthods, and xpmntal tchnqs sd to nvstat
6
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
sold matt w otn jst as adly tnd to not-so-sold matt—spcondctvty, obsvd n som solds at low tmpats, s closly latd to spdty, spdty, anoth low-tmpat phnomnon. phnomn on. A smantcally stct dnton o sold stat physcs wold ncld th om, bt not th latt (a nttlsom nconsstncy that wold contbt to th s o “condnsd matt physcs” as a pd tm t m n th 1970s and 1980s). FthFthmo, th vast xpans o qstons physcsts cold ask abot solds, and th qally dvs an o tchnqs thy cold s to nvstat thos qstons, mad o a ds ld that lackd a st o cntal motvatn qstons o tchnqs to povd concptal cohson. As th dtos o Out o the Crystal Maze: Chapters rom the History o Solid-State Physics notd n 1992: “Th ld s h and vad and lacks th nyn ats blovd o hstoans—nth a snl hypothss o st o basc qatons, sch as qantm mchancs and latvty thoy stablshd o th lds, no a snl spctacla and ndamntal dscovy, as anm sson dd o ncla tchnoloy o th stct o DNA o molcla boloy boloy..”4 Th amnt that th pma sold stat o matt s bt tslt dd a dsct physcal phnomnon cas som ac plasblty, not appa that way om th standpont o physcal thoy n th 1940s. Althoh soldty was an asly dntabl tat o som matal aats, th popts o solds cold not b lably chaactzd by a consstnt thotcal appoach. Whas Maxwllan lctodynamcs svd as a snl amwok wth whch lctomantc phnomna cold b addssd, and physcsts cold ach o th laws o thmodynamcs anytm thy wantd to dscss hat, solds w a mdm n whch lctomantsm, hat, and most oth physcal phnomna mht psst. It wold b plasbl to sst that qantm mchancs povds a bass om whch t s possbl to ndstand, ndstan d, o vn dv, most not all th popts o solds. Howv Howv,, sch an ntps was nasbl n th md-1940s. Invstatn solds nstad qd mployn a nmb o thotcal appoachs, both qantm and classcal. Solds nvtd a smlaly colol aay a ay o xpmntal tchnqs. tc hnqs. Physcsts xplod th popts at th xtms o low tmpat and hh pss. Thy zappd thm wth ntons, lctons, and vaos qncs o lctomantc adaton. Thy chmcally dopd thm and blastd thm wth ltasonc wavs. Thy pokd and poddd thm wth oth solds. Sold stat physcs was a b tnt, both thotcally and xpmntally, and so th mpts o ts omaton cannot ca nnot b ond by sachn o a consstnt consstn t st o tchnqs o pactcs.
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS SOLID STA STATE TE PHYSICS AND WHY DOES IT MA MATTER? TTER?
7
Bcas t cold not clam an on n any on sach tadton o m o pactc, sold stat was, by th tadtonal standads o dscpln omaton, an nsal catoy. Bo th Scond Wold Wa, physcs was ndstood to b dvdd nto phnomnolocal catos lk thmodynamcs, acostcs, optcs, mchancs, lctomantsm, and qantm mchancs.5 At th Scond Wold Wa, a ld appad that clamd as ts doman thmodynamcs, acostcs, optcs, mchancs, lctomantsm, and qantm mchancs in solids (and somtms n oth phass o matt too). Isdo Isaac Rab’s xclamaton pon lann o th dscovy o th mon—“Who odd that ?”—s ?”—s phaps a mo tl statn pont o ann pchas on th slppy hstoy o sold stat physcs. 6 Whos ntsts dd a ld wth sch an nothodox consttton sv? What chans n th physcs commnty allowd t to om? How dd that omaton com abot? Gvn th ld’s apd owth nto th most poplos smnt o post–Scond Wold Wa Amcan physcs, what consqncs popaatd as a slt o ts htodoxy and th chans that pmttd t? In shot, why dd th ld thos com qstons to xst at vals all and how nnc physcs a whol? Addssn that dd soldt stat physcs was as mch mo than a povncal sbld, sbsday to th pmay naatvs o Amcan physcs. It was ntal to notatn th dntty o physcs and ssntal o mantann ts pst n Cold Wa Wa Amca. Tlln ths stoy qs tadn n som wll-won catos, o whch hstoans tnd to b htlly ht lly sspcos. Catos lk lk p scnc, o basc and appld sach, a poblmatc. A at dal o wok has shown that so-calld p scnc was adltatd wth woldly ntsts, and that th atcal and not altoth cohnt dstncton btwn basc and appld sach als to hold n pactc. Bt hstoans also conz th pow ths catos possssd as latv dals that dd th way scntsts oanzd th possonal possona l lvs. Mao Mao Danls and John K hav shown how “basc” and “appld” sach nctond as poltcal tools o Cold Wa scntsts, pmttn thm som contol ov th cclaton o knowld n a contxt ovnd by mltay sccy ms.7 I appoach ths catos om a smla pspctv and show how p scnc, basc and appld sach, ndamntal sach, and oth val-ladn dsnatons w tools o dscplnay as wll as natonal poltcs, and tho val th dals and convctons that av mann to physcsts’ actv ots to systmatz th possonal lvs.
8
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
THE PROMINENCE OF PHYSICS IN COLD WAR WAR AMERICA
Takn sold stat and condnsd matt physcs as a cntal objct o hstocal nqy qs appoachn old qstons om a nw pspctv. 8 A at dal o hstocal wok addsss th qston o why th Spcondctn Sp Colld ald, o xampl, bt t mht b mo appopat to ask why t v had a chanc to sccd n th st plac.9 Th US ovnmnt had spnt ov a bllon dollas on a scntc pojct bo, bt th Manhattan Pojct was pncpally an nnn ndavo, snlmnddly ocsd on a mltay objctv dn a tm o wa. 10 How dd t vn bcom concvabl that a snl aclty ddcatd to ncovn abstact knowld mht consm smla socs n pactm? It wold b tmptn to answ ths qston by pontn to th consdabl pst and nnc physcs and om om th Manhattan Pojct. Hh ny physcs, p hyscs, whch md om ncla physcs, had and th lattd to ps abstact sach. Ncla physcs, at all, was xcdnly abstact, vn nto th t had 11 sltd n th most asom wapon th wold had v1930s, sn byand 1945. Ths amla stoy cts aspcts o th xaltd hhts physcs attand n Cold Wa Amcan socty, bt t nlcts what most physcsts w actally don. Fo all ts vsblty, hh ny physcs, whch cast tsl as th ntllctal h to ncla physcs, constttd only aond 10 pcnt o th Amcan physcs commnty at th tm o th SSC’s cancllaton. Most physcsts w not pobn atomc vsca at cathdalsq acclato aclts; thy w nvstatn th popts o th typ o matt that sonds s and ndn nw thns to do wth t. Hstoans q a ll accontn o thos actvts bo clamn a pspctv capabl o xplann th plac p lac o physcs n Cold Wa Wa Amcan socty soc ty.. It s asy to s s how th hstocal tajctoy o lds lk sold stat physcs dpndd on ts latonshp wth ncla and hh ny physcs. Lss obvos s th act that ths dpndnc was cpocal, and that sold stat—a dvs, mssy ld wth a complcatd and shtn st o concptal dpndncs—n som spcts btt psnts physcs as a whol than do ts mo vd sblns. At th Scond Wold Wa, sold stat physcs, plasma physcs, polym physcs, and oth spcalts dvotd to complx matt w apdly. Physcsts wokn n ths lds qckly cam to domnat th Amcan physcs commnty, at last nmcally. Nvthlss, th small popoton
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS SOLID STA STATE TE PHYSICS AND WHY DOES IT MA MATTER? TTER?
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o physcsts who stdd th lmntay componnts o matt and th most dstant clstal objcts captalzd most lly on th postwa pomnnc o physcs. Thy w th most conzabl to th pblc, wldd th atst nnc n ovnmnt, commandd th blk o th consdabl ntllctal pst physcs njoyd n th postwa a, and ntd ntllctal dals that nocd thos advantas. Th contaan spt appant n Andson’s tstmony aanst th SSC md ov dcads as a spons to ths atttd, bcomn cntal to th dntty o Amcan sold stat physcs. p hyscs. In addton to xposn lon-standn dsamnts abot th msson and ppos o physcs, th dms o th SSC symbolzd th nd o th a n whch physcs nd as th ndsptd sovn o Amcan scnc. As th SSC altd, th Hman Gnom Pojct athd momntm on pomss that t wold voltonz boloy and mdcn, and spassd physcs n both pblc appobaton and polcy nnc. 12 Th xaltd poston physcs had hld dn th Cold Wa s nonthlss a makabl hstocal phnomnon. Evn towad th nd o th Scond Wold Wa, Amcan physcsts wod that th ld wasl lttlw known byond a small op o possonals. Th xcptons to ths conc s lk Albt Enstn, whos am was bond p n th lnday nathomablty o hs thos.13 At th wa, lads n th physcs commnty and natonal clbty and bcam amla acs n Washnton, DC, as thy assmd powl advsoy ols, shapd natonal polcy, and shphdd n an a o nos ovnmnt ndn o scnc.14 Th qston o how physcsts st attand ths poston s somwhat dnt om th th qston o how thy thn mantand t o hal a cnty. An appal to th Manhattan Pojct, and oth watm contbtons, dos povd a powl answ to th st o ths qstons. Th $2 bllon th Untd Stats ovnmnt nvstd n th Manhattan Pojct wnt n pat towad dvlopn a physcal nastct that povdd th tmplat o th natonal laboatoy systm.15 Th psycholocal mmdacy o ncla wapons hlpd s sch as J. Robt Oppnhm and Fman Dyson poston thmslvs as pblc ntllctals.16 Th ncy o th ncla ams ac catd oppotnts o physcsts to bcom dply nad wth wapons polcy, polcy, whch n tn av thm clot on a wd aay o pblc polp olcy sss.17 Th sccss o watm ncla sach, whch qckly tnd absts knowld abot th sbmcoscopc wold nto a wapon that vocably cond opoltcs, os a lon way towad xplann th xaltd poston o physcs n aly Cold Wa Wa Amcan poltcs and socty socty..
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Ths xplanaton s lss than scnt, howv, to accont o th contnd pomnnc o physcs thoh th aly 1990s, whch ncldd th owth o hh ny physcs, a ld that clamd lttl conomc, tchnolocal, o mltay lvanc bt nonthlss commandd bllons o taxpay dollas to bld and opat sach aclts o npcdntd scal. “Mascnc,”” as Lllan Hoddson, Cathn Wstall, “Mascnc, Wstall, and Adnn Ad nn Kolb hav chstnd t, bcam th standad mod o sach o th most vs18 bl physcs sach at th Scond Wold Wa. Fom th vanta pont od by a qat cnty’s dstanc om th SSC’s dms, howv, mascnc sms s ms lk a Cold Wa Wa v dam. Fo Fo how lon s t asonabl a sonabl to assm that th mmoy o th Manhattan Pojct scd to convnc polcymaks that hh ny physcsts shold contn to njoy a blank chck om th Atomc Eny Commsson (AEC), and lat, th Dpatmnt o Eny, spcally whn thy otnly dnd that th wok cam wth pactcal oshoots? Th makabl hstoy o ncla physcs n th 1930s and 1940s no dobt thAda apdWol owthxplans o hhnny physcs soon Wa at scth Scondcontbtd Wold Wa.toAs h hstoy o Cold nc and tchnoloy: “Hh-ny physcs thvd wthn th nstttonal clt o th Cold Wa bcas th AEC—th ancy that bankolld t— blvd n th nhnt lvanc o ncla scnc to th natonal ntst. What ncla physcs wantd, ncla physcsts ot.”19 Ths xplanaton capts th psycholoy o th 1950s and aly 1960s, bt t bcoms lss adqat lat n th Cold Wa. Althoh thy clamd th sam ancsty, ncla physcsts and hh ny physcsts had omd dstnct commnts by th lat 1960s. Th om was dply nttwnd wth th ntsts o th natonal scty stat, whas th latt was ncompomsn n ts commtmnt to psn knowld wth no vdnt applcatons. 20 Th mo hh ny physcs stablshd ts bona ds as a ld nslld by pactcal concns th lss t shold hav bn abl to tad on th poms o lvanc to natonal dns, vn thoh t psntd an nvstmnt n natonal pst. What xplans th contnd—and ndd ostntatos— sccss hh ny physcs njoyd wth dal patons that ndd only wth th SSC’s dms n 1993? Mssn om pvos acconts s th contbton o sold stat and latd sach to th ma and dntty o physcs. As Andson obsvd whn h lamntd th nanmos ont hh ny physcsts psntd, thos vwn physcs om th otsd w otn not qppd to dstn-
INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS SOLID STA STATE TE PHYSICS AND WHY DOES IT MA MATTER? TTER?
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sh btwn th vaos sblds and sach commnts o whch t was composd. To many polcymaks, physcs was physcs. It natd acan knowld abot th natal wold and t t podcd antastc adts. Thos two nctons w connctd n som way; tho, th ld was dsvn o sppot. Polcymaks Polcymaks nally accptd th jdmnt o th most stmd psntatvs o th ld as to how that sppot s ppot shold b allocatd. Saah Bd’s Scientists at War conts conts th collctons o Nw Mxco snato Clnton Andson, who admttd whn scntc vdnc basd on hs nstnctal tst o th ndvdal xpt dlvn t, ath than on an attmpt to ndstand th scntc contnt o th vdnc. 21 Habts sch as ths nsd that th poltcally bst-placd physcsts p hyscsts njoyd consdabl sway ov th ma o th ld, whch shapd dal ndn pots. Hh ny physcsts’ sccss mantann hh lvls o dal sppot, howv howv,, dpndd on povncs o physcs wth lss poltcal p oltcal clot contnn to chn ot sach wth na-tm tchnolocal and conomc lvanc. Th mltay mad apd and xpdnt s o smcondcto-basd lctonc andmbacd mpovdth matals. Th bonn consm componnts clt aly tchnolocal podcts oAmcan physcal sach sch as tansstos, ntatd ccts, and mpovd bakwa and sto qpmnt. Amcan ndsty ond ss o lass, spcondctn mants, ncla mantc sonanc tchnqs, and bspok alloys. Ths onatd n sold stat physcs and alld lds, bt as lon as hh ny physcsts sccdd n psntn th wok as achtypcal and polcymaks mand ncos abot th ld’s ld’s ntnal dvsty dvsty,, th bnts o sch advancs accd to ts mo pstos banch. Hh ny physcs, n shot, mantand ts sccss n pat bcas th accomplshmnts o sold stat physcs contnally nwd n th mnds o dal patons th assocaton btwn physcs as a whol and th tchncal, conomc, and mltay bnts o a w o ts ndavos. A thooh appcaton o th owth o sold stat physcs thoh th Cold Wa Wa s tho a pqst o ndstandn physcs as a whol n on o th most aspcos as n ts hstoy. THE SCOPE OF THE BOOK
In 1899, th ya th Amcan Physcal Socty was stablshd, ts ondn psdnt Hny Rowland wot: “Wh, thn, s that pson who noantly sns at th stdy o matt as a matal and oss stdy? Wh, aan, s that man wth ts so God-lk and mnd so lvatd that h can attack and solv ts poblm?”22 H d to lat nntnth-cnty st-
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
ls to ndstand th stct and bhavo o atoms and molcls. Th sntmnts h dscbd nonthlss nonth lss colod physcal nvstatons o solds and oth complx matt matt thohot th twntth cnty. cnty. Sold stat physcs otn dw sns om thos who ancd that th own stds attand a at d o lanc and lookd down th noss at “Schmtzphysk,” “Schmtzphysk,” o “sqald stat physcs.” Ths pjoatvs, th st o wat-cool bant ath than pblshd nvctv, a attbtd to May Gll-Mann and Wolan Pal, spctvly. spctvly. In addton to svn patcl physcsts n th ots to xalt th own stds, thy povdd a allyn pont o sold stat physcsts, who ond motvaton n opposn sch condscnson.23 Fa om bn th my and nlant ntps hh ny physcsts ddd, thy nsstd, sold stat physcs posd naly concptal and pactcal poblms that nspd notwothy laps o thotcal manaton and xpmntal vtosty vtosty.. Th at ony o th dson dctd at sold stat physcs s that th thns that ondd oth physcsts’ snsblts—ts ocs on complx, al-wold connctons to ndsty—w vybysam that hlpdsystms, nw thtswaant o bl-sks sach so th vald thosthns hln th nslts. Ths book os a hstoy o th Amcan sold stat physcs commnty wth th oal o llmnatn how attnton to t and smla lds can val dpndncs o ths typ and thby nch, and phaps vn om, o ndstandn o twntth-cnty physcs. It psnts a stoy abot th oanzatonal stcts o Amcan physcs and th das that shapd t, ollown th possonal possona l socts, jonals, laboatos, and poltcal ntvntons, as wll as th dscoss and dsamnts that nncd what oms thy took. Ths stcts both ctd and nocd what t mant to b a physcst n th as n whch thy w blt, and thy chand n spons to shtn das o possonal dntty and dscplnay ppos. Chann thm was otn a way to nact a vson o th ld, o wh t shold o, what t shold b, and whom t shold sv. Thoh ach o th chans tacd h, sold stat took anoth stp towad shapn Amcan physcs n ts own ma.24 Appcatn how sold stat physcs chand th collctv dntty o Amcan physcs qs ndstandn what cam bo. That s th oal o th st two chapts, whch dscb th domnant dals o Amcan physcs that w stablshd n th st st hal o th twntth cnty. cnty. Chapt 1 chats th s o th “p scnc” dal, whch Hny Rowland mxd nto th mota o th Amcan Physcal Socty. Rowland saw th socty
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as a o nttd, costy-dvn scntc nqy that wold nslat physcsts om qstons o tchnolocal applcablty o conomc lvanc. Th cntalty o ths dal o th pow boks o th Amcan physcs commnty nsd that ndstal physcs, as t w thohot th 1920s and 1930s, was latd to th pphy. Th ncasn lvanc o ndsty to th physcs commnty, commnty, howv howv,, ld ndstal physcs to sk s k possonal satsacton. A slw o nw socts and pblcaton otlts lld nds that th APS and th Physical Review Revie w, ts ashp jonal, dnd to addss. Indstal physcsts w not contnt to s th na xclson om th ky nstttons o Amcan physcs n slnc, howv. Chapt 2 ollows th machnatons thy ndtook as a s md-cnty appoachd, whl th physcs commnty at la st abot consoldatn th socs and nnc t had won wth ts watm labos. Impovn th poston o ndstal physcsts qd catn a nw ndstandn o what physcs was and how t shold b oanzd. Whas tadtonalsts vwd physcs, and ts bondas sbdvsons, as ondd n thvwd stct o th natal wold, advocats oand ndstal psntaton nstad dscplnay bondas as aas o convnton that cold b stctd at wll to mt contmpoay nds. Th s o ths latt atttd pavd th way o th mnc o sold stat physcs, a catoy that mad lttl sns accodn to th tadtonal way o lookn at physcs n tms o dsct classs o phnomna p hnomna and th pactcs sd to nvstat and xplan thm. Th p scnc dal mand a potnt oc n Amcan physcs thoh th mand o th twntth cnty, and sold stat physcs md om th ndstal nscton aanst t. Chapts 3 and 4 chat th dscpln as t stablshd ts st nstttons and w nto th last consttncy o Amcan physcs. In chapt 3, I ntodc th “op o sx,” an allanc o physcsts dtmnd to cat nstttonal spac o ndstal and appld sachs wthn th APS. Ld by Gnal Elctc’s Roman Smolchowsk, th op o sx oanzd to om what wold vntally bcom th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (DSSP), th st nstttonal xpsson o th ld. Thy wold not sccd wthot stn p consdabl contovsy, howv. Th psh to ond a nw APS dvson that wold b ndl to ndstal sachs ld som to woy that sch ots wold compoms th socty’s ppos, and tho th nty o Amcan physcs. Thos tnsons psstd n spt o attmpts to solv thm wthn th DSSP, DSSP, and th psh and pll btwn a ds o nty and a
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
nd o mo spcalzd possonal psntaton wold dn th ld’s aly yas. Th physcs dscpln’s apd owth thoh th 1950s psntd pssn challns, and ths a th sbjct o chapt 4. Sold stat physcs otstppd vn th apd naton o th anks o all physcsts. Th la pool o appld and ndstal physcsts who w ndsvd by th APS ockd to th nw sold stat dvson and hlpd stablsh th ld’s ltmacy. Th jonal nastct, whch stld to accommodat xpanson acoss physcs as a whol, lt th atst pss om sold stat’s apd owth. Dscssn th pblcaton poblm od a mans to notat lnn dsqt abot th dntty o sold stat physcs. Som avod stablshn nw pblcatons and bldn ston allancs wth chmsty and nnn, whas oths oht had to kp th ld nsconcd n physcs. Th latt vw wold wn ot and sold stat’s commtmnt to scn ts plac wthn Amcan physcs nsd that th dscpln as a whol wold com to mbac consttncs that challnd th ston p scnc thatand dnd ts aly dcads mltay,doloy conomc, ndstal nds o th and Coldna Wa. mo lly wth th Th solton o ths ss and th bnnns o a stabl possonal dntty o sold stat physcs cam jst n tm o condtons that wold tst t. Chapts 5 and 6 both xplo th nnc on sold stat physcs o th md-1960s ndn cnch. Th US ovnmnt, spcally th mltay, had ndd all mann o scntc sach n th mmdat post–Scond Wold Wa yas wth a nosty that bodd on th haphazad. In th md-1960s, ndn o scnc ban to thtn. Condtons that had avod avod ndscmnat owth av way to an a o d-n-tooth-and-claw comptton that sowd bttnss btwn dscplns comptn o th sam dwndln nds. Th tnsons btwn thos who soht to xplo sold stat’s tchncal potntal and thos who wantd to poston t as a soc o ndamntal physcal knowld had not solvd, vn as th ld’s ld’s nstttonal staton had stablzd. Ths two chapts consd how ths tnson ld dnt sach ops to nd dnt nchs n th shtn ndn coloy. Chapt 5 xamns th possblty psntd by ollown th lad o hh ny physcs and psn p sn la aclts o basc sach, sch as th Natonal Mant Laboatoy at th Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy. A somwhat dnt oppotnty, dscssd n chapt 6, cam n th om o matals scnc, whch mand a nos ont o dal ndn and povdd an otlt o sold stat’s appld ambtons.
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Chapt 7 ntodcs a shap acton aanst th tchnolocal lacy o sold stat physcs: th phlosophcal dns o mnc dvlopd by Phlp W. Andson. Andson, spondn to th sbodnat possonal poston sold stat physcsts occpd n th physcs commnty, pnnd “Mo Is Dnt,” a 1972 Science atcl challnn th dctonst pct o th physcal wold that had bcom ospl wthn patcl physcs. Th dctonst poston mantand that th most ndamntal knowld, and tho th most mpotant, was to b ond amon th smallst consttnts o matt and ny. ny. Andson’s amnt that ndamntal ndamntal knowld cold b had at all lvls o physcal complxty bcam a allyn cy o th sold stat commnty. Th battl o ntllctal conton wold lad som to dstanc thmslvs om sold stat’s ndstal oots, hhtnn ntnal tnson btwn th qmnts o ndn sold stat sach and a qst o ntllctal stm. Acknowldn th ntllctal val o th concpts that w ncssay to appcat th bhavo o complx matt,, sold stat physcsts ad, wold ncsstat wadn th t th ld wth both at stm and nancal sppot that was not lnkd to tchnolocal dlvabls. Ths staty ld som to abandon th nam sold stat physcs n avo o a nw dsnaton, condnsd matt physcs. Qantm mchancal tatmnts o complx matt had dvlopd consdably by th 1970s. Thy cold by thn b mo sccsslly appld to ds—sch as lqd lq d hlm— amophos solds, and oth systms that dd not sbmt to smplcaton so adly as la solds than thy cold n th 1950s, whn sold stat physcs omd. Th own mpotanc o ths sach aas mad th ld’s nomnal stcton to solds ncasnly ncomotabl, povdn all th mo ason to avo a nam chan. Chapt 8 tacs th tanston to condnsd matt physcs. Th nw nam amd to dlnat a ld that cold clam th accomplshmnts o sold stat and cold mak a mo sos cas that t blond wthn th ntllctal co o physcs. Pblc dbats ov th mts o th Spcondctn Sp Colld, th ocs o chapt 9, pomptd both sold stat and patcl physcsts to dnd th ntllctal and possonal dals n a hh-staks contxt. Patcl physcsts ld havly on th dctonst htoc that had svd thm so wll dn th Cold Wa. Conscos, thoh, that th contxt had chand, many many o thm also mbllshd ths jstcaton wth somtms mmodst clams abot th spn-o bnts o la-scal acclato sach. Sold stat physcsts alld n opposton to what thy consdd an x-
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
tavaanc. Thy mad an assv cas that basc sach ndn cold b btt spnt n th own backyad. Opposton to th SSC std on th clams that sold stat was jst as ndamntal as a s patcl physcs, that ndn xploatoy sold stat sach wth no stns attachd wold podc mo socally and tchnolocally valabl slts as a matt o cos, and that th concntaton o dal physcs ndn n la aclts damad oth aas o sach. Ths vw complmntd th vson o physcs that had bn ncbatd n Amcan sold stat and condnsd matt physcs, and that amd to synthsz th physcs commnty’s lon-standn p scnc dal wth a commtmnt to ts tchnolocal and conomc lvanc. Th SSC’s dms, bcas t makd th lmts o th b scnc poam that had domnatd physcs spndn o dcads, psntd a pblc vctoy o an altnatv to th had-ln p scnc otlook that had bn mantand n pat by th tchncal contbtons cont btons o sold stat physcs thohot th Cold Wa. Th onal Star Wars tloy tlls th stoy o a ata band o msts, many o whom a an adpt at manplatn oc pvadnod vyday matt, who ally to mont nscton aanst ath stablshd and hlp dstoy a ant, patally blt bam machn. Th hstoy o Amcan sold stat physcs, as choncld n ths chapts, ollowd mch th sam plot. Th ld was cobbld toth om a dvs assotmnt o sach tadtons, th only common lmnt o whch was a ocs on th ocs ovnn th matt that sonds s—and how to manplat t. Its omaton psntd a jcton o th tadtonal pow stct o th Amcan physcs commnty, whch xaltd p scnc and hld applcatons n low stm. And t cam to pblc pomnnc whn many o ts nntal pacttons moblzd to hlp bn down th SSC. (Th Sp Colld, admttdly, was not dsnd o th xpss ppos o dstoyn plants, bt som on th ns hav sstd that smla machns mht hav jst that ct.)25 Many sold stat physcsts adoptd a bl mndst, manalzd as thy w by th low stats accodd appld physcs and th mo powl collas’ dson o th ntllctal ots. Th possonal machnatons w calbatd to challn ths stats qo. It s n ths sns that th stablshmnt and owth o sold stat physcs constttd a om o bllon. Mch lk poltcal psns, th sold stat nscton spondd to spcc vancs. It ctd th ntsts o ndstal physcsts, who ald aanst th pdomnant dals o Amcan physcs and ts tadtonal
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mods o possonal oanzaton. Sbsqnt ots sold stat physcsts montd to aan th nstttons o Amcan physcs soht dom o dscplnay assocaton, o mo qtabl dstbton o socs. It wold b a oss xaaton to say that sold stat physcsts thw o th hmony o th p physcs dal, bt ths nd not wakn th mtapho. Insctons, at all, do not always lad to ovthow. Thy can also nvolv a nw ntaton, on that bns nto nt o th cnt ops whos ntsts n tsts w pvosly on th pphs. Th conclson o ths book cts on how w can ndstand th hstoy o Amcan sold stat physcs n jst that way. way.
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THE PURE SCIENCE IDEAL AND ITS MALCONTENTS
W om an astocacy astocacy,, not o walth, not o o pd, bt o ntllct nt llct and o dals, holdn hm n th hhst spct who adds th most to o knowld o who stvs at t as th hhst ood. —HENRY ROWLAND, 1899
Whn Alxs d Tocqvll vstd th Amcan contnnt n th 1830s, h was stck that “hadly anyon n th Untd Stats dvots hmsl to th ssntally abstact and thotcal poton o hman knowld.” 1 Dmocacy, combnd wth th nomnal altaansm o Amcan clt, h contndd, ncntvzd na-tm pactcal an ov th amlss sms that Eop’s astocatc tadtons and hdtay walth aodd. Abstact knowld was a lxy o th tadtonal lt, and so lanshd n a socty that dsdand ltst tadtons. Whn th Amcan physcs commnty coalscd at th tn o th twntth cnty, cnty, t wold do so n xplct opposton to ths tndncy, tndncy, catn a vson o “p” scnc dsnd to kp th pamatsm o Amcan clt at bay and to ncoa a scntc clt that cold stand alonsd th stablshd physcs tadtons o Eop. Physcs n nntnth-cnty Eop was th povnc o a socal and ntllctal lt. In Btan, t was domnatd by vtans o th notoosly dmandn Cambd mathmatcal tpos, opn n pactc only to wllhld mmbs o th Anlcan stablshmnt.2 In th Gmanc stats, physcs had scd a stabl plac n sconday sconda y dcaton by th md-1800s, bt ts ntnatonally conzd sachs w dawn om th pp chlons o socty and ts nstttons, sch as th Physkalsch-Tchnsch
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Rchsanstalt, w by and o th ln classs. 3 Bt nth o ths ast tadtons clamd to b “p” n th way th tm was ndstood by Amcan physcsts at th tn o th cnty. As abstact as th mathmatcs that powd Btsh thmodynamcs and lctomantsm was, t was napolotcally lnkd to Btsh ndsty, n patcla th tlaph cabls and stam nns that sstand ts lobal mp. And ollown ncaton n 1871, ndstal poss bcam a smlaly potnt concn o Gman 4 physcsts. Whn Amcan physcsts nvsond th ld as a p ntllctal ndavo nd avo,, abov abov and apat om th pactcal pactca l dmands o socty, socty, thy ndstood thmslvs to b mlatn th Eopan contpats. To th xtnt that thy th y adoptd Eop’s snsblts, howv howv,, thy dd so wth th vo o th convtd. Thy catd a nw dal, all th mo stanch bcas t took th pactcal bnt o Amcan clt as ts ol. Th p scnc dal mand a chshd lmnt o Amcan physcsts’ dntty thohot th st hal o th twntth cnty, bt ths dos not man that all o vn most o th physcs pactcd n th Untd Stats 5
was mot om tchnolocal conomc concns. Th Amcan Physcal Socty Socty, , ondd n 1899,and w qckly byond ts thty-sx chat mmbs, and an appcabl poton o ts owth n th st w dcads o th twntth cnty was n th ndstal scto. Many Amcan physcsts ndvdally saw no ason to shy away om ndsty, bt th nstttons o Amcan physcs wokd to manalz ndstal physcs and mantan p scnc as a latv dal. Ths backond s ccal to appcat th s o sold stat physcs, whch psntd an ndstal ncson nto th p scnc ctadl that had bn ctd, and o th most pat sccsslly dndd, thoh th st hal o th twntth cnty cnty.. I sold stat physcs md as an nstttonal salv o a conct con ct o dals wthn Amcan physcs, thn addssn th dals that ssd th aly nstttons nsttt ons o Amcan physcs s ncssay to ndstand th condtons that mad t possbl. 6 HENRY ROWLAND AND THE PURE SCIENCE IDEAL
At th nd o th nntnth cnty cnty,, Hny Asts Rowland, on o th w Amcans to njoy an ntnatonal ntnatona l ptaton n physcs, obsvd mch th sam stat o aas as Tocqvll. Th pactcally mndd Thomas Edson was th pblc ac o Amcan scnc, and Rowland lamntd that “mch o th ntllct o th conty s stll wastd n pst o so-calld pactcal scnc whch mnsts to o physcal nds bt lttl thoht and mony
20
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s vn to th and poton o th sbjct whch appals to o ntllct alon.” Rowland and thty-v oths ondd th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) to mnst to th ntllct.7 Rowland had spnt 1875–76 stdyn n Eop, dn whch tm hs vws on th pop condct o scnc cystallzd. 8 H wokd n Hman von Hlmholtz’s Bln laboatoy, wh h w to adm th Gman sach nvsty and th contnntal tadton o thotcally ontd scnc psd by a cltal and ntllctal lt. Ths xpncs svd hm wll n th appontmnt h assmd on hs tn to th Untd Stats, at th nwly omd Johns Hopkns Unvsty, whch was ondd wth a sach mandat. In Rowland’s ys, nvsts nvsts w only on lmnt o a ston scntc commnty commnty,, whch also qd obst possonal nstttons to act as a blwak aanst th conomc ntcmnts to tchncal wok that ssd Amcan clt. H ndstood “p scnc”—by whch h mant nttd pst o tth abot th natal wold, om th dmands o mmdat sl applcaton and th all o pcnay wad— not as a o pqst scntc bt also as aw moal “Ltonly s hold hads hh ho h wth a ptth, conscnc conscnc whl skmpatv. th tth, t th,”” h mplod hs llow physcsts at th scond mtn o th APS.9 Th catos o “p” and “appld” scnc as Rowland ndstood thm w at onc claly dlnatd and nxtcably lnkd. Rowland mht hav scond th Edsonan pst o pot, bt not so mch that h soht to dny th plac o scntc knowld as a wllspn o novl know-how. Rath, h nsstd that th pst o knowld cold only ncton poply and yld thos bnts whn t was nslatd om th dvsonay nnc o mcantlsm.10 And h thoht that ston possonal nstttons cold povd sch potctons. Rowland dd n 1901, bt hs ltsm was wovn nto th abc o th Amcan Physcal Socty, whch ban as a dstnctly voy tow nsttton.11 In 1902, th socty’s thd ya, only 4 o ts 144 mmbs potd job ttls o alatons that ctd ndstal mploymnt.12 Indstal mmbshp w adally n th ollown dcads. As o Jly 1920, appoxmatly 60 pcnt o ts mmbshp was alatd wth acadmc nstttons, compad wth abot 24 pcnt n ndsty and 9 pcnt n ovnmnt jobs.13 Dspt sch owth n th ndstal scto, th ocs o th socty all clamd nvsty alatons n 1920, as dd th vast majoty o th svntn-mmb concl, whch ncldd jst two mploys o ovnmnt laboatos and on psntatv psn tatv om ndsty. ndsty.14
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Gowth n th socty’s ndstal mmbshp, and th contastn contnty o ts acadmc ladshp, ndcat th xtnt to whch th APS was an sland, and soht to man on. Hstoans hav consstntly and oclly challnd th shap dstncton btwn p and appld scnc that Rowland soht to mantan (and th post–Scond Wold Wa dstncton btwn basc and appld sach that was ts h). As Davd F. Nobl obsvd n 1977, and many oths hav nocd snc, th lat nntnth and aly twntth cnts wtnssd a clos conncton btwn scnc and tchnoloy. Th sltn mphass on scnc-basd, potontd ndstal podcton ld Pal Lc to db t th Tnsld A. A bass n physcs and chmsty bcam a mak o possonal dntty o th mn nnn dscplns and ndstal dvlopmnt bcam mly lnkd wth scntc sach, spcally dn and n th wak o th Fst Wold Wa.15 No dd ths scnc–ndsty allanc m n opposton to an xstn, ntnchd p scnc dal. Gam Gooday obsvs that th vsons o pHxly scnc n champond bynw. Rowland n thasUntd Stats and by Thomas Hny Btan w As mch Rowland ndstood hs vson to b ootd n th at ntllctal tadtons o Eop, th da that taxpays and phlanthopsts had an oblaton to bankoll ntllctal psts nmood om th pactcal qstons o th a was novl.16 A slctv adn o hstoy o th physcal scncs ld Hxly to concld that “pactcal advantas . . . nv hav bn, and nv wll b, scntly attactv to mn nspd by th nbon ns o th ntpt o Nat, to v thm coa to ndo th tols and mak th saccs whch that calln qs om ts votas.”17 Thmodynamc and lctomantc thoy, th hly sccssl and ntllctally vd physcal accomplshmnts o Hxly’s own a, n act owd both a matal and ntllctal dbt to th xpandn tchnolocal nastct o th ndstal volton. 18 Th APS, whch thmbd ts nos at ndstal captalsm, pocdd wth th m convcton that nnc dd and shold ow om abstact knowld to pactcal s, bt not th oth way aond. That poston dd not t as to mantan as th twntth cnty wo on. Th Fst Wold Wa n patcla patc la stnthnd th conncton btwn abstact sach and tchncal mplmntaton that Rowland and hs cohot had hopd to sst. Th dmands o th Fst Wold Wa ld many to lamnt th atcalty o th p/appld dvson. John J. Caty sd hs psdntal addss to th Amcan Insttt o Elctcal Enns n 1916 to obsv:
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Asn ot o ths ataton coms a own appcaton o th mpotanc o ndstal scntc sach, not only as an ad to mltay dns bt as an ssntal pat o vy ndsty n tm o pac. . . . I consd that t s th hh dty o o nsttt and o vy mmb composn t, and that a smla dty sts pon all oth nnn and scntc bods n Amca, to mpss pon th manacts o th Untd Stats th wondl possblts o conoms n th pocsss and mpovmnts n th podcts whch a opnd p by th dscovs n scnc. 19
Th Unvsty o Chcao botanst John Ml Colt contndd, “Th pblc has bn to conz th act that p and appld scnc a not mtally xclsv lds o actvty, bt complmntay, and tho pblc sppot o p scnc has bn own, and as a consqnc th pactcal achvmnts o p scnc n conncton wth th wa, t bds a to nt pon ts own pblc stmaton and sppot.”20 To thos otsd o physcs, and to som wthn, th latonshp btwn scnc and ndsty appad cpocal was ath than hachcal. That pcpton bolstd by a nn stnthnn o th conncton btwn physcs and an d ndsty. ndsty. Indstal sach laboatos laboato s blossomd dn th st dcads o th twntth cnty. Th Gnal Elctc Rsach Laboatoy, Laboatoy, ondd n 1900, od a poo o concpt that nspd oth ndstal concns to nvst n sach. Th AT&T Bll Tlphon Laboatos, stablshd n 1925, ostd a sach clt that ncoad ts scntsts to man opn to th nxpctd n th hops o mantann ts advanta n lctonc commncatons tchnoloy. Bll bcam th st ndstal laboatoy to podc a Nobl Pz wnn n physcs whn Clnton Davsson won n 1937 o a 1927 xpmnt that dmonstatd lcton dacton, conmn a thotcal pdcton o Los d Bol. 21 Th wav bhavo o lctons llstats th blnd o p and appld sach ostd at Bll. It was at onc a ndamntal physcal dscovy and somthn a tlphon company, whch was n th bsnss o tansmttn lctons, wold vy mch lk to know. Th poms o th possblty, at last, to condct costy-dvn sach, alon wth th hh salas th pvat scto cold o, ld many physcsts nto ndsty—and th pomnnc that Bll n patcla achvd, n pat on accont o Davsson’s pz, postond t to bcom th most nntal sold stat physcs hb at th Scond Wold Wa. Thoh th 1920s and 1930s, ndstal laboatos not only mployd an appcabl popoton o Amcan phys-
THE PURE SCIENCE IDEAL AND ITS MALCONTENTS
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csts bt also natd an appcabl popoton o th paps pblshd n Amcan physcs jonals.22 Th cltal dncs btwn ndsty and acadma nvthlss mand shap. Indstal sach, vn whn dctd towad scntc nsht, qd ts own styl, on that ndstood nsht and applcatons to b o a pc, and that dd not ank thm wthn a stct val hachy.23 Althoh Amcan ndsty was bcomn mch namod o physcsts, Amcan physcs—o at last ts ashp socty—had lttl acton o ndsty. Th pvaln atttd thoh md-cnty s ctd n a pc o dol that mad th onds at MIT’s Radaton Laboatoy n 1944, clbatn Isdo Isaac Rab’s Nobl N obl Pz by pasn hs sl-aboatv dsdan o th compaatv chs avalabl to physcsts who wnt copoat: Now all yo bht yon llows wth yo ys pon th stas, Yo adat assstants who sbsst on pant bas I ndsty shold woo yo wth two hndd bcks a wk Rs th job and say, wthot yo ton n yo chk, It an’t th mony It’s th pncpl o th thn It an’t th mony Th’s thns that mony can’t by It an’t th mony That maks th ncls o ond It’s th phlosophcal thcal pncpl, w kp tlln oslvs, o th thn. 24
Th son convyd th sns o moal spoty that cam wth sstn th hh salas ndsty was abl to o, alon wth th consnss that th most ntstn ntllctal wok mand th povnc o nvsty sach. Wthn a contxt that avod clos contacts btwn scnc and commc, th p scnc dal that th APS stanchly mantand pomptd nstttonal owth lswh n Amcan physcs. Th nw socts omd btwn 1916 and 1929 psntn naow spcalts, ach wth a pomnnt ocs on nstmntaton and/o applcatons. Th Optcal Socty o Amca w ot o Eastman-Kodak’s sach laboatos and was ntndd to sv th nds o a own op o ndstal sachs stdyn ntactons btwn lht and matt.25 Th Acostcal Socty o Amca, whos st mtn was hostd at th Bll Tlphon Laboato-
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s n 1929, also had ndstal oots and was dctd towad nnn ntsts.26 That sam ya saw th omaton o th Socty o Rholoy, ddcatd to th nwly namd scnc that stdd th domaton o matt. Its onds mbacd th ld’s potntal applcatons, notn n th annoncmnt o th nw socty: “Haclts was pobably coct n sayn that ‘vythn ows’ and th majo poblms o at ndsts daln wth ntoclllos pant, vansh, atcal txtls, mtals, bb, tc., hav 27 to do wth lastc domaton and ow.” Non o ths ops wold hav ond a wam wlcom n th APS. Wallac Watall, ondn mmb o th Acostcal Socty, calld that “ anybody had com alon thn wth th da o sttn p dvsons o th Physcal Socty and havn th Acostcal Socty bcom on o thos dvsons, why, that woldn’t hav on ov at all.”28 Th Physcal Socty’s conscos dcson to spn applcatons catd a nd o nw possonal otlts that svd th own commnty o appld and ndstal physcsts. ACCOMMODATING ACCOMMODA TING APPLIED PHYSICS
Mmbs o applcaton-ontd possonal oanzatons who w tand n physcs contnd to thnk o thmslvs as physcsts, vn th APS was not th possonal hom. I t hopd to man a cohsv commnty, Amcan physcs wold nd a la coal. On May 3, 1931, psntatvs om th th nwly omd socts and th APS assmbld at th Cosmos Clb n Washnton, DC. Th occason was th st mtn o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs (AIP).29 Th nw oanzaton was pncpally a pblshn opaton coodnatn th collctv pnt otpt o ths oanzatons—and, som months lat, o th Amcan Assocaton o Physcs Tachs, tsl nwly stablshd. Th AIP, an oanzaton o oanzatons, mst hav smd nwldy to many n a commnty that ntl cntly cn tly had bn so small. It was a conton, howv, o “th act that th was thn no snl socty that dw toth all thos whos pmay scntc ntst was n th ld o Physcs,” as th commtt chad wth plannn th AIP’s post–Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa actvts wold call n 1945.30 Th AIP was a concsson to th act that Amcan physcs was bcomn la and mo ds. Abaham Pas, n hs ctons on th Physical Review—th ndsptd jonal o cod o Amcan physcs o th btt pat o th past cnty—calld that n th 1930s ddcatd physcsts cold stll ad “th n monst monst,,” as t was known, cov cov to cov and mantan a panoamc vw o th ld.31 Evn n 1931, howv, that lvl o ddcaton
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was a and xcsn t byond th capablts o all bt th most dod ads. Pas’s collctons mst also b consdd wthn th boad contxt o Amcan physcs pblshn. Bo 1929, th Physical Review and th Journal o the Optical Opti cal Society o America w th only ddcatd otlts o scholaly wok n physcs n th Untd Stats. That chand wth th appaanc o sval nw jonals n th lat 1920s and aly 1930s. Reviews o Modern Physics soht to mak contmpoay sach mo dstbl by smmazn lvly aas n shot vw atcls.32 Review o Scientic In struments lanchd n 1930, by whch tm th pblcaton xpanson was alady jan to som. In th dtoal that ban th naal ss, Floyd K. Rchtmy acknowldd: “Th nmb o scntc and tchncal podcals to whch any wok n th p o appld scnc mst has ncasd so apdly n cnt yas as to as n som mnds th qston o th dsablty o takn stps to dscoa th statn o nw jonals.”33 Th backond to hs maks ncldd pblcatons sch as Journal o the Acoustical Society o America and Journal o Rheology, both ondd n 1929. No was Review o Scientic Instruments th last Amcan physcs jonal to appa aond 1930— Physics, th Journal o Chemical Physics, and th American Physics Teacher Teacher wold wold ollow btwn 1931 and 1933. Th nmb o atcls th Physical Review pblshd achd a local
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maxmm n 1931, whn th nw jonals stmmd what had bn a stady s thoh th 1920s ( 1.1). It wold not ach th sam lvl aan ntl at th Scond Wold Wa. 34 Th panoamc vw o physcs on wold achv by dlntly tamn th n monst twc monthly thby chand n th 1930s. Th landscap shtd as whol aas o physcs matd to nw otlts and th Physical Review ocsd mo ntntly on kpn abast o nw and xctn dvlopmnts n ncla physcs and qantm mchancs. Consdn th xpnc o an achtypcal Physical Review–adn APS mmb ov th pod om 1925 to t o 1935 xposs a cla sht. A typcal ss o th jonal n th md-1920s ncldd som thotcal wok, ncldn paps on qantm qa ntm phnomna, bt t also pblshd a at many atcls that wold hav ond a hom n mo spcalzd jonals jst a w yas lat. By th md-1930s, th thoy qotnt was hh and th jonal was domnatd by ncla and qantm paps. Th owth o nw otlts n ntvnn yas dd not thatn th Physical Review’s stats as th commnty’s jonal o cod, ddlon manathat ts pol was mo shaply dnd than t had bn. Itbt wastno nal ntst jonal, at last not so a as th own own consttncy o ndstal and appld appl d physcsts was concnd. Anyon opatn on th assmpton that th APS psntd Amcan physcsts and that th Physical Review pblshd what was mpotant to know abot cnt physcs wold hav pcvd a shapnn o Hny Rowland’s p scnc msson, ath than a dlton, vn as th mpotanc o appld physcs w wthn th st o th commnty. Th jonal’s ptaton also chand cha nd makdly ov ths span. John Van Van Vlck lat calld: “The Physical Review was only so-so, spcally n thoy,, and n 1922 I was atly plasd oy pla sd that my docto’s thss was accptd o pblcaton by th Philosophical Magazine n Enland. . . . By 1930 o so, th latv standns o The Physical Review and Philosophical Magazine w ntchand.”35 John Tonc Tat bcam dto n 1926, th sam ya ll-bloodd qantm mchancs md n Eop. Van Vlck and oths cdtd ths tnaond to Tat’s a mbac o ncla and qantm physcs, both o whch advancd apdly n th 1920s and 1930s. Van Vlck coathod a boaphcal mmo o th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs wth Tat’s doctoal stdnt, mass spctoscopst Ald N, n whch thy pasd Tat o shown “a jdmnt and common sns n not dlayn by mch n notwothy paps daln wth vaos applcatons o qantm mchancs; ths was mpotant, o Amca was somwhat at a
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dsadvanta compad to th cnts o Eop, wh th [qantm] volton had mnatd.”36 Psn a mo naowly thotcal ocs and tackln th xctn chans ntatd n Eop asd th Physical Review Re view to a jonal o ntnatonal standn, bt at th xpns o ts lvanc to a boad swath o ts domstc adshp. Tat was ws to th act that Physical Review had naowd ts scop on hs watch. Wth ths n mnd, h lanchd a nw jonal, Physics, n 1931. It was dsnd to sv th own cad o appld physcsts, whos pblcatons ntl that pont had bn “scattd thoh a nmb o nnn, chmcal and ndstal jonals. jon als.”” Physics, whch wold b namd th Journal o Applied Appli ed Physics wthn a w yas, hopd to attact contbtons om appld sachs who lt alnatd by th naown ocs o Physia m th dntty as physcsts. Tat Tat commntd on th t h cal Review and to am pblcaton’s msson: Th Physical Review has hthto bn th only otlt povdd by th Amcan Physcal Socty o th pblcaton o onal sach. As yo may hav notd th Review has mo than dobld n volm dn th past sx yas and has bcom mo and mo th xponnt o th ply ntospctv sd o physcs. Ths s bt th natal slt o th ndamntal and adcal chans n th local amwok o th scnc whch hav attactd th attnton o an v ncasn op o actv physcsts. Bt ascnatn as a th dvlopmnts n atomc physcs and th qantm mchancs, thy do not by any mans psnt th whol o th scnc, no a thy mo ntstn o valabl than th onal wok o th at nmb o possonal physcsts who a applyn physcal mthods and pncpls to th poblms o oth scncs and th ndsts. 37 Physics was both an ovt to appld physcsts and an act o dmacaton
that placd thm otsd ts cnt. Appld sach wold not b lt to ds nto chmcal and nnn jonals and th ndstal ay ltat, bt nth wold t b antd a bth on th t h ashp vssl o th Amcan Physcal Socty. THE MAP OF PHYSICS, 1939
In 1939, Bnad H. (Bn) Pot dw a “Map o Physcs” ( 1.2). Pot was a adat stdnt n physcs at Bown Unvsty. Th ollown ya h wold b nlstd nto th Manhattan Pojct, on whch h wokd at Pncton Unvsty and Oak Rd ntl h qt th days at th bomb-
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Figure 1.2. Bn Pot’s Map o Physcs, 1939. Th capton ads: “Bn a Map o Physcs, contann a b hstocal otln o th sbjct as wll b o ntst to physcsts, stdnts, and laymn at la. Also vn a dscpton o th land o physcs as sn by th dan sols who vnt th. And mo patclaly th locaton o vllas (namd at pon physcsts) as ond by th many vs. Also th dat o ondn o ach vlla. vll a. As wll as th dat o ts xtncton. And nally a collcton o vaos and sndy symbols qntly mt wth on th tp. tp.”” Rpodcd wth pmsson o Mak Mlncov, ltay xcto o Bn Pot, Pot, mmlncov@mal.com. Fom Bn Pot Collcton, Colby Coll, Spcal Collctons, Mll Lbay, Watvll, Man
n o Hoshma, tamatzd and dsllsond wth physcs. H wold nstad ollow hs passon o at, whch h sd as an otlt o hs llon stl wth th sponsblty h lt h shad o th dvlopmnt o ncla wapons. Bt n 1939 h mand namod o physcs. Hs map clbatd th ponn nstnct o th “dan sols” who vnt nto th onts o physcal knowld. It also ncodd an da abot what physcs was that was cntal to th Amcan p scnc dal. Pot’s map s both an atact and a ltal llstaton o th habts o mnd that latd appld and ndstal sach to th ns o th Amcan physcs commnty. It psnts th vaos povncs o physcs —mchancs, sond, lctcty, mantsm, lht, hat, and astonomy—as oaphcal ons lnkd to on anoth by ny, dpctd as a v d
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Figure 1.2a. Fom Bn Pot’s Map o Physcs, 1939.
Figure 1.2b. Fom Bn Pot’s Map o Physcs, 1939.
by mchancal and lctomantc tbtas (and a svo o adoactvty), dn nto an ocan labld “Rsach: Th Ft o Physcs” ( 1.2b). Physcs, Physcs, ths psntd, s concptally nd and hstocally hst ocally contnos, dnd by phnomna that xstd n th wold ( 1.2a). PhysPhyscsts, who v v th nams to th vllas dottn th landscap, landscap , a th ons who xpos thos phnomna and ddc th ls ovnn thm. Tchnoloy s a on land n ths ndton. Physcs s ot th n th wold; physcsts a thos dan sols calld to dscov t on th downstam jony towad th onts o sach. Concvn o physcs n ths way ncoad th oanzatonal assmptons that pcldd ndstal physcs om ann pchas n th Amcan Physcal Socty. Socty. Ths otlook was th ll-qppd to accommodat a ld lk sold stat physcs. It s dclt to man how Pot mht hav psntd sold stat had h pdatd th map a dcad lat. Sold stat physcsts hald om almost all th dstnct oaphcal ons psntd on th map. Th
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dclty o locatn th wok wthn ths vsal schma llstats th act that sold stat physcsts dd not xplo a dsct on o physcs n th tadtonal sns. Sold stat physcs was not a sl-contand sl-contan d assmbly o topcs and mthods that cold b convnntly psntd as a v, sland, contnnt, o oth natal otcoppn o th dscplnay landscap. Pot channld an thos o classcaton that was chaactstc o th pvos cnty’s scnc. Nntnth-cnty natal phlosophs otn ndstood taxonomy as an ssntal pc o th msson, opatn om th convcton that pop classcaton cold val th od nhnt n nat. Th sam thos xtndd to classyn th scncs thmslvs. 38 Wllam Whwll wot n 1840: “A sond classcaton mst b th slt, not o any assmd pncpls mpatvly mpld to th sbjct, bt o an xamnaton o th objcts to b classd;—o an analyss o thm nto th pncpls n whch thy a and d. Th Classcaton o Scncs mst slt om th consdaton o th nat and contnts. contnts.””39 Th assmpton that th scncs thmslvs, lk th objcts o th stdy, stdy, possssd ntnsc ats thatnto allowd thm to cnty b dstnshd natally andamon nambosly contnd th twntth and shapd atttds Amcan physcsts. That assmpton ncoad sstanc to catos lk ndstal physcs, and ndd sold stat physcs, whch dd not slot natly nto a pcvd natal od od.. Rspct o that pcvd od dd th nstttons o Amcan physcs n th st hal o th twntth cnty, vn whl ndstal physcsts bcam an appcabl popoton o th commnty. By 1933, th nstttonal landscap had attand a local qlbm. Th AIP admnstd th ht Amcan physcs jonals that mand at th Journal o Rheology casd pblcaton n 1932. Th anks o th APS, whch mand th pncpl socty o Amcan physcs, swlld n spons to th sson natd by ncla and qantm physcs, nos ondaton sppot that allowd physcsts wth ds om lt nvsts to spplmnt th stds n Eop, and th nx o émés n n th clods athn ath n ov Cntal Eop. Mch o ths owth nocd th socty’s commtmnt to p scnc.40 Th ncas o th commnty’s sz, and th ol o ndstal and appld physcs wthn t, nonthlss psntd a contnn challn to th tadtonal dals o th dscpln. It was lss th potncy o th p scnc dal tsl than t was ts ntnchmnt n ky nstttons that mad t dclt to dslod. Th pow boks o Amcan physcs, who
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ndstood ts oal to b th xtacton o aw knowld om nat, attmptd to kp th ld p wth th battlmnts o nstttonal stct. Thos battlmnts wold hold ntl th psss o th Scond Wold Wa pcptatd th oanzaton. oa nzaton. Sold stat physcs, whn t md md n th lat 1940s, constttd th st sccssl nscton aanst p scnc ndamntalsm n th APS. Th stablshmnt o a dscpln that catd to th nds o ndstal physcsts and was oanzd n a way that pad lttl hd to natal catos psntd th most sbstantv chans to th ondatonal dntty and dolocal commtmnts o th Amcan physcs commnty snc ts ondn. Th ollown two chapts xplo how ths challn to tadtonal commnty dals noldd.
2
HOW PHYSICS BECAME BECAM E “WHAT “WHA T PHYSICISTS PHYSICI STS DO”
Whn Solomon sad that “a ood nam s ath to b chosn than at chs,” h knw what h was talkn abot. —OLIVER E. BUCKLEY, 1944
“Physcs” was th nam Olv E. Bckly, psdnt o Bll Laboatos, had n mnd whn h opnd hs addss to th Natonal Rsach Concl’s Connc o Physcsts wth th abov ln. Bckly wod that ths tm vokd nothn conct to th ava Amcan. Th ncla bombs dtonatd ov two Japans cts wold n physcsts nto th oont o Amcan pblc conscosnss n Ast 1945, bt th Manhattan Pojct mand shodd n sccy whn Bckly spok n May 1944. Wllpblczd contbtons to th wa ot wold lkly hav hav mad ada amla to a sbstantal smnt o th Amcan pblc, bt t was aly lnkd to physcs n th popla pss.1 Albt W. Hll, th oton psdnt o th Amcan Physcal Socty, had makd al that ya, “It s a a occnc that a cnss tak has v had o a physcst, and th task o xplann s sch that on s otn tmptd to st as a chmst.” 2 Facd wth ths dct, Bckly nsstd that possonal dntty was th most pmal challn Amcan physcsts acd and ncoad th connc attnds to consd how t shapd actvts om ndadat tachn to ovnmnt advsn. H askd hs collas to conont dclt qstons abot who thy w and what thy dd. What was physcs? Who cold clam to b a physcst? Who ot to dcd? Danl J. Kvls’s otn-qotd spons to ths qstons s “physcs s
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what physcsts do.”3 Thoh t mht sm tatolocal, ths sloan maks th sos pont that hstoans, pac Whwll, shold avod th mpls to sk som ssntal, contxt-ndpndnt co o th lds thy stdy. Dscplns a hstocally contnnt socal ntts that mht b assmbld n dnt ways at dnt tms by dnt popl actn on dnt motvs. Th contnncy o hman-blt catos s ospl to today’s hstoans, who a lkly to accpt ths pont nnchnly. nnchnly. Th sam, thoh, cannot b sad o th popl who constctd thos catos n th st plac. Many md-twntth-cnty physcsts, notably thos who contolld th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS), wold hav bstld at th sston that th ld consstd n anythn oth than a st o pxstn mpcal lats, whch thy took as th task to dscov and omalz. Undstandn “physcs” to to somthn xstn n th wold, thy mht hav sstd a dnt sloan: sloa n: physcs s what physcsts ps. To To ths tadtonalsts, who w also th cst dnds o th p scnc dal, “physcs” mand a xd st o natal phnomna, whos stct dtmnd who wasntst a physcst was not. Thy sstd that whos pncpal was and not who th dscovy and laboaton o anyon nal physcal pncpls blond blon d mo poply n nnn, chmsty, chmsty, mtally, o anoth ld. As th commnty o Amcan physcsts w, howv, poplatn ndstal laboatos and skn concssons to th dmands d mands o tchncal and appld wok, a la poton o th commnty ban to nsst that physcsts, not nat, hld athoty ov th scop and oanzaton o physcs. Stanod Unvsty’s Wllam W. Hansn, plyn n 1943 to hs colla Davd L. Wbst’s Wbst’s sston that physcs was dnd by th pst o natal physcal laws, wot: “I woldn’t want to attmpt a pcs dnton, bt t wold sm that yo cton sts th shts tbly hh. How many physcsts do yo know who hav dscovd a law o nat? Yo hav, I know, and so has Compton and phaps on o two oths I don’t know o thnk o. Bt ally, ally, t sms to m, ths pvl s vn only to a vy w o s. Nvthlss th wok o th st s o val.”4 Th st tndd to a. Pspctvs mo sympathtc to th Kvls dctm ban to xt th nnc n th md-1940s. Som otsd th tadtonal co o acadmc physcs, and vn som wthn, cam to ndstand th dscpln as a s a commnty wth th lattd to dn and dn tsl as t povd convnnt. Th ccmstancs o th md-1940s psntd oppotnts that mad valatn th tadtonal dnton o th physcst convnnt ndd.
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Bckly’s 1944 lct addssd th anxts that cam to th o as ths comptn andas o dnn physcs w boht nto tnson by th cntal cts o owth and dvscaton. Advocats o both pspctvs dvlopd a nmb o stats o answn th t h qstons Bckly posd, and ths comptd o tacton as Amcan physcsts assayd th possblts that th post–Scond Wold Wa nvonmnt wold o thm. By th tm th Amcan physcs commnty ond ts ootn n th postwa a, th ndstandn that physcs was “what physcsts do”—and so cold chan physcsts statd to do dnt sots o thns—had motvatd chans n th dscpln’s nstttonal stct, wth wd-ann consqncs o how t wold dvlop thoh th Cold Wa a.. Wth th oon n mnd, I popos my own, qally lb altnatv to th Kvls dctm: physcs s what physcsts dcd t s. Amcan physcsts n th 1940s dd not mly alz that physcs cold b ndstood as th sm o th actvts, o a lvant sbst o thm; thy szd pon th ancy to oanz th dscpln so as to poactvly dlnat th typs o actvts that th t wthn t. That scacly ndd to bt slht. xcsd n th a whn commnty wasancy small and dvsons wthn As th poplaton boomd and th nstttonal chaact chaa ct o physcsts’ mploymnt chand ntn th md-cnty, howv, that ancy bcam ctcal.5 Physcs bcam what physcsts dd dn th Cold Wa by mans o conctd ots on th pat o a small op o ndvdals wokn wthn th nstttonal constants o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs (AIP) and th APS. Th vson was opposd by a op o nntal tadtonalsts who mantand that smply ann a d n physcs dd not mak on a physcst—o at last was not scnt o on to man a physcst—and actvly soht to kp som o th thns that physcsts dd om wokn th way nto th dnton o th ld. PHYSICS AS NATION: THE UNITED STATES OF PHYSICS
In th aly 1940s, “th physcsts’ wa” ad. It had and that nam vn bo th tansomatv nnc o ncla wapons sach bcam cla.6 Physcsts conzd that th Scond Wold Wa wold bn thm nw lvanc to Amcan socty; n 1943 and 1944, as th wa’s nd cam nto ocs, a scambl to shap postwa physcs ban. Opnon pcs dscssn xstn challns and t dvlopmnt o physcs pppd physcs jonals. Th latonshp btwn ndsty and acadma and sncant attnton. Th aanmnt achd n th 1930s, whch allowd
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th APS to ddcat tsl to p sach whl th at o socts svn s vn appld ntsts was hld n loos condaton by th AIP, was nsatsactoy to many. Watm natonalstc htoc was n th a. Physcsts bathd t n, xhaln t aan n th dscssons o th dscpln’s t. Thos who avod a mo cmncal appoach to dnn physcs, p hyscs, whch th AIP mbodd, alld aond th noton o a “Untd Stats o Physcs,” composd o many povncs, ach wth ts own local chaact, hld toth by a poltcal commtmnt to th nty o th dscpln. In th ac o a own poplaton o ndstal sachs, th qston o what poston ndstal physcs wold occpy n ths non loomd la. Th staks o dbat ov ndsty’s plac n postwa physcs w, n th md-1940s at last, mo dolocal than pactcal. Only at th wa wold th wd physcs commnty an a cla ndstandn o how th abndanc o dal dollas wold shap th sach. Fthmo, physcsts wathd th avas o th at dpsson btt than most, and ths ndn was not so pomnnt a concn as t wold bcom jst 7
acad w yas lat. Dscssons th nal yas not o th Scond Wold Wa, ot almost xclsvly xclsv ly bynthos physcsts sqstd condctn sct sach o th Manhattan Pojct, tnd nstad on th qston o dnty. Fo adhnts to Rowland’s tadtonal p scnc dal, physcs mantand ts dscplnay dnty thoh ts stats as a calln, ath than a posson. Bt th own mass o appld and ndstal sachs o whom physcs was a posson st—thos who saw physcs as an ntllctally wadn path to a comotabl mddl-class xstnc, and who wold dv what Davd Kas has calld “th postwa sbbanzaton o Amcan physcs”—saw th possonal dnty mpnd by calls that th ntsts b kpt at a mov om th al bsnss o physcs. 8 Althoh thy dd n th pd soltons, both ths ops shad th concn that ndsty and acadma had dtd too a apat. Th ss appad n many scds on th t o physcs. 9 In 1943, Thomas H. Osood Osood o Mchan Stat Coll o Aclt and Appld Appl d Scnc (as Mchan Stat Unvsty was thn known) pt th poblm ths: “Both n th past and now, tchncal physcsts hav known too lttl abot th wok, both n sach and tachn, n whch th acadmc collas a nad; and an vn mo lamntabl noanc o th pactcal poblms o th a whch a bn solvd by physcsts n ndsty has bn dsplayd by thos who tan stdnts n th dmnts o physcs n o dcatonal nstttons.” 10 Osood vocd statons that many ndstal sachs
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
lt as thy td to mantan th dntty as physcsts wthn a ld that consdd appld wok ntllctally sbodnat. Many smla xpssons o staton appad n th Review o Scientic Instruments colmn “Contbtd Ponts o Vw,” n whch physcsts cold sond o abot possonal sss—a ncton that Physics Today wold assm n 1948. In th Fbay 1945 ss, Mos Mskat o Gl Rsach Laboatoy av a dtald accont o th possonal challns that ndstal physcsts acd and dscbd th ways n whch xstn nstttonal stcts ald to sv thm. Th ndstal physcst “mst wok ntmatly wth th chmst, th lctoncs nn, th acostcal nn, th colo xpt, th hydalcs nn, o whov has vn hm th poblm and wll mak s o ts solton whn achvd, achvd,”” Mskat wot. Indstal physcsts nally wokd on poblms o somon ls’s dsn and o compans that w nlkly to pay xpnss o connc tavl. Wokn n ths contxt, Mskat sstd, alnatd ndstal sachs om th acadmc collas who domnatd th APS, mmbshp n whch bcam, o thpd ndstal “a”tadtonal om hs yothl possonal o hs physcst, school days,” days, svn no‘hanov’ sl possonal ncton.11 Mskat d th APS to bcom mo sponsv to ts ndstal mmbs, spcally by sppotn th omaton omat on o spcal ntst n tst dvsons. Ths sston was an altnatv to a poposal popla amon many appld physcsts that wold hav sn th AIP plac th APS as th ocal oanzaton o Amcan physcsts. Th pncpl advocat o ths solton was Gaylod P. P. Hanwll, th had o th t h physcs dpatmnt dpat mnt at th Unvsty o Pnnsylvana, wh h wold lat sv as psdnt. As dto o Review o Scientic Instruments, Hanwll njoyd a ont-ow sat to th wanln ov th t o physcs that playd ot n th jonal, and h sd hs dtoal plpt to nd t n th dctons h ond most podctv. In an dtoal pblshd n Ast 1943, Hanwll st down th challns as h saw thm and atclatd hs avod solton. Th poblms acn physcs ncldd th la nmb stdnts, both ndadat and adat, whos tann had bn dald by wa wok and who wold m om th watm assnmnts wthot adqat ondatonal tann.12 “Th wll b mo physcsts at th wa, bt th at majoty o thm wll hav th tchncal o catsman’s atttd towad th scnc ath than th possonal o acadmc pont o vw,” Hanwll pdctd. Ths posd a challn, spcally alonsd th ncasd socal and poltcal
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cacht physcs was bnnn to njoy. Hanwll’s pncpl concn was that th tchncal accomplshmnts o physcs, whch w latvly asy to commncat to nonspcalst adncs, wold com to domnat pblc awanss o th ld and ndmn sppot o abstact sach. Ths concn, alon wth wos abot stablshn ctv tann poams and ndn stabl socs o sach sppot, ld Hanwll to concld that possonal oanzaton shold b at th oont o13physcsts’ dscssons abot how to condct th aas at dmoblzn. A w months lat, Hanwll od hs amatv spons to ths tobln qstons. H calld o “a mo pct non” n hs dtoal opnn th Fbay 1944 ss o Review o Scientic Scientic Instruments, and poposd “a nw Amcan Physcal Socty to plac th xstn assocatd Socts and to ncld all mmbs tho o th ppos o boadly and lbally advancn th scnc and tchnoloy o physcs p hyscs n all ts banchs.” Echon oths who lamntd nstttonal ts btwn bt wn th sach o nal pncpls and th applcatons, Hanwll nsstd: “W mst s to t also that no schsm btwn acadmc and th In som spctsdvlops th om tndsth to b th spcalst andndstal th lattphyscst. th nal pactton o clncan, bt wthot th ncaton o both th ots n a common socty, nth can b lly ctv .”14 Hanwll ttd that both acadmc and ndstal physcs mht s th cold not daw on th oth to achv ts oals, a that h ond sv noh to popos a damatc ovhal o th possonal stct o physcs. Hanwll champond a dalst vw o Amcan physcs. H advocatd a cntal oanzaton mo nclsv than th APS bt ston than th AIP, whch h consdd too loos a condacy to ctvly sv all physcsts. H wot avoably o a potntal ndstal dvson wthn th poposd nw socty, socty, obsvn that a smla ntty n th Amcan Chmcal Socty had own apdly, svn as a nsy o a nmb o spn-o dvsons. Ths vson o physcs wold v wd lattd o nw ops to om and dn novl aas o ntst, whl holdn thm toth nd th as o a ston cntal oanzaton. Hanwll stck a nv; th nvtaton closn hs dtoal to commnt th on how Amcan physcs mht pomot nty and many pls, som b, oths xpansv, ov th nxt sval months. Wallac Watall and Elm Htchsson spondd avoably to th call o nty, sn th own dtoal soapbox n Journal o Applied Physics, and n so don mad Hanwll’s mplct dalsm xplct.15 Th May 1944 d-
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
Figure 2.1. Map o th “Untd Stats o Physcs.” Physcs.” Th ntalsms xpand as ollows: ASME Socty o Mchancal & VE Socty o Hatn(Amcan and Vntlaton Vntlaton Enns); AIEEEnns); (AmcanASH Insttt o (Amcan Elctcal Enns); IRE (Insttt o Rado Enns). Rpodcd om Wallac Watall Watall and Elm Htchsson, “Oanzaton o Physcs n Amca,” Journal o Applied Physics 15, no. 5 (1944), 407–9, wth th pmsson o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs
toal volvd aond a daam thy ttld th “Untd Stats o Physcs” ( 2.1). “Obvosly a ston cntal oanzaton n physcs s ndd,” thy concldd on th bass o th appant app ant amntaton n th daam. “A “A snl socty wth many sbjct matt dvsons o a ‘non’ o many ‘stats’ mht accomplsh th dsd nty n physcs povdd th pop balanc btwn ‘dal’ pow and ‘stats’ ‘stat s’ hts’ s mantand.” mantand.” Mtns and pblcatons, thy ad, cold b th povnc o th “stats,” whas sss o boad ntst to physcsts and th “‘colonzaton’ o vn ttoy”— psntd by th dashd mpty spac on th ht o th daam—cold b lt to th cntal oanzaton.16 Not all thos covd by ths ncaton w nthsastc abot th nclson. Ald N. Goldsmth, lontm RCA sach nn, wot to th dto on bhal o th Insttt o Rado Enns (IRE), whch h had coondd n 1912, and whch s psntd n Watall and Htchsson’s map as daln wth th applcatons o lctoncs.17 Goldsmth compland that Watall Watall and Htchsson had nappopatly n appopatly chaactzd th “latd “lat d socts” as naow, a-n povncs o Amcan physcs: “It s not n-
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sal o a socty o nsttt to dn o dlmt ts own actvts and to dtmn, n ts own bst jdmnt, th ld o ts actvts. Howv, t s phaps nq to nd on land socty attosly dnn th scop o oth scntc oanzatons.” In danc o th naow chaactzaton o th IRE’s ol n th “Untd Stats o Physcs,” Physcs,” Goldsmth obsvd: “O ncssty,, poblms o mchancal constcton, ncssty const cton, optcal thoy and dsn . . . and acostcal t hoy . . . hav thoy hav bn xhastvly tatd n th Proceedings o 18 the I. R. E.” Goldsmth’s xposd waknsss n th dalst appoach that ltmatly doomd th da o a ston, nyn mblla socty to plac th AIP. A plan that cdd ovall contol o ndamntal sach to th Amcan Physcal Socty an aol o oth socts’ ntsts. Oanzatons lk th IRE amd not jst to sppot appld sach, bt to ost a v and tak btwn ndamntal and appld sach that was a wthn th conns o th APS. Th ncaton schm also dw th ot bondas o physcs too shaply o som and ald to accont o th ols playd by small socts that xpandd oth lds. In th shot, stonamndalsm o Hanwll, Watall, and nto Htchsson ldd alth bnts taton had povdd thos spcalts that w pooly svd by th APS and ndstmatd th xtnt to whch sbjaton nd an mblla socty wold b nwlcom amon ths consttncs. Goldsmth’s nty nto th convsaton s notabl o anoth ason: as an lctcal nn, h psntd an xplct a o th hlmsmn o th nchoat ld o sold stat physcs. Elctcal nnn and physcs, onc o a pc, had dtd apat aly n th twntth cnty.19 Som physcsts wod that th stdy o solds wold ollow th sam path, losn th potntal to bnt om hhtnd postwa pst and solatn tsl om poblms o ply thotcal ntst. Gnal Elctc’s Roman Smolchowsk, n hs 1943 mansto ntatn th ot to ond th APS Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs, antcpatd th ncasd dmand o physcs tann at th wa,, spcally n nw sblds concnd wth complx matt, and nsstd, wa “W wold lk thm to man banchs o physics ath than to bcom nw . . . typs o ‘nnn.’” 20 Smla commntay on th loomn nstttonal chans n Amcan physcs dottd th ltts scton o th Journal o Applied Physics and Review o Scientic Instruments ov th months ollown th pblcaton o Watall and Htchsson’s dtoal. Appld physcsts, o th most pat, avod a dalst appoach n whch a la mblla socty wth loos
40
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
mmbshp cta wold con nty on physcs wthot oanzn that nty aond a cntal sp o p sach. Th physcsts om th Cas School o Appld Scnc (whch wold m wth Wstn Rsv Unvsty n 1967) wot to o o a “haty scond” to Hanwll’s poposal, and codd ln “condnt that ths ops [socts sch as th Optcal Socty, Acostcal Socty, and Assocaton o Physcs Tachs] wold bnt mmnsly by vn p a lttl o th atonomy n od to ny th po21 sson o physcs n Amca.” Amca.” In th sam sa m ltts colmn, Thomas Osood addd hs sppot and chod a popla dssatsacton amon appld physcsts wth th stats stat s qo, wtn: “To “To say that th actvts a ctvts o ths socty do not now mt th nds o th majoty o Amcan physcsts s to cast no sl pon th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, bt ath to mphasz that physcs has so boadnd ts scop snc th nd o th last cnty that tha t th acadmc and thotcal sbjcts whch a th spcal concn o ths socty may ltmatly mak no mmdat appal to many actv physcsts.”22 Appld sachs pd th pospct o patcpatn n a nd ld o physcs to possblty o ncasn atonomy by omn th socts andthjonals. Ths pnc th ld th staton wth thown APS, whch by ths tm was nd th sway o, and tho catd most stonly to, thosts—and th xpmntalsts who tstd thotcal clams—most o whom hld acadmc appontmnts. Th tnos consnss wthn th appld physcs commnty was that political nty shold b mantand and that t shold b blt on a boad, nclsv vw o physcs—althoh dsamnts mand on th ss o dal athoty vss stats’ hts. Fom th dalst pspctv, th Amcan Insttt o Physcs, ath than th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, sat at th appopat scal o a ashp a shp socty. socty. Appld physcsts saw th APS as a havn o p sachs—a labl that psntatvs o th APS dd lttl to dsavow. Thy advocatd xpandn th pows o th AIP, whch ncldd ops sch as th Optcal Socty and th Acostcal Socty and whch pomotd mo ly th mxn o thoy and xpmnt, basc and appld sach, so that acadmc ntsts wold not domnat th cntal ovnn ov nn body o Amcan physcs.23 Unty, n ths contxt, mant psvn and pomotn mchansms that ncoad nos applcaton o th ttl “physcst” so as to ncas dalo both wthn and acoss physcal spcalts. Th dalst appoach to postwa physcs p hyscs psntd th owth o th convcton that physcs dd nd to b ndstood, at last n pat, as “what
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physcsts do,” th consqnc bn that thos physcsts don thns not tadtonally conzd by th APS dsvd psntaton nvthlss. Th othodoxy wthn th Amcan Physcal Socty was somwhat dnt. APS ocals, concl mmbs, and llows w nnthsd by th da that th socty b nsatd n avo o th AIP, o a nw ntty mad n ts ma, as th pncpal oanzaton o Amcan physcs. Dspt th dssatsacton o appld physcsts, th APS stll wldd th pow ncssay to dntvly nnc how th ld wold b stctd. Th modlaty o th APS’s dvsonal schm, whch had bn nstttd nsttt d n 1931 and allowd oanzd ntst ops to om a dvson o th socty aond a wlldnd topc o physcs, av t an advanta n notatons abot th oanzaton o Amcan physcs. Fdck Stz’s addss at th APS A PS mtn o Janay 1945 ttld “Whth Amcan Amca n Physcs?” atclatd a poston that xpssd th stanc o thos advocatn o th Amcan Physcal Socty. Socty.24 Stz, lk many o hs contmpoas, saw physcs as natally splt nto two pats: “In th st plac t contans a body o knowld whch has ntnsc as a om o clt. c. .lt. Ths componnt s commonly ‘ndamntal’val o ‘p’ physcs. . In th scond plac, physcs svs calld as a soc o ndamntal knowld o a majoty maj oty o th mpotant mpotan t lds o nnn. nn n.”” Unlk a consdabl nmb o hs collas, Stz xhbtd lttl concn abot th own t btwn th two banchs, as xmpld by th acadmc/ndstal splt, mphaszn that “th tms ‘ndamntal physcs’ and ‘appld physcs’ a n no sns synonymos wth ‘acadmc physcs’ and ndstal physcs.’” physcs.’” In kpn wth th tadtonal t adtonal vw that mphaszd contnty wth Hny Rowland’s vson o p scnc, h dndd th ol o th APS as an nstttonal oan o basc sach. “Th pncpal am o th Socty Socty,,” Stz clamd, had bn “to pblsh p blsh a jonal and aan mtns n whch ndamntal physcs was mphaszd.” I th socty xpandd ts scop to ncld an mphass on appld sach, h contnd, thn no oth oanzaton wold man to potct th ntsts o xploatoy sach.25 On ths onds, Stz ad that dvsons shold pocd wthn th APS n sch a way, (a) that thy dd not ncoa compatmntalzaton, and (b) that thy dd not lad to too mch mphass bn placd on appld physcs. On pont (b), Stz opnd: “Th dan om ths soc s patclaly at at psnt bcas th vast majoty o physcsts s concnd wth poblms o appld physcs. Ths nclds many mn who w hthto concnd only wth p physcs. A la nmb o ths mn ds
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qt natally to contn cont n ths typ o wok at th wa and an d may, may, as a slt, l that th socty to whch thy blon shold b adjstd to st th nw ntsts.” Althoh h conzd th sam tnd towad appld wok as thos who avod stctn physcs aond th AIP, Stz pd to tan th pvld plac o basc sach. H sstd that, ath than xpandn th APS o lvatn th AIP AIP,, appld physcsts cold nd a pop ossonal otlt n xstn AIP mmb socts and nnn socts, o stat a nw assocaton o appld physcs to addss th nds. 26 Stz ad that ndamntal sach was th dvn oc bhnd all o physcs. Physcs dd not nd to b nstttonally nd, accodn to ths stanc, bcas appld wok ncssaly ld on advancs n ondatonal basc sach: “Th at mpotanc o ndamntal physcs as a spn o th wll o tchnoloy asss s that th dvlopmnt o ths ld has socal val vn w adopt th most had-hadd atttd towads socty. socty.” Basc sachs, n oth wods, nd not b wod abot th saty o th socal mpotanc, bcas t wold b aantd by th dpndnc o appld sach on basc Appld o physcsts and bascphyscs p hyscsts physcsts had “no basc qal on thsach. ss o whth not ndamntal shold b psd, vn thoh thy may l that tha t th objctvs l apat.” apat.”27 Physcs, o Stz, was concptally nd—h dd not pcv oanzatonal dscomt as a that to nty—and th st st objctv o th Amcan Physcal Socty shold b to sv and advocat o th physcsts who nvstatd basc concpts. Powl alls sch as th wll-connctd APS sctay Kal K. Daow and Go W. Stwat, who was psdnt o th APS n 1942, jond n Stz’s dns o th APS. Unlk Stz, ths s concdd wth Hanwll and company n pcvn th ncasn t btwn th acadmc and ndstal commnts as a that to th nty o Amcan physcs. Th pncpal concn, howv, was wth concptal pty ath than poltcal nty. nty. Thy soht to pvnt ndstal ntsts om dltn th APS’s avowd commtmnt to p scnc, and oanzd to pvnt th omaton o an APS dvson dvotd to ndstal o appld physcs. Th APS concl, mplld by sch concns, sccdd n blockn sval poposals o an ndstal dvson. Indstal physcsts w bcomn possvly mo channd by th act that th socty was not ad to th nds. Th concl ldd ltts to ths ct thoh th aly 1940s. On ndstal sach, W. W. Loz o th Natonal Cabon Company, pd that th poams o APS mtns w not pblshd aly noh o m-
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ploys o ndstal laboatos nad n dadln-dvn pactcal wok to qst lav and sstd that th socty nat notcs al. On ths cont, th concl dtmnd, wthot notn th ony, that chann xstn pocds wold b “mpactcal.”28 Anoth, A. V. Rtch, compland that APS pblcatons dd not lst spcc job ttls whn pntn nams o ndstal sachs, and ths convyd no ndcaton o th ndvdal’s ank wth an oanzaton.29 By 1943, th concl was awa noh o th own ds amon physcsts mployd n pvat ntps ntp s to patcpat n th aas o th socty to addss, howv tpdly, “th topc loosly dscbd as ‘ncoamnt ‘ncoa mnt o ndstal physcsts. p hyscsts.’” ’”30 Encoan ndstal physcsts, howv, dd not xtnd to antn thm a dvson o th own. In th Sptmb 1943 ss o Journal o Applied Physics, Daow dlvd a shot acoss th bow to poponnts o an ndstal dvson, potn th APS concl’s ntnton to t o vto any ots to shap th Physcal Socty n a way that wold th solat acadma and ndsty: Ltts hav bn cvd convyn th da o a “Dvson o Indstal Physcs.” Th Concl s dsnclnd to avo ths da, whch ncdntally appas to b pcldd by th lana o Atcl IX. On o th thns most atly to b dsd s a ncaton o th physcsts calld “acadmc” and th physcsts calld “ndstal.” It s mpotant to avt th dan o a lack o loss o ntst by th op n th poblms and th ntpss o th oth. Now Now,, th stablshmnt o a “Dvson “Dvso n o Indstal Ind stal Physcs” wold wok n xactly th oppost dcton. That way ls th pl o omn two contastn ops, whos ams and ambtons oht to b alk bt wold nallbly dvat mo and mo as th yas o on.
Daow dd not nlatally oppos APS dvsons and had backd th APS concl’s appoval o th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs. H ncoad poposals o addtonal dvsons, bt catond that thy “b lmtd n scop to a patcla ld o lds o physcs. physcs.””31 Daow’s stanc amontd to an ocal dns o th vals on whch th socty had bn ondd. Th APS concl, thoh Daow’s voc, stood by th assmpton that physcs, t w to b sbdvdd at all, shold only b cavd alon cla concptal lns. Atcl IX, to whch Daow d, had bn addd to th APS consttton n 1931 n tandm wth th omaton o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs. It pmttd APS dvsons to om aond “spcd sbjct o sbjcts n physcs.”32 Daow, by sstn that ths lana
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pcldd a dvson ddcatd to ndstal physcs, phld th assmpton that a “sbjct” wthn physcs had concptal conc ptal oots. Bods, as stablshd by dvsons, wold ct natal catos o knowld ath than pvaln possonal o nstttonal catos. Ths atttd, ntntonally o not, avod an acadmc appoach to physcs.33 Acadmc physcsts w mo nclnd to dvot thmslvs to snl, claly dnd sach aas pdcatd on th ntsts and th socs avalabl at th nstttons, and to bld th possonal dntts wthn thos sach aas. Fo thm, concptally dnd APS dvsons mad ood sns; sch dvsons wold lkly ncld th blk o oth physcsts wth whom w hom thy wold want to ntact. Som natonal ocs w at play n th APS concl’s sstanc to an ndstal dvson. Th mmbs o th APS concl n 1943 ncldd, ncl dd, n addton to Daow, psdnt Albt W. Hll, vc-psdnt Ath J. Dmpst,, tas Go Pam, alon wth lctd mmbs Josph C. Boyc, st Wllam F. G. Swann, Fdnand Bckwdd, Alphs W. Smth, and Hny DWol Smyth. Bckwdd bothnn wthw 1903ov bthdays, had bn bon n thOnly twntth cntyand andBoyc, sx o th ty. Th collctv scntc wok was laly n th aly twntth-cnty Amcan tadton o acadmc-styl, nstmnt-ocsd sach. Havn matd amd th pwa othodoxy othodoxy,, thy wold hav bn natally sspcos s spcos o any poposd catoy that dvatd om socty tadton and so od a stct ntptaton o th qmnt that nw dvsons b sbjct-basd. 34 An aanmnt that pmttd only naowly concvd topcal dvsons was challnn o ndstal physcsts. Rath than ocsn n dpth on a patcla sach aa, an ndstal sach physcst wold otn sht ocs to mt th nds o ndvdal pojcts. Physcsts whos wok n acostcs was contnnt on a pojct wth a xd tmln, at whch thy mht tn to thmodynamcs o mchancs, had lttl ncntv to jon th Acostcal Socty o Amca. Th sam loc wold apply to dvsons. Topcal dvsons, vn thy makd ot aas o pmaly appld ntst, wold not hav bn a ston daw o ndstal ndst al physcsts who w otn xpctd to adapt th sklls to a wd an o topcs as xncs dmandd. Daow lamntd th own t btwn acadma and ndsty ndst y,, bt hs poposd solton, whch admttd only sbjct-basd dvsons, naowly ndstood, bolstd th tadtonal acadmc vw n whch physcs was nd, and omd ts dntty, dntty, on th bass o th chaact o th knowld t psd. Hs concn that ndstal physcsts w bcomn solatd
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amontd to th sspcon that thy mht dt too a om th manstam o basc sach and stop don wok that qald as physcs. Insstn that dvsons mantan topcal oc wold oc ndstal physcsts to dn thmslvs concptally n od to am th dntty as physcsts. BELLING THE CAT AT AT THE CONFERENCE OF PHYSICISTS
Th abl o th bll and th cat tlls o a op o mc plottn to contol a maadn cat. Th mc dbat stats back and oth bo sttln on a poposal that calls o hann a bll aond th cat’s nck, so that thy mht ha t appoachn. Bt whn t coms to dcdn who wll tak p th task o attachn th bll to th cat’s colla, volnts a scac and xcss abndant. Kal K. Daow, sctay o th Amcan Physcal Socty, nvokd ths abl to dscb th stat o Amcan physcs n th aly 1940s. Th commnty was n boad amnt that chan was aoot and that Amcan physcsts shold do somthn to mana that chan and ppa o post–Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa condtons, bt w w wlln to compoms thspctm own ntsts o th ood o th collctv. Th ll o pspctvs dscbd abov was on dsplay at th Natonal Rsach Concl (NRC) Connc o Physcsts, a “‘town mtn’ o physcs,” physcs,” n th wods o Amcan Insttt o Physcs dcto Hny A. Baton.35 Th da o holdn sch a mtn onatd wthn th AIP Boad o Govnos, motvatd motvatd by an ptck n ots to om nw APS dvsons. Th AIP boad took p th matt o a op pttonn th APS o a dvson dvotd to appld spctoscopy dn ts Mach 1944 mtn, consdn whth th APS was th appopat vn o sch an oanzaton and dscssn what th AIP’s ol shold b n mdatn sch ots n th t. Th dscsson movd om th patclas o th poposal to th nal wsdom o sppotn ntst ops wthn th AIP mmb socts, whch ld to th vn mo abstact qston o how dlbat oanzaton o th physcs commnty cold b dctd to th advanta o th ld. Baton sstd that th Natonal Rsach Concl mht hav nds avalabl to sppot a mtn dscssn sch qstons. 36 Th hastly assmbld connc convnd at th Amcan Phlosophcal Socty n Phladlpha two months lat, May 19–21, 1944, “o th ppos o dscssn th psnt and postwa poblms acn physcs.”37 Th poblms snld ot o attnton ncldd dcaton om hh school thoh th adat lvl, th val and nds o ndstal physcsts, possonal standads and th possblty o nstttn dscpln-wd accd-
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taton mchansms, how to mana th latonshp btwn physcs and ovnmnt dn pactm, and pomoton o th val o physcs to th Amcan pblc. Th connc was a pmdtatd ot to plot th possonal contos o postwa p ostwa physcs, motvatd motvatd by an optmstc slant on th ablty physcsts had to contol th own dstny n th postwa wold. Th patcpants claly appcatd, bo th Scond Wold Wa had ndd, that th cntal mpotanc o physcs n th wa ot psntd an oppotnty to ncas th ld’s pactm pol as wll. Snc physcsts w conspn to stct th natonal pol, natonalst mtaphos aan md as th natal way to xpss th oals. Rchad M. Stton, sctay o th connc and a Havod Coll physcst wdly spctd o hs tachn, dployd th naton mtapho n hs ntodctoy maks: As n an adjacnt bldn h n Indpndnc Sqa, ws mn mt to am th Consttton o ths Untd Stats, so w a n a sns mt to am th Consttton o Physcs, phaps I shold say “Th Untd Stats o Physcs,” on sch lns that t natons may acknowld that w dd o wok wll. O ppos s to tak som o th plmnay stps wth th xpctaton that what w dscss h wll, by th dmocatc wokns o o vaos oanzatons, tak oot n th sol o o socts and contbt to th stnth o o whol oansm. . . . Th s no qston h o acadmc physcsts vs. ndstal physcsts, o o xpmntalsts vs. thotcal physcsts, and th has bn a conscos ot mad to hav all sds o physcs psntd.38
In snln ot thos spcc dchotoms, Stton nocd th mpotanc, whch, dspt th connc’s altaan msson, was on dsplay thohot. Stton was nonthlss coct to not th boad psntaton at th athn. Govnmnt physcsts w n attndanc, jonn acadmc physcsts om pvat and pblc sach nvsts as wll as small colls. Rpsntatvs om sch wll-stablshd ndstal sach nstttons as AT&T’s Bll Laboatos patcpatd alonsd physcsts om small ndstal ntpss that w jst bnnn to ddcat sbstantal socs to sach. Famntaton was a own act o l, bt th NRC mtn can b ndstood as a nn attmpt to bd th aps that dvdd Amcan physcsts. Its dvsty aods a coss-scton coss-sct on o vws sondn th t t o physcs, spcally ndstal physcs, n th 1940s. Th qston dvn th mtn was an xstntal on: what dos t
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man to b a physcst? Olv E. Bckly o Bll Tlphon Laboatos atclatd common concns that physcs wold b dbasd t stayd too a om ts dnn dals, whch h ndstood n th convntonal mann o th tm as th ontaton towad th omlaton o nal pncpls. Bckly dntd th qston o how “physcst” shold b dnd as ky to postwa possonal dvlopmnt and sppotd dvlopn accdtaton mchansms o both nstttons and ndvdals. H champond ndsty as a vabl ca path o physcsts, bt also catond that althoh th owth o physcs n ndsty “s n o th physcsts and shold lad to bnts o thm,” t cold only do so “ t dos not at th sam tm so ovpoplaz th posson as to lad to ts dadaton.”39 Potctn pst ankd alonsd vampn dcaton as a postwa oal o th majoty o physcsts, both acadmc and ndstal. Bckly contnd: “Many who a not physcsts wll s noshmnt n oshmnt o thmslvs n adoptn th ttl. Sch a slt wold obvosly b notnat, o t s only by stctn th s o th nam physcst to thos who nnobl t that 40
ths bnts can actvly b maddmacatn ndn.”ts Potctn physcs asthos a pstos appllaton mant sponsblts om o oth scntsts and tchncans, most notably chmsts and nns. Dmacaton was spcally mpotant n ndsty, wh physcsts w sally not coalld wthn dpatmntal stcts that spctd dscplnay ntty and ndd to dn how th sponsblts and th stats dd om th collaboatos wthn la sach ops. Scondn Bckly’s advocacy o accdtaton, Conll’s Roswll C. Gbbs jdd t “a mstak n makn appontmnts to dsnat a physcst as an nn o as a chmst vn thoh t may b th asy way to sc appoval o a nw appontmnt by an Exctv Boad o Oc o to lct avoabl consdaton om a Dat Boad o o an ‘ssntal man’ n th wa ot.”” Bn accdtd as ot. a s a physcst, and poply d to t o as sch sc h wold, n Gbbs’s vw podc “th ct pon th ndvdal n mantann hs moal, n vn hm a pop ln o pst, n dvlopn a sns o blonn to a op wth ntsts and ponts o vw n common wth [hs] own, n pomotn loyalty to th posson h has chosn, and n ncoan hm to assocat hmsl wth stabl scntc oanzatons om whch h wll dv stmlaton and oth bnts and to th dvlopmnt o whch h can dct hs own ots and an d sppot.” sppot.”41 Gbbs’s anxty was latd to Bckly’s, bt t was dstnct n on mannl spct: Bckly amd to kp ntlops ot o physcs; Gbbs stov
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to kp cdntald physcsts n. Whas Bckly xpssd concn that thos who w not physcsts wold sp th nam, Gbbs soht to pmpt th tmptaton som ndvdals mht l to adopt anoth nam o th sak o xpdnc. Bckly wod that th stats and pst o physcs wold b dltd th nam w not contolld; Gbbs pdctd that pstos accomplshmnts mht bolst th stats o comptn lds physcsts w not poply nsconcd n a obst dscplnay stct. Th concns w not mtally xclsv, and both w lvant whn consdn th owth o ndstal physcs. Th paalll mpls to polc th bonday o physcs om wthn and wthot also cts a la ambvalnc abot ndsty, whch appad n md-1940s dscssons abot th t o physcs as both a potntal aa o sl owth and as a that to physcsts’ tadtonal vals. Havad’s Edwn Kmbl, on o th pons o Amcan qantm thoy, dscbd both th oppotnts and th dans ndsty psntd by sttn ot th challns adat dcaton acd. H obsvd what was by thn wdly wll accptd act: “Gat mphass on th th wa ndstal applcatons o aphyscs b ncssay and dsabl at s ndd. Indsty wll nd mo physcsts, and physcsts wll nd ndstal jobs.” Tnn to th challn o ppan adat stdnts o ndstal posts whl mann t to tadtonal dals o physcs, Kmbl contnd: “W “W shall nd to v mo lctoncs, chmsty, mtally, and shop wok. At th sam tm I, o on, shold b vy soy to s anythn lk th convson o adat tann nto a lod nnn cos.”42 Kmbl vocd a boad ambvalnc wth spct to th pop plac o ndstal physcs. It was a owth aa n th 1940s, on abndant mploymnt o physcs PhDs, and ts tchnolocal ocs hlpd cmnt th socal lvanc o physcs. Yt ndstal wok otn dd lttl to bolst th tadtonal dals o physcs. Kmbl’s pjoatv nc to nnn xpssd th ln many acadmc physcsts shad that knowld how mand lss nobl than knowld why. Kmbl’s stanc llstats an mbalanc n th latonshp btwn acadma and ndsty. ndsty. Althoh th ndstal scto s cto cold boast ast ast owth and a la poplaton, all physcsts, sav th a atoddact, w tand n an acadmc contxt. Th path to potctn ndstal ntsts tho ct thoh acadmc ttoy ttoy.. Bldn ndstal concns nto n to th t o Amcan physcs mant convncn adat advss that stdnts shold b xposd to ndstal poblms, sklls, and job oppotnts. R. Bowln
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Bans o th Amcan Cyanamd Company notd that th plac pla c o th physcst n ndsty cold only b alzd mo lly thoh attnton to “th typ o tann that o t physcsts a vn.” Bans osaw “oldn oppotnts ahad o o ndstal physcsts,” physcsts,” bt catond that “to tak ta k advanta o ths oppotnts . . . and to mak th bst s o hs knowld o physcs t wll b mpatv that h b abl to spak and ndstand th lana o hs llow scntsts.”43 To ths nd, h sppotd boad tann o physcs stdnts n th dmnts o nal lds sch as boloy, boloy, chmsty, and oloy, and also xpos to spcc tchnolocal owth aas lk bb and ptolm. Bans’s maks std p consdabl contovsy. Sval dscssants, ncldn Mvn Klly o Bll Laboatos and oth ndstalsts, ad that ston tann n ondatonal sklls and concpts otwhd boad xpos to oth lds, vn amon appld physcsts. Th acton aanst Bans’s advocacy o what Kmbl mht hav calld “lod nnn” ndcats that althoh ndstal physcsts w kn to s th ntsts ctd n adat tann,ndstal thy wphyscsts, hstant too domost, so at dd th sk o httozn thmslvs. Potctn not man tackn doctoal stdnts nto basc o appld sbpoams; ath t mant, as Ralph A. Sawy sstd, xpandn th scop o ncssay ondatonal tann n physcs to ncld lds sch as omtcal optcs and hydodynamcs.44 Ectvly manan th mpndn owth o ndstal physcs was not jst a matt adat tann, bt also qd oanzatonal ncoamnt. G. P. Hanwll, havn th dvlopd hs vws on how postwa physcs shold b oanzd, obsvd n hs addss that “th nds that shold b sppld by and o physcsts hav smply otown th xstn oanzatonal amwok.” In act, accodn to Hanwll: “Th can scacly b sad to b at psnt any oanzaton o physcsts. Th Amcan Physcal Socty s not scnt[ly] boadly basd and psntatv; t s poply an xclsv ath than an nclsv socty.” Hanwll patd what had bcom a manta, statn that “physcs s a nd dscpln daln wth matt and ny n all th oms and ntactons,” contnn: “Bt ths cops o concn s so boad that th ntnal stct o th socty mst b bacd wth th bams and coss-ts o spcal ntsts.” Hanwll advocatd a “hozontal and vtcal dvsonal stct, stct,”” n whch physcsts cold b psntd both by nstttonal contxt and topcal ntst, whch h lt wold allow socty to btt oanz mtns and
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dstbt pblcatons sch that thy wold ach th atst nmb o ntstd ads. Smla dscontnt wth th naow oals o th APS was wdspad and Hanwll’s da o an nclsv mblla oanzaton was on pomnnt solton nd consdaton.45 Th noton that physcs shold b mand nd a nw, boad amwok was not nvsally blovd, howv. Althoh Hanwll’s talk won sppot om ndstal physcsts who lt lt that an xpansvly concvd socty wold btt t th nds, t also mt pontd ctcsm. Havy Fltch, thn o Bll Labs, opnd th dscsson wth th complant, “D. Hanwll’s thss wold sm to ndcat that w hav don won n omn th Chmcal Socty, th Astonomcal Socty, th Physcal Socty, and oths, as w hav own om th onal Phlosophcal Socty nto ths banchs.”46 Fltch wold lat sv s v as psdnt o th APS, bt h spok at th NRC wth hs t mly plantd n th Acostcal Socty, and sstd om ths standpont that amntaton was a natal and navodabl by-podct o owth. Mvn Klly Klly, o Bll, antass and that, also t was mosstd pamatcthat to Hanwll wok wthwas thndln APS as ttopan xstd ath than attmptn to cat a nw, stably complt, la-scal dc. Kal Daow, th APS sctay, scondd ths vw, sstn that th schm o dvsons that APS was jst bnnn to mplmnt b vn a chanc to wok bo th physcs commnty consdd sbjctn tsl to swpn chans.47 Toth, ths vocs avod allown th oanc pocsss o nsttton bldn to wok bo consdn nlatal, topdown acton. Follown th an o a an o poposals avon la stctal chans, whch w ssd wth th sam optmsm abot th capacty o physcsts to shap th at that motvatd th conss, th mtn ndd on a consvatv not. Kal Daow, commntn on th dbos lklhood that many o th poposd actons cold b mplmntd n an odly ashon, makd: “I am mndd o th old stoy o th mc who dcdd to bll th cat. It sms that n ths cas th Amcan Insttt o Physcs has bn nvtd to bll th cat.”48 Daow’s qtst conclson abot stctn was phaps somwhat dsnnos, n that t convnntly alnd wth hs convcton that th APS was adqatly qppd to handl th psss o postwa dmoaphc chans and that ts mo lmtd ndstandn o physcs shold b potctd. Bt dspt th al o th lks o Daow to com aond to th vw that th oanzatons o Amcan physcs qd
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sbstantal stctn, th NRC connc natd momntm o thos skn to mplmnt sch oms, and th ollown w yas wold ndd vst sncant chan pon both th AIP and th APS. REORGANIZING PHYSICS
Follown on th hls o th NRC connc, th AIP omd a Polcy Commtt on th Roanzaton o Physcs to dstll th an o opnons hashd ot at th mtn nto a st o commndatons. Th commtt, chad by John Tat, ncldd many who w sympathtc to th dalst vw, ncldn Hanwll, Gbbs, and Bckly.49 Th pms om whch th commtt ban was that chans n th nat and composton o Amcan physcs snc th omaton o th AIP ncsstatd valatn ts co sponsblts. Th omost chan thy dntd was th act that “ntst n th scnc o physcs s now mch mo wdspad than omly omly.. It s no lon so mch concntatd n acadmc ccls and xtnds nto a host o ndsts and nto th bod ond o oth scncs. Th nmb o acadmc, anddobld ndstal dnty thmslvs physcs hasnstttonal, appoxmatly n woks th past who dcad, and th post-wawth a pomss a mch at xpanson.”50 Th commtt acknowldd that t dw th bondas o physcs boadly noh that t wold lkly mbac many popl othws classd as chmsts, nns, and mtallsts, bt nvthlss nsstd that conzn th ntst sch sachs mantand n physcs was ncssay o th halth o th commnty. Th poposal o oanzaton bcam th tmplat o a nw AIP consttton, adoptd n Fbay 1946. It ctd th dalst sympaths o th commtt and ll n ln wth an ndstandn that physcs ndd to b oanzd to ct what physcsts dd. Th AIP wold contn ts pbp blshn sponsblts, and wold add a nw catoy o ndvdal mmbshp, whch wold b xtndd atomatcally to ndvdal mmbs o AIP mmb socts, bt whch cold also b acqd by jonn th AIP dctly as an assocat mmb. Th AIP doppd ths mmbshp catoy shotly that, bt ts nclson n th ntal vson o th nw consttton spaks to th volvd ol th oanzaton nvsond o tsl. Also olld nto th AIP’s nw msson was th pblcaton o a t nal ntst jonal, whch wold povd a vn o any physcst to pblsh wok that was ntstn and accssbl to a wd aay o collas, and whch wold n som mas contact th topcal spcalzaton o physcs. That Today n 1948. poposal wold lad to th stablshmnt o Physics Today
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Th nw AIP consttton povdd th appaats ncssay to pmt somthn akn to Hanwll’s vson to com to pass. Th AIP, howv, nv w nto a socty to whch physcsts lt any allanc. Th APS, whch had th most to los th AIP sccdd n xpandn ts msson, nally mad concssons to th ops o ndstal and appld sachs who had bn atatn o at psntaton. By md-1945, two dvsons had manad to navat thoh th APS concl and cv ocal conton, th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs and th Dvson o Hh Polym Physcs. Bt as mo poposals achd th concl, qstn psntaton o ndstal physcs, physcs and avaton, chmcal physcs, spctoscopy, and oth spcalts, th concl balkd. Th vy nam “dvson” mbodd vythn s lk Daow ad n th spct o spcalzaton. At ts May 5 mtn, th APS concl placd pla cd a moatom on th omaton o nw dvsons, pndn th solton o otstandn oanzaton ots, ncldn thos at th AIP. AIP. Th vast chans n th stats and ppos o physcs that makd th aly post–Scond Waand pod a otnBt castthas nstttonal boht abot by dstnctv Cold Wa Wold psss ncntvs. machnatons that lad th ondwok o thos chans w nd way bo th Scond Wold Wa cam to a clos. Th most mpotant pqsts that ld to th conaton o Amcan physcs w notatd thoh th aly 1940s and had mposd thmslvs on th nastct o Amcan physcs bo th most salnt ats o th Cold Wa contxt—th dal ndn nvonmnt, vlnt antcommnsm, and th clod o ncla a, n patcla—cam nto ocs.51 Ths chans cold only com abot bcas som physcsts cam to thnk o th ld as th sm o what w hat physcsts dd. As Wllam A. Wldhack, a Natonal Ba o Standads physcst, wot to sppot th da o a nal, AIP-lk oanzaton to plac th APS: “Th polcs o th nw AIP shold b amd on th alzaton that ts ams can b achvd ach vd only by wdspad and actv mmbshp sppot, and that ths sppot can b tand only by an oanzaton whch s as mch concnd wth svc to scientists as wth svc to science.”52 Th locs o possonal pow dd not sht lly to th AIP AIP,, as som hopd, bt th nw pvalnc o ths way o thnkn dd sp nstttonal chan. Lat n 1946, th APS concl aan tnd ts attnton to th qston o dvsons, ths tm wth knowld o th AIP’s plans. On Sptmb 19, th concl appovd an ocal polcy adn dvsons, composd o v ponts:
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1. Th Socty shall contn th polcy o stablshn and sppotn Dvsons as povdd o n th consttton. 2. All mmbs o Dvsons Dvsons shall b Mmbs o Fllows o th Socty. Socty. 3. In th Dvson now nolln Assocat Mmbs, ths shall b pmttd to contn n th psnt stats ntl th oanzaton o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs maks povson o ndvdal mmbs. 4. Any mmb o th Socty may noll noll n a Dvson on paymnt to th Socty o an ntaton o two dollas. 5. Dvsonal xpnss consdd nomal by by th Concl shall b mt by th Socty, and no dvsonal ds may b collctd o assssd by a Dvson nlss athozd by th Concl.53
Th polcy, spcally ponts (2) and (3), was dsnd to pvnt dvsons om bldn otsd th bonds o th APS and thby to noc th socty’s contol ov th scop and chaact o th dscpln. Dvsons allowd wth o ntsts that w nott,tadtonally psntd APS toops bld spac thmslvs wthn as lon as thy sbmttdby to th th athoty o th la socty. By allown an xpandd poam o dvson omaton, albt dnly, dnly, th APS shod p what athoty t tand to shap th dnton o physcs, ostalln somwhat Hanwll’s dalst vson. That s not to say that ots to xpand th scop o physcs ald. Th nd o th moatom on dvson omaton opnd th doo to a nw dvson that wold apdly bcom th socty’s last and most nntal, whl mbodyn many o th pncpls Hanwll dndd: th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs.
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Whn w st on th lawn o th Ba o Standads, w do not want to l “q’n san mp abv nos sllons.” —JOHN H. VAN VLECK, 1944
Lk th tanssto o th mcowav ovn, sold stat physcs was tsl an ndstal nnovaton. Physcal nvstaton o th popts o sold matt cold boast a lon tadton by th 1940s, bt sold stat physcs only bcam a dstnct possonal ntty n th Untd Stats pon th ondn o th Amcan Physcal Socty’s Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (DSSP) n 1947. Th DSSP md om th nstttonal machnatons xplod n th pvos chapt, n whch ndstal physcsts stld o a at ol n th commnty whl tadtonalsts dndd a mo stctv and concptally p vson o physcs. Th DSSP sltd om an ot spahadd spa hadd by ndstal physcsts, whch amd to notat btwn ths comptn comptn vws o how th post–Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa physcs commnty shold b nd. nd. Th qaltatv and qanttatv owth o Amcan physcs dsptd tadtonal mods o nstttonal ovnanc and notons o possonal dntty. Topcal dvsons o th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) md as th pd salv o dstablzn xpanson. Dvsons av small ntst ops an nstttonal otlt whl also kpn thm nd th as o th APS, whch dnd and nocd possonal noms mo stctly than a loos allanc cold. Th DSSP, as wll as spondn to an ptck n ntst n th physcs o solds, can b ndstood as an attmpt to nact an nclsv, otwad-lookn dntty o physcs, contastn tadtonal notons o what
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a physcst was, wthn th nstttonal constants and oppotnts o th md-1940s. Spnc Wat dscbs th pocss thoh whch sold stat physcs omd, notn: “Whn w spak o th mnc o sold-stat physcs . . . w do not man th caton o somthn de novo. W man a and aanmnt o an nt aay o spcalts, sp calts, old and nw, nw, nto a novl constllaton.” Wat dnts th dosyncass that chaactzd th dvlopmnt o sold stat physcs, a ld that bok th ls o dscpln omaton ollowd by ts sbln sblds, sch as ncla physcs. Rath than own om a sd, Wat obsvs, spcalts somtms “aan thmslvs nto lds at a snl tm whn condtons ach som ctcal pont.” 1 Th lsson Wat daws om th omaton o sold stat physcs s that “a w thohtl popl w abl to sway th balanc n avo o a commnty that was ntllctally and socally opn, yt ntnally cohnt—a sold-stat physcs commnty.”2 Examnn th physcs commnty n th 1930s, h nds “no cla tndncy to ny aond th nal sbjct o solds,” that, vn so, “th a nyn oc. .physcs . . Thscold oc was th bt own ntllctal ntywas o ndd th sbjct. Sold-stat bcom an ntllctal commnty only at ts contv pats had dawn toth n th mnds o som physcsts.” physcsts.” H ssts that a “‘nd “‘ nd thoy’ had bn catd thoh th comn o qantm qa ntm mchancs,” mchancs,” and dnts th “ntllctal nty od by th concpt conc pt o a sold,” as a oc wokn n avo o sold stat’s cohson.3 Ths chapt vsts th stoy o sold stat physcs’ ondn wth th oal o sstn that th nty th sold stat synthss sppotd, sp potd, althoh powl and ctv at manan th sn sn td o spcalzaton, was somwhat lss than concptally cohnt. Th qantm mchancal appoach to cystalln solds that had md by th 1940s was ndd nd and cohnt, bt t was not th whol o sold stat physcs. Th dstnctv nstttonal aanmnt that podcd th la sold stat commnty commnty,, ncldn at th otst a nmb o sach tadtons bsd th on ocsd on th qantm mchancs o la solds, ctd onon dbats abot th dntty o Amcan physcs. In that sns, sold stat was a poltcal allanc ath than a concptally nd commnty. It was ntnally htonos and qckly bcam actos. Althoh th possblts opnd p by th applcaton o qantm tchnqs to solds w a ctcal antcdnt o th s o sold stat physcs, anoth qally mpotant pcso was an dolocal sht that mad t possbl o Amcan physcsts to concv
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o a sbld dnd by possonal and nstttonal objctvs. Sold stat physcs, althoh ts onds stov o nty, was not dnd by th sam typ o nty blovd o oth aas o physcs. Som o th sach poams that mad p sold stat physcs w ndd concptally cohnt, bt ocsn on th nty wthn ths aas, whch otn w pat o tadtons datn to bo th qantm volton, nlcts th ol o poltcal nty n povdn what lttl cohson th ld as whol possssd. Analyzn sold stat as a actos constllaton, bond nto a loos allanc n th svc o common possonal oals, clas th asons o ts omaton, th chaactstcs o ts volton thoh th Cold Wa dcads, and ltmatly, as dscssd n lat chapts, ts ol n th vntal omaton o nw catos, sch as condnsd matt physcs and matals scnc. Th stoy o th DSSP’s ons, tho, tlls not jst how on o th most mpotant povncs o Cold Wa physcs stablshd tsl, bt how a nw sns o dntty o Amcan physcsts, on that mbacd applcatons, ntdscplnay xchan, and ndstal lvanc, bcam possbl. MAKING DIVISIONS
Th ondn o th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs was a cctos aa, lastn almost o tblnt yas staddln th nd o th Scond Wold Wa a.. Th da o an a n APS dvson that wold cat to an nclsv coss scton o ndstal and acadmc sachs ntstd n som aspct o anoth o th physcs o solds ban to mnat n Novmb 1943 n Evanston, Illnos. Nothwstn Unvsty hostd an APS mtn that ncldd a symposm on th physcs o bb. On ppos o th symposm was to dscss a ptton that had bn cclatd al n th ya, ann thty-on snats, n sppot o a dvson psntn th physcs o hh-polymc matals. Th ndstal lna o ths dvson s cla om ts onally posd ttl: Dvson o Txtl Physcs. Th mo hhbow nc to hh polyms was adoptd to molly th APS concl and ts pjdc o sbjct-basd sbjct- basd dvsons. On th pow o th Evanston ptton and th vbal sppot xpssd at th mtn, th APS concl athozd th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs, th socty’s scond.4 Roman Smolchowsk ( 3.1), a Gnal Elctc (GE) sach physcst, was n attndanc. Smolchowsk had com to th Untd Stats om Poland, n Gman occpaton, a w yas al. In Wasaw h had ld th dpatmnt o th physcs o mtals, and th bb symposm
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Figure 3.1. Roman Smolchowsk n th Gnal Elctc El ctc Rsach Laboatoy, Laboatoy, ca. 1944. Cdt: AIP Emlo Sè Vsal Achvs, cotsy o Roman Smolchowsk
mboldnd hm to lanch a smla ot on bhal o hs pd class o matals. Bo th ya was ot, Smolchowsk had ctd v oth physcsts wth an ntst n mtals sach to advocat o an APS dvson o mtals physcs. Ths “op o sx,” so namd by Kal K. Daow, was ston on ndstal sachs. It ncldd Smolchowsk’s GE colla Sal Dshman, alon wth Sdny Sl (Wstnhos) (Wstnhos) and Wllam Shockly (Bll Labs). It ncldd on psntatv ach om th acadmc and ndstal sctos. Fdck Stz o th Can Insttt o Tchnoloy, who psntd th acadmy, had pvos ndstal xpnc, havn wokd at Gnal Elctc om 1937 to 1939. Thomas A. Rad o Fankod Asnal, psntn th pblc scto, had bn a Wstnhos Rsach Fllow om 1939 to 1941. Th op o sx snd th nams to a ltt
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Smolchowsk wot nttld “Th Psnt Wa Is a Physcst’s Wa,” whch askd “mtal physcsts” to wh n on two qstons: “ First , do yo thnk that som sot o a coopaton amon mtal-physcsts s ncssay and advsabl o not; and second , what om ths coopaton shold tak: a small commtt, a scton o Th Physcal Socty, Socty, o somthn ls mayb?”5 Th op o sx dstbtd th ltt to ty-th o th collas natonwd who had a sach ntst n mtals, whch, n Smolchowsk’s jdmnt, pomsd apd apd postwa owth “not only om th pont o vw o ndamntal scnc, bt also om th pont o vw o pactcal poblms n ndsty.”6 H chos “mtals” both bcas ndstal n dstal sachs wokd pmaly wth mtallc sbstancs and bcas t mpld a wllnnss to collaboat wth mtallsts, mtall sts, mch as h dd n hs day-to-day wok at Gnal Elctc.7 Collaboaton otsd o physcs was cntal to Smolchowsk’s vson and h sstd oth nams on th onds that “coopaton om ply mtallcal qats may b mo actv w a ‘all ot o mtals.’”8 Mtalmxd physcs povd mo actos than opposton polym physcs and th ltt lctd sponss. Th most pontd cam om John H. Van Vlck, by thn nsconcd nsconc d at Havad Unvsty and hadn th thoy op o th Rado Rsach Laboatoy, whch psd watm sach nto ada contmass. Van Vlck, n hs ply, wot, “I mst conss that I am a ath volnt opponnt o what I lk to call ‘Balkanzaton’ o th Amcan Physcal Socty, b t th oaphcal o by sbjct matt.” Van Vlck pasd “th spt o a Qak mtn” that chaactzd chaact zd pwa mtns, at whch “on can o to ha th paps, n cas on s ntstd, n tstd, o st on th lawn and talk to on’s nds, n cas on s not,” and wh “anybody who wants to can v a tn-mnt pap on any sbjct havn vn th motst conncton wth physcs.”9 An ssay Daow wot o Physics Today n 1951 also ncs th tadton o n to th otdoos dn APS mtns. By way o vn physcsts advc on how to dlv a pap, Daow sstd that amla dy monoton o most APS talks was n pat sponsbl o chasn attnds to th lawn, notn “th poplaty o th sayn that whn a mtn o th Amcan Physcal Socty s on on, th mmbs a n th codos o on th lawn nstad o lstnn to th spaks” ( 3.2). Physcsts Physcsts cold lan somthn somthn om sta actos: “Popl wth tckts to Soth Pacc a not standn aond n Foty-oth stt whn th ctan c tan s p.”10
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Figure 3.2. Kal Daow (lt) chats wth Hny Baton, Amcan Insttt o Physcs dcto om 1931 to 1957, otdoos dn an Amcan Physcal Socty mtn n Washnton, Washnton, DC, 1960. Cdt: Emlo Sè S è Vsal Achvs, Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Physics Today Today Collcton
Van Vlck th ctczd plans o a nw dvson on th onds that t wold pollt APS mtns wth nonphyscsts: “Th da that vaos ops whos man ntst nt st s not physcs mst b coddld, n od to mak thm mmbs o th Amcan Physcal Socty, has nv appald to m, as jst m nmbs s not vythn. Th Amcan Chmcal Socty s, to my mnd, a pm xampl o ths pont. It sms to m that th contnal tndncy to scton th Physcal Socty and stablsh a lot o sboanzatons wll tnd to pt t on what I may tm a talstc and/o nw-dal-bacatc bass. bass.””11 Van Vlck avod an nomal nvonmnt, nncmbd by sbstcts. H wod th that dvsons, thy mantand th own mmbshp, wold habo ntlops who had spcal ntst n th sbjct s bjct th dvson psntd—mtals, o nstanc—bt had no nclnaton to consd qstons that w chaactstc o physcs as h ndstood t, as th sach o nalzabl laws. Opposton o ths chaact was consstnt wth th vw o th APS as a p sach oan-
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zaton. Van Vlck, thoh hs ondatonal wok on th qantm thoy o mantsm, had contbtd mch to th physcs o mtals bt was ntstd n thm only nsoa as thy povdd tst systms o ondatonal pncpls.12 By “ops whos man ntst s not physcs,” physcs,” Van Van Vlck mant not jst chmsts, mtallsts, and nns, bt appld sachs whos ntst n applcatons cast dobt on th commtmnt to p physcs. Van Vlck’s opposton to a dvson psntd a mnoty o th mtals physcsts polld, bt that mnoty xtd otszd nnc. Amon th onds o th Amcan thotcal physcs commnty, Van Vlck hld an xaltd plac. H was on o th w Amcans to patcpat actvly n th qantm volton o th 1920s, and ths nspd vnaton scnt to lnd hs opnons consdabl wht.13 H was a ood nd o APS sctay Kal Daow, who was sponsbl o ovsn th omaton o nw dvsons.14 No dcsv vdnc shows Van Vlck xtn dct nnc on th dvson-omaton pocss thoh Daow, bt th qnt cospondnc av Van Van Vlck patd oppotnts to tat ta t hs dstast o o th cavn p o th APS nto ntstpoposal. ops, and hs xpsson sch opposton pdatd Smolchowsk’s Upon cvn a osvy adn th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs, o xampl, Van Vlck wot to Daow: In ply to yo qstona [ sic ], ], I do not wsh to b nolld n th lcton mcoscop dvson o th Physcal Socty. Appantly w a now to hav vtcal as wll as hozontal Balkanzaton o th Amcan Physcal Socty. I nclos hwth a copy o th Consttton that I an acoss n my ls. Appantly t s th onal om wttn by o ws oaths at Indpndnc Hall, bo any nw dal amndmnts. It sms to cay no povsons o th typ o Balkanzaton, o ntn nto th al stat bsnss. A yo s that all ths tms a lal? 15
Atcl IX, whch addd a povson o topcal dvsons n 1931, wold not hav appad n an onal vson o th APS consttton. Gvn Van Vlck’s standn, hs psstnc, and th clos latonshp, th way Daow dalt wth poposd dvsons lkly owd somthn to Van Vlck’s objctons. Smolchowsk took pans commnsat wth Van Vlck’s stat to assa hs concns. H amd to skt both o Van Vlck’s objctons whl stll acknowldn th valdty and dmonstatn dnc: “Evybody, I thnk, wll a that ‘Balkanzaton’ o th Amcan Physcal Socty wold
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b vy ndsabl,” h wot n spons to Van Vlck’s skptcsm abot th op o sx’s poposal: “What som o s consd wothwhl s ( I may s yo poltcal analoy) an attmpt to pvnt ‘an nvason and patton by powl nhbos’ (.. chmsts and mtallsts) at th sam tm avodn th dans o spcalzaton. I do hop that sch a op s catd t wll not nt wth th dmocatc spt o th mtns o th Socty whch all o s njoy so mch.”16 Van Vlck, nappasd, xtndd th poltcal analoy, dscbn Smolchowsk’s stanc as “a lttl lk th da o Gmany bo 1914 that t dd not xpand, t wold b obbld p by Rssa and Fanc. As a as I can s, th Physcal Socty s a on concn, and ts mmbshp lst s not shnkn.” Hs hstancy abot opnn th doo o th APS too wdly std on a concn “that o mtns wll hav too many hans-on whos man ntst s not that o p physcs o scnc. Whn w st on th lawn o th Ba o Standads, w do not want to l ‘q’n ‘q ’n san mp abv nos sllons.’” sllons.’”17 Van Vlck mphaszd what Smolchowsk had mssd n hs st ply: hs was notth thatscop chmsts mtallsts nltat bt concn that xpandn o thand APS byond ts wold tadtonal ocsth onAPS, p physcs wold ob t o ts ntllctal ntty and an d socal ntmacy n tmacy.. Van Van Vlck, a physcst bo h was a scntst o a thost o a mtals sach, cast hs lot wth thos who lt smla allanc to physcs as a cohsv ntllctal ntps. Smolchowsk, snd to Van Vlck’s opposton, pld only that h dd not antcpat that th typ o oanzaton h had n mnd, dctd mostly towad oanzn spcal symposa at APS mtns, wold ndmn th Qak spt o thos mtns.18 Van Vlck and oth opponnts o dvsons mad mo sccssl ntats to Fdck Stz, St z, who was mo avoably dsposd to vw th APS as a havn o p sachs. In aly May 1944, whl th op o sx was n th pocss o oanzn a ptton to th APS concl o a mtals dvson, Stz wot to Daow sstn that th qston o nw dvson b postpond ntl at th wa. H xpland hs sston by ncn convsatons h had condctd wth opponnts o th dvson: “Ths a mn whos opnons I spct vy mch, and I was mpssd wth th act that thy l l as dvsonalzaton wll b a catastoph. cata stoph.””19 Daow was pzzld by Stz’s ot to ndmn n dmn th op o sx’s ptton, plyn, “I am not s whth ths s a dnt wthdawal o th qst q st by yo op o a Dvson o Mtal Physcs, bt snc th Concl has no omal ptton o sch a dvson bo t, t has not yt takn acton abot sch a dvson no
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s t lkly to.”20 Daow xpssd hs convcton that th sbdvsons o th APS w nvtabl, and that th pocss was ssntal as th socty w and qd addtonal stcts to handl pactcal matts sch as oanzn mtns and symposa. Stz, an astt poltcan wth a n v n th wnd, appad lvd that Daow had dawn hm back om th skptcal bnk, plyn: Yo hav pt th nt staton n a lht that maks m l mch cla abot th objctvs at hand. As yo ndobtdly athd om my pvos ltt, I hav bn sbjct to consdabl bombadmnt om many hands concnn th pat I had playd n conncton wth th poposal to stat a dvson o “Mtal Physcs.” I now alz that dvsonalzaton s not an vl n tsl, and that th sccss o al o th Amcan Physcal Socty n th t dpnds ntly pon th way n whch th mmbs xcs th hts that thy hav nd th xstn oanzaton.21
Th poposal o a nw dvson wold pocd, dspt th opposton. FROM METALS PHYSICS TO SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Daow conzd th owth o dvsons as nvtabl, bt n dnc to Van Vlck and oth tadtonalsts hld ast to th ntptaton o th APS consttton that qd dvsons to om aond sbjct aas—th soc o hs sstanc to poposals o a dvson o ndstal physcs. H soht to bd th dolocal dvd by commndn that th op o sx ps a sold stat physcs dvson, ath than a mtals physcs dvson, whch mtatd Van Van Vlck’s objctons somwhat whl stll vn Smolchowsk’s ntc op th nstttonal spac thy cavd.22 Stz was swayd by Daow’s sston that th poposal o a mtals dvson b boadnd to ncompass solds nally. nally. H od a ma clpa to Smolchowsk o wavn n hs convcton whl bn “bombadd vy havly wth vws aanst dvsonalzaton” bo askn: “Do yo hav a dp-satd objcton to sn th nam ‘Dvson on th Physcs o Solds?’ Ths wold ndobtdly opn th doos to a mch wd op, sch as thos ntstd n pmnts and camcs, and wold mak th aspcts o dvsonalzaton a lttl lss m.” m.”23 Th dscsson ov whth to oanz aond mtals o solds ct to th co o th dsamnts ov th poposd dvson’s msson. Léon Bllon, an xpt on th qantm thoy o cystals who had d Fanc o th Untd Stats at th bnnn o th Scond Wold Wa Wa,, xpssd th
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hat o th opposton to mtals mta ls as a sbjct catoy n hs ply to th op o sx’s ltt: “Th dstncton btwn mtals and oth solds has no scntc bass and s only a matt o nnn—Th physcst cannot daw a bod btwn th two cass, and most o o cnt knowld o mtals was th slt o xpmnts and thos wokd ot on th non mtallc cystals. So lt s spak o Physics o solids n nal. n al.””24 Fom th pspctv pspct v o basc physcs, th sold stat was th spo catoy bcas t dd a btt— mpct—job o psvn ps vn topcal cohnc wthn th dvson. In contast, th choc o mtals as an oanzn o anzn pncpl btayd too stakly th ndstal ons o th onal poposal. Smolchowsk, spondn to Sdny Sl’s sston that th nt sold stat b consdd, potd han “th opnon that most ndstal sach s don n th doman o mtals,” althoh h admttd that h cold not b s hmsl.25 It took consdabl psason bo Smolchowsk wold accpt solds ov mtals as th ocs ocs o th nw n w dvson. Dspt hs dnc to Van Van Vlck’s concns and th pans h took to mphasz that th dvson was motvatd thcollaboaton bst ntst o physcs and and p hyscs physcs alon, onwhch o hs h dvn motvatonsbywas wth chmsts mtallsts, took to b ssntal to th halth o physcs. H nvsond an oanzaton that wold kp th stdy o mtals td closly to physcs, bt also saw t as a tool to oanz jont symposa wth socts sch as th Amcan Socty o Mtals (ASM) and th Amcan Insttt o Mchancal Enns (AIME). Smolchowsk dd hav ood ason to mphasz th collaboatv potntal wth ths socts. Mtally bo th Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa had aspatons to mpov ts standn amon th scncs. Whn th Unvsty o Pnnsylvana Pnnsyl vana was wokn to xpand ts sach pol n th lat 1930s, o nstanc, mtally was on aa t dntd as on a sbstantal tn on nvstmnt. Gaylod P. Hanwll, cntly appontd cha o th physcs dpatmnt, attmptd to poach mtallst Ghad D om Can Tch, notn that “a nmb o almn and ntstd nds o th Unvsty hav poposd that th ntst n Mtally b xpandd,” and mphaszn “a complt nanmty o opnon amon s that th adat and sach aspct o th dvlopmnt shold b concvd conc vd o as a p scntc poam n th Physcs and Chmsty o solds ath than ndavon to t t too closly to classcal mpcal mpcal mtally mtall y..”26 Fth, mtally poams and ndsts ocsd aond sach nto th popts o mtals w hn physcsts. In th Natonal Rsach Concl’s 1946 svy o US ndstal laboatos, only on, Bll Tl-
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phon Laboatos, lstd “sold stat” as a sach aa.27 In th sam volm, ncs to mtals, alloys, stl, mtally, and smla tms appa on almost vy pa and n th nts o th at majoty o laboatos that lst physcsts amon th sach sta. st a. Smolchowsk’s Smolchowsk’s sns that mtals w cntal to th wok o ndstal physcsts was not msplacd. Bt smla data ndcat that h nd n d not hav bn so concnd abot th xact nam o th ld. Only a handl o laboatos n th 1950 dton o th sam pot lst sold stat physcs amon th sach aas o sold stat physcsts amon th sta, bt by 1956 th tm was n common cclaton and n 1960 t was bqtos.28 Smolchowsk vntally lntd. H wot Stz at th nd o May 1944: “I qt a that om th pont o vw o th A.P.S. as a whol ‘solds’ a to b pd, bt I thnk that om th pont o vw o coopaton wth oth socts, ‘Mtals’ a mo appopat. Ths coopaton and ths bdn o th ap btwn mtal physcsts and mtallsts s to my mnd on o o man objctvs.”29 Stz pld on Jn 14: Radn th ttl o th dvson, I honstly do not blv that w shold woy abot what th mtallsts wold consd a ood ttl. Fom th xpnc I had n Pnnsylvana wth oanzn coopatv mtns, I blv I can stat honstly that th coopaton wth th mtallsts wll hav to onat on o sd. I th a jont mtns wth th ASM o th [AIME], t wll b bcas somon lk yo o I has bn assv noh to appoach thm. Th xact nam o th dvson wll not play a ol n ths notaton. As a slt, I stll hadly avo th s o th wod “sold” nstad o th wod “mtal.” In addton, I thnk w shold mmb that th psons ntstd n pmnts, lass, and th lk, who wll b ntstd n th dvson, a vy la n nmb, and a no lss oanzd than th mtallsts. I blv t wold b a mstak w xpssd ntst n on o ths ops, to th xclson o th oth. 30
Stz had bn an assstant posso o physcs at th Unvsty o Pnnsylvana n th lat 1930s dn Hanwll’s ots to xpand th nsttton’s pol n mtally. mtally. Th wok Stz was psn on solds had bn a ctcal lmnt o Hanwll’s sals ptch to potntal hs, so Stz wold hav had ampl oppotnty to dvlop a consdd poston on th latonshp btwn physcs and mtally. Stz’s nnc pavd th way o Smolchowsk to nally abandon hs commtmnt to mtals. Whn Smolchowsk mt wth Daow two days lat on Jn 16, th slt was an amnt to
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cclat a ptton o th omaton o a psntatonal oan o physcs o th sold stat and to aan a symposm to dscss th stat o th ld and plan t oanzatonal ots.31 Th sht om mtals to th sold stat dd not dampn Smolchowsk’s nthsasm o nsn that th owth o nw lds o nqy, spcally thos wth ndstal lvanc, mand lnkd to th APS. Th nam chan qlld som opposton om thos who nsstd on topcal dvsons o non at all, bt th poposd DSSP, DSSP, as dmonstatd by sbsqnt sbs qnt vnts, mand an ot to ntat ndstal sachs wth th acadmc commnty by skn a clos assocaton btwn sl-dntd p and appld sachs. FOUNDING THE DIVISION OF SOLID ST STA ATE PHYSICS
Th qston o what sot o oanzaton shold b stablshd had mand n th backond p to ths pont. It bcam cntal to th dscsson at Smolchowsk and Daow ad to mov ahad wth th poposal o a sold stat dvson. opstandn o sx’s onal lttwold had askd whth a lldd dvson o Th a small commtt b mo avoabl. In Jn 1944, th APS concl appontd th op o sx as a commtt to oanz a symposm at whch th qston wold b pt to a op o ntstd physcsts.32 To ths nd, th op o sx pblshd th slts o th svy n th Journal o Applied Physics wth a on-pa statmnt nttld “Physcs o th Sold Stat.” Ths pblshd statmnt av a sot ptch than “Th Psnt Wa Is a Physcst’s Wa,” bt advancd ssntally th sam amnt and asd ssntally th sam qstons. 33 Rath than advocatn o nw oanzatons, th statmnt planly psntd th an o optons avalabl and advtsd th symposm, to b hld at th Janay 1945 mtn o th APS n Nw Yok, at whch thy wold b hashd ot. Alonsd th possblty o a nw dvson, th atcl otlnd th opton o omn a standn commtt wthn th APS, whch, althoh t wold q modcaton o th APS consttton to allow o sch ntts, wold not mantan mmbshp olls and wold ths mak lss o an mpact on th dntty and allanc o ndvdal physcsts. Th statmnt conzd amon th commnty o solds sachs “a ds to avod, as mch as pactcal, too omal an oanzaton,” and notd that avodn dvsonalzaton wold skt “th dans o ovspcalzaton and [stss] th nty o ntst and o ppos o all physcsts.” 34 Sch danty htoc soht to dan th lks o Van Vlck, whl conzn th act
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that sold stat was sch a la catoy and that nstttonally yn t wold op toth physcsts who othws had lttl n common. Th op o sx spnt th all a ll and wnt o 1944 oanzn a symposm o th Janay APS mtn. Thy took pans to balanc nstttonal alatons o th patcpants, th statd postons on dvsons, as wll as thotcal, xpmntal, and appld sach. Van Van Vlck, o xampl, ad to spak on th thoy o omantsm on th condton that hs 35 patcpaton wold not b psntd as an ndosmnt o Balkanzaton. Th Journal o Applied Physics, n whch th statmnt annoncn th symposm was pblshd, was both a pd otlt o ndstal sachs and on o th w pblcatons wh a ood balanc o ndstal and acadmc contbtons was n vdnc.36 Th vn o pblcaton and makp o th symposm ndcatd that ths nw ld wold am to bd th dvd btwn acadmc and ndstal commnts whl also ncldn an appld consttncy that had pvosly had lttl say n APS aas. Fom an oanzatonal standpont, th symposm sltd n a shottm Fatn vocs both and aanst a dvson, th symposm,stalmat. lk th ccla ltt bo t, o podcd an ovall pnc o a commtt ath than a dvson. Smolchowsk wot to Van Vlck ollown th symposm: “My own lns a qt optmstc now: I hop w wll b abl to hav a ‘sold’ commtt actn accodn to o onal plans, avodn at th sam tm th dans o ‘pss ops’ and oth dawbacks whch yo hav mntond.”37 Ths sntmnt xpssd th boad consnss that th nds o th nchoat sold stat commnty cold b mt by th appontn o lctn a commtt to oanz mtns and symposa. Th commtt wold hav hav no pmannt mmbshp and a nd collct no ds. Van Vlck sd th attnton th symposm natd to consoldat opposton to dvsons. H poposd a pophylactc mas aanst th dvson-makn—a standn Commtt on Poams wthn th APS that wold hav psntaton om a an o sbjct aas and hold th sponsblty o oanzn mtns so as to bnt ach. A ptton, addssd to Daow and snd by Van Van Vlck and a nmb o hs lk-mndd collas, ad: “It s pabl to hav a commtt o th Socty on th whol sbjct o symposa ath than a spaat commtt o ach spcal ld, o two asons: In th st plac, th dan o catn to pss ops wold b avodd, and n th scond plac, th wold b nshd a btt saad that th nmb o symposa wold b nth xcssvly
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la no too small.”38 Smolchowsk and th op o sx ndavod to wok wth Van Vlck on ths poposal. Upon cvn a copy o Van Vlck’s ltt, Smolchowsk pld: “I s no ason why ach op o physcsts psntn a dnt boad ld shold not lct on o two mn to yo Gnal Symposm Commtt whch wold sv as otlnd ot lnd n yo ltt ltt .. Howv, I do thnk ths mn shold b lctd, not appontd.”39 Smolchowsk was concnd that yon physcsts lt alnatd om om th socty’s systms o ovnanc and wold bnt om an oanzatonal stct that ncoad thm to patcpat mo lly n socty bsnss. In th absnc o a commtt o a dvson ddcatd to solds, Smolchowsk nsstd on lctons to dtmn th consttton o any nal commtt n od to ns that th systm was not olachcal. Van Van Vlck, n kpn wth hs pnc o nomalty, ond sch dmocatc machny dstastl. H consdd contstd lctons a soc o ll wll and ncontstd lctons pontlss omalts.40 Althoh Smolchowsk and Van Vlck had com clos to an on acty sqnc pactcal mass, th copd dsamnt howconcpth sosholdoopat psstd. Van Vlck a smallabot socty, tally nd and ocsd ocs d closly on p sach, whch wold oancally podc th ndvdals wlln and abl to condct th commtt wok ncssay to aan mtns. Smolchowsk, on th oth hand, saw a nd to ntodc nstttonal appaats n th socty n od to achv hs ams. Stz pontd ot anoth consqnc o Van Vlck’s plan, wtn to Smolchowsk, “I blv that a la nmb o ndvdals whos pmay ntst s n appld physcs wll stll b dsntld.” 41 Stz osaw stp postwa owth n ndstal mploymnt o physcsts and sstd that, stps cold not b mad to addss th nds n ds wthn th Physcal Socty, Socty, a spaat socty o o appld physcs b stablshd. Nonthlss, h ad to sppot Smolchowsk’s poposal, whch wold combn basc and appld wok wthn th sold stat dvson.42 Stz’s convcton that appld physcsts wold b dssatsd by a nal poam commtt s ndcatv o th wdspad acknowldmnt that ndstal and appld physcsts nally avod mo, ath than lss stct wthn th APS. Ths dscssons w ltmatly acadmc. Eots to oanz a commtt, th topcal o nal, w thwatd by a constttonal tchncalty; povsons o standn commtts dd not xst n th APS consttton. Snc th ppos o APS dvsons, as alady n pactc by th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs and th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs, closly
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mod th poposd nctons o th sold stat commtt and o th nal poam commtt, Daow and th APS concl dmd that an amndmnt to th consttton n od to allow standn commtts was n jstd. Th op o sx shlvd shlvd th ots ntl th nd o th wa, wa, whn physcsts w lss ncmbd by wa wok and tavl stctons and th poltcal manvn qd to mashal noh sppot o th sold stat dvson wold b smpl smpl.. Th ot was sctd lat n 1946, at th APS concl ltd ts moatom on nw dvsons. Amd th contovsy sondn th wsdom o dvsons, th APS concl had appontd a commtt, hadd by Edwad Uhl Condon, to stdy th ss and cat a mo pmannt polcy.43 At th sam tm, “Athozaton was . . . obtand to tll th ‘Gop o Sx,’ who want to oanz a Dvson o th Sold Stat, to o ahad wth th plan.”44 Ths by no mans psntd an nd to th dbat ov th ol o dvsons. At th nxt mtn, Condon’s commtt cond wth th concl, wth th slt “that both th Commtt and th concl ond thmslvs conontd wthtn.” conclabl vwponts, and th matt has to o ov to th Janay mtn. m ”45 Sbstantal poss wold hav to wat ntl May o th ollown ya, whn th concl aan, n Daow’s sadonc paaphas, “tnd to ts avo avot pastm o dscssn th qston q ston o Dvsons.” Dvsons.”46 Dlats om th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs and th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs compland abot th concl’s havy-handd appoach to catn polcs ctaln th actvts. Dvsonal psntatvs had bn xcldd om th commtt that datd th socty’s polcy adn dvsons, and as a slt thy ond th bylaws, and th actvts pmttd by thm, abptly constand. Th socty clampd down on th pactc o dvsons antn assocat mmbshps to ndvdals who w not APS mmbs and pohbtd dvsons om collctn th own ds. Daow potd that “th Dvsons lt thmslvs compltly at sa own to th athoty possssd by th Concl to mak sch chans wthot consltaton wth Dvsonal ocs.”47 Th acton pomptd th concl to allow psntatvs om th dvsons to tak pat n any t dscssons ptnnt to dvsonal actvts, bt sd to ostall mplmntn th polcy t had adoptd. Daow potd th solton: “Th Psdnt shall appont a commtt o v mmbs o th Concl to stdy th latons btwn th Dvsons and th Concl necessary to implement the policy adopted in September 1946 . (Th [mphaszd] phas s an ssntal pat o ths moton: ss-
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tons that t b dltd w mad, bt dd not vntat n any amndmnt o th moton).”48 Th concl, n oth wods, asstd cntal athoty ov th dvsons. Th 1946 polcy was dsnd to ns that dvsonal actvts wold b ovnd by th APS, ath than pomotn naow ntst ops. Th concl was patclaly dtmnd to stct dvsonal mmbshp to APS mmbs. It ld: “Th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs may kp ts psnt Assocats ndntly, bt nth t no any oth Dvson may lct Assocats hncowad, hnc owad,”” and th qd that “th By-Laws o th two ld Dvsons shall b xamnd and boht nto conomty” wth th ls th concl had st ot.49 Th concl’s actv polcn o any actvts that mht thatn th socal and concptal cohson o th socty o sp athoty ov mmbshp o s ald to dt dt th DSSP’s boosts. Th day at ttn th o-ahad om th socty, Smolchowsk—who had movd om GE to th Can Insttt o Tchnoloy n th all o 1946—wot to th concl: “In vw o th cnt avoabl dcson o th Commtt on Dvsons (nd th chamanshp o D. Fltch) and to thconsd tn oaan mo ts nomal condtons ‘opa o sx’ qsts th Concl ptton and to th appov Dvson o Sold Stat n accod wth th commndatons o th Commtt on Dvsons.”50 Jst ov a month lat, at th Novmb 30 concl mtn, th omaton o a “Dvson o Sold-Stat Physcs” was athozd.51 Its stats was ocally conzd at th Jn 1947 APS mtn n Montal.52 An annoncmnt to th APS mmbshp dnd th DSSP’s scop “to comps all thoy and xpmntal sach ptann to th physcs o th sold stat, sch as mtals, nslatos, phosphos, all cystalln sbstancs, tc.”53 Mtals had bn sbstantally downadd n th dvson’s msson, bt althoh th xpanson o scop mad o an ntty wth slhtly lss zzy concptal bondas, t also catd oppotnts o t to ncompass all styls o sach, old and nw, p and appld. Adoptn th sold stat as a dmacatn ln dd not daw shap concptal dstnctons as mch as t avodd thm ntly. By compomsn btwn th socty’s dmand o topcal contnty and th ds to psnt ndstal and appld physcsts qally, qally, th DSSP bcam a b tnt. Th DSSP, and th loos commnty o physcsts t psntd, can b sn as a dscplnay dscplna y xpmnt. Th poposal o a mtals dvson xposd sval own ts wthn th physcs commnty. As ndsty was bcomn a consdabl oc n Amcan physcs, th t btwn acadma and ndsty w nto a matt o dp concn. Two ncompatbl concp-
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tons o nty md n th ac o qstons abot how physcsts shold poston thmslvs ollown th wa. Th st ollowd dctly om th tadtonal vw that physcs shold b a ld ddcatd to p scnc. Unty n ths sns, o a ld dnd by th objct o ts stdy, dvd ts mann om th basc concpts that w spposd to cospond to natal catos. Unty n th scond sns was poltcal. It mbodd th da that a commnty cold com toth o a common ppos om a-n povncs as lon as t was dd by a ston cntal oanzaton. Ths typ o nty, n contast to concptal c oncptal nty, nty, qd contnal nstttonal mantnanc. mantnanc . Amcan sold stat physcs, n th pocss o navatn ths ts, oanzd physcsts not on th bass o shad tchnqs o concptal tools, bt by possonal ntnt. It was a catoy mposd on a op o physcsts who had a shad ntst, bt ths ntst was not n an ncapslatd alm o physcal nqy; t was n bdn an nstttonal ap and catn oanzatonal psntaton o ops that w othws manalzd. Th qston o how nty shold b ndstood lay at th co o ths dvlopmnt. THE POLITICAL UNITY OF SOLID STATE STATE PHYSICS
Both thos poposn th DSSP and thos opposn t, thos pshn o at nnc o appld physcs and thos skn to potct th pmacy o p sach, pldd allanc to th nty o physcs. Thy dsad abot what t mant o physcs to b nd. Sold stat physcs mbodd a poltcal vw o nty. nty. Unlk th vw o physcs as a s nd by ts co concpts, whch w om th sam nntnth-cnty snsblts that avod classcaton schms basd on natal phnomna, th poltcal vw o nty allowd physcsts a at dal o lattd to dn both th ot bondas o th sbjct and ts ntnal stct. Th nstttonal possblty o a ld as la and nothodox as sold stat physcs qd som physcsts to stat bhavn as thoh physcs ally was jst what physcsts do. Sold stat physcs, as th st ld oanzd on sch a bass, was a classcaton nlk any oth bo t. Its sccss, n th lon n, wold ltmz classyn physcs on th bass o tansnt possonal nds. Th nsally boad chaact o sold stat physcs was vdnt as aly as th Janay 1945 symposm wh th poposal o a dvson (o a commtt) was st sbmttd to commnal sctny. Th slat was ston wth thotcally sophstcatd talks. Goy H. Wann o th Unvsty o Iowa otlnd nw applcatons o statstcal sta tstcal mthods to coopatv phnom-
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na.54 Van Vlck av a vw o thotcal appoachs to omantsm, bnnn wth phnomnolocal tatmnts o th aly twntth cnty and contnn thoh dscptons o comptn qantm mchancal appoachs. Ths appoachs w basd on xchan ntactons, whch, althoh pat o th standad dscos amon qantm thosts snc th lat 1920s, w stll scntly obsc wthn th nal Amcan physcs commnty that Van Vlck ndd to caton hs adnc that “[xchan] 55 ocs cannot b dscbd n smpl nttv lana.” lana.” Th symposm also dmonstatd a commtmnt to th applcatons o sold stat physcs, and ncldd contbtons om Rchad Rcha d M. Bozoth and Howll J. Wllams o Bll Labs, who dscbd th wok as “ndstandn o th bhavo o mantc matals n appaats dvlopd as a pat o th wa ot.”56 Wattown Asnal’s Clanc Zn amd hs tatmnt o th act stss o stl sn nabashdly appld htoc, bnnn by notn that th “snws o waa, namly ns, pojctls, and amo, a mad o stl,”57 and Otto Bck o th Shll Dvlopmnt Company ad that th ncasn mpotanc catalytc pocsss n 58 chmcal tchnoloy mtd th attnton to th o topc om physcsts. Th boad coss scton o wok on dsplay was psntatv o th smlaly boad an o appoachs and qstons th DSSP ltmatly nd. Van Vlck’s concn wth how th xchan ntacton mht povd a mo obst casal accont o omantsm had lttl to do concptally wth Zn’s ntst n th phnomnoloy o stl. Th act that thy both addssd som popty o sold matt was a spcal commonalty at bst. Van Vlck’s dscsson o omantsm otlnd how th ascnt o qantm mchancs pmttd a nw casal ndstandn o th phnomnon. Sch a psntaton assmd hs da o th natal na tal odn o physcs: th nvstaton o nal laws allowd applcaton to, and xplcaton o, spcc systms. Van Vlck, psntn cttn d thotcal wok, was wlcomd nto th sold stat non, wh h ond hmsl amon th lks o Zn and Bck, wth th ovtly appld thst, and Pcy Bdman, who, nd th aspcs o sold stat, contnd hs lon-standn sach poam on th physcs o matals nd hh psss, whch amd at qaltatv dscpton o th blk popts o matals and avodd dlvn nto qanttatv nalzaton.59 Gopn ths dspaat ntpss ntp ss wthn th sam povnc o physcs aantd that th nw ld wold not spct xstn, concptally dnd bas btwn basc and an d appld physcs. Sold stat dnd bods
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aond a nw aa o physcs basd on convnnc. Th sold stat was an xpdnt catoy because t was boad noh to ncompass sch a wd an o topcs. Its badth assd that t wold not dscmnat aanst ndstal o appld physcsts, who cold otn not stat th ocs aa naowly, allown th DSSP to span acadmc and ndstal ttos that w othws solatd om ach oth. Th ston appld componnt and xpansv scop o sold stat physcs that cam wth ts nstttonalzd om a th vdnt n ts pdaoy. Th st txtbook to dscb physcal appoachs to sold matt comphnsvly, Fdck Stz’s Modern Theory o Solids, appad n 1940. It ocsd on th tanston om classcal to qantm appoachs, wth patcla mphass on th appoxmaton mthods that mad la cystalln solds sscptbl to qantm mchancal dscpton.60 Chals Kttl’s Introduction to Solid State Physics bcam th standad txt at ts scond dton n 1955.61 Th scond dton xpandd th txtbook by abot two hndd pas ov th onal 1953 pntn. Mch o th addtonal matal dalt wth pactcalts that wold b lvant tostyl, nns ndstal physcsts. Com Compad pad wth Stz’s Stz’ s omalsm-havy Kttl’sand appoach to to thoy was stahtowad, n most cass latn ll qantm mchancal tatmnts to th appndxs. Kttl’s txtbook also ddcatd mo spac to applcatons, addssn n dtal, o xampl, th popts o alloys and th bhavo o tansstos, llstatn concpts wth dscptons o xpmntal tchnqs and appals to asly obsvabl laboatoy phnomna. Havn bcom th standad stan dad txt, Introduction to Solid State Physics psntd a ld wth a ston appld ap pld ncton. As John J. Hopld makd n hs collctons o hs tann n sold stat at Conll n th 1950s: “Th waknss o th book was that t lt yo (as a thost) wth no da o wh to stat to dvlop a dp ndstandn o any o th topcs covd.”62 It was th txtbook Mldd Dsslhas adoptd whn hd to tach a thoy o solds cos at MIT that wold b mo accssbl to nns than th hhly abstact styl that domnatd John Slat’s physcs dpatmnt. H thoy o solds cos addssd th shotcomns Hopld dntd by spplmntn Kttl’s book wth 302 pas o handwttn, photocopd nots povdn a mthodcal psntaton o cystal stct and lattc dynamcs ladn nto a dtald psntaton o th lctonc stats o solds, whch th cos dwlld on bcas “o most o th pactcal applcatons o solds to o tchnolocal dvlopmnt, t s pobably th lctonc popts that a o th atst ntst.”63
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Stz and Kttl wot o dnt adncs. Stz assmd a ston backond o hs ads, tatn adat stdnts and pactcn physcsts. Kttl’s txt was dsnd to b accssbl to ndadats. Th dncs nonthlss an dp. By th 1950s, sold stat had not only bn stablshd as a mch boad ntps than Stz’s tatmnt wold sst, bt ts st majo cop, n th om o th tanssto nvntd at Bll Laboatos, had com om ndstal qats.64 To b maktabl n th 1950s, a txt on sold stat physcs had to tak nto accont th an o th ld’s applcatons, not jst ts concptal stct, and man accssbl to chmsts and nns. As Kttl notd n hs pac: “Sold stat physcs s a vy wd ld.”65 Dscontnt wth th nam “sold stat physcs, physcs,”” whch psstd lon at th nam was valdatd by th APS and mblazond on txtbook covs, was a symptom o a dp dssatsacton wth a catoy possssd o lttl nhnt cohson. Th ld nvthlss manad to han toth, loosly, on th stnth o common possonal objctvs. Th poltcal nty manstd by thsbstantal omaton ways o a sold commnty n th Untd n th om stat convntonal concptal nty.. Stats nty Fst, tdd was nstttonally mposd. Sold stat physcs cold b sad to b nd bcas t was aantd cohson thoh nstttonal psntaton. Bcas sold stat was so dvs, t qd an oanzatonal nastct ts vaos sctos w to avod bn annxd by oth aas o physcs, oth scncs, o banchs o nnn. As MIT lctcal nn Ath von Hppl obsvd n 1942: “Th nc btwn th two lds [physcs and lctcal nnn] s alln nto dspa. Th lctcal nn has to lan and to apply atomc physcs n od to ndstand and mpov hs nw tools, and th physcst s bnnn to talk abot ‘hh Q’s’ and ‘chaactstc mpdancs’—and sms to lk t.”66 Th physcsts who cold spak th lana o lctcal nnn—o mchancal nnn, chmsty, o mtally—tndd to b thos who wold b classd as sold stat physcsts. Th wak concptal bondas that kpt ths lds apat mant that, physcsts ntstd n ctan typs o sold stat poblms w to b kpt wthn physcs, thy wold nd nstttonal sppot and ncoamnt. Scond, sold stat was a mallabl non. Its om was not spposd to b objctvly xd by any acts abot th physcal wold. Sch xblty cad statc potntal. It allowd sold stat physcs to dn tsl n sch a way that t mht ow, ow, adapt, and compt o ndn and pst. It cold chan ts scop wthot ndann ts standn. A sold stat physcst
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cold xplo a nw aa o ndstal ntst, o nstanc, wthot tansssn th topcal bonday o th ld. Sch xblty povd ctcal as ndsty bcam a mo pomnnt lmnt o Amcan physcs n th post– Scond Wold Wa a. Thd, poltcal ncaton allowd sold stat to mbac th appld consqncs o scntc sach. Concptal nty assmd that nnn applcatons o scntc knowld lay pmanntly otsd any nd ld o physcs. Sold stat took a mo xbl appoach. By so actvly skn to povd appld and ndstal physcsts psntaton, t lnkd th tadtonal basc sach am o th physcs commnty wth a own ndstal scto n whch tchnolocal nds dmandd to b lld mo oclly than xplanatoy lacna. Ths dncs nsd that sold stat mand a vabl sbld, bt also bandd t an otsd. Th ld’s path ov th sbsqnt dcads cts both th xblty t njoyd and th dclts t conontd as a slt. Th dbat ov nty was, at co, a dbat ov what shap physcs wold tak own n th postwa commnty. It playdand ot appld as a t physcsts wa wthn was th APS. Th consttncy o ndstal ot o stp wth th socty’s tadtonal ocs on basc sach. Indstal owth was otstppn acadmc owth, and a ston ndstal psnc n th APS thatnd to alt th socty’s chaact by sstn a boadnn o ts msson nto aas som thoht shold not qaly as physcs. Appld physcsts w no lss mphatc abot th dntty, howv, pontn to th tann and to th cntalty o physcal pncpls to th wok, dnyn that manplatn and applyn ths pncpls mad thm lss wothy o nclson n th ld than thos who st ot to dscov thm. Thy pomotd nstttonal mchansms that wold allow thm to opat wthn th APS whl stll mantann a mas o atonomy. Bldn on G. P. Hanwll’s b tnt dal, n whch th tm “physcst” wold b nosly bstowd, advocats o ndstal and appld physcsts soht to om Amcan physcs by pomotn a boad topcal scop and asn topcal and nstttonal val dstnctons amon ts mmbshp. John Van Vlck champond th tadtonalst pont o vw n spons to ths challn, stanchly mantann that sachs wth stctly appld ntsts ll otsd o th APS msson and that ncldn thm wold dlt th atmosph o xchan that chaactzd chaact zd pwa Amcan physcs. Hs da o nty was a ply concptal on: physcs was nd by a st o st pncpls that constttd th tats o physcal nvstaton. Th
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sach o and manplaton o thos pncpls hld physcs toth laly ndntatd. Van Vlck cospondnly opposd attmpts to bld bds ov whch sachs who w not ntstd n thos qstons mht swam. Th DSSP, takn as ts cntal msson th poblm o bdn th ap btwn ndsty and acadma, md amd th tnson btwn ths opposn vws o physcs. To a lmtd xtnt, t sccdd n concln thm. Kal Daow and th APS concl pcvd a dan n allown ndstal physcsts to los th ablty to dnty wth th physcs commnty, bt also nsstd that ndstal physcsts’ pmay allanc wthn th APS b to a topc aa and not to ndstal n dstal applcatons p s. Bcas sold stat physcs md wthn th Physcal Socty’s dvsonal stct, t cold not b ontd ovtly towad ndstal ntsts and nstad boadnd ts scop to th pont wh t svd n a ashon smla to th b tnt physcs commnty Hanwll nvsond, bt on a mo lmtd scal. Th and compoms that sltd n th DSSP amd to lll th APS msson, not by closn thos don appld wok, as Van hav lkd,o btthbydvson bnntoappld physcsts nto contact wthVlck thwold basc contpats wthn th conns o th socty. In od to mak ths compoms wok, th DSSP soht poltcal nty. nty. So as to mantan a wd-ann ld, svn both acadmc and ndstal physcsts wokn on both basc and appld app ld poblms, th ams o Amcan sold stat physcs dstancd thmslvs om th dal o concptal nty that had chaactzd chaact zd th msson o th pwa APS. Sold stat physcs, to th xtnt t was a dstnct nt, was dstnct not by vt o a wllamd sach poam o a common xpmntal appoach, bt by vt o a commnty consnss, mposd and mantand by nstttonal dc.
4
THE PUBLICA PUB LICATION TION PROBLEM
The Physical Review contns to ow and to hav nancal poblms.
W hav had statmnts to th ct that pobably no snl ndvdal s ntstd n mo than on-tnth o th contnts o th Review . —ALAN T. WATERMAN, WATERMAN, 1955 19 55
Sold stat physcs, nwly dmacatd, w qckly nd th cha o ts nascnt Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) dvson. Fom Fom th op o sx and a nd th small condaton o ty-odd mtals physcsts who had dd ts omaton, th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (DSSP) w to almost v tms that sz by th tm th mmbshp was sbmttd to ts st nocal cnss n 1948.1 By 1961 th dvson nolld aond ht hndd physcsts, who constttd appoxmatly 5 pcnt o th Amcan Physcal Socty’s total mmbshp, at a tm whn w jond jon d dvsons.2 Th dvson’s ablty to swll ts anks makd ts vablty shotly at ts omaton, bt mmbshp was only on dmnson o th dvson’s owth. It also dvlopd an ncasn mas o atonomy atonomy,, asn qstons abot ts latonshp wth th APS. And ts mmbs contbtd to th ood o paps that stand th capacts o xstn jonals. Ths actos combnd to oc a ckonn n th 1950s abot th msson o sold stat physcs. Dd t asp to maxmz ts collaboatv potntal wth nhbon lds, o to pov that t blond amon th panthon o p physcs? In 1950, APS sctay Kal Daow, at th APS concl’s bhst, sstd to th chamn o th th dvsons thn stablshd that thy consoldat th contbtd paps and symposa at th Mach mtn o th Physcal Socty, a pactc that wnt adally nto ct ov th ollown
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w yas.3 Van Vlck mand concnd o th nty o physcs, pshn nsccsslly o th Mach mtn to b dscontnd dscontn d and dvsonal mtns movd to Jn n od to stm th ow o possonal consss that h lt xacbatd topcal, tmpoal, and oaphcal ts. Althoh Van Vlck’s opnon cad consdabl wht, h was nabl to mst wdspad sppot o hs poston; lackn a cla consnss, th concl lctd to lav matts as thy stood. 4 Dvsonal hmony ov th Mach mtn w. By th bnnn o th 1960s, th DSSP had ndtakn so mch pon ts own athoty that Fdck Stz, who was thn svn on th APS concl, was movd to chasts Elas Bstn, sctay-tas o th DSSP: “[Th] Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs has bn ttn ot o hand, and s sn loophols to tak ndpndnt acton that sm mpop to m and pobably wll to th Commtt.”5 Stz was not alon n hs assssmnt that th DSSP was ovachn. Kal Daow sbmttd a ltt to th APS concl complann, “Th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs vs at tms th mpsson o actn as 6
thoh thpow Machstct mtn w ts owntopvat to locat as a s tdvson chooss.to chooss.” ” Th APS moblzd bn aa th obstpos hl. Th scap dvlopd bcas th DSSP had, wthot appoval om th APS concl, mad aanmnts o ts mmbshp to attnd th 1961 Mach mtn n Monty, Calona. At th concl, noant o th DSSP’s plans, accptd an nvtaton om Balo, Nw Yok, thy w ocd to backpdal on pomss mad to Balo hotls and connc cnts. Thos chad wth ssn th d-acd ma clpas w ndstandably md. Stz wand Bstn that th pactc o plannn mtns, spcally n conjncton wth oth socts, wthot th blssn o th APS wold “cas ndlss conson and ndmn th pst o th APS,” and contnd: “Shold th b a sbstantal ln at psnt amon a op o sold stat woks that th APS s too connn, th op has th choc o statn ts own oanzaton otsd th Socty. It cannot, howv, hav complt atonomy and stll njoy th pst and pvls o th APS.”7 Bstn had, n th past, xpssd th vw that t wold b “mo dsabl o th Dvson to hav an APS mtn to tsl, xcpt o occasonal plannd jont mtns wth oth Dvsons o APS,” bt showd no ndcaton o wantn to splt om th t h Physcal Socty ntly n tly..8 Th Monty psod ndcats two acts o sold stat physcs’ dvlopmnt thoh th 1950s. Fst, t was apd and obst. Th dvson’s
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xpanson n sz and nnc allowd t to mdat ntactons btwn sold stat physcsts and assocatd ops n th Amcan Chmcal Socty and th Intnatonal Unon o P and Appld Physcs whn a dcad al t was scacly mo than a modstly concvd mchansm o aann symposa wthn APS mtns. Scond, howv, t was somwhat ot o stp wth th la oanzaton and somtms chad at th stcts o a cntalzd socty. Th tnsons btwn th DSSP and th APS, whch w spakd by th DSSP’s ncasn atonomy, alzd som o Van Vlck’s as abot Balkanzaton. Dspt Stz’s sston that th DSSP om a spaat socty t cold not opat wthn th conns o th APS, sch a possblty dos not appa to hav cvd sos consdaton. Nonthlss, th cton natd by th dvson’s ndpndnt nctonn dmonstats th compatmntalzn nnc dvsons had ov a sbld that was only loosly oanzd jst tn yas al. As sold stat stablshd tsl wthn Amcan scnc, ths two acts pdomnatd n dtmnn ts oals. Sold stat was vabl, bt t was also pchd th bondas o th physcs commnty commnty. . As Stz’s mphasspcaosly on pst on ndcats, th DSSP and mo om ts assocaton wth th APS at ths sta o ts dvlopmnt than th socty at la and om th dvson’s actvts, spcally whn thos actvts pocdd wthot th knowld o appoval o th concl. As t manad ts owth and notatd ts plac wthn Amcan physcs, sold stat physcs hond ts dntty as a physcal sbspcalty and notatd ts plac wthn th physcs commnty. Ths chapt xplos how owth, both wthn sold stat physcs and n th la commnty, challnd th dln dscpln, and dmonstats that th stats th ld’s aly lads adoptd to mt thos challns cmntd sold stat wthn physcs, whl psvn th clos connctons wth nhbon dscplns ts aly lads had takn pans to cltvat. Th most pssn way n whch bonday concns manstd thmslvs nvolvd what bcam known amon physcsts as “th pblcaton poblm.” As th poplaton o th Amcan physcs commnty n nal —and th sold stat commnty n patcla—swlld, th stablshd pblcaton otlts stand nd th pss o ncasd sbmssons and balloonn pblcaton costs. APS and Amcan Insttt o Physcs (AIP) jonals, th Physical Review spcally, dvlopd daman pblcaton dlays, thatnn poty n ast-movn lds and pomptn physcsts to clamo o a solton. Ths stans pssd th mn dscpln o
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sold stat physcs to valat ts dntty by conontn anw th qston o what adnc t soht to ach. Som sold stat physcsts saw ths as an oppotnty to scap th conns o th Physical Review and bld a clos assocaton wth chmcal and mtallcal pblcatons otlts. Oths pcvd th oppotnty to stat a nw jonal ddcatd to sold stat physcs, asstn th ld’s ndpndnc.9 Stll oths oht o a solton wthn th stablshd od, whch wold mantan sold stat’s nwly won plac alonsd th oth sbdscplns o physcs wth whch t had, ntl thn, shad spac n nal physcs jonals, jon als, ncldn th hhly add Physical Review. Th thd opton, whch amd sold stat’s dntty as a ld o physcs, vntally cad th day, bt not bo a t-chck momnt o th nw ld. Wstln wth qstons abot what sold stat was postond to accomplsh, and wth whom t shold b commncatn, hlpd to dn a cla sns o th ld’s msson and ovcom a poton o th anom that chaactzd ts aly adolscnc. By povdn sold stat wth a cla sns o plac th ld btwn o physcs,sold th pblcaton poblm alsophyscs, annd th st panswthn o anmosty stat and hh ny whch wold bcom a cntal thm o th sbsqnt dcads. As th tctoncs o th Amcan physcs commnty shtd n th postwa yas, th sltant tmos spd sold stat physcsts to tak a cla stand on wh th dscpln wold b statd and wth whom t wold cast ts lot. That dcson had lon-ann consqncs o th tms on whch sold stat ntactd wth nhbon lds, both nsd and otsd physcs. BACKGROUND TO THE PUBLICATION PROBLEM: THE JOURNAL EXPLOSION
Whn th Physical Review Revi ew bcam a jonal o ntnatonal not nd th dtoshp o John Tonc Tat n th 1930s, ts pblcaton ats shot p. It pblshd 172 atcls n 1925, th ya bo Tat Tat took th t h hlm. In 1931, t achvd a p–Scond Wold Wa pak o 380. Nw jonals lanchd aond ths tm sphond away som atcls om th Physical Review, tmpn ts owth, bt o th st o th dcad ts pblcaton at hld stady at aond 300–350 paps p ya (s 1.1).10 Th wa pcptatd a pblcaton lll. Th sl-mposd mbao on pblcaton o ncla sach, th dvson o physcsts to th wa ot, and th bakdown o ntnatonal scntc commncaton conspd to dcmat th jonal’s otpt, whch ll as low as 78 atcls n 1945. Bt
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t bondd wth a vnanc, clan ts pwa hh-wat mak n 1948 and mo than dobln t by 1953. In 1956, Physical Review pblshd 1,212 atcls, mo than th tms 1931’s volm, dspt th act that comptn jonals wtnssd smla ncass. Th ncas n pblcaton ctd an ncas n th nmb o physcsts. Th at o PhD podcton, whch had ncasd thoh th 1930s, only acclatd ollown th wa. It also ctd an ncas n th abndanc o sach ndn. Not only w physcsts mo abndant, thy w also sh than thy th y v had bn.11 Th poplaton o cdntald physcsts was balloonn, and thy had ady accss to th socs qd to tanslat th labos nto paps. Th Physical Review was nppad o th dl that th connc o ths actos casd. As th jonal and th commnty t psntd w n sz, both dvsd n chaact, a chan dvn by th wav o spcalzaton Van Vlck was don hs lvl bst to stm. Spcalzaton was accompand by dmoaphc shts, whch bcam an avd pont o dscsson n Physics Today Today, a monthly ondd n 1948. Th maazn, concvd a om o atcls omaazn nal ntst om all banchs o physcs, was tslasa spons to a dvsyn dscpln. It had st bn poposd at th Natonal Rsach Concl’s 1944 Connc o Physcsts n Phladlpha, whch had stablshd th nd o ston commncaton mchansms lnkn physcsts and mpowd th AIP to ps t. Physics Today appad, accodn to AIP dcto Hny Baton, as an “Insttt jonal jo nal stabl o cclaton to all physcsts . . . a adabl pot and dscsson o what concns physcs and physcsts—today.”12 Advocacy o th maazn thoh ts aly yas cntd on ts capacty to addss th challn cha lln o a amntn commnty: “I am s yo a as knly ntstd as th st o s,” Gaylod P. Hanwll wot to Fdck Stz n 1950, “n makn a o o Physics Today n od that th Insttt may tak on som nty and a nd chaact thoh havn a jonal achn all ts mmbs. mmbs.””13 A nal chaact was Physics Today Today’s most dstnctv attbt. It psmd that som sss w o ntst to all physcsts, and povdd a om n whch to dscss thm. In a not opnn th naal n aal ss, dto Davd A. Katch wot, “As “As lds o sach bcom mo and mo spcalzd, th knowld shad by sach woks n th tchncal jonals s bcomn a sct ndstood only wthn th spcalzd ld,” and dscbd th nw jonal as a pophylactc aanst nslaty:
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Physics Today Today s o th physcst, to nom hm n comotabl, vyday
lana, o what os on and why and who os wh. Bt t s also o th chmst, th bolost, th nn, to tll thm o th scnc towads whch thy a dvn by so many o th nvstatons; t s o th stdnt, th tach, th lawy, th docto docto , and all who a cos abot abo t physcs; t s o admnstatv ocals who dal wth sach; t s o dtos and wts whos posson pts thm mdway btwn what s don and how t shold b potd; t s o yo, whatv ason boht yo to ths pa.14
Katch’s qxotc hops o th maazn’s ach tlls s mo abot th poblms that pcptatd ts ondn than ts mmdat mpact. It was no lon possbl, n th days o apdly own sach otpt n mo and mo sbspcalts, o a physcst to stay cnt on th whol an o sss that mht hold potntal ntst. As sold stat had shown th ya bo, th hoay ndamntalsts o th old APS no lon had a monopoly on what cold o cold not b calld physcs. Kpn th chaotc an o nw n som knd o atonal od qdtoots opn common lnssblds o commncaton. Physics Today spondd whattoChals Wn has calld “th spt o th ots. ots.””15 Physcsts, as thy bcam nsconcd n th spcalts to a d thy had not bn bo, qd an otlt that amd th shad dntty and potctd th mtal clam to postwa pblc appoval. Physics Today dbtd wth a cov atn J. Robt Oppnhm’s conc pokp hat stn on th 184-nch cycloton at Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy ( 4.1), amn th stats o ncla physcs as th cov stoy o th lat 1940s. Nvthlss, aly sss o Physics Today Today w scplosly attntv to badth. Th abbvatd ht-ss n compsn th maazn’s st calnda ya ncldd ats on cyclotons, ntnos, and lqd hlm, bt also xplod connctons btwn physcs and canc, lctcal phnomna n th atmosph, th on o th ath, and ocanoaphy.16 Pomotn nty mant adoptn a catholc dtoal phlosophy that wlcomd pspctvs om what pvosly wold hav bn consdd n povncs o physcs. Physics Today Today actvly cotd any scntsts, adlss o nstttonal alaton o possonal stats, who sl-dntd as physcsts o thoht that physcs sach mht b sl o th own wok. Th maazn’s scond ya boht ndcatons that ths ots had
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Figure 4.1. Cov o th st ss o Physics Today Today. Rpodcd om Physics Today Today 1, no. 1 (1948), wth pmsson o th Amcan A mcan Insttt o Physcs. Cov photo © Unvsty o Calona, Lawnc Bkly Natonal Laboatoy
bn sccssl at pomotn otach, not at nstlln nty. Physics Today wold not bcom a mothpc o th mn ncla/patcl physcs consttncy that was n th pocss o stablshn tsl as th standad ba o Amcan physcs n th ys o th pblc and a nd dal nds. In th
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Janay 1949 ss, Go Gamow pblshd hs phlosophcal sspcons that physcs was convn on an ltmat st o thos and concpts. “I and whn all th laws ovnn physcal phnomna a nally dscovd, and all th mpcal constants occn n ths laws a nally xpssd thoh th o ndpndnt basc constants,” h spclatd, “w wll b abl to say that physcal scnc has achd an nd, that no xctmnt s lt n th xploatons, and that all that mans to a physcst s th tdos wok on mno dtals o th sl-dcatonal stdy and adoaton o th mancnc o th compltd systm.”17 Althoh Gamow took ca to not that h was makn no bold pdctons, h dd cod hs nstnct that sch a thoy o th mco-scal was wthn asp. Gamow’s sston that a sl-consstnt thoy o lmntay patcls wold nd th st o physcs nntstn povokd som ndnant ltts to th dto. Rpsntatv o ths complants, two lon xampls o whch w accodd npcdntd colmn nchs n th Mach ss, was Rchad C. Raymond’s. Th Pnnsylvana Stat Coll (lat Unvsty) thmodynamcst ddd Gamow’s “nbdld o spclaton,” took18hm to task o aln to appcat th complxty th physcaland wold. By 1949, th dtoal cotn o dvs dmoaphcs was shown slts, and a vocal poton o Physics Today’s adshp ond th and spclatons o ncla and patcl physcsts oté.19 Nvthlss, contay to th jonal’s ams o nyn th commnty, som ond ts scplos attnton to badth alnatn. Go R. Hason, thn dan o th School o Scnc at MIT, catond Hanwll whn th latt assmd contol o an ad a d hoc commtt to vw th stct and ctvnss o Physics Today: “Th s a spcs o ncla physcst who has no s whatv o Physics Today Today, and who dos not hstat to mak hs vws known. Lstnn to sch popl I wold hav thoht that w shold v p th Jonal lon snc, bt always whn I hav com to ths conclson I hav ond n oth walks o l a st o oppost vws to contbalanc thm.”20 Alon smla lns, Saml Godsmt, posd to tak ov th dtoshp o th Physical Review , commntd n spons to Hanwll’s nvtaton to sv on th maazn’s Govnn Boad: “It s obvos that Physcs Today s mant o th boad op o non-acadmc collas wth whom I hav too lttl contact to know th nds,” 21 and John Van Vlck pld that “som lss ptntos pblcaton, sch as an appndx to th Physical Review, wold b adqat o my own personal nds. n ds.””22 Th nyn msson o Physics Today an abptly nto th alts o
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ts amntaton. Thos who pcvd thmslvs as occpyn th had co o Amcan physcs, ncla physcsts n patcla, had lttl s o a pblcaton that was makn actv ovts to thos nad n a-ann applcatons o physcs. Mch lk lk sold stat physcs, Physics Today Today assmd th dsablty o poltcal nty and ncontd pshback om th bloc o physcsts who tand a m commtmnt to concptal nty. nty. Th maazn, dspt bn spnd by som, ond an nthsastc adnc amon a wd an o physcsts. Gvn ts commtmnt to badth and ots to nstll nty nty,, howv howv haltnly haltn ly,, t s nspsn that many aly Physics Today Today atcls conontd dmoaphc sss. Not last amon thm was th qston o ndstal physcs and ts plac. Th scond ss contand an apoloy o ndstal sach, whch acknowldd that ndsty was pshn th bondas o physcs. “How can on mas th comot o a oo?” askd Howad A. Robnson: “In yas on by ths wold not hav bn a pop qston to ask a physcst, bt n th past dcad . . . physcsts . . . hav dscovd, somwhat to th amazmnt, that ths bod-ln poblms n whch s pat o th masn can somtms b solvd. Thsanthndvdal boadnn o physcs to ncldsystm physolocal manstatons s now wll stablshd.” 23 Robnson atclatd th nw othodoxy amon th ndstal st that tha t physcs cold no lon b contand wthn a tadtonal acadmc dnton o p scnc, o th nwly popla catoy o basc sach. Boadnn nto ndstal aas was attbtabl n pat to th lacy o wa sach. Evn thoh APS mmbshp was xpandn at cod ats dn and at th wa, PhD podcton had stalld. Vannva Bsh lamntd n th vy st ss o Physics Today Today that “w oolshly casd to tan [physcsts] dn th wa.”24 Th lack o tadtonally tand PhD physcsts catd a poblm o acadmc poams lookn to xpand th anks o plac tn aclty. Fdck Stz, thn at th Can Insttt o Tchnoloy, pt th poblm to Wllam Shockly o Bll Labs aly n 1945: Gadat dcaton was stoppd cold n th wnt o 1940–41. Moov, many o th mn who wold hav ntd adat school thn wll pobably nv do so. I th psnt staton lasts anoth two yas, th wll b a mssn naton covn a an btwn svn and tn yas. In a cnt svy th Amcan Insttt o Physcs has dcdd that no lss than 2000 Ph.D. physcsts, who wold hav bn catd had th dcatonal staton
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contnd as o 1939, wll nv cv complt adat tann. Ths a jst th mn yo wold look owad to hn. h n. It sms to m th a th th chocs: (a) Hn Ph.D.’s who wll b thty o ov whn thy jon yo sta. (b) Hn mn who hav not had omal adat tann bt who hav cvd an appntcshp lk at th Radaton Laboatoy. (c) Watn ntl a nw op coms alon n 1950 o lat. 25
Stz was so on ach o ths optons. H habod a pjdc that physcsts ov thty had lost too many o th most catv ca tv yas, add thos wthot doctoats as sky nvstmnts, and dsmssd th thd opton as “th wost o th th pospcts.” H concldd pssmstcally that “ood physcsts wll b dclt to obtan n th mmdat post-wa pod and that yo wll hav to b wlln to mak som concssons.” 26 Th physcs commnty’s owth, althoh obst, pocdd alon nontadtonal nonta dtonal lns, challnd th pactcs. pwa possonal stats qo, and pst lon-standn tann and hn Wh acadmc nstttons and qas-acadmc sach labs lk Bll saw concssons, oth aas o ndsty saw oppotnty. A wd an o ndstal ntsts povd mo than wlln to h physcsts who had ct th tth on wa wok, howv nothodox th tann. Th Radaton Laboatoy (Rad Lab) at MIT and Havad’s Rado Rsach Laboatoy (RRL) had bn patclaly oos povn onds o yon sold stat physcsts who wold othws hav bn occpd by th adat dcaton. An RRL admnstatv pot boastd that “th qmnts qmn ts o RRL w a mo stnnt than thos t hos o vn a pactm ndstal n dstal m.” m.”27 Th sccss that both th MIT Rad R ad Lab and th RRL njoyd bnn nw tchnolos nto th ld condtond th xpctatons o lab-to-maktplac tnaond n postwa ndsty and xposd aas o sach that w p o ndstal xplotaton.28 A svy condctd by th AIP n 1954 showd th popoton o physcsts mployd n ndsty ann on th popoton mployd n acadma, wth 42.0 pcnt stll wthn th acadmy and 35.8 pcnt n ndstal postons.29 Indsts wth dct ntsts n physcal sach, sch as commncatons, atomc pow, nstmnt and lctcal componnt dvlopmnt, and avaton, mployd th ppondanc o ndstal physcsts; howv,, physcsts also ond homs n lss obvos vns, lk th txtl, howv
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ptolm, plastcs, and photoaphy ndsts, whch had pvosly bn domnatd by chmsts. Not only had th sz o th Physcal Socty and th pblcaton load o th Physical Review balloond by th md-1950s, th physcs commnty had assmd a dstnctly dnt complxon. Th owth o Amcan physcs, n poplaton, pblcaton volm, ndn, and scop was npcdntd, to th pont o catn cost, backlo, and lvanc poblms o ts co pblcatons. Fthmo, topcal spcalzaton and nstttonal ontaton wthn th commnty natd cton that thatnd th dscpln’s nty. Whn xstn jonals bcam satatd, acn th pospct o a own backlo and daman pblcaton p blcaton dlays, ths psss pomptd physcsts to consd how a spons to th pblcaton poblm mht also b sd to addss th nstablty thy saw n th possonal sph. Th spons om sold stat physcsts, dscssd blow, blow, xposs som o th alt lns catd by physcs’ xpanson nto nw possonal and topcal aas that cold not b asly accommodatd by tadtonal pactcs. BACKGROUND TO THE PUBLICATION PROBLEM: THE TRAJECTORY OF FREDERICK SEITZ
Th task o mappn ot possbl sponss to th pblcaton poblm was takn p by Fdck Stz. A natv San Fancscan, Stz and a physcs and mathmatcs dcaton at Stanod Stan od Unvsty, Unvsty, ncldn a smst’s ntmzzo at th Calona Insttt o Tchnoloy, bo locatn to Pncton o adat school, wh h jond n th st wav o Amcans tand spccally n th physcs o solds. Stz wold o on to bcom, thoh th cntal poston h wold occpy n th advsoy appaats o Amcan scnc, a oc shapn sold stat’s nstttonal volton. Th ntllctal ov n whch th mndst h boht to ths poston volvd s tho woth xplon n som dtal. Whl at Pncton, Stz wold om ky possonal connctons and tak on an ntllctal appoach that nomd hs lat scntc wok and nstttonal manvn. H ncontd both Roman Smolchowsk, who vstd Pncton n th md-1930s bo matn om Poland n 1939, and Wllam Shockly, who was John Slat’s adat stdnt at MIT. Shockly was also a Calonan and th two shad a coss-conty oad tp n Shockly’s DSoto convtbl to bn th 1932–33 acadmc ya. 30 Shockly,, Stz, and Smolchowsk wold o on to om hal o th op o Shockly
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sx, whch ondd th Amcan Physcal Socty’s Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs, as dscssd n chapt 2. Stz’s tann was jst as mpotant as th psonal connctons connct ons h mad. Thoh th md-1930s, th cnts had md o aspn physcsts ntstd n solds. John Slat was ld om Havad to MIT n 1930, wh ncomn psdnt Kal T. Compton av hm n to xpand th physcs dpatmnt n accodanc wth hs vson. John Van Vlck, at stnts at Mnnsota and Wsconsn, tnd to Havad, wh both h and Slat had and th doctoats, n 1934.31 Fnally, En Wn scd a pmannt poston at Pncton n 1938 n pat at th n o Van Van Vlck, bt had, wth th xcpton o a vstn stnt at Wsconsn n 1937–38, hld down on tmpoay appontmnt o anoth at Pncton snc 1931. 32 It was n ths latt capacty that Wn ovsaw Stz’s doctoal wok, whch Stz lat mmbd as “on o th most makabl xpncs o my l.”33 Wn, a Hnaan émé, was an xcpton wthn ths op. Slat and Van Vlck both bn tand lann mchancs om had Edwn Kmbl, who, natthHavad, 1920s, od thth st qantm ntnsv tann n qantm thoy avalabl n th Untd Stats. Th xpnc at th vanad o qantm physcs n th Untd Stats ld Slat and Van Vlck to s thmslvs as cayn th toch o Amcan physcs.34 Van Vlck, n 1971, wold bdl at an ohand sston that Slat was an h to th Btsh tadton. Th Blan physcst Léon Rosnld, n a hstocal ovvw o atomc thoy, mphaszd th omatv nat o Slat’s postdoctoal vst to th Cavndsh laboatoy, laboatoy, n to hm as “a physcst dcatd n th Btsh and Amcan tadton. tadton.””35 Van Vlck snt Slat a copy o th atcl, alon wth an xpssv not: “I am sally somthn o an Anlophl bt th nc to yo tann . . . ath mad my blood bol. I’ll ant yo that Slat s an Enlsh nam bt what th atho says maks abot as mch sns as t wold b to say that I am Dtch-tand bcas my nam s Van Vlck.”36 Slat was qally a to dstnsh Amcan and Eopan physcal tadtons, pnnn a Physics Today Today dtoal n 1968 n whch h attackd th convntonal wsdom that Amcan physcs n th 1930s was dad lctantly nto modnty by th nx o Eopan émés.37 Th hstancy hstan cy Van Van Vlck and Slat xhbtd to slly th wok wth what thy saw as bas psts can b btt ndstood wthn th contxt o th pd thy both took n psntn Amcan physcs, and Amcan
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thoy n patcla. Van Vlck’s sstanc ssta nc to dvsons was on manstaton o ths phnomnon. Wn, n contast, contd hmsl amon “th Matans,” th op o Hnaan scntsts that also ncldd Thodo von Kámán, John von Nmann, Lo Szlad, and Edwad Tll, who w chasd om Cntal Eop by Htl’s s.38 Wn avd n th Untd Stats wth a backond n chmcal nnn, whch h had stdd at th Tchnsch Hochschl n Bln, ann a doctoat n 1925. H calld that hs chmcal dcaton, whch was mo thoy-ontd n Bln than smla tann n th Untd Stats wold hav bn, “cam n handy many tms n my l n physcs.”39 Indd, Wn’s ca was chaactzd by makabl topcal badth, whch otn nvolvd tatons wth chmcal phnomna. Moov, Wn cam om a Eopan tadton that was not shy whn t cam to talkn abot th alty o physcal mcostcts, vn only povsonally. H was mmdatly takn, o nstanc, wth th dscovy o th nton, and wastd no tm mployn ths nw tool to btt ndstand 40
ncla Slatmasss. os a complln contast on ths sco. H was amosly mbttd by hs xpnc as a postdoc at Nls Boh’s Insttt o Thotcal Physcs, snappn at Thomas Khn n an ntvw that h “nv had any spct o thos popl [Boh and Hndk Kams],” at hs xpnc n Copnhan. Althoh Slat lat cantd, clamn that hs dncs wth Boh w scntc ath than psonal, ths nadd mak ndcats th lnn psycholocal nnc Copnhan had ov Slat, Slat, natv thoh t mht hav bn. Whl Slat was n Copnhan, Boh and Kams szd on hs da that lht–matt ntactons cold b dscbd n tms o a st o “vtal oscllatos” that dtmnd th pobablts o allowd qantm tanstons as a way to scap th qantzaton o lht that most oths had accptd on th bass o Ath Holly Compton’s xplanaton o hs ponymos ct. Th slt was th shot-lvd Boh–Kams– Slat (BKS) thoy, thoy, whch dnd lht qanta at th xpns o jctn th stct consvaton o ny, whch t tatd as a statstcal phnomnon. By hs own accont, Slat lt as thoh h had bn hjackd n svc o an anda that was not hs own.41 H cam back to th Untd Stats havn bn convncd that “Boh was ndamntally o a mystcal tn o mnd and I’m ndamntally o a matt-o-act tn o mnd.” 42 Th commtmnt to a calclaton-basd styl Slat boht to sold stat can b tacd n pat to hs xpnc aboad. H was plsd by th
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spclatv appoach h saw n Boh, havn bn convncd by th BKS xpnc that psn sach on th bass o dply hld mtaphyscal pjdc was tlss. Althoh Slat’s op at MIT, lk Wn’s at Pncton, bld ov nto chmsty, t dd so o dnt asons: Wn was wlln to mploy appoxmaton stats land om chmsty and mantand a chmst’s wllnnss to povsonally commt to xpdnt ontolocal assmptons. Slat, on th oth hand, alzd that th was lttl nstmntal dnc btwn cankn ot wav nctons o molcls and cankn ot wav nctons o solds. Slat’s appoach to sold stat and molcla thoy thoy,, whch, wth th advnt o lctonc compts, wold nvolv thown mo and mo comptn pow at ab nto calclatons, bo lttl smblanc to Wn’s, whch sd th phnomnolocal ats o solds, ath than qantm mchancal st pncpls, as a concptal statn pont. Wn’s appoach had a cla nnc n th yon Stz, whos thss, “On th Consttton o Mtallc Sodm,” Sodm,” wold man hs most nntal ntllctal to physcs. Pblshd jontly wtho Wn, t stablshd whatcontbton bcam known as th Wn–Stz mthod dscbn th popts o mtals. Ths appoach notatd btwn th two most pvalnt altnatvs at th tm. Th st, champond by Flx Bloch and Léon Bllon amon oths, was th lcton modl, whch amd to dscb condcton and nod chmcal popts, whch w th podcts o valnc, by modln th ntactons btwn condcton lctons and lattc vbatons n cystalln mtals. Th scond, backd laly by Slat, amd to dscb a wd an o chmcal and mchancal popts by calclatn th nnc o valnc ocs on mtals.43 Th om mthod od a ady tool wth whch to conont lctcal condcton, bt th smplcatons t ntodcd mad t ll-std o mch ls—o nstanc, nstan c, t only wokd o dal mtals—and ld many physcsts to vw t as nsatsactoy as a slt. On th oth hand, Slat’s appoach qd laboos calclatons, and, n an a bo comptn pow mad thm tactabl, cold b altd o bn too cmbsom to b pactcally sl. 44 Stz and Wn soht ot a mddl ond btwn ths two mthods. Wn, dawn om hs tann as a chmcal nn, was snstv to th noton that a thoy o mtals shold dscb mo than lctcal condcton. Th two st ot a mthod o appoxmaton that stck a balanc btwn solvablty and vsmltd, whch wold allow th lcton modl to b appld to al, not jst dal mtals. Th s o catv appox-
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maton mthods to smltanosly smply calclatons and capt stctal ats o complx systms wold bcom a snat o sold stat physcsts’ appoach.45 Th nnc o th 1933 pap n whch Wn and Stz pblshd th mthod, whch apdly ld to xtnsons and a nd applcatons by Slat, Van Vlck, Nvll Mott, and oths, ld Stz’s aly ca. Thoh th mand o th 1930s, h xplod postons n both ndsty and acadma, spndn two yas at th Unvsty o Rochst bo nshn ot th dcad at Gnal Gn al Elctc. Moov, Moov, th concptal appoach mbodd n Stz’s thss was mod n hs appoach as an nsttton bld. Stz patdly soht to combn th dvs appoachs ndmc to sold stat nto a cohsv whol. Ths otn qd saccn stct concptal o mthodolocal contnty whl ntn dvs appoachs nd a snl nstttonal bann bann.. In 1940, Stz lasd hs txtbook Modern Theory o Solids. It was th st comphnsv txtbook dvotd to th topc, and t wold cmnt hs nnc ov thacqd ld oom dcads. It nocd th appoach to sold stat thoy Stz had Wn, whch mphaszd catv appoxmaton and attnton to popts that w tadtonally consdd chmcal alonsd thos mo commonly ond n physcs tann. Scond, and phaps mo mpotant, t makd th bnnn o hs adal tanston om pactton to admnstato. Thoh th 1940s and th aly 1950s, ntl shotly at hs aval at th Unvsty o Illnos, Stz mand an actv sach physcst. In th 1950s, h dvotd ncasn mass o hs tm to assotd advsoy commtts and ovnn boads, many o whch wold mak ccal dcsons abot sold stat and ts dcton. Modern Theory T heory o Solids Solid s bns by stkn th topcally cmncal not Stz had nhtd om Wn. Stz xpssd hs hop that th book wold sv th nds o th typs o ad: “Fst, o cos, stdnts o physcs and chmsty who ds to lan som dtals o a patcla banch o physcs that has nal s; scond, sc ond, xpmntal physcsts and chmsts, and nns and mtallsts wth mathmatcal lanns who a ntstd n kpn an y on a ld o physcs that s o possbl val to thm; and thd, thotcal physcsts o vaos stas o dvlopmnt who a ntstd n th psnt stats o that phas o sold bods that dals wth lctonc stct. stct.””46 Ths statmnt xpsss an aly vson o th pmssv scop o what wold bcom sold stat physcs: a ld, ld, mly mly wthn physcs, that was nonthlss boadly convsant wth a vaty o nhbo-
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n dscplns. Th nnc o ths vson s dscnbl n Stz’s actons n th ac o th nstttonal psss that shook sold stat n th 1950s. By th tm th pblcaton poblm ban to wh on physcsts’ mnds, Stz had bcom on o th most astt nstttonal anmals n th sold stat sta t commnty. H dvlopd a aclty o navatn th labynth o advsoy commtts, socty concls, and jonal boads that av hm a low-anl vw o th own ld. In 1949, Whl Looms ld hm to th Unvsty o Illnos at Ubana-Champan, bnnn a pocss that wold podc on o th most nntal cnts o sold stat physcs n th conty, scond, phaps, only to Bll Labs. Fom th cnt o th conty, n an mn cnt o sold stat sach, Stz ban to palay hs ntaton wth dscplnay ovnanc mchansms nto nnc ov th ld’s dcton. Whn physcs jonals ban to sta nd psss o own backlos, sn costs, and ncasn spcalzaton, h was tho n a poston to dct th spons o sold stat physcsts. COPING WITH THE PUBLICA PUBLICATION TION PROBLEM
Sns o tobl wth th Physical Review appad n th lat 1940s. Up ntl 1948, th jonal tnd a pot thoh sbscpton s and pa chas. At th Janay 1948 concl mtn, howv, howv, th dto John Tat Tat and socty tas Go Pam mad t cla that “th pod n whch th Physcal Rvw tnd a nt pot to th Socty om sbscptons o non-mmbs has com to ts nd. nd.”” Faln Faln to bak vn was not an a n mmdat hadshp, howv, as lon as oth AIP jonals w stll potabl and th socty njoyd a “handsom spls,” whch wold sstan ts ashp pblcaton o som tm.47 Th pblcaton poblm was on th ada, bt wold nat mo hat than lht thoh th nxt w yas. Tat’s dath n 1950 and th tans o dtoal opatons to Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy podcd lostcal sss aplnty to kp all concnd occpd as th jonal w thck and slppd th nto th d. By 1953, th nancal staton had bcom pssn. Pam’s Pam’s pot on th socty’s nancal staton wand wan d that “th Socty may hav don a lttl btt than ‘bak vn’ dn 1952, vn wthot takn nto accont th $20,000 donatd by th Natonal Scnc Fondaton to assst n mtn th dct o The Physical Review; and that h xpcts that n 1953 th man o ncom ov xpndts may attan $30,000.”48 By th md-1950s, ncasn pblcaton costs and dlays spd acton.
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Both th Amcan Physcal Socty and th Amcan Insttt o Physcs pt nstttonal machny nto moton to addss t. At th Apl 1955 APS concl mtn, Saml Godsmt, Tat’s sccsso as th Physical Review’s manan dto, povdd “a lnthy pot on th staton nsn om th ntmnabl xpanson o The Physical Review.” In accodanc wth th “omnos” nancal pospcts sch xpanson boht abot, th concl appovd stp hks n both pa chas and sbscpton ats. A moton to splt th jonal, poposd to a opnon ath than to sp acton, was datd, and th concl also ld navoably on a poposal that th APS tak ov th Journal o Chemical Physics om th AIP. Nonthlss, th pospct o majo stctn loomd. Godsmt codd hs ston lns “that th Amcan Insttt o Physcs shold nla ts jonals.” jonals.”49 Th AIP had smla nclnatons. Insttt dcto Hny A. Baton commntd n Mach o 1955: “Pss o pblcaton o sach slts n ctan lds has aan com to th pont o sv stan,” and althoh h dd not pomot any spcc soltons, h assd hs ads that “th Insttt stands to hlp stdy sch poblms and contnally nvstats poposd waysady o dcn pblshn costs.”50 Baton costs.” and th AIP Govnn Boad, at th Mach mtn, appontd a jont AIP-APS commtt to nat commndatons o asn th pblcaton bdn. Dmoaphc chans complcatd th commtt’s msson, patclaly th ncasn mpotanc o ndstal physcs. Stz mad th obsvaton, common by that pont, that “ndstal oanzatons whch w nntstd n physcsts po to 1940 a now aly attmptn to h Ph.D.’s.” 51 Sold stat n patcla thvd on th owth o physcs n ndsty, ndsty, and th spaat ntsts and possonal challns that dov ndstal physcsts contbtd to th possonal nstablty sold stat xpncd amd th pblcaton cnch. Alan T. Watman, dcto o th Natonal Scnc Fondaton, snld ot th Physical Review as on st wh w h dvscaton wthn physcs cold b dntd. Rplyn to Kal Daow’s qst o nds to sppot th AIP’s pblcaton stdy stdy,, Watman Watman potd pot d han “statmnts to th ct that pobably no snl ndvdal s ntstd n mo than on-tnth o th contnts o th Review.” H th sstd that ths ally was th cas: “It may vntally b dsabl o vn ncssay to stct pblcaton n th jonals o wd cclaton to paps o mo nal ntst. Qstons sch as ths cold b stdd objctvly. Phaps th cnt vot wth th Physcal Socty on th dsablty o splttn th Review has alady shd
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som lht on th qston.”52 Th ld o physcs was bcomn compatmntalzd and th owth o topcal nclavs pt pss on a jonal jon al stct that was concvd o a small commnty wth w ntnal dvsons. Ths consdatons motvatd th scond ccla ltt—th st bn “Th Psnt Wa Is a Physcst’s Wa” Wa” dstbtd by th op o sx—that wold ba havly on th at o sold stat physcs. In Mach 1955, on bhal o th AIP-APS jont commtt, Stz cclatd a qstonna to slctd sold stat and chmcal physcsts askn thy wold wlcom an xods o sold stat pblcaton om th Physical Review to th Journal o Chemical Physics ( JCP JCP ), ), whch th commtt tntatvly poposd namn th Journal o Solid State and Chemical Physics.53 Th JCP was was pblshd by th AIP, AIP, bt, as th Dvson o Chmcal Physcs was bn omd omd n 1949, a w mmbs o th APS ban advocatn o th socty to tak t ov. 54 Th da had bn bandd abot o sval yas, bt ald to podc any sbstantal chans. Havn bn a la lmnt o concl mtn dscssons, howv, th noton o acqn th JCP , not jst o chmcal physcs, oth sold stat as wll, a local opton topncpally ps. o chmAt thbt tm, athoshp o thwas was composd was JCP sts.55 Th ld known as chmcal physcs—as dstnshd om physcal chmsty—was concvd and opatd as an ntdscplnay ld, bt t was poplatd pdomnantly by thos tand n chmsty, vn thoh thy otn pblshd n physcs jonals, and th chmcal physcs adat poams acoss th Untd Stats tndd to b hosd n chmsty dpatmnts.56 Colocatn chmcal and sold stat physcs pblcatons n JCP wold tho ncsstat a mch clos latonshp btwn th sold stat and chmsty commnts than th nams alon wold sst. Wth that consdaton n mnd, Stz advancd th sston catosly: It s th wt’s opnon that ths tansomaton wold nvtably mak th jonal lss valabl valab l to th chmsts ch msts who do not no t patcpat actvly n th th APS o AIP and hnc wold act to th dsadvanta o ths mpotant smnt o th scntc wold. Fo ths ason th chan wold pobably not b jstd nlss a at majoty o th sold stat physcsts wold b wlln to s th tansomd jonal as th pncpal otlt o pblcaton, lavn th Physical Review n th man to th ncla physcsts and dvs mnots whch wold not l at hom n th vsd jonal. 57
Th nclosd svy askd thos ntstd to ndcat, (a) th ld (sold stat, chmcal physcs, o oth), (b) whth thy avod, dd not avo, o
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w anostc abot th poposal, and (c) th wllnnss to pblsh n th vsd jonal. Rsponss w mxd, althoh tltd dstnctly aanst th poposal. 58 Havad’s Havy Books pld: “Whl I can s som vt n a clos laton btwn Chmcal Physcs and Sold Stat Physcs, shotn maas o ths sot a sally not vy sccssl,”59 and concldd that snc th ntsts o sold stat physcs clavd mo closly to th topcs covd by th Physical Review Revie w, a ocd xods n th dcton o chmsty wold b nadvsabl. Wllam Shockly, on th oth hand, avod th poposal, commntn: “Sold stat physcs paps a now too ds a componnt o th Phys. Rev.”60 Vocs avon and opposn th poposal shad a concn o bonday sss, bt dd on how to navat thm. Go E. Pak, had o th physcs dpatmnt at Washnton Unvsty n St. Los, nlctd to dnty hmsl th as a sold stat o as a chmcal physcst. Instad h pontd to mantc sonanc as hs pmay sach ntst, sstn that t bdd th dvd. thphyscs poposal, Pakhav mantand “stct o matt physcsInandavon chmcal do not a adly that dscnd bonday btwn thm.”61 Walt Kohn, thn o th Can Insttt, hld th oppost vw vw.. In hs ys, “Sold stat physcs has clos ts to oth banchs o physcs than to chmsty and wold b damad ths ts w waknd.”62 Th dnc btwn Pak’s vw and Kohn’s ll alon topcal lns and th dsamnt s mblmatc o a cla splt wthn th pool o actons to th poposal Stz was abl to assmbl. Pak, an xpmntalst who hlpd dvlop aly ncla mantc sonanc tchnqs, saw applcatons o thos tchnqs tchnq s ow smoothly om solds to molcls, wth lttl pactcal o concptal dnc. Ncla mantc sonanc omd what Cys Mody calls an “nstmntal commnty,” a commnty oanzd aond spcc nstmntal pactcs and commttd to th nstmntal ss, whv thos ss ld.63 Kohn, on th oth hand, was a thost who had mad hs ca p to that pont n smcondcto physcs. Hs sach wstld wth th ondatonal sss qantm mchancs acd whn appld to complx systms, and h was tho lss nclnd to thnk that h had mch to an om a clos assocaton wth w th chmsty. chmsty.64 Smlaly, Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy’s Hllad B. Hntnton, a thost ocsn on mtallc lattc stcts and dynamcs wod abot too clos an assocaton wth chmsty, spondn: “I don’t blv that
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sold stat physcs and chmcal physcs wll b compatbl bdllows n sch a clos non.”65 Conys Hn, ond o Bll Laboatos’ thotcal physcs dvson, was concnd that “ths mov wold tnd to wdn th ls btwn sold stat physcs and ndamntal physcs, on th on hand, and chmsty, on th oth.”66 Colmba’s Shly L. Qmby sppotd th poposd m. H atclatd hs nstnct that thos “nad n xpmntal sach . . . wll avo th poposd jonal and patonz 67 t.” Sval oth sl-dntd chmcal physcsts also xpssd a wllnnss to pblsh alonsd sold stat physcsts, as lon as th latt dd not dsplac chmcally ontd wok. Ths wd an o sponss cts th paochal pa ochal ntsts o th spondnts. Spnc Wat has ad that th dvs concptal scop o sold stat physcs mad t sscptbl to th omaton o small ntnal socal stcts, ach o whch dvlopd ts own st o vals and ntsts. 68 Qstons abot how sold stat, as a ld, shold ovn ts pblcaton pactcs dd not smply nat opposn camps, on n avo o a clos allanc wth on dvd opposd. Rath, sbops llnhbon on on sddscplns o th othand o ths on th bassndvdal o hhly local consdatons. I a sach poam happnd to njoy a clos and mtally constctv latonshp wth chmsty, thn ts mmbs wold b avoably dsposd to pblshn alonsd chmsts. Thos psntn oth ops saw lttl to an om sch cossov and w bmsd and alamd at th sston that thy shold concv o thmslvs as nad n an ntdscplnay ndtakn. Th sponss to Stz’s ccla xpos som o th dvlopmnts that, vn nto th md-1950s whn th ld was wll stablshd, stand th sttchn o a patchwok sold stat commnty as sach-basd sbops omd and dvlopd cla pspctvs on th ntsts. Th most vhmnt opposton to th poposal cam om sold stat thosts, spcally thos n th nntal smcondcto op, who w bsy adaptn th mthods o qantm mchancs to complx systms and saw lttl pot n dstancn th wok om th co pblcaton otlt o th physcs commnty.. Th cas n avo nty avo o th poposal was cad ca d mostly by thos xpmntalsts who dntd lvanc o th wok to both chmcal and sold stat poblms. Chmsts and chmcal physcsts also lnt th sppot, both bcas o th xpmntal connctons and bcas tchnqs dvlopd n th contxt o sold stat thoy w lvant o thotcal chmsty chmsty..69 Th badth o th sold stat ntps mant that th connctons sachs
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dw to latd lds dpndd stonly on th typ o wok n whch thy w nad. Th thoy/xpmnt dvson s on dmnson o ths ct, bt topcal ocs was also a acto. Vws abot how to stct sold stat pblcatons tho ctd convctons abot how th dscpln shold b oanzd. Ths pattn o sponss ass th qston o why th commtt podcd a poposal that was so vdntly ot o stp wth th dss o thos who sl-dntd as sold stat physcsts and lt stonly noh to spond to th svy. Why dd th commtt, at vwn th acts on th ond, cat a poposal that was so wdly pannd? Th answ can b ond by xamnn th mnc o on consoldatd bloc wthn sold stat that was vocal, bt not ncssaly ncssa ly psntatv o th whol. As ndcatd abov, physcsts as a whol, and sold stat sachs n patcla, w ncasnly topcally dvs and ndstal. Sold stat physcsts n ndsty w collaboatn laly wth chmsts and nns. At th sam tm, howv, sval cohsv sach poams w dvlopn wthn a ld that had hthtowth bn wthot tochd a cla cnt. sold ops. stat om an allanc chmsty a nvTh wthpoposal mmbsthat o ths Thos ntstd n th lctcal and mantc popts o matt showd patcla sstanc. Notably, ths was th sam aa wh John Van Vlck had mad hs most mpotant contbtons. con tbtons. It had also podcd som o th most tchnolocally lvant dscovs, sch as th tanssto. As th aa that had th most qckly and sccsslly adoptd qantm mthods, t was also th aa whos pacttons w bst abl to clam that thy occpd ntllctal onts o physcs. Ths op, as a slt, was postond to xt consdabl nnc on th possonalzaton pocss. p ocss. Its psntatvs, lk Kohn, w mo nclnd to s sold stat as a tadtonal physcal sbld than as an ntdscplnay synthss and tho opposd too clos a maa btwn sold stat and chmsty, mtally, o nnn. A dcson abot how, at all, to stct th pblshn pattns o sold stat physcsts wold tho b a tst o th stats and nnc ov th dcton o th ld. Jst as Stz was ttn a sns o how th jonal nastct n th Untd Stats wold shap th t h t o sold stat physcs, h was blndsdd by Havy Books, th Havad physcst and stdnt o John Van Van Vlck who had al xpssd skptcsm abot th wsdom o a clos allanc btwn sold stat and chmsty ch msty.. Stz and th AIP had bn dlbatly tstn th wats bo actn on th pblcaton poblm, and so w takn
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aback pon lann that Books had, wthot consltn th movs and shaks at th AIP o th APS, coondd th International Journal o the Physics and Chemistry o Solids n patnshp wth Pamon Pss. As th ttl ndcatd, ths nw jonal was an ntnatonal ot, pblshn atcls n Rssan, Fnch, Gman, o Enlsh, and skn to mt th pcvd nd wthn th lobal commnty “to ncoa at ntchan btwn physcsts and chmsts ntstd n solds.”70 Th owod to th st ss, pblshd n Sptmb 1956, ban: “Th mnc o soldstat physcs as a conzd spcalty o physcs has takn plac ov a pod o many yas. A mo cnt dvlopmnt, stmlatd patly by th owth o ndstal ntst n th ld, has bn th own alzaton o th common ntsts o physcsts and chmsts n th poblms o solds.” 71 Th jonal mt a cla dmand wthn th sold stat commnty. Bt that commnty was alady hhly htonos, and t was not yt cla to ts lads that ths patcla consttncy consttn cy shold ovn th dcton o pblcaton wthn th ld. Th jonal’s sddn appaanc tho pmptd th th AIP’s ots to mana th pblcaton poblm domstcally. Stz, whl svy o th commnty was n poss, had ntatd dscssons wth th Acadmc Pss abot th possblty o ondn a nw jonal, wth an adnc to b dtmnd by whatv nds th AIP-APS commtt dntd, th scop o whch wold b tnd so as to sphon an appopat pblcaton load om th Physical Review. Books, by actn otsd o th powl nstttonal mchansms th AIP and APS w ctn, lmtd th ablty to scal scal th spons to th pblcaton poblm by slctn a consdd topc and volm o th nw jonal. Books lnt sppot to an ntdscplnay jonal and had thby dcdd to avo a clos assocaton wth both ndsty and chmsty, jst as Stz was ttn a sns that ths was pcsly what th most vocal consttncy wthn sold stat dd not want. Books was cowd whn h land that h had pst th AIP appl cat. H avodd xtndn th ss vn so a as hs sctay, and sl-typd a lon, svly svly apolotc ltt to Stz dscbn how h had sccmbd to a had sll om Gnal Elctc’s J. Hbt Hollomon and Kvn Maxwll, th dcto o Pamon Pss’s ntnatonal nt natonal dvson. “As “As I thnk thn k back ov th hstoy o ths matt,” Books wot, “I alzd that my bhavo has bn somwhat nxplcabl and not to my cdt, and ndd n tospct I l qt nhappy abot my actons.” H th xpssd concn “wth th act that n ths matt I hav bhavd wth a d o sponsblty
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whch s a matt o at t to m, and I l that I hav not dalt aly o honstly wth yo th n yo capacty as chaman o th nsttt, o as psntn Acadmc Pss, o as a nd.” Nonthlss, Books mantand: “Th job tsl [as dto o th nw jonal] s a woth whl on n my opnon, and I do not man to mply by my psnt ts that I hav any hstaton n bn assocatd wth t oth than th qston o whth wh th I can do a ood job.”72 Stz pld pontdly to Books’s contt mssv, otlnn how th appaanc o th nw ntnatonal pblcaton otlt dsptd th AIP’s ablty to mont a masd spons to dstnctly natonal challns: challn s: “Untl th chaact o th nw jonal s claly stablshd, t wll hav th ct o p-mptn th poston o any oth jonal that mht b contmplatd. Abot hal th ntst o any nw jonal wold b n th ld yos wll cov.. Anoth ndvdal mht hstat to accpt th dtoshp at ths tm. cov I nd t vy had to dcd whth ths s ood o bad o Amcan physcs as a whol.”73 Books nwttnly tammld Stz’s bst-lad plans, bt hs jonal to wdspad dmand. Its mpact not to pvntwas th an AIPhonst om spons spondn to th pblcaton poblm, btwas to nd a smmay dcson on how th poblm wold b addssd. It was a spons, althoh phaps not th pcs spons that wold hav md om a mo dlbatv pocss. Fo btt o wos, th AIP and th APS cold now n ow ocs th spctv sponss to th pblcaton poblm mo naowly. Th nw ntnatonal jonal wold not ba noh o th natonal pblcaton otpt to adqatly addss th lt, whch consmd th APS n th md-1950s to th xtnt that commtts on ts vaos aspcts polatd. polat d. Ths ncldd, as o 1956, th “Standn Commtt to consd sch pblcaton-poblms p blcaton-poblms as Manan Edto dos not accpt as lyn[] n hs povnc,” povnc,” th “Commtt to consd a poposal o Natonal Scnc Fondaton adn pblcatons n physcs,” physcs,” and “Commtt to stdy all aspcts o th poblm o pblcatons o Amcan physcs.” By 1957, th om two had, n th ancl phasn o Kal Daow, achd “what som nntnth-cnty statsman calld a condton o nnocos dstd.”74 Th actos ld to dcd ncy o th pblcaton poblm. Th mnc o nw otlts—Books’s jonal, alon wth a smattn o oth pvatly ndd physcs jonals— jon als— was on. Scond, as ncass n pa chas and sbscpton s kckd n and ocals cackd down on loophols—sch as lbaans jonn th APS to t ts jonals at mmb ats ath than lbay ats—pblcaton
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opatons nchd back towad solvncy. Fnally, th Physical Review Revie w and a pss valv n th om o Physical Review Letters, whch lanchd n th mddl o 1958 wth ndn om th Natonal Scnc Fondaton. Th ast-pblshn jonal o shot pcs, pvosly accommodatd as ltts to th dto n th Physical Review, satsd th dmand o a qck-topnt otlt that cold potct poty clams o mpotant nw sach and lvd th Physical Review o a sbstantal volm o contbtons. In pat d to th l Physical Review Letters povdd, th Physical Review had naly clad ot ts backlo by 1960. A lvd Saml Godsmt potd to th Janay concl mtn that hs lon-sn jonal was “wll on th way to catchn p.”75 Th shotnn o th Physical Review’s tnaond tm took consdabl oomph ot o th psss avon a topcal alnmnt o th socty’s pblcaton stct. Fo th tm bn, all topcs o physcs wold man alnd wth th ld’s ashp jonal. Th pshot was that, dspt a at dal o hand-wnn and th xstnc o sval smnly vabl plans that wold hav vn sold stat physcsts nw pblcaton homs, blkjonals. o th Amcan sold stat commnty contnd pblshn n ththco A combnaton o small, spcalst jonals spnn p on th own ntatv, a tn to solvncy o th Physical Review, and ston opposton om a small bt vocal bloc o sold stat physcsts nsd that sold stat wold man mly stablshd as a sbld o physcs and avod any oanzatonal commtmnt to th latonshps t otn blt nomally wth latd lds. COMMITTING TO PHYSICS
Th challns o a cowdd pblcaton landscap dd not vapoat onc sold stat’s hlmsmn solvd to st saly nsd th bondas o th physcs commnty, commnty, bt th dscplnay dscpln ay dntty css dd sbsd, s bsd, o a tm. Sold stat wold ctvly t a ddcatd jonal n 1970, whn th Physical Review splt nto o spaat sctons, wth Physical Review B ddcatd to sold stat.76 By that tm, sold stat’s poston wthn physcs was mo stabl than t had bn n th md-1950s and th sbdvson o th jonal, whch had bcom a smpl ncssty basd on th volm o atcls Physical Review was pblshn, dd not as qstons abot th ld’s lmntal dntty. Sold stat physcs n th 1950s was analoos to a dsoanzd systm bnnn to sl-oanz. Th cmncal spt wth whch t was ondd n th 1940s lt t nsally sscptbl to th omaton o ntst ops,
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patclaly thos that natally w aond sach poams, and whch shad w ston ntllctal connctons wth oth sch ops that also omd nd th aspcs o sold stat. Ths ntst ops dvlopd dn vsons o th t o th ld. As nw possonal challns md dn th 1950s, ths ops w vn vn th oppotnty to nd n d sold stat physcs n a dcton that btt std th oals. Th objcton o on o ths ops to a clos assocaton wth chmsty contbtd to sold stat’s avodn stps that wold hav ndd ts pblshn opatons away om th st o physcs. It hlpd that th op op was wll oanzd—mo so than th ld as a whol—and vocal. Th sccss was d n pat to th stct o th sold stat commnty. commnty. Th lack o a commonly shad concptal poam mant that sold stat was opn nto small, wakly ntactn commnts blt aond spcc sach poams. Th thst o th whol sold stat condaton cold b shtd sbstantally only on o ths ops, o a small sbst o thm, chos to spak p. In ths cas, th cad o sold stat physcsts who had blt amstd coopatv ntwok spons cntd to onan thactv lctomantc solds an mphatc qston o popts dscplnayopolcy. Evn thoh ths op dd not ncssaly psnt sold stat physcsts as a whol, thy mad noh o an mpsson on thos sponsbl o makn th dcsons that thy w abl to d th ld n th dcton that bst std th own ntsts. Th cas was add by th tmly appaanc o sval small jonals that lvd som o th pss on APS and AIP pblshn opatons and dcd th mpts mpt s o swpn chans n pblshn pattns. Two actos a patclaly notabl abot ths psod. Th st s that t sltd om a dlcat ss o contnncs. Stz and hs pblcatons commtt w n a poston to xcs consdabl sway ov how commnty dynamcs wthn sold stat volvd. Th sach ndcatd a ld that, by and la, wold wlcom ocal conton o th clos assocaton btwn sold stat physcs and chmsty that thy saw on th ond, patclaly n ndstal laboatos. At Havy Books nwttnly thw a wnch n th woks, th pow was ctald sbstantally sbstanta lly.. A vocal mnoty avon nacton thby and addtonal wht. Th scond s th patcla chaact o that vocal mnoty. Th cohsv op o sachs—and thosts n patcla—mn aond stds o th lctomantc popts o solds ban to smbl a tadtonal sbld on a small scal mch mo than sold stat tsl dd, vn
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at low solton. Ths op was commttd to mantann th ntps as a pat o physcs and sstd any ots that wold ntodc ambty abot wh sold stat stood. Ths op was, n act, th ncls o what wold bcom “condnsd matt physcs,” th stablshmnt o whch s xplod n chapt 8. Thy w way o th convntonal bass on whch sold stat was ondd and saw th actosnss that sltd as an obstacl n th qst to an wd conton o th ntllctal contbtons to physcs. In ths sns, sold stat physcsts’ spons to th pblcaton poblm povd to b both dyn and dstablzn. On th on hand, t solvd som lnn ambty abot th bondas o th tan on whch sold stat wold ptch ts ovszd tnt. On th oth, t st th sta o a challn to sold stat’s convntonal dnton. By xtn th nnc to kp sold stat wthn th stablshd physcs jonals, th ascndant bloc o condnsd matt thosts stablshd th ondwok o oanzn th actvts aond a wll-dnd amly o concptal appoachs. Th pblcaton hav bn a latvly mnowas challn whn sn npoblm, th laalthoh contxttomht Amcan physcs n th 1950s, a pld to t and mo complt oanzatons o th sach tadtons that mad p sold stat physcs.
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BIG SOLID S OLID ST STA ATE PHYSIC P HYSICS S AT THE NATIONAL MAGNET LABORATORY
It s ppostos . . . that th conty’s only natonal aclty o hh mantc ld sach s hamstn whl mllons a bn spnt on dndant aclts n oth scntc dscplns. —BENJAMIN LAX, 1967
Th Natonal Mant Laboatoy (NML), stablshd n 1960, was sold stat’s answ to th la-scal patcl acclatos that bcam th dntv sach nstmnts o hh ny physcs. Th NML, dsnd to podc vy hh mantc ld stnths n od to stdy th mantc popts o matt, was th banchld o Fancs Btt. A backond n both mtally and th qantm thoy o mantsm pdsposd Btt to a vson o sold stat physcs as a ld ddcatd to th sach o ndamntal knowld. That vson wold d NML, vn at Btt’s poo p oo halth pvntd hm om dctn th aclty h had dsnd, bt th lab wold also ac consdabl pss, both om wthn and wthot, to mak ts poammn mo dctly answabl to shot-tm tchncal nds. Th NML was bon nto th a o b physcs. Follown th Scond Wold Wa, physcsts om th whol swp o sbjct spcalts and nstttonal sttns had acclmatd to lavsh ovnmnt spndn. Th Natonal Scnc Fondaton (NSF), whch dspnsd ts st ants n 1950, psntd a stabl commtmnt to t o dal sppot o o sach. Th Atomc Eny Commsson (AEC) nsd a ady soc o sppot o ncla physcs. And mltay oanzatons lk th Dpatmnt o Dns (DOD) and th Oc o Naval Rsach had ovown cos, a va bt powl convcton n th mts o opnn thm to scntc sach, and w
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dlns o how thy w pmttd to dspns ndn. Th npcdntd mncnc o ths oanzatons pmttd scntsts to man sach on a nw scal, and to ad t as nomal. Th NML was th st la aclty aclt y to sppot a sncant ocs ocs on sold stat sach, bt oths ollowd. Lat n th 1960s, th AEC ondd ncla acto aclts at th Natonal Natona l Laboatos optmzd to podc hh nton x. Th Hh Flx Bam Racto at Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy and th Hh Flx Isotop Racto at Oak Rd Natonal Laboatoy, whch, lk th NML, w mlts aclts, sppotd nton n ton dacton sach that bcam ctcal o th stdy o matals.1 Bookhavn ndtook th Natonal Synchoton Lht Soc n th 1970s, whch took what had pvosly bn a nsanc o hh-ny acclato dsns, synchoton adaton, and hanssd t to nabl pcs X-ay and ltavolt scattn xpmnts n a wd vaty o lds, bt patclaly n th stdy o matals.2 Th NML antcpatd th styl o b scnc condctd n both hh-x sach actos and synchoton socs, whch mphaszd svc otsd ss andt th xblty to adapt to th nds o vaos sachtopoams, makn an aly xampl o tnds clmnatn n what Robt P. P. Cas and Cathn Wstall call c all th “nw “n w b scnc” scnc ” o th lat twntth cnty.3 Bt nlk hh-x actos o synchoton socs, whch w qckly ocd to compt wth smla aclts o ss, th NML mand nq o som tm as a la aclty ddcatd to hh mantc lds. Mantsm was amon th last ntst ops wthn sold stat physcs, and t ntactd obstly wth nhbon lds. Th Amcan Insttt o Elctcal Enns oanzd a ss o wll-attndd conncs on mantsm and mantc matals, bnnn n 1955, whch th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) cosponsod and whch many sold stat physcsts attndd. 4 Th momntm bhnd mantsm sach nsd obst dmand o th NML’s NML ’s svcs and, n th ys o ts admnstatos, a dmnstatos, st t apat om om th patcl acclatos that w polatn aond th sam tm. Asd om ts plac n th wll-known stoy o Cold Wa b scnc, th NML also ats n th latd, bt lss wll ndstood stoy o how thtnn scnc bdts shapd th sach landscap n th 1960s. 5 A ocs on dal spndn o socal poams as pat o Lyndon Johnson’s Gat Socty lslaton, th wa n Vtnam, and th owth o a mo ntcat bacacy wthn th ndn oanzatons conspd to mak ndn scac and to q at accontablty om ant cpnts.
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Many aclts and sach poams that had own optmstcally on th noshmnt o latvly nttd ovnmnt sppot had to adapt, qt abptly, to lan tms. Fdal blt-thtnn actd som aas o physcs mo than oths. Patcl physcs saw ths n th 1960s wth th bbon cttn o th Altnatn Gadnt Synchoton at Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy, Laboatoy, whch wold man th wold’s most powl acclato ntl 1968. By thn, hh ny physcs aclts had bcom mpotant o sstann th conty’s ntnatonal scntc pst. Th t o hh ny physcs was assd by th nnchn commtmnt o th AEC, alon wth spplmntay sppot om NASA, th DOD, and th NSF, and t md om th dcad wth conssonal commtmnt to nd th Natonal Acclato Laboatoy (NAL), whch wold bcom btt known as Fmlab.6 Rlyn to a at xtnt on dsctonay ndn om th DOD, sold stat physcs acd stp cts. Sold stat physcsts ond t patclaly dclt to nd sppot o xploatoy o thotcal sach, and at a tm whn many n th sawtothat wok as ctcal o mantann th ntllctal standn wthld spct oth sblds o physcs. Examnn how a la aclty ddcatd pncpally to sold stat sach spondd to ths psss pmts a compason btwn sold stat–styl b physcs, and b physcs as sn thoh patcl acclatos. Both pocdd om th convcton that th nw ndamntal knowld abot th physcal wold mad possbl by qantm mchancs cold b accssd by th la machns mad possbl by xpandd dal ndn. Fancs Btt, alon wth Bnjamn Lax, th NML’s st dcto, ndstood th aclty as th sold stat analo o th Altnatn Gadnt Synchoton at Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy Laboat oy,, th Stanod Lna Acclato Accl ato,, and smla hh-ny aclts, and n som spcts t was smla. It was dvn by th thos o sach at th xtms—th xtms o hh ny patcls n on cas, and hh ntnsty mantc lds n th oths. Both typs o aclty ostnsbly xstd to satsy o lmntay costy abot th physcal wold. Bt ntnal tnsons ov th NML NML’s ’s msson ndcat that tha t th pll o applcatons was nv a om sold stat wok, and that ts sachs and admnstatos w calld to balanc thos mssons n ways hh ny aclts w not. Th nancal stls o th md- to lat la t 1960s a patclaly valn o how b sold stat physcs dd om b patcl physcs, and o how th p scnc dal, whch lvd on dspt th challns
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to ts domnanc n th 1940s and 1950s, had to b hybdzd wth appld lvanc n th contxt o sold stat sach. FRANCIS BITTER AND A VISION FOR PHYSICAL METALLURGY
In 1939, Fancs Btt was a yon assocat posso n MIT’s Dpatmnt o Mnn and Mtally. Hs backond, thoh, was chaactstc o an Amcan physcst o ths a—nlk many o hs dpatmntal collas wth backonds n nnn o chmsty. Hs commtmnt to physcs was scd by a pdoctoal stnt n Bln n th vntl yas o 1925 and 1926. Btt calld han Max Planck spak on thmodynamcs, attndn th colloqm at whch Ewn Schödn ntodcd wav mchancs, and tachn hmsl lctcty and mantsm om Max Abaham’s txtbook, The Classical Theory o Electricity and Magnetism.7 Btt and hs PhD n physcs om Colmba Unvsty n 1928. Btwn lavn Colmba and jonn MIT MIT,, h spnt tm at assotd and aspcos nstttons. H condctd postdoctoal sach wth Robt Mllkan at Caltch, wokd as a sach physcst o Wstnhos, vstd th Cavndsh Laboatoy on a Gnhm Fllowshp. Dnand ths appontmnts, hs ntsts volvd om hs thss wok on th mantc sscptblts o ass to th nat o omantsm.8 Avn at MIT sh o hs Gnhm, Btt was nthsastc, and hs otlook on mtally bllsh. H atclatd a vson o mtally n an npblshd docmnt nttld “Abstact o th Psnt Stat and Possbl Dvlopmnts n Physcal Mtally.” Th docmnt atclatd hs hops that mtally cold tanscnd ts hstocal ocs on classyn th spcc popts o mtals and alloys and sk ndamntal contbtons. Th vson atclatd n hs “Abstact” wold also shap hs sbsqnt ots to cat th Natonal Mant Laboatoy’s msson. Btt dscbd hs staty o moldn mtally nto ndamntal scnc as ollows: Dn my b assocaton wth th sbjct o mtally I hav obtand th mpsson that n ths ld mo than any I hav com nto contact wth, th s now an oppotnty o apd and ndamntal dvlopmnt thoh an applcaton o th concpts and tchnqs o physcs and chmsty. Th achvmnt o sch poss mst com as a slt o th coopatv ot o a op o mn whos ch ntst t s to dscov and classy th popts o mtals and alloys n all th nalty wth th am o omlatn physcal
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laws, ath than to ollow th bhavo o ctan spcal alloy systms n dtal wth th am o dvlopn and ndstandn commcal pocsss.
Btt dstnshd btwn th nnn and th scntc componnts o mtallcal sach and ond that thoh nscnt dvlopmnt o th latt, th om lackd “pop hlp and stmlaton o a ndamntal 9
nat.” H dscbd how mtally mht poston tsl to mak what h dmd ndamntal contbtons, whch nvolvd bldn a obst concptal ondaton ootd n physcs and chmsty, pls a staty o collaboatn acoss dscplnay bondas to boow tchnqs and nshts om lds wth stablshd ndamntal sach poams. Ths and vson o mtally mht jst as wll hav bn a oadmap o th as-ytnnamd sold stat physcs. It calld o ndstandn nal ats o mtals thoh thotcal physcs, a ocs on mchancal popts, sach on cystal stct, and ncasd ndstandn o phas p has tanstons, all o whch wold all nd th aspcs o sold stat sta t onc th ld cohd atBtt’s th Scond Wold Wa.o ndamntalty was an nclsv on. Physcs ndstandn had t, chmsty had t, and mtally cold attan t by adoptn th nobl habts o ths dscplns. Btt’s optmsm o th t o mtally qd a two-sta pocss o ostn basc nshts and thn bldn a clos latonshp wth, whl stll mantann a spaaton om, pactcal applcatons. “Th physcst dvlops th ndamntal laws whch th nn appls. In chmsty w hav a smla staton,” h wot, bo psntn hs htocal call to ams, askn: “Who, n mtally, s don a smla job?”10 Btt mphaszd that constctv dalo btwn abstact scnc and ts applcatons cold nat advancs n both, and that stablshn la dscos btwn thm was ncssay to mak th ld o mtally a ndamntal scnc. Btt’s dsqston on mtally otlnd otln d two dmnsons o ndamntal sach. Th st was th omlaton o nal pncpls; th scond, a pactcal consdaton, was slnss n a wd vaty o nw sach. Th man aw Btt pcvd n contmpoay mtallcal wok was nscnt mphass on codyn lats n th bhavo o mtals. Th ld lackd th nalzn npt o thoy. Th hallmaks o ndamntal dscplns, Btt mantand, w thotcal pncpls that appld—and that actally w appld—byond naowly dnd systms. A scnc concnd wth th popts pop ts o mtals and alloys, a lloys, tho, cold bcom n-
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damntal by catn a thotcal schm sl o dscbn th popts o mtals and alloys as a class o matals. Oanzn xstn knowld nto a nalzd schm, thoh, was not th ltmat oal o ndamntal sach; ndamntal scnc also had to pov sl n aas wh knowld was lss s-ootd. Btt mphaszd cndty as a mak o ndamntalty. Ths tm mpls th actal, not jst th potntal, naton o ntllctal pony: th nal pncpls that satsy Btt’s st cton can b dmd ndamntal onc thy pov th woth n a alm o whch thy w not spccally dsnd. Fom ths pspctv, achvn ndamntalty dmands mo than modln sach on dscplns that alady xhbt t; t qs bldn th psonal and nstttonal latonshps thoh whch sach ots can xcs nnc. Scnc bcoms ndamntal, n ths sns, whn thos latonshps hav povokd povokd nw sach and an d svd as a ondaton o nw conclsons. Btt pcvd ths qalty n physcs and chmsty. Both scncs amd to nqy omlat pncpls, mo mpotant, ch ntactons btwn andnal applcatons dovbt, poss n ths scncs and mad thm boadly applcabl to lds lk mtally and an d nnn. nnn . Fo Fo Btt, th poblm was not jst that mtallsts wantd o a obst thoy o mtals; thy w not vn n dalo wth popl who w wokn to dvlop on. In th absnc o sch an ntacton, Btt thoht, mtally wold b lmtd to catalon and qantyn th popts o a own alloy zoo. Ths typ o sach, bcas t dd not ps p s nal laws o ask a sk novl qstons, cold nv b ndamntal. Hs mdy was to ncoa mtallsts to ovcom th nslaty o th ld and collaboat wth physcsts and chmsts to bld th bds that wold ost nw thnkn. Btt’s commndatons calld o MIT mtallsts to chan th way thy oanzd th dpatmnt and t wthn nsttt nastct, sstn, o xampl, that “on o two physcsts n th mtally dpatmnt . . . cay ot th wok n clos contact wth th st o th sta, sta,”” and pomotn “clos contact wth [John C.] Slat’s wok n Physcs and wth th wok o [Chals W.] W.] MacGo n Mchancal Ennn. Ennn.””11 FOUNDING THE NATIONAL MAGNET LABORATORY
Btt’s vw o ndamntal knowld was pvotal to th ondn and owth o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy two dcads lat. Btt coodnatd plannn o th NML, whch opnd n 1960. Its aly hstoy cts
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Fancs Btt’s 1939 vson. Th poposal that convncd th A Foc Oc o Scntc Rsach to nd th lab amd ts msson compatbly wth Btt’s noton o ndamntalty, ts oal bn “to mak contnos lds p to 250,000 ass avalabl o ndamntal ndamntal sach n sold stat and low tmpat physcs and latd lds, and to sv as a cnt o advancn th at o ld naton. naton.””12 Btt had tansd to th physcs dpatmnt n 1945 and stat physcs, ath than mtally mtall y,, 13 h blt th NML wth sold stat n mnd. Th NML wold sppot ondatonal sach n od to nch th ld and mak t mo podctv. A qot om Btt’s laboatoy ddcaton spch, composd lon bo bdt concns casd NML sta to mphasz ts pactcal oshoots, ndcats th plac h saw t occpyn wthn th scntc commnty: “Th sold-stat sach poam s bn tansd om th M.I.T M.I.T.. mant laboatoy to th nw n w aclty [th NML]. Th am o ths poam s to ncas knowld o th basc lctcal, lct cal, mantc, optcal, acostcal, and thmal popts o solds. Ths ndamntal nomaton, psd odvlopmnt ts own sak,ohas and wllmpovd contnsold-stat to povdlcth bass o th contnn nw and tonc dvcs.”14 Concn wth stablshn an nvonmnt n whch nda ndamntal sach cold osh was at th oont o Btt’s thnkn. Wth th NML, h nstttonalzd hs convctons abot ndamntal sach, hopn that ts stct wold ncoa sach that cold, by ocsn lntlssly on th sach o nal pncpls, sv as th bass o somthn mo.15 Admnstatv sponsblty was shad amon th dpatmnts that sd th NML. Byond on a vn o sach sn hh mantc lds, th aclty povdd an ntdpatmntal om o MIT scntsts and nns and attactd att actd vstn sachs om oth nstttons, aan n accodanc wth Btt’s vw that ndamntal wok shold b otwad lookn. Th NML was also an dcatonal spac. Btt had admonshd th mtallcal commnty n 1939 that ndamntal advancs qd that stdnts b tand to ask ndamntal qstons. In th aly 1960s, th NML pomotd tsl as jst sch an oppotnty o MIT adat stdnts. A 1963 boch mphaszd ths aspct o th lab’s msson, totn th “oppotnty to ps xtmly ndamntal spclatons” that adat stdnts njoyd, ctn on doctoal stdnt’s wok on mantc ld dpndnc o th vlocty o ltasonc wavs n mtals. 16 By 1965, th lab’s scond ll ya o opaton, ts thtn acadmc sta sppotd
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twnty-o stdnts, who wokd alonsd nn sachs om Lncoln Laboatoy—a mltay sach lab, whch MIT admnstd—and ty-sx vstn scntsts.17 Th NML povdd th spac, socs, commnty, and pdaocal oppotnts ncssay o a sold stat sach aclty mbodyn Btt’s vson. Bt Btt, who was nan th nd o hs ca and acn halth poblms, dd not tak an actv ol n th lab’s admnstaton. Bnjamn Lax bcam ts st dcto. Lax was Hnaan-bon, bt had mmatd to th Untd Stats n hs yoth and and hs bachlo’s d at Coop Unon n 1941. H was datd whl psn doctoal wok at Bown and avd at MIT n 1944 as a Radaton Laboatoy sach. H stayd on at th wa, compltd hs PhD n 1949, and jond th Lncoln Laboatoy shotly that, sn to had o th Sold Stat Dvson n 1958. Th slcton o Lax as NML dcto psntd th ds to coodnat sold stat sach acoss dpatmnts. John Slat, who wldd sncant nnc as an Insttt Posso and had o th physcs dpatmnt’s sold op, wot MIT psdnt Jls Statton asstat plansand omolcla th NML thoy w bwn: “I ltothat w szd th oppotnty psntd by th Mant Laboatoy Laboa toy,, t os thoh, and colatd t wth . . . wok on solds n th dpatmnts o Physcs, Chmsty, Elctcal Ennn, and som o that n Mtally, w shold hav th possblty o bldn p a sold-stat laboatoy o at val not only to M.I.T. and th dcatonal poam, bt to th svcs and th conty as a whol.” Slat advocatd opn psntatvs om ths dpatmnts “toth wth Lax and as mch o th Lncoln sold-stat op as cold possbly b ncldd, n a at coopatv oanzaton, possbl hosd toth on o clos to th camps, and ncldn . . . stdnts, possos, and sach scntsts o th Lncoln typ. typ.””18 Sppot om s o Slat’s pomnnc nsd that th nw lab, byond absobn th xstn mant poam Btt had stablshd, wold sk at ntaton o sold stat wok acoss MIT’s camps. Wth nstttonal sppot o ntdpatmntal collaboaton scd, Lax cad Btt’s thos owad. A 1963 pomotonal docmnt o th lab asstd: “Whl th pmay mphass at th Natonal Mant Laboatoy s on th acqston o basc knowld concnn th stct stct o solds, t s a hstocal act that wok o ths nat has ld to a achn tchnolocal advancs.”19 Lax tod th sam ln n pvat cospondnc. “I blv t s mpotant o s to povd n th ld o basc sold stat and appld phys-
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cs, cnts o xcllnc that wll contbt to dcaton and to scnc n a most ctv way,” h wot to Roman Smolchowsk n 1965. 20 Th amnt that nvstmnt n basc sach, wthot ots to shap ts dcton om wthot, was th bst way to ost sl slts was a standad thm n scntc htoc by th 1960s, and aly on t was a sl jstcaton o th lab. Th NML was podctv. By Dcmb 1965, ts thty-ht sta mmbs had pblshd sxty-on paps that calnda ya, wth twnty-nn mo n pss, accptd, o sbmttd, and had collctvly dlvd svntynn mtn o colloqm talks. Ths nmbs mo than dobld 1963 totals, a otstppn th 18.75 pcnt sta ncas n th sam ntval. 21 O th sxty-on atcls, atcl s, book chapts, and monoaphs pblshd n 1965, mo than hal, thty-svn, w pblshd n Amcan Insttt o Physcs jonals. O ths, ths , nntn appad a ppad n th Physical Review o Physical Review Letters, th ashp pblcatons ddcatd to basc physcal sach.22 Ths atcls contbtd to majo contmpoay sold stat sach tajctos, o nstanc byAlthoh xamnn th band o solds popts o spcondctos. cd, thsstct data ndcat that aand la popoton o th lab’s otpt was ddcatd to th typ o ondatonal wok Btt champond. Th aclty was a ston daw o yon talnt wthn th sold stat commnty.. Lax ond hmsl wth an mbaassmnt o chs n th md-1960s mnty and compland to th Natonal Rsach Concl’s Sold Stat Scncs Panl that dspt havn “ntvwd a at acton o st-at yon scntsts than w hav thohot my nt ca . . . wth vy w xcptons, w lctantly tnd ths away.” 23 Lax hmsl won th Olv E. Bckly Pz n 1960, whch, althoh lss than a dcad old at that pont, was amon th most pstos p stos accolads a sold stat physcst cold an. H wold b lctd to th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs n 1969 laly on th stnth o hs wok at th NML. It was not o want o slts that th A Foc’s nthsasm o th aclty ban to wan n th md-1960s. MID-1960S FUNDING PRESSURES
In 1965 th NML admnstaton askd th Natonal Scnc Fondaton to assm nancal sponsblty o vstn scntst sppot and a sha o both mant mantnanc and sach costs om th A Foc. Fndn o th laboatoy had stalld at ts ntal amp-p. Wdspad natonal shotas n basc scnc ndn, concdn wth th scalaton scalat on o th Vt-
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nam Wa Wa,, bcam a pod wth whch to nd th lab towad a mo xplctly appld stanc. Lax notd wth som alam th A Foc’s ncasd ntst n th applcabl ts o mant sach n 1967: “Ths s a complt chan om th past whn NML was dscoad om ncldn n ts chat an appld poam.”24 Lloyd A. Wood, dcto o th physcal scncs dvson wthn th A Foc’s Oc o Scntc Rsach, sbstantatd ths obsvaton, wtn to Lax a month lat: “It s as yo know bcomn mo and mo an ss n Washnton to ‘copl’ dally sppotd basc sach to ‘pactcal’ ntpss, and a la pojct sch as th Mant Laboatoy has a at oppotnty o don ths.”25 An y on appld bnts was not ncompatbl wth th NML’s statd msson, whch had, snc Btt’s aly vson, mphaszd th mpotanc o basc nsht o tchnolocal advanc. “Copln” o basc sach ndn wth xplctly pactcal consdatons, howv howv,, challnd both Btt’s concpton o ndamntal sach as convsant wth, bt ndpndnt om, ts applcatons and Lax’s vson o th lab. Lax sstd any ontaton o th NML’s ndamntal waswas happy to accommodat an ovtly appld poam as lonmphass. as th AH Foc wlln to spply th addtonal ndn, bt mantand: “Fnancally w a n no poston to bn sch wok on o own.”26 Lax also pshd to kp appld pojcts and th ndn nslatd om th opatons and basc sach bdts. H tstd bo Conss on th t h tanston om A Foc to NSF ndn, o nstanc, that th NML “has always copld ts basc sach slts wth th msson-ontd ancs havn th atst ntst n a patcla ln o dvlopmnt and wll contn to do so,” whl qalyn that commtmnt by sayn, “Whn th s a dvlopmnt o spcal ntst to an ancy w wll solct sppot and patcpaton by that ancy, whth t b th A Foc o oth DOD dpatmnt, NASA, NIH, o th nvonmntal ancs.”27 Explctly appld pojcts w n, n Lax’s ys, as lon as thy dd not dvt attnton o ndn om th ndamntal wok h consdd th lab’s ason d’êt. As notatons wth th NSF contnd thoh th md-1960s, th laboatoy acd tht bdts and an nctan t. Th NML advsoy commtt was ntally atatd. In Fbay 1966, th commtt stck a dant ton n th ac o stctv st ctv bdts, mantann “th ston opnon that a modat and odly xpanson o ndn s dsabl,” and th notn: “It s dscoan and nhalthy o a Laboatoy, at a voos ntal pod o bldn p om zo to a vabl stat, to b abptly lvld
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o by bdtay constants, whn la aas o ntstn and appopat sach man.”28 Jst ov a ya lat, th commtt was mo snd to th dclt nvonmnt. An Apl 1967 pot od lss sstanc to bdtay stass, and sndly notd: “smla bdt zs act all sold stat physcs sach, not most scntc sach actvts n ths conty at th psnt tm.” tm.”29 Oth pojcts that lackd th ltt o hh ny physcs o th statc mmdacy o ncla wapons dd ndd ac smla challns. In 1969, th bdt qst om th Los Alamos Mson Physcs Faclty, Faclty, a pojct nd dvlopmnt that th AEC classd as a mdm-ny physcs pojct, was slashd by ov two-thds, om $15.3 mllon to $5 mllon. Th hact pomptd Los Rosn, th pojct’s dcto, to pot to Conss th dstss th pojct sta lt “not only bcas t dos not hav th bst ct on moal, to ctat so dastcally dn th constcton o a vy complx pojct, bt also bcas t dos not pmt s to complt th pojct n an odly, cnt, and conomcal way.” 30 was not contnt to accpt th lab’s thyLax, whowv, symptomatc o la tnds. H vntd hs stls statonjst to bcas a llow sold stat physcst, Havad’s Ncolaas Blombn: “It s t that th s a bdt sqz all thohot th conty, conty, patclaly on sold stat. stat . HowHowv, as t tns ot, nds hav bn ond o oth aas o physcs whch a alady btt ndd ovall natonally than th sold stat actvts at th nvsts. Ths, n spt o th act that sold stat consttts by a th last smnt o th physcal socty.”31 Lax was smlaly candd n a May 1967 ltt to Natonal Scnc Fondaton dcto Lland Hawoth: “W alz th cts o th Vtnam Wa and th ds o Conss to spad dal sppot o sach mo wdly wdly.. It s ppostos, howv, howv, that th conty’s only natonal aclty o hh mantc ld sach s hamstn whl mllons a bn spnt on dndant aclts n oth scntc dscplns.”32 By “dndant aclts,” Lax almost ctanly had n mnd th Natonal Acclato Laboatoy, plans o whch th Atomc Eny Commsson had appovd jst months al. Lax, th dcto o a la, on-oa-knd sold stat sach aclty was kd that acclato accl ato laboatos w polatn whl hs own was bn ocd to ctal ts poams. Hh ny physcs was by no mans mmn to th bdtay clmat o th lat 1960s. Majo AEC acclato aclts w ocd to dc th opatn tm n 1969 bcas o ndn shotas, and th AEC vn consdd closn som low-ny aclts. Bt cts to hh ny sach
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w sbstantally lss stp than cts to oth aas o scnc, laly d to ts sc plac n th AEC bdt.33 Rdctons n opatn tm and concns abot closn small and low-ny aclts dd not ostall nvstmnt at th oont o acclato dvlopmnt n th way Lax lt t was lmtn hs oont oont mant aclty aclty.. In what Lax consdd a sos concsson, th NML’s wok dd sht n a mo appld dcton towad th nd o th 1960s. In 1968, th htn pblcatons by NML sta n th Journal o Applied Physics qald th combnd total o thos pblshd n Physical Review and Physical Review Letters.34 An Apl 1969 Advsoy Commtt pot notd th addton o a poam dsnd to xplo mdcal applcatons o mantc lds. 35 In th aly 1970s, th lab ntatd mo aspatonal appld pojcts, sch as th manplan, whch ndavod to tanslat th NML’s know-how nto a mant-powd aload systm. Th manplan was a patclaly so pont o Lax, who lt t ptomzd th concssons th NML had mad to Vtnam-a dmands o appld payots om sold stat aclts psn bascKolm, sach. moththan on occason, NML tst Hny who On hadd pojct, clashd wth Laxsach ov thscnlab’s msson ( 5.1). In a mmo to Lax nttld “Mantsm Applcatons Pojcts,” Kolm dscbd hmsl as “th only ston-mndd SOB who has svvd n yo ntoa,” and vocd hs staton wth Lax’s dsappoval o Kolm’s appld ntsts: “O mantsm applcatons poams a not a concsson to xpdncy, an act o posttton n th blak yas o 69 to 71. Thy a a lon-nlctd lon-nlct d oblaton o th scntc commnty. commnty. Thy a vn nw lvanc to o adat dcaton, vtalzn o possonal stat, and mpovn th svval chancs o th laboatoy, o MIT, and o th nt scntc stablshmnt.” Kolm objctd to Lax’s contnton that th at o appld pojcts th lab had acqd sphond nds om ts mssonctcal sach. In a stak ndcaton o th dpth o th dsamnt ov th NML’s msson and dcton, Kolm sstd: “I yo nd t mpossbl to ntat a sncant applcatons poam nto th ‘co’ wok o th laboatoy n sch a way that yo and oths do not snt ts xstnc, thn sos consdaton shold b v[n] to svn t admnstatvly a dmnstatvly . . . by catn a nw laboatoy.”36 No sch schsm was othcomn, bt th tnsons btwn Lax and Kolm val th xtnt to whch chans n dal scnc polcy challnd th NML’s NML ’s msson, wth hlp om wthn. Lax, who admnstd n accodanc
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Figure 5.1. Hny Kolm, Pyot Kaptsa, and Bnjamn Lax, 1970s. Lax (ht) and Kolm (lt) convs wth th vstn Sovt low-tmpat physcst Kaptsa, wth whom Fancs Btt had wokd at th Cavndsh dn hs tm n Cambd. Cdt: MIT Achvs and Spcal Collctons, NMLR, box 2, old 12. Rpodcd wth pmsson
wth Btt’s vson o ndamntal sach, was shakn by th nd to tak on appld pojcts o th own sak. Kolm, psntn a yon naton, was lss dolocally opposd to addn appld objctvs to th laboatoy’s msson. Unlk la hh ny physcs aclts, whch w dvn by th nanmty o ppos qd to constct a la aclty dctd at a snl thotcal poam, th NML acd psss on ts basc sach msson on two onts. Th sold stat commnty mand man d actonalzd, and thos who pd th ld to b sponsv to tchnolocal possblts and nds oht to hav th own vson ctd n ts la aclts. CONTRASTING THE NATIONAL MAGNET LABORATORY AND THE NATIONAL ACCELERATOR LABORATORY
By 1971 th NML—namd th Fancs Btt Natonal Mant Laboatoy n Novmb 1967, ollown Btt’s dath—had ond mo stabl, not mo nos, nancal sppot om th NSF NSF.. Its stls thoh th lat
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1960s and aly 1970s a tlln: Fancs Btt’s vw o ndamntalty, althoh alzabl n a majo sach laboatoy, dd not a as wll n th la ndn nvonmnt. Th A Foc, ts nthsasm o aclts dvotd to nonappld wok dwndln, ban tansn sponsblty to a cvlan ancy, lmtn th lab’s xpanson, wll bo th 1970 and 1973 Mansld Amndmnts, whch qd Dpatmnt o Dns–ndd sach to connct claly wth shot-tm objctvs, complld sch a tans37 on a la scal. As th NML stld, hh-ny patcl acclatos thvd, vn som small patcl physcs aclts acd th pospct p ospct o cts and clos. Unlk sold stat physcsts, who cold not jsty a la aclty wthot nvokn potntal pactcal otcoms, patcl physcsts apd la-scal xpndts basd on th poms o ndamntal knowld. Wolan Panosky cold clam bo Conss n 1964 that “no scntst can pont a n at ths tm to th spcc way n whch th stdy o hh-ny physcs can and wll act o mmdat nvonmnt, o halth and saty, saty, 38 aas” wthot jopadzn ndn o th o podctvty, o any hman Stanod Lna Acclato. Smlaly, th t NAL dcto Robt R. Wlson amosly told th conssonal Jont Commtt on Atomc Eny n 1969 that th poposd acclato “has nothn to do dctly wth dndn o conty xcpt to mak t woth dndn,” and nsstd that th sach o ndamntal physcal knowld povdd th sam cltally nnobln qalts as at and ltat.39 Ths spons o Wlson’s, to a qston om John O. Pasto, a Dmocatc snato om Rhod Island, s otn qotd to ndcat ndca t th commtmnt o hh ny physcs to ndamntal knowld and th dsdan o mltasm chaactstc o th ld’s clt, and to llstat a pncpld stand aanst th ncoachmnt o dns ntst nto basc physcs—sstn that hh ny physcs was nd c assalt by both mltay and bdt hawks. Bt Pasto, a ston sppot o th NAL, askd abot dns only as an atthoht to a la dscsson abot th htoc o jstyn hndds o mllons o dollas’ woth o xpndts on aspatonal physcs poams whl th conty cont y wstld wth povty, povty, homlssnss, and hn hn .. “I want to t ths Conssmn o my back,” back,” h makd lat n th han, n to som sstanc to th pojct om om wthn th appopatons commtt, on whch h sat.40 Wlson’s amos qot ollowd an xchan btwn Pasto and Pal W. McDanl, dcto o th AEC’s sach dvson, n whch Pasto pssd McDanl to clay th mts o th NAL:
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Snato PASTORE. Fo th ppos o th cod, a yo ppad to say, o s ths a a qston, what yo xpct to nd thoh th 200 Bv [acclato]? D. McDANIEL. A btt ndstandn o th sbncla nvs, s my D. nal answ. My spcc answ s w do not know what w wll nd, bt w know th s a walth o nomaton th whch nds to b dvlopd. Snato PASTORE. PASTORE. And wth all ths oth pots o hn hn,, nddn, ndclothn, and ndhosn, how do yo jsty $250 mllon at ths tm o bldn somthn wth whch w don’t know what w a on to nd? D. McDANIEL. I wold smply say as an ndvdal that s a small amont n compason to th total capacty o ths conty to d th hny and to cloth th nakd. Snato PASTORE. I don’t lk that answ, at all. Ths a th amnts w t whn w o bo th Appopatons Commtt, and t s sally my sponsblty to cay th ball on ths. I wold lk to hav som dntv answs h as to pots, bcas that s on to b thown ht nto my ac. H w a. W hav ths Snatos on all ov th Dstct o Colmba. It has bn on th ont pas. Thy a on all ov th conty shown how many ma ny popl a stavn, st avn, how many popl a hny, hny, how many popl lv n at-ddn hoss. H w a, askn o $250 mllon to bld a machn that s an xpmntal machn, n ndamntal hh ny physcs, and w cannot b told xactly what w a tyn to nd ot thoh that machn. 41
It was at ths jnct that Wlson jmpd n, ctn both th cltal mpotanc o th sach o ndamntal physcal pncpls and a nd th socal bnts that had com om ncla pow as asons to nd oont sach n hh ny physcs. Wlson movd th commtt, whch was avoably dsposd to t o hs cas. Chst E. Holld, Dmocatc psntatv om Calona and cha o th commtt, shd, “As I lstnd to yo loqnt appal o ths, my mnd wnt back bo th days o Enco Fm Fm to a tm whn St. Pal stood bo Kn Appa, and Kn Appa sad to St. Pal that h wantd hm
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to xplan hs bl n th Chstan pncpls. St. Pal was so loqnt that whn h ot thoh, Kn Appa sad, ‘Almost ‘Almost tho psadst psa dst m to b a Chstan.’ I am sayn that, lavn ot th “almost.” I am sayn, ‘Tho hast psadst m to sppot ths to th bst o my ablty. ablty.’” Pasto, aan takn th pamatc ln, qppd, “I was not woyn abot Appa. I was a lttl wod abot th taxpays tax pays a-pn,” bt amd hs commtmnt to th pojct.42 Wlson’s lon-tm jstcaton o th pojct mod th htoc Fancs Btt and Bnjamn Lax had sd on bhal o th NML. H assd th commtt o hs “m xpctaton that tchnolocal dvlopmnts wll com. Dctly, bt at a vy lon tm; om th slts o th sach wll com nw tchnoloy.”43 Bt whas hh ny physcsts n th lat 1960s cold t away wth achn o th dstant poms o applcabl applca bl otcoms, and povdn only va acconts o th xpctd ntllctal otpts om hstocally la laboatos, oth aas o scnc w pssd to atclat mo dct and mmdat lvanc and, thy wantd to jsty had to ht tothat kp mo poxmat applcatons at am’snonappld lnth. Fo Fowok, sold stat physcs, mant ncasd pss t o thtn to ts conncton wth tchnolocal dvlopmnt, vn n s ns aclts constctd on th b scnc modl. By th lat 1960s, scnc o all stps was bn askd to b mo sponsv to socal dmands. Th act that Fmlab, dspt ts sl-conssd motnss om both mltay and socal concns, cold stll thv n ths nvonmnt ndcats th pvld plac hh ny physcs p hyscs had manad to sc. Hh ny physcsts, ambvalnt ov ov mltay and conomc jstcatons o th sach n th ac o 1960s potst movmnts, wdly mbacd th hh-mndd htoc o ndamntalty ndamnta lty that Wlson’s conssonal tstmony ptomzd. Thy w sccssl n castn patcl physcs as “a and cltal ntps, lant and poond, that dsvd th sppot o soct soctyy.”44 That avn to ndn, spcally la-scal ovnmnt ndn, was not avalabl to sold stat physcsts, who by th 1960s w alady too closly assocatd wth tchnoloy n th manatons o dal nds. Th p scnc vson aond whch Btt had blt th NML ald to ll th lab’s cos. Fv-ya plans and annal pots to th A Foc stssn th NML’s ndamntal contbtons cold not plcat th htocal sccss o Wlson’s loqnc on bhal o th NAL. Facd wth ths al, th NML’s sold stat physcsts lt slhtd by th compaatvly mo s-
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v ndn shotalls thy sd and sntd th mn pcpton n th patcl physcs commnty that ndamntal knowld cold only b dvd om th ltmat consttnts o matt and ny. Ths statons xtndd byond th walls o th NML. At th dawn o th 1970s, sold stat physcs was a mat dscpln, condnt n ts ablty to nat ndamntal scntc knowld, bt t was n th mdst o an dntty css xacbatd by navoabl compasons to ts mo ladd sblns.
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SOLID STATE AND MATERIALS SCIENCE
Dpatmntal allancs and pow dvs do not asly o n solton and cystallz ot a nw nvsty pattn o ntdpatmntal coopaton. —ARTHUR R. VON HIPPEL, 1969
In 1970, Albt M. Closton, th dcto o th Physcal Rsach Laboatoy at Bll Labs, bcam cha o th Amcan Physcal Socty’s nwly omd Commtt on Poblms o Physcs and Socty. Socty. Th ptton that ld l d to ths commtt achd th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) concl n 1969, motvatd motvatd by a sns that th t h apd owth and spcalzaton o Amcan physcs had naowd th ocs o many physcsts and mad t mo dclt o th APS and ts mmbs to consd th many and wd-ann connctons btwn physcal sach and socal poblms and pocsss.1 On o ts st tasks was a pot on th conomc concns o physcsts, whch Closton athod. “Fv yas ao t wold hav smd ncdbl that n 1970 Amcan physcsts wold b sosly concnd abot th conomc wll-bn o th posson,” Closton ban hs ssay, ntodcn a cla-yd dscsson o how th ndn shts dscbd n th pvos chapt tanslatd nto conct challns o Amcan physcsts. Nw PhDs stld to land job os. Many ond thmslvs n tmpoay postons, wthot th poms o tanstonn nto pmannt lns. Indsty, pvosly a to nlst physcsts n dvlopmnt ots, had sod on th poms o basc sach to nhanc th bottom ln and was tnn ncasnly to nns.
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Ths ccmstancs vvd th old dntty concns o th 1940s, o sold stat physcsts n patcla. To addss th conomc poblms boht on by ndn shotalls, shot alls, Closton mantand, “th physcs commnty nds to dn n a nal way what a th nq chaactstcs o a physcst.” Unlk th 1940s, howv, whn dntty concns w makd by ambvalnc and hstancy abot how closly tchnolocal applcatons shold b lnkd to th co msson o physcs, Closton wod n 1970 that th lnk was not cla noh to ns th conomc wll-bn o th dscpln.2 Closton had ason o concn. By th lat 1960s, th lst that th Manhattan Pojct had vn to basc physcal sach had add and dal nds w mch mo hadhadd abot how thy dstbtd th lass. Th ollback o ovnmnt and spcally mltay nds ctd own skptcsm abot th tn on nvstmnt om ndn basc scntc sach. Pojct Hndsht, a Dpatmnt o Dns (DOD) vw panl bn n 1963, assayd th cacy o DOD-sponsod sach poams. Th st ntm pot,that lasd n 1966, oshadowd nal pot’s conclsons, obsvn th “contbton om cnt th ndctd scnc to th systms w hav stdd appas to hav bn small,” and ncoad “altnatv pactcs n th manamnt o scntc sach” on th bass o th conclson that “th lnth o tm to tlzaton o scntc ndns s dcasd whn th scntst s wokn n aas latd to th poblms o hs sponso.”3 Th st Mansld Amndmnt o 1970 was consonant wth th conclsons o Pojct Hndsht, qn DOD-ndd sach to hav dct dns applcatons. What cold physcsts o n ths nvonmnt and how cold thy o t? On answ cam n th om o th nw, ntdscplnay ld o matals scnc.4 In som ctcal spcts, sold stat physcs can b ndstood as a hstocal antcdnt a ntcdnt to matals mat als scnc. Fst, sold stat physcs, alon wth nnn, nn n, chmsty, chmsty, and mtally, mtally, was on o th ndnts o th dscplnay stw that bcam matals mat als scnc. Scond, lk lk th sold stat o matt, “matals” s a catoy too ds to o mch n th way o concptal consstncy consstn cy.. And lk sold stat physcs, matals scnc cam nto bn n spons to a contnnt st o actos that had lttl to do wth th concptal dvlopmnt o th sach poams composn t. In th cas o sold stat physcs, thos actos had to do wth th possonal challns o a own physcs commnty. commnty. In th cas o matals scnc, thy had ha d to do wth th statc, conomc, and mltay alts o th Cold Wa. Th
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owth o matals scnc s tho lvant to ndstand th nnc o sold stat physcs on th st o Cold Wa scnc, both bcas th ndstandn o matal systms sold stat physcs od was dmd mpotant o mtn th dvlopmnt objctvs towad whch matal scnc was ontd, and bcas matals scnc ollowd n sold stat’s ootstps by catn a nw ld on th bass o local, contnnt, and nonconcptal objctvs. Ths chapt ollows th stablshmnt and owth o matals scnc, and sold stat’s plac wthn t, n od to ndstand th volton o vns and adncs o sold stat physcsts’ tchncal aspatons. Bcomn a dscpln wthn physcs qd chann som lon- and daly hld assmptons abot th dntty o physcs, bt t also qd byn nto thos assmptons to a lmtd xtnt. As a sbld o physcs, tho, sold stat was not th appopat vn o a snl-mndd poam o tchncal dvlopmnt—th DOD had dtmnd as mch wth ts lss than sann assssmnt o th pactcal payos o basc physcal sach. Ths ccmstancs th mnc o a nw n whchwth soldoth stat physcs w mhtavoabl ps o tchncal dvlopmnt n om collaboaton dscplns. Matals scnc povdd jst sch a vn. In th 1950s, many dal nds bcam convncd that nth mpcally dvn nnn ots, no pncpl-basd physcal nvstatons w adqat to addss th tchncal challns o Cold Wa dvlopmnt. Th htoc that ths two componnts ndd to b lnkd dvlopd ov th cos o th 1950s wthn th bonn dal advsoy systm. It was wthn commtts o th Natonal Acadmy o Scnc, th Oc o Naval Rsach, and oths, that th amnt was dvlopd o pttn sold stat physcs nto convsaton wth “matals sach,” whch, thoh th lat 1950s, was laly an nnn n nn spcalty spcalty.. That amnt wold b opatonalzd most oclly oc lly by th Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy (ARPA), a mltay sach and dvlopmnt oanzaton that dd th most to dn matals scnc by ondn a ss o ntdscplnay laboatos on Amcan campss, whch ctd th collaboaton btwn ths banchs o scnc and nnn by physcally colocatn othws scattd nvsty sach ops. By 1975, whn th Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn (COSMAT) pblshd ts spawln pot on th stats and dcton o matals scnc, Materials and Man’s Needs, th ats o sold stat phys-
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cs and matals scnc w nttwnd, wth th consqnc that matals scnc had bcom a thoohly ntdscplnay xcs, and that sold stat physcs had ond a th way to alz Smolchowsk’s vson o t as an otwad-lookn, collaboatv ld attnd to ts tchnolocal potntal. MATERIALS MA TERIALS RESEARCH BEFORE MATERIALS SCIENCE
“Matals” bcam a xaton o th US dal dal advsoy systm n th 1950s. As dstnshd om th mo nc tm “matt,” “matals” s to th st o tchnolocal dvlopmnt, wth popts that answ som poxmat nd. Thos nds w many n th aly Cold Wa. A and watcat, commncatons appaats, ny and wapons systms, and consm tchnolos all acd matal constants, and so sach nto nw and mpovd matals psntd statc oppotnts. It was not mmdatly vdnt to thos psn ths statc oals, howv, how physcs mht b lvant to ths nds. In 1951, Natonal Rsach Concl (NRC) omd asach Matalsmht Advsoy Boadth (MAB) to valat how advancs n matals addss statc bottlncks, patclaly n mltay dvlopmnt. MAB w om th old Mnals and Mtals Advsoy Boad. Th nam chan ctd “conton o th ntlatons o th mtals and nonmtals, patclaly n stctal applcatons.” Bt dspt th boadnd scop o th nw commtt, MAB’s aly 1950s taton had lttl contact wth physcsts. A 1954 pot dscbd th chan by notn: “Th Boad has bn constttd to ncld matals nns, chmsts, and mtallsts . . . to povd advsoy svcs to th Oc o th Assstant Sctay o Dns o Rsach and Dvlopmnt and to th Admnstato o th Gnal Svcs Admnstaton.”5 Oth aly ss o “matals sach” a smlaly nnn-cntc. Mltay sach oanzatons ollowd th NRC’s lad, cmntn matals sach as a pomnnt tat o Cold Wa sach and dvlopmnt. Th stcton to nnn ban to t o od towad th nd o th dcad as MAB hond ts msson, nstalld physcsts n nntal ols, and mbacd th lvanc o basc sach n a lmtd ashon. A 1957–58 NRC pot notd that “ncasd attnton to matals boht abot by th nds o wapons systm dvlopmnt has sltd n a consdabl xpanson xpan son o actvty o th Matals Advsoy Boad.”6 Th xpanson ncd h dd not jst ndcat nw n w psonnl, bt also vocs om nw dscplnay camps.
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Th nclson o physcsts, most o whom hald om th nwly vbant ld o sold stat physcs, concdd wth a makd sht n th mphass o matals sach. MAB’s xpandd topcal badth s vdnt n ts 1960 pot, “Fndamntal Aspcts o Matals Rsach.” Th commtt ncldd Conll physcst Jams Kmhansl as dpty cha. Th psnc o a physcst amon th mtallsts, mtall sts, chmsts, and ndsty mavns who pvosly composd th commtt ndcats MAB’s mn pnc o clos connctons btwn basc sach and ts applcatons, a poston that was ovt and nt by 1960. Th commtt ctczd th Dpatmnt o Dns’s xstn ots to moblz basc sach to statc nds, makn that “n-hos basc sach capablty s ossly nadqat.” Th commtt d th sach ams o th amy, navy, and a oc to sponso “ston cntalzd laboatos n whch basc sach, compsn th nt spctm o potntally ptnnt scnc ncldn th matals scncs, can b pomotd.”7 Ths commndatons, dsnd nhanc to possbn knowld to ba on th dns nds to o th naton“th n thablty shotst bl tm,” cam to dn th msson o matals scnc as t was mand wthn th dal advsoy nastct.8 Th concpt o basc sach was appopatd n svc o tchnolocal dns nds, whch w not bn addssd wth alacty scnt to appas th Dpatmnt o Dns and ts amy o advss. Rspondn to pss to moblz basc sach socs n od to acclat blackboad-to-battlld tnaond, th NRC boadnd ts concpton o matals scnc stll th. In 1960, a commtt to consd th “Scop and Condct o Matals Rsach” was omd “to vw th total matals sach nds o th conty wth laton both to natonal dns and th pblc wla mo nally; to appas th adqacy o psnt sach poams to mt thos nds; to consd th socs o psonnl, aclts, and admnstaton that a avalabl; and to mak commndatons o th cocton o dcncs that th Commtt may dnty.”9 Alonsd th la complmnt o nns, chmsts, and ndstalsts, ths commtt ncldd sold stat physcst Fdck Stz and mtallst Cyl Stanly Smth, th dcto o th Unvsty o Chcao’s Insttt o th Stdy o Mtals, a pomnnt cnt o sold stat sach. Th pot’s commndatons ctd a clos ntaton btwn scnc and nnn. It advocatd cntalzd cntalz d ndn, coodnaton, and ovsht o
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matals sach as wll as “stnthnn th nvsts n th dal ol o tann scntsts and nns and a nd also don basc sach.” sach.”10 By 1960, scntsts advsn th dal ovnmnt laly advocatd mchansms to ncas dalo btwn thos stdyn th popts o matals and thos mplmntn that knowld n statcally lvant ways. Th advsoy mphass on matals, n patcla wth spct sp ct to tann and basc sach, xtd ts nnc wthn Amcan nvsts. Th st majo txtbook o matals scntsts and nns appad n 1959: Lawnc Van Vlack’s Elements o Materials Science amd to synthsz tadtonal nnn appoachs wth basc scnc. Van Vlack nomd hs ads: “Th sbjct matt taht n Ennn Matals coss s chann chan n apdly a pdly.. Fomly Fomly,, ths sbjct sbj ct was taht t aht on an mpc mpcal al bass. bas s. Now, Now, althoh th scnc o matals s a om complt, t can b appoachd om a mo scntc vwpont, bcas o th dvlopmnt o pncpls whch lat th popts and bhavo o many matals to th stcts and nvonmnts. nvonmnts.”” Nonthlss, th volm mand ocsd towad th o nns: “Thsstdnts ntodctoy . . . s dsnd o shman andnds sophomo nnn wth atxt backond n nal physcs and chmsty; t dos not s th oos appoach whch s common n sold stat physcs books.”11 T to Van Vlack’s dscpton, th txtbook s lht on omalsm, optn to dlv contnt thoh pos, pcts, and daams, appaln to vsally and mchancally ontd nnn stdnts. As both th tajctoy o MAB and Van Vlack’s txtbook ndcat, s o th tm “matals scnc” to dnty a sach aa, onally stctd to nnn, ban to xpand by th lat 1950s. MAB cam to advocat o th dsablty o ncasd contbtons om basc scnc to addss statc tchncal oals, ctn th dal ovnmnt’s mphass on th challns o matal constants n th mltay and spac poams that wold b ampld at th Sovt Unon lanchd Sptnk 1 n 1957. Bt matals sach was stll mly nsconcd n an nnn tadton thoh th nd o th 1950s, a stat o aas that wold chan n th aly to md-1960s, whn matals scnc md as a s ns ntdscplnay xpmnt. THE ADVANCED ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY AND THE INTERDISCIPLINARY LABORATORIES LABORATORIES
Th Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy, ondd n 1958, hastnd th tanston towad an ntdscplnay dnton o matals scnc. 12 On
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o ARPA ARPA’s st la-scal ndn ntatvs sppotd a ss o nvstyhostd ntdscplnay laboatos (IDLs) ddcatd to th stdy o matals. Th IDLs pomptd nvsts to collaps dpatmntal dvsons wthn th contxt o matals scnc, scnc , catn sts wh stdnts cold b accltatd to thnk boadly abot poblms latd to matals and th lmtn ct on tchnolocal dvlopmnt. Wthn ths IDLs, th tchncal, scntc, and admnstatv chaact o matals scnc ban to tak shap. ARPA’s call o poposals ctd th 1950s-a advsoy mphass on matals as a bottlnck o statc dvlopmnt. “Th Govnmnt,” t nsstd, “has a vtal stak n th stablshmnt o th bst possbl matals sach and dvlopmnt poam. Ths s t bcas matals a a a lmtn acto n th pomanc o th advancd systms and dvcs ssntal to th opatons and an d mssons o Govnmnt ancs and dpatmnts. dp atmnts.”” Th nxt paaaph ndcatd ARPA ARPA’s ntnt to xpand pon th matals scnc concpt: “In od to stnthn basc sach n matals scncs . . . th Govnmnt dcdd to sppot th stablshmnt o aTh nmb o ntdscplnay matals sach laboatos n nvsts. objctv o ths Intdscplnay Laboatoy Poam s to xpand th natonal poam o basc sach and tann n th matals scncs.”13 Gvn ARPA ARPA’s mphass on attackn tchnolocal lmtatons by tann stdnts, t s notabl that th ancy chos to pomot th dvlopmnt o a nw ntdscplnay ld, ath than to sppot ots n xstn dscplns, sch as sold stat physcs, whch alady mantand a smla balanc btwn basc and appld ams. Matals scnc w om th sam typ o synthss btwn sach on mtals and nonmtals as sold stat, bt sold stat, whch stanchly mantand ts physcs bona ds, was not svn dns nds as ARPA saw thm. Matals scnc, as t coalscd wthn ARPA’s IDLs dd, howv, mmc th staty sold stat had pond o oanzn a nw dscpln to addss contnnt contmpoay nds. Ths nds w possonal n th cas o sold stat and tchnolocal n th cas o matals scnc, bt thy smlaly saccd clos cohson to oth nds. Twlv nvsts won IDL contacts btwn 1960 and 1962. Th st th w hostd at Conll Unvsty, th Unvsty o Pnnsylvana, and Nothwstn Unvsty, Unvsty, wth th mand appan appa n n qck sccsson at th Unvsty o Chcao, Bown Unvsty, Havad Unvsty, th Unvsty o Mayland, th Massachstts Massachstt s Insttt o Tchnoloy Tchnoloy,, th Un-
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vsty o Noth Caolna, Pd Unvsty, Stanod Unvsty, and th Unvsty o Illnos–Ubana.14 ARPA nds pomptd ths nstttons to consoldat th matals sach ots, ots, whch w otn scattd acoss sval dpatmnts and dstant camps locatons, n cntalzd “Matals Scnc Cnts,” natn aly xampls o th “cnt modl” dscbd by Cys Mody and Hynsb Cho.15 Th Massachstts Insttt I nsttt o Tchnoloy povds an apt cas stdy. John C. Slat spahadd MIT’s IDL applcaton. Slat, lk John Van Vlck, and hs PhD at Havad nd Edwn Kmbl n th aly 1920s and psntd th st naton o domstcally tand qantm thosts.16 By th 1950s, h was an Insttt Posso o Physcs—th st at MIT to b antd ths honoay ttl. H dvotd th blk o hs tm to a sach poam n sold stat and molcla thoy, whch sd th latst dtal compts to attmpt calclatons o th popts o solds and molcls om st pncpls. Slat mantand a ston commtmnt to a sach poam ootd n th physcs dpatmnt. Fo o th v aclty mmbs alatd wth th sold stat and molcla thoyP.op w physcsts—Slat, physcsts—Slat László Tsza, Go F. Kost, and Mchal Bantt—and on, Walt R.,Thoson, was a chmst. Slat’s ab nto appoach sd th most cnt dtal comptn tchnoloy to calclat wav nctons o solds and molcls wth as w smplcatons as possbl. Known as “Slat physcs” aond th nsttt camps, ths appoach povd too abstact o th tachn nds o MIT’s nnn dpatmnt, whch boht Mldd Dsslhas om Lncoln Laboatoy to dvlop a cos n sold stat thoy o nns n 1967. 17 Slat was nvthlss n tn wth th collaboatv, ntdpatmntal ots that chaactzd MIT’s sach clt n th 1950s. In hs cospondnc wth ARPA admnstato John F. Kncad, Slat dntd “Aonatcs and Astonatcs, Chmcal Ennn, Chmsty, Cvl Ennn, Elctcal Ennn, Mchancal Ennn, Mtally, Mtally, Naval Achtct, and Physcs” as th dpatmnts n whch matals sach was condctd.18 Slat, conscos o th mphass on ntdscplnay collaboaton wthn advsoy ccls, took pans to mphasz ths aspct o MIT’s xstn sach poams. MIT’s ntal poposal to ARPA was ttld “Th Intdscplnay Nat o M.I.T. Rsach,” and asstd that “[o]n o th ndamntal ats o o poposal lats to th way n whch w xpct th vaos dscplns to coopat n th sach.”19 Th poposal land on th cod MIT had stablshd pomotn connctons btwn dpatmnts, mphaszn n
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patcla th Laboatoy o Inslaton Rsach (LIR), ondd n 1940, and th Rsach Laboatoy o Elctoncs (RLE), ondd at th Scond Wold Wa to psv aclts, qpmnt, and poams assocatd wth watm ada sach.20 Slat was qally attnd to ARPA’s ntst n adat tann, assn Kncad: “W l that stablshmnt o ntdscplnay laboatos wold b th bst way to ncoa xpanson n adat tann tan n and sach.”21 Th nat cospondnc btwn Slat’s htoc and ARPA dals mht b ad as cyncal kowto kowtown wn to a nd’s dmands not o th smla ntatvs that had bn nd n d way at th nsttt po to ARPA’s ARPA’s call o o poposals. In Octob o 1958, Slat cclatd a mmo potn “a ood dal o dscsson o th dsablty o som mchansm o ttn clos lason btwn psons n vaos dpatmnts o th Insttt ntstd n sold-stat and molcla scnc, scnc,”” and ndcatn boad sppot om “mm“ mmbs o th chmsty, lctcal nnn, mchancal nnn, mtally, and physcs dpatmnts.”22 Th commtmnt to coss-dpatmnt collaboaton at MIT ts s vdnt as a back as th aly 1940s, whn th nsttt ban moblzn socs o wa wok. Ath von Hppl, th oc bhnd th Laboatoy o InslaI nslaton Rsach commntd n 1942: Th s no al bonday btwn physcs and lctcal nnn. O ld s a banch o appld physcs manly concnd stll wth th applcatons o Maxwll’s thoy. Whl th physcst stood “clan” o sch sl tasks and stov o nsht, th lctcal nn blt a nw conomy and talkd n a nw tchncal lana appopat o hs tools. Ths th lnk btwn th two was wan thn, ntl vnts ocd both sds nto clos co-opaton. Th physcst ban to toss nto th doman o th lctcal nn nw nstmnts, sch as thmonc tbs and photoclls, cts, thmstos, and oscnt lamps, whch cold not b ndstood on th old classcal bass. And th lctcal nn pld n knd wth mac ys, complx mpdanc bds, hh-qncy natos, hh-volta machns, and mants o cyclotons, whch voltonzd th xpmntal tchnq o th physcst.
In consqnc, accodn to von Hppl, “Th nc btwn th two lds [physcs and lctcal nnn] s alln nto dspa.” 23 Th LIR was von Hppl’s pm xampl o MIT’s convcton that dpatmntal dvds cold mpd poss.
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Follown n that tadton, MIT scntsts had bn tchn o a mo consoldatd matals poam p oam snc th p-ARP p-ARPA A 1950s, whn a poposal o an xpandd poam o matals sach was compld at th bhst o th Atomc Eny Commsson n 1956.24 Th poposal codd a total o 88,020 sqa t dstbtd ov nn dpatmnts, svn 87 acadmc sta and 419 sppot psonnl. It calld o consoldatn ths ots n a 100,000-sqa-oot Matals Rsach Laboatoy, Laboatoy, whch wold pomot 25 a “mo ndamntal appoach” to matal lmtatons on dvlopmnt. By th tm o th ARPA poposal, th stmat o th sz ndd to accommodat camps-wd matals scnc ots had mo than tpld to 350,000 sqa t, ndcatn both th owth o matals sach at MIT and th xpanson o ts scop n th ntvnn yas.26 At MIT and lswh, ARPA povdd th nastct to mak consoldaton asbl on a la scal. Slat wot to Kncad wth a ank assssmnt o MIT’s physcal constants: “At psnt all o o wok n matals sach s vy cowdd, and w cold hadly xpand at all n nmb o stdnts n som patsall o th th wok ld wthot povdn bldn spac. To accommodat n th ld, on thaddtonal scal on whch w shold lk to opat, wold q a bldn o appoxmatly 350,000 sqa t oss oo spac. Ths wold cost somthn lk $14,000,000 to bld.”27 Whn APRA ndd an IDL at MIT n 1961, t ncldd a 200,000-sqa-oot bldn.28 Althoh ths ll shot o ll consoldaton, t povdd th nsttt wth a ccbl la noh to cook p a stabl ntdscplnay ld. Th physcal spacs ARPA povdd w dscplnay laboatos as wll as matals sach laboatos.29 Thy hostd a natonwd xpmnt n ntdscplnay collaboaton, ot o whch th ld o matals scnc slowly md. A mmoandm snt om ARPA ARPA to ts IDLs n 1962 dscbd th tms o th xpmnt: “As yo know, w hav ndtakn th sponsblty o ntatn a poam n th natonal ntst wth nvsts o ‘basc sach and adat dcaton’ n a somwhat loosly dnd aa calld call d matal scncs. scnc s. Yo Yo hav to a at xtnt dnd what s mant—at last n yo nvsty—by matal scncs by lstn n yo poposals to s th nams o ndvdals yo blv to b th co o th poam at yo nsttton. Th collctv sach ntsts o ths ndvdals dns n mo dtal matal scncs. sc ncs.””30 Fo ARPA, dnn matals scnc was an mpcal qston, wth th cavat that th oals o th ld w stablshd n advanc. “Matals scncs” d to th collaboa-
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tons that povd podctv accodn to th standads dtmnd by th IDL poam’s objctvs. Th nclson o sold stat physcs n ths dscplnay xpmnt ndwot ARPA’s asston that t was concnd wth basc sach. By mantann ts dntty wthn physcs, sold stat tand a clam, howv contntos t wold bcom, to bn a ndamntal scntc dscpln. That clam mad t sl to t o matals scnc, whch td n pat to st down a smooth sttch o pavmnt tavsn th ados path pa th btwn thotcal nsht and pactcal masty. ARPA’s lon-tm sccss pomlatn ths pct s vdnt n a 1987 svy txt, whch psntd sold stat physcs as “at th co o naly na ly all lds, whl Matals Scnc mbacs th wd applcaton o th basc stds.”31 Th on o matals scnc wthn ARPA’s IDLs psntd th la-scal adopton o sold stat’s htodox appoach to dnn possonal catos. ARPA statd wth a st o conct objctvs: to consoldat sach on matals om a an o dscplnay standponts and to tan wthn nw synthss. It no thnad pomotd th omaton o a ldstdnts to addss thosths objctvs, shown o whth o not th ld that md obyd tadtonal bondas. In don so, t catd a spac n whch a poton o th sold stat commnty cold mak a hom and cmnt th cas ca s o ts tlty tlty.. At th sam tm, t xacbatd th ndlyn tnsons btwn thos who champond sold stat’s tchncal lvanc and thos who soht to poston t as a ndamntal ld o physcs. On on hand, th allanc wth matals scnc psntd th potntal o sold stat physcs to sc labl, dal sppot by nocn ts lvanc to th poblms o th a. On th oth hand, t psntd th dan o stayn om physcs, and ths losn a clam to th ntllctal msson that, dspt th poss sold stat had mad n makn physcs as a whol mo sponsv to ts socal ml, contnd to st at th hat o th Amcan physcsts’ dntty. MATERIALS AND MAN’S NEEDS
An otn-patd wttcsm o nctan povnanc nssts that “anythn wth scnc n ts nam sn’t.”32 Matals scnc s n som spcts a conmn nstanc. Th tatmnt o th sbjct n Materials and Man’s Needs, a Natonal Acadmy o Scnc (NAS) panl pot, llstats how. Also known as th COSMAT (o Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn) pot, t opnd wth a covn ltt om Mlvn Calvn,
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cha o th NAS Commtt on Scnc and Pblc Polcy, Polcy, to NAS psdnt Phlp Handl. Calvn pontd ot that, nlk NAS pots on oth dscplns, whch mphaszd th potntal o scntc advanc n thos lds, th COSMAT COSMAT pot wold ocs on needs, and how to mt thm. Matals, as a catoy, w dnd by th slnss, so any ld ontd aond thm wold hav an ssntal nnn componnt.33 Bt vn matals scnc cold not b poply ndstood as a scnc, t bcam adally mo scntstc thoh th 1960s and aly a ly 1970s. As Cyl Stanly Smth makd n 1968, “Evn n th ld wh h was onc spm bcas h alon cold mak o bld, th nn s cntly losn stats to th scntst.” scntst.”34 Th owth o “matals scnc,” n contast to “matals sach,” dd snal a mannl chan, namly th own pvalnc o sold stat physcsts and chmsts—who mantand mantan d th dntty as sch, vn whl contbtn to matals scnc—n what had pvosly bn an aa domnatd by mtallsts, tchncans, and nns. Evn n th md-1970s, howv, at th st o ARPA’s IDLs had bn opn a dcad, th dct pactcal payoTh o bnn th pot basc scncs o ntoov matals scncs was lss than cla. COSMAT acknowldd: “Dspt th many mpssv achvmnts o matals sach th s th awanss that only th sac o scntc capablty has bn scatchd. Th majoty o advancs hav hstocally bn mad va th mpcal appoach. Most nw matals o popts a avd at o dscovd by ct-and-ty mthods—nw chmcal o alloy compostons a ppad and chaactzd and th vaos popts a dtmnd. Th a sally ndlyn atonals o phnomnolocal modls to ths mpcal appoach bt t s a ndd o a nw matal o popty to b pdctd om basc pncpls. pncpl s.”” Howv Howv,, th pot contnd: “Th pncpal xcpton to ths staton s n th aa o snl cystal matals, patclaly thos sd n sold stat lctoncs. On th oth hand, tchnqs and concpts o physcal scnc a otn ssntal o chaactzn and podcn th popts o vn vn mpcally-nvntd matals. Wth Wth lctonc matals, d to th combnd talnts o chmsts, mtallsts, physcsts and lctcal nns a d o ndstandn has bn achvd, at last o th smpl cystals, so that matal compostons havn th dsd physcal popts can otn ot n b pscbd bohand. bohan d.””35 By th md1970s, n oth wods, th mts o adoptn a pncpl-st appoach to matals dvlopmnt w stll laly notonal. Materials and Man’s Needs, n act, xpsss consdabl staton
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abot th dclty o tanslatn thotcal sold stat wok nto pactcal payos, patdly ctn th nd o mo sach to bd th ap btwn a boad scntc ndstandn o matal stct and bhavo on on hand and th tools to pdct sabl matal popts wthn asonabl tolancs on th oth. Asd om a w cass n whch th popts o smpl cystals cold b pdctd n advanc, thotcal ndstandn was stll too cd o sold stat to o mch o a pactcal ad to th complx and tatv pocss o matals dvlopmnt. Ths s not to say that th tchncal lvanc o sold stat physcs was ovsold, smply that th ot om thotcal ndstandn to pactcal applcaton was somwhat mo mandn than ARPA had spposd whn t nvsond ts IDLs as hh-otpt actos o statc matals. Sccsss n sch dct applcaton o thoy to pactc w w. Ths w naow aas o sccss, howv, w noh to jsty th systmatc appoach o ncoan ntdscplnay collaboaton aond th nxs o matals that ARPA had spahadd n th aly 1960s. Th COSMAT panl commndd that nvsts ncas ntdscplnay both sach and dcaton, and that th dal ovnmnt actvts contn n sppot o th matals sach cnts that mht host sch actvts. Evalatn th COSMAT panl’s stanc and commndatons vals that th matals scnc allanc had as mch to do wth nstttonal convnnc as t dd wth mpovn sach nto pactcal nds. It had bn damd p by ARPA ARPA n od to povd answs to tchncal qstons, q stons, and t ctanly dd so. Bt t s not cla to what xtnt ts answs w systmatcally btt than thos that t hat nns mht hav achvd wokn n compaatv solaton, thy w vn accss to a smla d o ndn. Matals scnc dd, howv howv,, o mtally bncal possonal possona l wads o both ts old and nw consttnt dscplns. Matals nns w abl to assocat thmslvs wth th stats that scntc sach had attand and nd o ctcsms o th mpcal, phnomnolocal mthods as nadqat o th task at hand. Scntsts o th pat, and sold stat physcs n patcla, ond a stady stam o nancal and an d nstttonal sppot at tm whn ndn o basc sach was bcomn had to sc. FRIENDS OF CONVENIENCE
By th 1960s, havn lastd thoh th nstttonal own pans o th APS and a shakp o th pblshn landscap, sold stat was scly nsconcd n th Amcan physcs commnty. In 1949, I. I. Rab had
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sstd that dvsons o th APS w only ncssay o “‘pphal’ lds.”36 By th nd o th 1960s, both ncla physcs and patcl physcs had dvsons o th own. Th aly postwa od, n whch a collcton o nw ntst ops obtd a co o physcs that cad on th dals o th aly twntth cnty, and at som mov, was dssolvn. Laly on th sccss o sold stat physcs and latd ntpss, th nnc o th APS had boadnd to th pont that th lds that cad on tadtonal p scnc dals w on a pa wth th nw, mo tchncally advntos sblds, n nstttonal not absolt tms. Th allanc btwn physcs and matals scnc wold vntally lad, n 1990, to th APS stablshn a Dvson o Matals Physcs, pomotn to dvsonal stats a topcal op that had omd n 1986. At that pont, 70 pcnt o th topcal op’s 2,869 mmbs w also mmbs o th Dvson o Condnsd Matt Physcs (th nam o th Dvson o Condnsd Matt Physcs om 1978 on; s chapt 8), bt th mphass o th two ops had bcom scntly dnt that th APS xctv com37
mtt dtmnd that acatoy nw dvson was jstd. Th acknowldmnt o th xplctly appld o “matals” as a ll-dd topc o physcs cts a sotnn o atttds towad appld physcs that ban wthn th APS n th aly 1970s. Th APS concl, spondn to th challnn ndn staton n 1970, ssd a statmnt that cast physcsts as dply concnd wth th consqncs o th wok: “Th poblms w ac as a naton call o mo knowld, not lss; and btt tchnoloy. Btt tchnoloy mst b basd on mo xtnsv ndstandn o scntc acts act s and possblts.” 38 Th socty dd dm n 1972 whn od chat mmbshp n th Fdaton o Matals Socts, jdn that oanzaton’s ntsts to b alnd mo closly wth nnn than wth scnc, bt t athozd th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (DSSP) to patcpat n th daton as an obsv.39 In 1974, th APS appovd an IBM-sponsod pz o nw matals.40 In 1975, a nw standn commtt on th applcatons o physcs convnd o th st tm, spondn to a ston sns that conton and spct o appld physcs, both om oth physcsts and om th wd socty, ndd to b mpovd. 41 Th ndl appoach to tchnoloy, and actv cnsn o th snobbsh atttd towad appld physcs that th APS acknowlds was dply ootd n th clt o Amcan physcs, was n la mas a spons to nancal psss. Th notonal lon-tm lvanc l vanc o basc sach, whch had scd to jsty lbal mltay spndn on scnc n th two dcads
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o so at th Scond Wold Wa, povd nscnt to jsty contnd annal ncass n sach bdts. Fo most physcsts, and spcally o sold stat physcsts, ths mant valatn th noton o lvanc and xplon nw avns o makn that lvanc known. Matals scnc md n oppotn concdnc wth ths dvlopmnts. Skptcsm abot th payo om ndn basc sach ncoad th polaton o th ntdscplnay appoach to scnc ndn that ARPA had pond— basc sach typcally bo t on th scal o dcads, phaps that tmln cold b oshotnd by ocn clos contact btwn basc and appld lds. That atttd, combnd wth sold stat’s nstttonal scty wthn physcs, allowd sold stat physcsts to patcpat n th matals scnc xpmnt n mass wthot jopadzn th dntty as physcsts n a way that wold hav bn dclt n th 1950s. Th COSMAT pot stmatd that 2,211 PhD-holdn sold stat physcsts w nvolvd n matals scnc. Th sam pot stmatd thos sold stat physcsts as constttn 13.6 pcnt o all PhD scntsts patcpatn n matals mat scnc. Jst ov twc thatonmb mmbs o th DSSP that samals ya. Th total mmbshp th APSw n 1973 was 27,291.42 Matals scnc, n oth wods, constttd a sbstantal popoton o what sold stat physcsts dd by th aly 1970s. Sppot om ARPA, th NSF, and oth dal ancs that tatd matals allowd sold stat physcsts to ncas th bas o nancal sppot at th ntal xbanc o ndn scnc at th Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa ban to wan.43 Ths alnmnt nsd an abndanc o sppot o th ld n tobld nancal tms and hlpd pll physcs as a whol, by sh oc o nmbs, n mo lvant dctons. Th allanc lkws plld matals sach towad th scncs. Matals sach n th aly 1950s was a laly mpcal nnn dscpln. Bt th advsoy appaats was so on stand-alon basc sach, t was qally skptcal o stand-alon nnn. Intdscplnay collaboaton was n vo. Basc scnc njoyd a nq pstmc cacht, vn n th ac o concns that t dd not podc slts ast noh and aanst th backond o Vtnam-a concns that tha t physcs, spcally, spcally, was moally nmood. Th dal advsoy systm now saw physcs (and sold stat n patcla) as an ssntal componnt o tchncal dvlopmnt, albt on that was not lvn p to ts potntal. Wlcomn sold stat physcs tho hlpd tansom matals sach nto matals scnc and thby lvat ts standn. Th allanc btwn sold stat physcs and matals
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scnc, that s, omd amd th htoc o tchnolocal lvanc, bt was dvn lss by th dmonstatd otcoms o collaboatons btwn dscplns than t was by th possonal advanta ach cold an om th oths. A ston physcs psnc n matals scnc scnc was possbl bcas sold stat physcs had sccdd n stablshn tsl mly wthn physcs, and had boadnd th dntty o Amcan physcs n don so. Th dcson to man closly td to th co concns o physcs pad o o both sold stat and physcs as a whol as th ond shtd nd th t and th contxt dmandd at sponsvnss to mmdat tchncal nds. Nvthlss, p scnc mand a powl latv dal, vn o sold stat physcs, and th tchncal tn t n o th lat 1960s and aly 1970s wold spak a backlash. Th nxt two chapts consd how sold stat physcsts oht to hold on to th dntty as ndamntal sachs n an nvonmnt dtmnd to ndstand th val n stctly tchncal tms.
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RESPONSES TO THE TH E REDUCTIONIST WORLDVIEW
In nal, o physcal wold, th wold that acts s as hman bns, s a low-ny wold, not a hh-ny wold. —ALVIN —AL VIN WEINBERG, WEIN BERG, 1964
Dn th 1960s, th p scnc dal took on a patclaly vlnt om wthn th hh ny physcs commnty. Rdctonsm md as th domnant phlosophy amon thos skn to ndstand th phnomna obsvd n clod chambs, bbbl chambs, and oth nw nstmnts that ndd th nvsbl mcowold vsbl. It hld that all thotcal knowld abot th wold std on, and was n som sns contand wthn, th ls ovnn th lmntal componnts o matt and ny; vythn ls, locally spakn, bold down to thos basc laws and concpts. Establshn a dctonst sach poam dntatd hh ny physcs om ncla and atomc physcs, wth whch t shad a concptal ancsty.. In th 1960s, acclato physcsts ban ancsty b an to spak sp ak o two onts: ont s: an ny ont and an ntnsty ont. Explon th om qd bldn la machns wth hh bam ns, whch acltatd pobn th smallst consttnts o matt. Th latt calld o acclatos that cammd mo patcls nto small spacs, natn mo collsons and mo complx ntactons, avon xpmnts that xplod patcl dynamcs. In th aly 1960s, ths twn onts w sn as complmntay. Stanod xpmntalst Wolan Panosky, spakn bo Conss n sppot o ndn o th Stanod Lna Acclato (SLAC), a low-
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ny, hh-ntnsty acclato, cold stat that “th dnt typs o acclatos a not n comptton wth on anoth.” 1 That wold man t only as lon as lbal dal ndn was avalabl to mt th dmands o both poams. By 1968, whn M. Stanly Lvnston, convnto convnto o th cycloton, ttld hs lmntay patcl physcs txtbook P Particle article Physics: The High-Energy Frontier , that was no lon th cas. “Th hh-ny ont has bcom
th nancal-sppot ont,” Lvnston wot, dndn xpndts on la-scal acclatos on th bass o “val to o socty o ths nw knowld abot nat” that dscovs at th hh-ny ont wold psmably yld.2 Th patcl physcs commnty, by th lat 1960s, had bt th chps on hh ns as a s th bst chanc to ns onon dal sppot and th ntnatonal pmnnc o Amcan patcl physcs.3 Th dctonst woldvw jstd psn th ny ont at th xpns o th ntnsty ont. It soht to bstow xclsv jsdcton ov ndamntal physcs to patcl physcsts, n th pst o lmntay patcls and th ocs ovnn thm, whchscals thy w wlln shaItwth cosmolosts, who xplod th vy last o spac andtotm. was also motvatd n pat by th acton o som ncla physcsts aanst th mltazaton o th wok, and psntd th commtmnt to th noblty o physcs and jcton o th nobl pposs to whch thy lt t had bn pt.4 Alonsd ts ntllctal and socal motvatons, th dctonst phlosophy llld a tmly nstttonal ncton n th 1960s. As dal ndn o basc sach thtnd and sold stat physcs w, patcl physcsts acd th pospct o dvdn a small pot o dal nds wth comptn lds at a tm whn thy had commttd to psn th ont o hh collson ns, whch dmandd v-la and v moxpnsv acclatos. Rdctonsm clamd both th mantl o basc scnc and th pot o dal nds ddcatd to t. Not all sold stat physcsts w contnt to b typcast as sks at somthn oth than ndamntal nsht. Rsponss to sn dctonsm amon hh ny physcsts shows how, at stablshn tchncally ontd wok as a ltmat povnc o Amcan physcs, sold stat physcsts thn soht to clam o th ld a pc o th ntllctal lacy o physcs as wll. Boadly spakn, dctonsm lctd two typs o sponss. Th st dnd th vy pms that physcal knowld cold b dmd “ndamntal” stctly on th bass o ts ntnsc ntllctal mts, wthot st consdn ts latonshp to oth alms o knowld. Th scond
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accptd th pms that knowld cold b ntnscally ndamntal bt dnd th th pms that ndamntal knowld cold only b had at xtm scals. Th st o ths vws was champond by Alvn Wnb, Wnb, th dcto o Oak Rd Natonal Laboatoy. Althoh not a sold stat physcst hmsl, Wnb, as th dcto o a la, boadly nvstd natonal laboatoy, was snstv to th possblty that dctonsm, shold t bcom a dalt assmpton o th t h physcs commnty, commnty, cold advsly act sach on msoscal phnomna and h lt sponsbl o spakn on ts bhal. Th scond vw s most stonly assocatd wth Phlp W. Andson, th Bll Laboatos sold stat thost whos 1972 Science atcl “Mo Is Dnt” advancd a phlosophcal poston that wold com to b known as mntsm. Wnb’s and Andson’s vws val two htocal stats, asd om th dctonsm o hh ny physcs, that Amcan physcsts sd to navat th ndn bottlnck o th 1960s and 1970s. Wnb’s vw chod ots sold stat physcsts had pond to nvnt th co dntty oAndson’s physcs n anstad way that mad t mo sponsv to mmdat dmands. psntd an attmpt to bnd sold statsocal mo thtly to th tadtonal ntllctal ntllcta l co o th t h physcs commnty. commnty. CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC CHOICE
Alvn Wnb Wnb and an d hs BA, MA, and PhD at th Unvsty o Chcao n th 1930s—a hady dcad o th school. H ntd n 1931, th ya Chcao’s yon, ston-wlld psdnt Robt Maynad Htchns nstttd adcal oms to ndadat dcaton. dcaton. Wnb Wnb was amon th cohot to naat Chcao’s boad-basd, two-ya two-ya lbal ats co known as th “Nw Plan,” whch consstd o a common cclm o yalon coss n Enlsh composton, hmants, and physcal, bolocal, and socal scncs, cappd by comphnsv xams at th nd o two yas. 5 H wold cdt hs comphnsv ndadat dcaton wth condtonn hm to ndstand scnc n tms o how t nttwnd wth hman aas. 6 Wnb’s snstvty to th symboss btwn scnc and socty motvatd hs ssay “Cta o Scntc Choc.” Pblshd n Minerva n 1963 and pntd n Physics Today n Mach o th ollown ya, th atcl ad povocatvly that hh ny physcs, as a ld o knowld compaatvly movd both om oth aas o scnc and om qotdan hman concns, was lss than dsvn o th poty t was cvn n th dal scnc bdt.7 Whn h pblshd p blshd “Cta o Scntc S cntc Choc,” Choc,”
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Wnb was th dcto o Oak Rd Natonal Laboatoy, a post h had assmd n 1955. H had sn thoh th anks at Oak Rd at alhtn th ollown hs svcs to th Manhattan Pojct at Chcao’s Mtallcal Laboatoy. That so pomnnt a wold qston th mts o sppotn xpnsv acclato sach ankld n th patcl physcs commnty and ocd mo cal and pontd atclatons o ts dctonst phlosophy. “Cta o Scntc Choc” wand o toh chocs ahad as ndn o scntc sc ntc sach platad. pla tad. As th dcto o Oak Rd, Wnb Wnb wold b chad wth dcdn whch pojcts to ps and whch to sdln whn ndn thtnd. Antcpatn ths challn, h poposd cta o dtmnn whch sach cold clam poty n ndn battls, atclatn what wold bcom known as th Wnb Wnb cton: “Th wod ‘ndamntal’ n basc scnc, whch s otn sd as a synonym o ‘mpotant,’’ can b patly paaphasd nto ‘lvanc to nhbon ‘mpotant, n hbon aas o scnc.’’ I wold tho shapn th cton o scntc mt by poposscnc. that eld has the most scientic merit which whi ch n that, oth thns bn qal, contributes most heavily to and illuminates most brightly its neighboring scientic disciplines.”8 Concptal cndty was only on lmnt o Wnb’s ndamntalty calcls. Hs vw ncldd not only concptal contnt bt also tchnolocal tlnss and socal lvanc as componnts o ndamntalty. Tstd aanst ths cta, Wnb atd patcl physcs as poo, wtn, “I know o w dscovs n lta-hh-ny physcs whch ba stonly on th st o scnc. scnc.””9 Wnb pshd ths anda voosly at th 1964 mtn o th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) n Washnton, DC. “Scnc whch commands at pblc sppot mst b jstd on onds that onat outside th patcla banch o scnc dmandn th sppot; t mst at hh n socal, tchnolocal, o scntc mt, pably n all th,” h ad, and challnd patcl physcsts “to stat th cas claly, to say xactly why t s that lmntay-patcl physcs s as mpotant as all o lmntaypatcl physcsts blv t s. To say that t s ‘ndamntal’ n tsl dos not answ th qston, bcas on thn has to dcd what on mans by ‘ndamntal.’ I td to ntpt th da ‘ndamntal’ n basc scnc to man havn th atst knd o ban on th st o scnc, and vn on oth hman knowld.”10 Sch a stanc holds cla tlty o th dcto o a la, boadly nvstd laboatoy sch as Oak Rd. Wnb vald sach poams that wold pomot sl connctons wth oth nt-
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pss wthn th laboatoy o sho p th laboatoy’s socal and poltcal sppot. Wnb dd not challn th ntnsc ntllctal mt o hh ny physcs sach—whch vn amon ts shapst ctcs n th physcs commnty was nv qstond—bt pontd ot that “ on jsts a banch o scnc as a mans o xpandn man’s cltal hozon, thn on ts nto th qston o oth comptn ways o xpandn man’s cltal hozon, lk o xampl, an xpanson o th ats and o ltat and msc.”11 Th amnt hh ny physcsts advancd that th knowld hh ny physcs sks s nqly ndamntal and so shold b psd o ts ntnsc cltal mts asd th t h qston o why t was dsvn o nds nds ot o popoton wth xpndts o oth actvts o ntnsc cltal val bt lttl dct pactcal lvanc. An appoach that ocsd on th ntconnctdnss o knowld st Wnb n dct opposton to th mn othodoxy wthn patcl physcs. Vcto Wsskop, an MIT patcl thost, took ss, and th two Today atcl nttld “Two Today ad dsamnt Opnth Ltts,” pblshdnna coathod Jn 1964. Physics Th xchan dd lttl to o a common ndstandn, bt t dd cod a cla xposton o ach pspctv. Wsskop ad that “th nclon s th bass o all matt and tho o all scnc,” whas Wnb Wnb totd that h was nonthlss, “jstd n chaactzn hh-ny physcs as ‘ath mot.’”12 Wsskop mphaszd th possblty n pncpl o dcn hh-lvl laws to low, bt Wnb ocsd on th mpactcalty o don physcs om th bottom p. Wsskop clamd that thos o low lvls w pvld bcas hh-lvl thos cold b dcd to thm; Wnb allowd any ld that mt hs cndty cton to clam ndamntal stats. It dd not matt o Wnb, whn choosn whch sach to nd, whth o not hh-lvl phnomna cold, n pncpl, b xpland n tms o low-lvl phnomna at th act bcas, conta Wsskop, Wsskop, h tstd th d o ndamntalty sach xhbtd by ts latonshp to oth aas o knowld ath than by ts ppotd p potd latonshp to physcal alty. alty. Ths dncs accont o why Wsskop Wsskop and Wnb Wnb talkd ta lkd past ach a ch oth: thy dsad at th co abot how ndamntalty was dvd. Th xchan wth Wnb pomptd Wsskop to dvlop hs thnkn th, and h aan spondd to “Cta o Scntc Choc” n hs own Physics Today mssv n 1967. H dntd two camps n th physcs commnty; “ntnsvsts,” h clamd, soht st pncpls abov all ls,
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Figure 7.1. Vcto Wsskop Wsskop’s ’s daam o ntnsv and xtnsv sach aas. RRpodcd om Vcto Wsskop, “Ncla Stct and Modn Rsach,” Physics Today 20, no. 5 (1967), 23–26, wth th pmsson o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs
whas “xtnsvsts” td ot applcatons o thos pncpls, th to tchnoloy o to oth scntc lds ( ( 7.1).13 Th ntnsvst poston, as Wsskop Wsskop dscbd t, aptly chaactzd th dctonst woldvw that patcl physcsts adoptd n th 1960s. 14 H ctd Wnb as a paadm xtnsvst, and hs dscpton o xtnsv sach captd on aspct o th typ o ndamntalty ndamntalty Wnb Wnb champond—th ntsctons nts ctons btwn bods o knowld—wth th cavat that Wsskop Wsskop xcldd th sach o sch connctons om th ndamntal alm. Th comptn vws o ndamntal scnc and scntc choc that Wnb and Wsskop advancd a bst ndstood as podcts o a shtn possonal landscap n th 1960s. Th chocs Wnb had n mnd whn h advancd hs ponymos cton w chocs catd by a thtnn ndn clmat, n whch had dcsons had to b mad abot whch pojcts to potz. p otz. Wsskop, Wsskop, n tn, was pshd to atclat an a n assmpton that was wdspad n th hh ny physcs commnty, bt whch was aly systmatcally dndd, bcas h ncontd pshback n th om o an altnatv vw o how to navat th nw ndn landscap. Smla concns wold motvat th bst-known spons to hh-ny dctonsm, ssd by Phlp Andson.
Figure 7.2. Phlp W. Andson, ca. 1962. Cdt: AIP Emlo Sè Vsal Achvs. Rpodcd wth pmsson
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MORE IS DIFFERENT
Phlp W. W. Andson ( 7.2), a sold stat thost, was ptbd pt bd both by th nancal dclts basc sold stat physcs acd and by what h pcvd as th ld’s njstly low ntllctal stats. Andson had compltd hs PhD at Havad Unvsty n 1949. H mmdatly jond th sold stat op at Bll Laboatos wh h mbbd th spt o th15Bll systm, n whch h cold ps hs ntsts almost nncmbd. As a stdnt o John Van Vlck, who had oht aanst th ncson o tchncal ntsts nto sold stat physcs, Andson was lkly pdsposd to s th ld n tms o ts potntal to mak ndamntal concptal contbtons. Th nvonmnt at Bll at th tm s nvthlss lvant to appcatn hs standpont. Bll was stll bzzn om om th nvnton o th tanssto two t wo yas al, al, whch pomsd to voltonz th tlcommncatons ndsty. Ths and oth hh-pol sccsss attactd a slw sl w o talntd yon physcsts, and Andson ond amon a nqly la Stan and accomplshd assmbla o sold stathmsl thosts and xpmntalsts. Machlp, a postdoc who ovlappd wth Andson, wot to Wllam Shockly, th codcto o th Bll sold stat dvson, to cont hs mpssons and calld, “I thnk vybody on my hall was don xactly what h wantd to do,” and xpssd aw at th concntaton o xpts, xpts , obsvn that althoh “t’s not as ‘mütlch’ as a coll camps . . . [] yo’v ot an obsc tchncal t chncal poblm, chancs a that somwh n th two-ml ntwok o codos sts the xpt on ths patcla spcalty.” 16 That concntaton o xpts, combnd wth th tmndos sccss o th tanssto, av Bll otszd nnc ov th dvlopmnt o sold stat physcs thoh th postwa yas.17 Fom 1945 to 1970—whn th Physical Review splt nto o sctons—Bll Labs physcsts w athos o coathos o 1,824 paps n th Physical Review and Physical Review Letters. Ths mad t a and away th ladn ndstal laboatoy by ths mtc. Ov th sam span, Gnal Elctc sachs placd 622 paps n ths two jonals, Wstnhos 458, and IBM 367. Bt ths otpt also placd Bll amon th most polc o any contbtos to th conty’s most pstos jonals, otpacn th la and wll-ndd physcs dpatmnts and sach nsttts o th Unvsty o Chcao (1,504), th Unvsty o Illnos (1,475), Colmba Unvsty (1,149), Stanod Unvsty (1,010), Havad Unvsty (992), Conll Unvsty (976), th Unvsty o Pnn-
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sylvana (948), and Pncton Unvsty (942). Bll’s otpt spassd ach o th Natonal Laboatos and amon nvsts was bstd only by th Unvsty o Calona, Bkly (2,649) and th Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy (1,864), both o whch t wold hav xcdd not o contbtons om Bkly’s Lawnc Radaton Laboatoy (1,741) and MIT’s Lncoln Laboatos (316).18 Th tanslaton o Bll sachs’ labos nto paps as wll as patnts cts a wokn nvonmnt mo akn to a la nvsty dpatmnt than to most oth ndstal laboatos o th a. Bll hostd, o nstanc, a nvsty-styl smna ss that attactd th ladn sold stat physcsts o th day and pomotd a clt o ntllctal xchan. In Andson’s assssmnt: “Indsty n nal was stll th b oom o ht dsks n Wstnhos and vybody tyn to ot how th tanssto woks, and nobody don hs own sach. O t was GE wh th w a w popl don th own sach, bt thy wn’t ally th hh qalty o Bll Labs. . . . IBM was to bcom an mtato. Vaos thns w to bcom 19 mtatos. Bta Bll was nq. Wth th th 1950s atttdand at 1960s, last at bntn ths pont that yo had lot oLabs dom.” Thoh om Bll’s vbant ntllctal clmat and consdabl nvstatv dom, Andson Andson condctd th sach that wold an hm th Nobl Pz h shad wth Van Vlck and th Btsh physcst Nvll Mott n 1977, “o th ndamntal thotcal nvstatons o th lctonc stct o mantc and a nd dsodd systms. systms.””20 By th lat 1960s, howv, vn dnzns o th Bll oass cold dtct twns o th concn aboad n th sold stat commnty. In th spn o 1967, Andson dlvd a lct at th Unvsty o Calona, San Do, that omd th sd o hs 1972 Science atcl, “Mo Is Dnt.” Th talk w, as Andson lat calld, om th smmn dscontnt h pcvd wthn th sold stat commnty commnty..21 In Andson’s vw, sold stat was accodd somwhat lss than ts d. Ncla and patcl physcsts w mo hhly soht-at n nntal ovnmnt advsoy ols, many pomnnt nvsts hd sold stat aclty only as an atthoht, and sold stat physcsts had tobl bakn nto pstos nstttons sch as th Natonal Natona l Acadmy o Scncs Scnc s (NAS). Th NAS NAS mmb olls valdat Andson’s concn. Btwn Chals Kttl n 1957 and both Andson and Chals Slcht n 1967, th acadmy admttd sx sold stat physcsts compad wth twnty-svn ncla and patcl physcsts.22 Andson’s nty nto th dspt ov th nat o ndamntal ndamn tal physcal
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knowld dd not, as mht sm natal o a sold stat physcst, mo Wnb’s amnt that ndamntal sach s that whch xhbts boad lvanc. Instad, h jctd th naow chaactzaton o ntnsv sach that Wsskop (who had svd on Andson’s doctoal xamnn commtt) had advancd. Andson, howv, accptd a ky psmpton that Wnb Wnb had jctd: h ad a d wth Wsskop Wsskop and oth poponnts o dctonsm that ndamntalty was nnat to som typs o scntc knowld. H dsad wth thm only abot th alms n whch t cold b ond. Dspt dncs wth hs ostnsbl alls, h dd attmpt to ond th pmay conclson—that dctonst physcs shold not b ndd to th dtmnt o oth lds—on a sond phlosophcal bass. In don so h ocsd th dbat aond a snl dsamnt abot th nat o scntc knowld. “Mo Is Dnt” bns: “Th dctonst hypothss may stll b a topc o contovsy amon phlosophs, bt amon th at majoty o actv scntsts I thnk t s accptd wthot qston.” 23 Som bolosts, chmsts, o vn oth sold stat mht hav sstd thspsycholosts, chaactzaton, bt th statmnt ddphyscsts ct pvaln tnds n th physcs commnty. In 1970, patcl physcs sach cvd appoxmatly o ovnmnt dollas o vy on spnt on basc sold stat sach.24 Ths was dspt th act that th Amcan Physcal Socty’s Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs mand th last dvson and was ov twc as la as th Dvson o Patcls and Flds. 25 Th dctonst woldvw—vn t was not, as Andson clamd, navly accptd wthn th scntc commnty boadly—had sccdd n shapn th way th dal ovnmnt ov nmnt ndd ndd physcs. Andson opposd th asonn, whch h attbtd to patcl physcsts, “that vythn obys th sam ndamntal laws, thn th only scntsts who a stdyn anythn ally ndamntal a thos who a wokn on thos laws.”26 Ths vw, accodn to Andson, statd om th hypothss that laws and concpts opatn on any vn lvl o complxty cold b dcd to laws and a nd concpts at a t a low lvl o complxty complxty.. It thby concldd that only sach addssn th ltmat consttnts o matt and ny cold b tly ndamntal. Th dctonst amnt blt nto patcl physcsts’ phlosophy o scntc knowld th jstcaton o psn sach on possvly small scals, sn acclatos o possvly hh ny and at cost. By an that th ondatonal chaact o small physcal scals cond pvl pon knowl-
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d o th laws ovnn thos scals, dctonsm sppotd th vw that scnc ndn shold ct th t h hachy that patcl physcsts saw n th physcal wold. In hs ots ots to ndmn nd mn ths poston, Andson avodd th Wnb Wnb cton and ts mphass on concptal, tchnolocal, and socal applcablty. H accptd th standad dctonst pms that laws ovnn hh-lvl phnomna cold b dcd to laws ovnn ovnn low-lvl phnomna, bt jctd th nvs, clamn that th patcl physcsts’ vw o ndamntalty std on a constctonst hypothss, whch assmd that hh-lvl laws cold b xtapolatd om low-lvl laws. Wth ths mov, Andson attackd th naow dnton o ntnsv sach that ndwot th dctonst scntc hachy, psvn th ablty o sold stat physcsts to clam ndamntal nsht, contndn: “Th man allacy o ths knd o thnkn s that th dctonst hypothss dos not by any mans mply a ‘constctonst’ on: Th ablty to dc vythn to smpl ndamntal laws dos not mply th ablty to stat om thos laws and 27
constct nvs.” nvs. ” Andson’s mnc-basd o ndamntalty antdthth concpts and laws o sold stat physcsvw ndpndnc by vt o th act that thy cold not alstcally b dvd om low-lvl concpts and laws alon. H llstatd hs pont wth wt h th xampl o an ammona molcl, amn to dmonstat constcton’s al vn at th lvl o smpl molcla systms. Navly, ammona shold hav a dpol momnt, vn ts asymmtc, pyamdal stct. A nton atom oms pola covalnt bonds wth th hydon atoms, lavn th nton wth a nt natv and th hydon wth a nt postv cha. Th sltn ttahdon, thoh, dos not mpcally bhav lk a dpol. In ts statonay stat, th molcl s n a spposton o th lt-hand and ht-hand ontatons; whn obsvd thoh tm t ndos a pocss o nvson, n whch th nton atom tnnls thoh th plan p lan dnd by th hydon atoms and ms on th oth sd, sval bllon tms p scond, cancln ot any dpol ct. A boad swath o physcsts wold hav bn amla wth ammona’s popts; t povdd th matal mata l bass o th onal o nal mas, whch Chals Towns and hs sach op had annoncd, to consdabl acclam, n 1955.28 Nton nvson tsl had bn a amla chmcal pocss o sval dcads. It cvd nwd ntst n th md-1950s whn ncla mantc sonanc spctoscopy allowd t to b masd wth accacy spo to that povdd by old ado-qncy tchnqs.29 Andson
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lvad a amla xampl to llstat th mplasblty o applyn ondatonal symmty laws to la systms wthot nc to hh-lvl stct: “I wold challn yo to stat om th ndamntal laws o qantm mchancs and pdct th ammona nvson and ts asly obsvabl popts wthot on thoh th sta o sn th nsymmtcal pyamdal stct, vn thoh no ‘stat’ v has that stct.” 30 Constcton, n oth wods, s mpactcabl: “Th latonshp btwn th systm and ts pats s ntllctally a on-way stt. Synthss s xpctd to b all bt mpossbl; analyss on th oth hand, may not only b possbl bt tl n all knds o ways,” ways,” a slt h hopd wold ndct “th aoanc o th patcl physcst” and allow that “ach lvl can q a whol nw concptal stct. stct.””31 Andson dd not daw ot ths statmnt’s mplcatons, bt t s tmptn to s th tact sston that a whol nw concptal stct wold q a whol nw ndn stct. Th dstncton btwn mpossbl n pactc and mpossbl n pncpl lns nd th sac o Andson’s analyss. H jctd th stctv vw o ntnsv and yt hdd sayn that th synthss o low-lvl laws tosach, nd hh-lvl laws s whn “all but mpossbl” mpossbl” and calln t an “ntllctal,” ath than a physcal o natal on-way stt. H clamd that th laws o sold stat physcs cold nv practically b xtapolatd om qantm mchancs wthot nc nc to mpcally stablshd, hh-lvl phnomna; h oht shy o th ston clam that hh-lvl laws cold nv in principle b dvd om blow. Andson dos not xplan th dlcat danc h xcts by lnkn th ndpndnc o hh-lvl concpts to pactcal ath than physcal consdatons. I popos o asons ths poston s notabl. Th st two ct Andson’s mo nal ocs on th pactc o scnc. Th thd and oth daw on oth lmnts o hs contxt and hlp xplan how “Mo Is Dnt” t wthn t. I do not jct th possblty that Andson qt stahtowadly consdd th amnt that nw lvls w ndpndnt n pactc to b th btt-jstd poston. Rath than povdn an xhastv accont o why Andson hld th vw h dd, th actos dscssd h dmonstat how chly ntconnctd Andson’s poston was wth hs possonal contxt. Andson has hmsl acknowldd, n tospct, that hs pspctvs w shapd by condtons n th scntc commnty that w navoabl to sold stat physcsts: “Socolosts o scnc post that th s a psonal o motonal sbtxt bhnd mch scntc wok, and that ts ntty s tho ncssaly compomsd. I a wth th
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st bt jct th scond. I thnk ‘Mo Is Dnt’ mbods ths tths. Th atcl was nqstonably th slt o a bldp o sntmnt and dscontnt on my pat and amon th condnsd matt physcsts I nomally spok wth.”32 Consdn how th n stct o Andson’s amnt wokd wthn th contxt that motvatd t tho blds pon hs own ndstandn o ts ons. Th st ason Andson’s ocs on pactcal-lvl ndpndnc s notabl s that t cts hs mo nal ocs on scntc pactc. H, h s consstnt wth Wnb. Pmssv vws o ndamntalty w nomly hadhadd abot th pocss o scntc sach. Th n-pncpl dvablty o hh-lvl phnomna was acadmc t povdd no pactcal dctvs o don scnc. Andson psd hs amnt n 2001: “A pvs ad cold postlat a scntly bllant ns—a spEnstn—who mht s at last th otlns o th phnomna at th nw scal; bt th act s that nth Enstn no Fynman sccdd n solvn spcondctvty.”33 Spcondctvty was a notoosly ntactabl thotcal pzzl. Faln to dv a thoy o t was almost t o passa o th most accomplshd thotcal physcsts bo Johna Badn, Lon Coop,, and Robt Sch sccdd n 1957. Flx Coop Flx Bloch advancd th ton-n-chk thom that all thos o spcondctvty can b dspovd, a nmnt o Wolan Wolan Pal’s mo cttn vson o th thom: thos o spcondctvty a won. Th co nsht that ld to th sccssl thoy, Coop’s alzaton that lctons pad o at vy low tmpats, omn “Coop pas” that tavld wthot sstanc thoh spcondctn matals, qd thnkn abot th systm n tms o th latons amon ts componnts, ath than by bldn p om st pncpls. Smlaly, Andson’s ammona xampl dw ts oc om th act that anyon attmptn to dscb an ammona molcl’s bhavo o th st tm wold, by any asonabl ndstandn o pactc, b qd to mploy hh-lvl concpts n addton to st pncpls. Scond, that ncssty sppld a ont o nw sold stat poblms. In a 1999 ntvw wth Alx Kojvnkov, Andson calld bn motvatd to dvlop hs phlosophcal vws n pat by a lct Ban Pppad, a Cambd sold stat thost, had vn at a spcondctvty connc hostd by IBM n 1960.34 Pppad lamntd a lack o complln and accssbl ndamntal poblms n sold stat, sstn that soltons to th most pomnnt—sch as spcondctvty—had dpvd th ld o appaln ntllctal challns o yon talnt. Pppad od p th loomy po-
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nostcaton that “tn yas s on to s th nd o o [sold stat physcsts’] ams as p physcsts, thoh not as tchnolosts,” and advocatd “a swn o mphass now away om p sach to applcatons,” whch shold ncsstat xposn pomsn stdnts to “th mthods o sach n ndstal laboatos.”35 Andson, who spnt th 1967–68 acadmc ya as Pppad’s colla dn d n a vstn possoshp at Cambd, dscbd hm as “a possonal pssmst.” 36 Th scond axs o Andson’s amnt om pactc s vdnt n hs acton aanst Pppad’s loomnss abot acadmc sold stat sach. “Mo Is Dnt” maks th cas o th wdspad avalablty o acadmy-ndly, ntllctally ntstn basc sach poblms n sold stat physcs. Th pactcal ncssty o mployn hh-lvl concpts to dscb sold stat systms povdd, o Andson, a naly nxhastbl spply o nw and ntstn ndamntal qstons. Th al o constcton nsd that solvn lon-standn poblms dd not mpovsh th ld as mch as Pppad spposd; spsn physcs cold always b xpctd whn consdn th nxt lvl o complxty. Thsconsdatons, ntptaton mshs Andson’s cla pnc o pactcal bcaswll th wth qston o n-pncpl ndpndnc had lttl ban on whth an adqat spply o ntstn sach poblms wold b avalabl to slak th ntllctal thst o t adat stdnts. Thd, th naow ocs on pactc was xpdnt. A ston clam abot th nat o objctv physcal alty was not ssntal to allow sold stat sach a clam to ndamntal knowld vn an amnt that dnd th pactcal possblty o synthss. Bcas clams to ndamntal knowld and nancal sppot w colatd dn ths pod, at last o patcl physcsts, Andson can b ad as makn th wakst clam ncssay to advanc hs poston wthot nvtn attack om thos who objctd to th wholsal ndpndnc o hh lvls om low lvls. As lon as th cas cold b mad o acquiring knowledge o hh lvls, qstons o physical hachy w mly spposton.37 Foth and nally, th contos o Andson’s phlosophcal poston and th consqncs t had o ndamntalty dbats can b ndstood n tms o chann pst poltcs n th lat 1960s and aly 1970s. Physcs njoyd consdabl pst ollown th Scond Wold Wa, bt as th ndn plata Wnb pdctd avd, pst, lk nancal sppot, bcam a lmtd soc, lavn physcsts to cav t p amon th sbdscplns. Spaatn dcton and constcton svd th lnk btwn
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physcal hachy and ntllctal hachy. Andson soht to dny patcl physcsts an xclsv clam to ndamntal knowld, known, as Wnb dd, that “ndamntal” otn mant th sam thn as “mpotant.”” Th wak poston also avodd th qston o whth a pmssv tant. vw ndmnd th pst o physcs mo nally. Sold stat mht hav bn stln n ths pod, bt physcs was stll mly stablshd as th standad ba o Amcan scnc. A ston vw mplyn th qvalnc o all scntc knowld wold hav bn stan vn th ccmstancs.38 Althoh Andson vs no ndcaton that ths was a conscos motvaton, hs amnt dos hav th convnnt consqnc o ndmnn th xclsv clam that patcl physcsts lad on ndamntal knowld wthot smlaly ndmnn th mo nal nttlmnt physcsts lt to a lvls o socal appobaton and dal ndn. Andson sbsqntly xpandd hs vw to ncompass concpts n th socal and bolocal as wll as th physcal scncs, bt calld that hs ntal snstvty s nstvty to th lvl-dpndnc o concpts aos bcas t was “th pncpl by whch my own ld aos om th ndlyn laws abot and ntactons; andotscnc was only as I boadnd my pspctv that Ipatcls a lzd alzd how nal mnc s.”39 It s tho appopat to ndstand Andson’s 1972 stanc as pmaly abot physcs, p hyscs, vn thoh h lat nd t nto a vw abot scnc n nal. It s also woth notn that by th tm Andson’s mntsm had lly matd, boloy had nsatd physcs as th doyn o th Amcan scncs. Examnn ths contxtal psss bns Andson’s dpat om th Wnb cton nto ocs. Th dncs cospond to a sht n condtons wthn th scntc commnty. Th ndn pnch n th lat 1960s and aly 1970s was asymmtcal. asymmtca l. Patcl physcs, th ashp ntps o dctonsm, njoyd contnd sccss n th om o nw, xpnsv aclts. Andson conzd th own pst and ndn aps btwn sold stat and patcl physcs. Amd ths condtons, whch bcam mo act as la ovnmnt ants bcam mo dclt to obtan, Andson dvlopd a vw o ndamntalty that dpatd shaply om cndty amnts, althoh t avd at smla conclsons. Gvn th ndstnshd, mpcnos poston Andson pcvd sold stat physcs to occpy n th lat 1960s and aly aly 1970s, th wll-won wll-won clam that sach ndd only to povd a bass o th sach to b ndamntal wold not hav mt th challn that patcl physcs posd. Instad, Andson soht th soc o ndamntalty n th nat o physcal knowld,
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adoptn th staty that had svd patcl physcsts so wll. “Mo Is Dnt” maks th bst hstocal sns whn placd aanst th ol o patcl physcs and ts ston dctonsm and st wthn a contxt wh physcs stll domnatd Amcan scnc. Th noton that ndamntalty masd badth o tlnss mpld no hachy and dd not play avots amon th scncs. Andson, by accptn th nnat vw o ndamntalty mo typcal o th dctonst accont, ac cont, dnd patcl physcs an xclsv clam to th pvl physcal knowld njoyd, as a matt o cos, ov chmcal, bolocal, o socal scntc knowld. THE POWER OF PROFESSIONAL PRESTIGE
Both th s o dctonsm n th hh ny physcs commnty and sponss om oth physcsts sst that chann nancal alts and cospondn hachcal shts wthn th scntc commnty n th 1960s xtd pss on physcsts to dvlop th psmptons that othws tactly ovnd th pactc nto mo lly alzd phlosophcal postons. Wnb’s o scntc chocwold psmd, that th post–Scond Woldcta Wa ndn Wa honymoon wan coctly, and that som lns o ntllctally pomsn sach wold hav to b potzd ov oths. And to whatv xtnt Andson’s vws on ndamntalty mht hav bn basd n hs sach, h was movd to n and atclat thm by possonal challns. Thos challns, om th lat 1960s on, w qntly pasd n tms o possonal pst. Andson’s woy that sold stat physcs was ovwhlmnly assocatd wth tchncal applcatons was bon ot by mda dpctons o th ld n th yas at “Mo Is Dnt” appad. Th New York Times cova o th Nobl Pz h shad wth John Van Vlck and Nvll Mott n 1977 annoncd that “th th wnns, all thotcans n sold-stat physcs, w ctd o wok ndlyn th dvlopmnt o compt mmos, oc copyn machns and many oth dvcs o modn lctoncs.”40 In 1973, th ld to th atcl potn Lo Esak, Iva Glav, and Ban Josphson’s pz o ndamntal wok n spcondctos and smcondctos ad, “Th th wnns o ths ya’s Nobl Pz n Physcs mad dscovs adn phnomna namla to th layman, yt vtal to hs tlvson st o th compts that act many aspcts o hs l.”41 Patcl physcs awads cvd somwhat dnt cova n ths a. Th yas lat, th Times scnc pot Malcolm W. Bown, at dscbn a chmsty pz lvant to th phamactcal ndsty, shtd
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to th physcs pz, awadd to Stvn Wnb, Shldon Glashow, and Abds Salam, wtn: “Whl sch pactcal applcatons hav no pat n th wok o th physcs pz cpnts, many scntsts ad th wok as ndamntal to ndstandn n dstandn nat.”42 Th psstnt potayal o sold stat wok as sbsvnt to tchncal ams mand a so pont o Andson and hs ps. Dvlopn a obst phlosophcal cas o th ld’s ntllctal vablty was on pat o th spons. Bt t wold not b scnt. Addssn th tnson btwn th tchncal dmnsons o sold stat physcs and ts aspatons to ntllctal pst wold q a mo thooh mann o ts dntty. dntty.
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BECOMING CONDENSED MA MATTER TTER PHYSICS
Addn a chapt so namd to th convntonally labld op o mchancs, hat, acostcs, and so oth s, o cos, a lttl lk tyn to dvd popl po pl nto womn, mn, ls, boys, and zth plays. —DWIGHT GRAY, 1963
Th scond dton o th American Institute o Physics Handbook, a comphnsv nc volm, appad n 1963. Th vsd dton ncldd a nw scton dvotd to sold stat physcs.1 Its dto, Dwht Gay, annoncn th handbook’s las n Physics Today Today, dlvd th qp n th paph abov and contd hs codto’s doll sston “that phaps th book shold contan only th majo sctons—Sold-Stat Physcs, Lqd-Stat Physcs, and Gasos-Stat Physcs.” Th dtos solvd, howv, that “th advantas o consoldatn sold stat matal nto on chapt otwhd th dsadvantas o a somwhat ntdy classcaton systm.”2 Thoh th 1960s, sold stat physcsts showd smla pamatsm adn th ld’s ntdnss. Phaps sold stat was a poblmatc catoy, bt t was xpdnt; t catd lbow oom o appld physcsts to ps tchncal sach wthot thatnn th dntty as physcsts. Bt bnnn n th lat 1960s, that xpdncy ban to wa thn. Indstal and appld physcs w by that tm wll-stablshd mmbs o th Amcan physcs commnty. Th possonal concns d jo amon sold stat physcsts cntd nstad on ntllctal standn—th typ o concns to whch Phlp Andson was spondn whn h wot “Mo Is Dnt” n 1972. Eots to om sold stat physcs so as to mpha-
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sz ts ntllctal vbancy lnt mpts to a nw nam, “condnsd matt physcs,” whch adally and poplaty n th lat 1960s and thoh th 1970s. Althoh condnsd matt physcs wold ncompass many o th topc aas that constttd sold stat physcs, ts ams w sbstantvly dnt. Robt Pocto nots n hs stdy o common sxs that “th nams vn to patcla scnc lds and sblds a shapd, to a ctan xtnt, by dolocal baa ba a pckd p n th cos o sa.” sa.”3 Fa om bn nnocos, th nam chan ctd th dolocal baa o “sold stat physcs.” physcs.” It was th clmnaton o lon-standn tnsons wthn th sold stat commnty btwn th po-ndsty anda that motvatd Roman Smolchowsk and a ds o a concptally cohnt dnton o th dscpln’s ppos and scop, whch mphaszd ts contbtons to ndamntal physcal ndstandn. Th sht towad condnsd matt and away om sold stat lana coms nto clast ocs thoh th lns o th dal advsoy appaats. In th md-1940s, whn sold stat physcs md, th actos th physcs commnty xamnd whn dnn ts catos wdd basd pdomnantly on ntnal possonal concns. Bcas physcsts not com to ad cntalzd dal sppot as th nom ntl post–Scond Wold Wa pattns had stablzd, sold stat physcs, as ncbatd n th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) n th lat lat 1940s and aly 1950s, took shap n spons to th ntnal possonal concns o th physcs commnty ath than spondn dctly to dal ndn ncntvs. By th 1970s, th nomos ncas n ovnmnt ndn had chand how nw dscplnay catos w constctd. As th cas o th Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy (ARPA) and matals scnc shows, top-down dal ncntvs w potnt ocs dtmnn dtmnn how physcsts aand th actvts, act vts, and how thy talkd abot thm. Th tm “condnsd matt physcs” onatd n th physcs commnty, bt ts stats as a dscplnay catoy was xd by ts nshnmnt as a ndn catoy bo ths chan was ctd n th APS, whch, by ths tm, had an xtnsv and ntnchd dvsonal stct that was mo dclt to chan than t had bn n th 1940s. Th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs (NAS) pots, pblshd n 1966, 1972, and 1986, chat th s o condnsd matt physcs. Examnn ths aanst both th dolocal backond st ot n th pcdn chapts cha pts and th nstttonal and concptal volton o th ld that occd btwn th md-1960s and th md-1980s llstats how condnsd matt physcs md as an altnatv to sold stat and xposs th qaltatv dncs
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btwn th two catos. Hstoans and physcsts alk commonly tat “sold stat physcs” and “condnsd matt matt physcs” as ctv qvalnts, dstnshd only bcas thy w pd n dnt as. Andson, a mmb o th st naton o Amcan physcsts tand n sold stat thoy and an aly adopt o th “condnsd matt” labl, assms contnty whn n n to “sold stat sta t (now ‘condnsd matt’) matt’ ) physcs.” physcs.”4 Smlaly, Hl Kah wts: “Fom a socolocal and hstocal pont o vw, sold stat physcs p hyscs dd not xst [n th 1930s]. It was only at Wold Wold Wa Wa II that th nw scnc o th sold bods, lat to b calld condnsd-matt physcs, took o.”5 Ths clams a not wthot mt. Th sht om sold stat to condnsd matt physcs was makd by sbstantal contnty o physcal poblms and pactcs; pactc s; howv, howv, topcal and mthodolocal contnty do not tanslat npoblmatcally nto dscplnay contnty. Ths stahtowad qvalnc btwn sold stat and condnsd matt s somtms complcatd by appaln to condnsd matt’s boad topcal scop. Walt Kohn’s hstocal tatmnt o sold stat physcs s6 sts that and t “was nlad to ncld th stdy th physcal popts o lqds vn th nam ‘condnsd mattophyscs.’” Volk Hn ponts to polym sach as th catalyst o namn th Cavndsh Laboatoy’s sold stat thoy op “Thoy o Condnsd Matt.”7 Spnc Wat taks ths patal obsvatons th by sstn that condnsd matt solvd dclts ntnsc to sold stat: “Th nwly popla nam ncldd lqds and, lk ‘matals scnc’ n a dnt mann, ctd a psstnt nctanty as to whth ‘sold-stat physcs’ was th bst way to op sblds.”8 Wat’s nsht ponts towad a ch stoy abot th nam chan, whch was mo than th a smpl bandn o th ctcaton o a lon-standn o. Condnsd matt dd spond to nan skptcsm abot sold stat, bt th paalll owth o matals scnc ndcats that addssn ths concns was nth smpl no stahtowad. Condnsd matt physcs psntd a snc o a om o th p scnc dal wthn th sold stat commnty c ommnty.. Bt t was not Rowland’s p scnc dal. Condnsd matt physcsts, as dnzns dnzn s o th lat Cold Wa Wa,, champond physcal knowld as bn smltanosly ndamntal and lvant to tchncal dvlopmnt. It was an adacos ambton. Hh ny physcs had sstand ts ntllctal stats laly by dsdann tchncal connctons. Bton Rcht’s spons to a qston abot hs wok’s possbl applcaton at bn awadd th Nobl Pz, wth Saml Tn,
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o th dscovy o th J/ Ψ mson—“Th sncanc s that w hav land somthn mo abot th stct o th nvs. In tms o pactcal applcaton ht now, t’s ot non”—was a typcal atttd.9 Th clos lnk btwn sold stat wok and wokaday tchnolos was so tht that t otn obscd concptal accomplshmnts. Condnsd matt physcs took on th challn o asstn th ntllctal contbtons o physcal wok on complx matt whl also ambln that ts poxmty to qstons o tchncal ntst wold psv ts most stabl ndn stams. THE ORIGINS OF CONDENSED MATTER MATTER
Condnsd matt, lk sold stat, was a tchncal tm bo bcomn a dscplnay catoy. Whn physcal qstons dd not dpnd on a spcc stat o matt, as lon as t was dns noh, physcsts talkd abot “condnsd matt” as a mdm thoh whch, o xampl, a mon mht tavl and xhbt notwothy bhavo.10 Ealy ss o ths typ w scattd, and almost xclsvly by patcl physcsts. As a dsnato o a dscnbl ld o nqy, th tm 11 appad st n Eop and only slowly pcolatd to th Untd Stats. Th Gman jonal Zeitschrit ür Physik oanzd n 1962, ttln ts Scton B “Condnsd Matt Matt..” Th Physical Review ollowd st, to a lmtd xtnt, a ya lat lat,, annoncn n Octob 1963 that n th ollown ya: “Th st twlv sss o ach volm wll b dvdd nto two sctons (A and B) o sx sss ach, appan altnatly. Scton A wll b pmaly dvotd to th physcs o atoms, molcls, and condnsd matt, and Scton B wll b pmaly dvotd to th physcs o ncl and lmntay patcls.”12 Bt sch aly topcal ss ll shot o bcomn dscplnay dsnatos n th Untd Stats. In th Physical Review, aly ss o “condnsd matt” to ndcat a ld o stdy nvaably ncd Zeitschrit atcls atcls o conncs dvotd to condnsd matt hld n Eop, wh th tm hld mo cncy cncy..13 A mo sncant dvlopmnt was th lanch o th jonal Physik der kondensierten Materie, ondd n Wst Gmany n 1962, pblshd by Spn-Vla and dtd by th Swss physcst Go Bsch.14 Th jonal was pblshd smltanosly as Physique de la matière condensée and Physics o Condensed Matter , and accptd atcls n Gman, Fnch, o Enlsh. Th bolplat dscpton addd n th scond ss dscbd ts scop as “latn manly to thmal, lctcal, mantc and optcal popts o solds and lqds n th boadst sns.” It xpland th dcson to
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cast ts nt byond solds: “Inclson o wok n th physcs o both sold and th lqd phas s ntndd to ncas clos contact btwn both aas and spcally to th sach n th aa o lqds.”15 soht a boad mt than sold stat phys Physics o Condensed Matter soht cs, whch n Eop tndd to man stctd to solds wth la lattc stcts. Th Gman tm estkörperphysik was lttl known bo th md-1950s, whn th16st w possoshps n th physcs o solds w awadd n Gmany. Th alst vdnt pblshd s s n th ttl o a pocdns volm o a connc hld n Dsdn, May 9–11, 1952. 17 It achd a mo nal adnc n Die Naturwissenschaten n 1954 as th ttl o a vw atcl that synthszd mostly Amcan and Gman socs.18 Its atho, Hnz Pck, alldd to th tm’s cnt c nt povnanc: “In th catalo o majo lds o modn physcal sach, on mts ncasnly otn wth th concpt sold stat physcs. physcs.””19 H also mad obsvatons smla to thos o hs Amcan contpats abot th catoy’s concptal consstncy, makn: “On s nclnd to tak sch a wod to dsnat a claly dnd, nd ld.”20On clos hop tns ot was at st to b ntly nconmd. nconmd.” Th waynspcton, ot o ths ths dlmma, o Pck, to stct th topcal an o th ld. H concldd that estkörperphysik was concptally consstnt by vt o volvn aond th lattc stct o cystalln solds, non noncystalln solds, spdty, th mantc sscptblty o ass, and oth topcs wth lttl o nothn to do wth lattc stct that ll wthn th Amcan Amca n sold stat synthss. By xcldn thm, Pck was abl to swp tobln nconsstncs asd, vn t mant dnn th ld mo naowly. Fanc was slow than Gmany n adoptn ts own analo o sold stat, bt, as n th Gman cas, th catoy’s amophos nat allowd t to bnd to local pots. P Tss has attbtd th nlastcty o Fnch nstttons at th wa to th psstnc o havy-handd “dal ms” that dd Fnch sach thoh th lat 1950s. It took a nw naton o sachs, tand at th wa, to dslod ths ntnchd systm.. Whn “physq systm “physq d sold” sol d” (o, (o, occasonally occasona lly,, physique de l’état solide) appad n Fanc n th lat 1950s and aly 1960s, so dd th qally potnt chimie du solide, whch hanssd a lon Fnch tadton t adton n chmsty. chmsty.21 Tss’s assssmnt s bon ot by pattns o sa n Fnch jonals. Th st vdnt s s o “physq d sold” n Le Journal du Physique et la Radium was by Jacq Fdl n 1955, who, n an atcl on omantsm, d to atomc and molcla obtals as “th two ndamntal appox-
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matons o sold stat physcs and chmsty.” 22 Th tm wold not c n th conty’s ashp physcs jonal ntl 1959 and 1960, whn t ban to appa n th nams na ms o Fnch nstttons, sch as th Service de Physique du Solide et de Résonance Magnétique n Saclay and th Laboratoire de Magnétisme et de Physique du Solide n Bllv. That Fdl wold b an aly adopt o sold stat nomnclat s nspsn consdn h took hs PhD at th Unvsty o Bstol n 1952, 23 stdyn nd Nvll Mott. By 1952 Mott, who dntd hs wok as sold stat physcs, was th dcto o a lvl lvlyy sach op on physcs o solds at Bstol’s H. H. Wlls Physcal Laboatoy. 24 Btsh physcsts w mo apt than Fnch o Gman physcsts to pblsh n Amcan jonals o attnd conncs n th Untd Stats and th absnc o a lana ba pmttd compaatvly asy accptanc o th tm n Btan. 25 Lawnc Ba lctd at th Royal Insttton on “Th Physcs o th Sold Stat” n Mach 1949.26 Althoh Btsh nstttons, lk th Fnch contpats, w stpd n tadton and loath to adopt nw nams, th stablshmnt o th Internationall Journal o Internationa o the Physics Physics and Chemistry Chemistry o Solids by Oxod-basd
Pamon Pss n 1956 av th monk a stonhold on th Btsh Isls. Pamon Sold stat physcs, p hyscs, as a catoy, catoy, had a wak hold on th Eopan contnnt than t dd n th Anlo-Amcan wold, n la pat bcas ts US ncanaton owd so mch to th pcla ats o th latonshp btwn Amcan nvsts and Amcan ndsty. ndsty. As a slt, th tmnoloy t mnoloy o condnsd matt physcs, takn p apdly n Eop, was slow to catch on n th Untd Stats, vn as sach mphass shtd n smla dctons on both contnnts. Th Physical Review’s patal sson n Octob 1963, wth on scton “dvotd to th physcs o atoms, at oms, molcls, molcls, and condnsd matt,”27 was th only cla occnc o “condnsd matt physcs” n APS jonals thohot th 1960s; dscssons o oanzaton n th APS Exctv Commtt nomly call scton A th sold stat scton.28 Condnsd matt physcs lana, n oth wods, was was a and manal mana l n th 1960s, an assssmnt bon ot by a contmpoay contmpoa y ovvw o th ld om th Natonal Rsach Concl (NRC) o th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs. THE PAKE REPORT
In 1962, Fdck Stz was lctd psdnt o th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs. On o hs st majo ntatvs was to commsson a ss o pots on th cnt stats o th scntc lds n th acadmy’s pvw, to b ndtakn by th NRC. Th commtt svyn physcs ncldd
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stablshd sold stat physcsts Chals Towns, Havy Books, and Roman Smolchowsk, alon wth Davd Pns, who had cntly and hs stps xplon th mplcatons o th Badn–Coop–Sch thoy o spcondctvty. spcondctvty. Th Pak pot (namd o ts chaman, Go Pak) was pblshd n 1966 and dntd “Sold-Stat (and Condnsd-Matt) Physcs” as on o th pmay dvsons whos poss t addssd. 29 Th sold stat and condnsd matt sbcommtt nstd a ootnot nto a dat o th pot n Apl 1964 xplann th namn dcson, pontn ot that aond 90 pcnt o th ld consstd o wok on solds, ths sn “sold stat” as a nal tm was ood noh o ovnmnt wok.30 “Condnsd matt” n th Pak pot was both ltally and atvly panthtcal. Dspt th passn acknowldmnt that t mht b a mo appopat tm, th compls ncd condnsd matt only whn th phnomnon nd dscsson dvatd too ncomotably om th alm o solds. Thy dscbd aly sach n th ld, o xampl, by slppn samlssly om talkn abot solds to nvokn condnsd matt whn dscssn “Untl th bnnn cnty . Btwn . . th scnc o soldsspdty: mand almost ntly mpcal o andths dscptv. 1912 and th aly 1930s, most o th salnt popts o condnsd matt, wth th stkn xcpton o spdty, w ndstood at last qaltatvly.” Sch slts nsd, th pot contnd, slppn back nto th lana o solds, that “[t]h sta was st o th bnnn o sold-stat physcs n ts psnt sns. sns.””31 “Condnsd matt” papd ov spots n th Pak pot wh th stctv nat o “sold stat” bcam too obvos o comot. As o th md-1960s, th tm dd not psa swpn chans to th stct and dntty o sold stat physcs. Thoh th pot nsstd that sold stat “s a ndamntal banch o physcs” and sstd that t poss n sold stat “cold wll tn ot to b o at sncanc to o knowld o th wold than th poss n lmntay-patcl physcs,” t savd th atst mphass o sold stat’s tchncal contbtons.32 Th scton nttld “Intllctal Challn” ban: “In sold-stat physcs th s at psnt no claly vsbl nd o adcally nw concpts” and mad th cas o concptal mpotanc by pontn to nchoat sach aas, sch as noncystalln solds, as th potntal bt npovn soc o “nw concpts and pncpals.”33 Th pot ctd th pssmsm at la n th 1960s adn sold stat’s potntal to mak ondatonal ntllctal contbtons. Ban Pppad’s commndaton that sold stat phys-
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csts tn away om costy-dvn sach and stat tann stdnts o cas n ndsty ndsty,, whch had so ankld ankld Phlp Andson, An dson, was symptomatc o th sns at th tm that sold stat had pshd p shd abot as a as t cold nto th concptal ont.34 Flds sch as plasma physcs, whch had scd ts plac wth an APS dvson o ts own n 1959, bntd as physcsts ntstd n complx matt lookd byond sold stat o n ntllctal pasts.35 In a smla, lss datst spt, th Pak pot, althoh tpd abot sold stat’s basc sach potntal, avd abot ts “ndspnsabl [ol] n nmos tchnolocal dvlopmnts,” boastn that “th whol [o] commncatons tchnoloy s bn ndamntally actd by ths [sold stat] dvlopmnts.”36 Th athos, shtn om th catos ton whn dscssn sold stat’s ntllctal n tllctal mpotanc, mphaszd th “ndspnsabl, “n dspnsabl,”” “vtal,”” and “ssntal” contbtons sold stat sach mad to tchnolo“vtal, cal systms that w “totally dpndnt” on sold stat dvcs and knowhow.37 Sold stat was stll bldn ts ntllctal potolo, bt ts tchnolocal tack cod was ston. As lon as th sach ld jstd tsl wold pmaly on tchnolocal onds, ts most pomnnt poams b ocsd aond solds; nan concns abot sold stat’s appopatnss as a catoy cold b swpt nd th , as thy had bn n th 1962 AIP Handbook. THE BROMLEY REPORT
In th aly 1970s—as dsmay ov th wdnn pst ap btwn sold stat and patcl physcs pakd—“condnsd matt” ban to plac “sold stat” as th pd tm n advsoy ccls. Th NRC pot pblshd n 1972 ncldd a chapt on “Physcs o Condnsd Matt.”38 It schwd th lana o sold stat whn ncn th contmpoay ld, thoh t tand sold stat tmnoloy o hstocal obsvatons. In all, th two tms appa wth abot qal qncy. Th 1972 commtt contand many o th sam mmbs as th 1966 op—notably Books, Towns, and Smolchowsk—bt som nw cts wot th chapt on condnsd matt physcs. Amon thm was Mol Cohn, a Unvsty o Chcao physcst who was on o two Amcans who had svd on th dtoal boad o Physik der kondensierten Materie snc ts ondn and who had bn dscbn hs sach spcalty as “physcs o condnsd matt” no lat than 1964.39 Th sht n lana was accompand by nwly potnt concns ov
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ndn pattns. Th condnsd matt chapt chapt xpland: “O objctv s to show that basc sach n physcs o condnsd matt, pomd solly to ndstand n th dpst possbl way th complx bhavo o solds and lqds, has bn th soc o two dcads o npcdntd achvmnt n ctcal nw tchnolos. W s no way n whch ths achvmnts cold hav bn plannd n th past and no way n whch th poss can b poammd xcpt by contnd sppot o basc sach.” 40 Poammn—th plannn and ndn n dn o sach poams basd on pconcvd tchnolocal oals—was an v-psnt bba o sold stat and condnsd matt physcsts concnd o th ntllctal pst. Th omlaton o sach poams wth spcc pactcal otcoms n mnd, th mods opand n matals scnc, thatnd to ndmn th ntllctal atonomy and motvatd th condnsd matt panl to stat th ld’s ntllctal val mch mo vocosly than th contpats had n 1966. Th 1972 panl was accodnly ccmspct abot sold stat’s tchnolocal contbtons. Thy asstd that cal sold stat sach “th had bn sponsbl o stady nnovaton, bt w to mphasz chnss and complxty o ths vnts [nvntons o sold stat tchnolos], as wll as th vad motvatons o th scntsts and nns nvolvd.” 41 By mphaszn th complxty and capcosnss o th ots om basc sach to tchnolocal applcatons, th panl soht to potct p otct dal ndn o basc sold stat sach by ndmnn th dal ovnmnt’s tndncy to lnk basc sach xpndt to claly atclatd otcoms: “Th Untd Stats wold not spnd ts sach and dvlopmnt dollas naly so wll t nsstd th that basc sach b stonly motvatd by and dctd to pactcal oals o that all basc sach sa ch b solatd om pactcal consdatons.”42 Th sht towad condnsd matt concdd wth sn concn abot an nvonmnt that mad sach sppot to pactcal otcoms—th “copln” that had so chand Bnjamn Lax. Th sam ocs to whch th 1972 NRC pot actd pomptd Phlp Andson to dnd th ntllctal mt o complx-systms physcs n “Mo Is Dnt” that sam ya. “Mo Is Dnt” ntodcd anoth wnkl to th nam qston, n to “many-body physcs.” Th tm calls to mnd th qantm many-body poblm, th notoos ntactablty o calclatn a wav ncton o qantm systms contann th o mo ntactn bods. Th mpossblty o ddcn th popts o many-body systms om st pncpls mant, o Andson, that th con-
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cpts mployd to ndstand complx systms w jst as ntllctally valabl as thos sd to ndstand lmntay patcls.43 Althoh t contnd to dscb sach conontn th qantm many-body poblm, “many-body physcs” nv thatnd to spplant “sold stat physcs” as a dsnato o th la commnty, n pat, no dobt, bcas o ts naow ocs on thoy. Andson’s sa o th tm, howv, mos th way condnsd 44 matt ban to b sd n th sam a, somtms by Andson hmsl. Both tms ocsd attnton on mthodolocal commonalts and ths t mo convnntly nto th naatv aond ntllctal pst and sach ndn that condnsd matt physcsts pd. That “condnsd matt” was a possonally motvatd catoy n th 1970s s vdnt whn xamnn ts pblshd sa. Btwn 1970 and 1979, only 32 atcls n APS jonals contand “condnsd matt” n th ttls o abstacts. In compason, 121 ncldd “sold stat,” 1,019 contand “solds,” and “hh ny” appad 1,399 tms. 45 Th mov towad condnsd matt lana n th NRC, thn, was not a cton o pvaln sach ocapacos sl-dntcaton “Sold stat” “condnsd matt”pactcs w both mbllapattns. catos that dd lttland to shap day-to-day sach. Thy had at mann as possonal opns and ndn dsnatons. Th tmnolocal sht ctd a chan o possonal doloy boht abot as sold stat physcsts conontd challns to th ntllctal pst and ndn o xploatoy sach. Th watshd momnt o condnsd matt cam wth a poposal at th Janay 1978 concl mtn to nam th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs (DSSP) th “Dvson o Condnsd Matt Physcs.” Th sston scandalzd psntatvs om th Dvson o Fld Dynamcs (DFD), who pcvd an nvason o th t: “[Fanços] Fnkl xpssd concn ov th ovlap btwn th sbjct matt covd by a Dvson o Condnsd Matt Physcs and by th Dvson o Fld Dynamcs, and notd that appoval o sch a chan wold oc th Dvson o Fld Dynamcs to chan ts nam. [Tony] Maxwothy notd that th Dvson o Fld Dynamcs Exctv Commtt xpssd ston ln aanst th nam chan.”46 Th matt was postpond ntl Apl, vn th two dvsons som tm to hash ot th dncs. Th moton sccdd at th Apl mtn, bt t mand contovsal, passn by a vot o tn n avo to svn opposd at a tm whn nanmty was th nom o concl vots.47 Th DSSP had bn dntd wth solds o so lon that th nw nam stppd on th tos o oth dvsons. Th Dvson o Fld Dynamcs dd
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not nd to chan ts nam, bt ts mmbs’ sstanc shows that th sht om sold stat to condnsd matt ncldd sncant ontaton o sold stat’s possonal oals at a tm whn sach on ds was ann ond. As sach on lqd hlm, o xampl—on o th mo colol aths n th sold stat cap, wth ts xotc popts lk spdty— bcam a mo actv aa o sach, th lana o solds bcam cospondnly mo nconvnnt and th obsvaton om th Pak pot that solds accontd o pwad o 90 pcnt o th actvty n th ld no lon appld.48 Th DFD ndstandably saw th DSSP’s ots to bn ds nd ts as as mpalstc. Th condnsd matt patsans wthn th DSSP, o th pat, psd a nw concptal ocs that nconvnncd th xstn nstttonal stct that had own n th days whn sold stat mantand a mo thoohly ndstal ptaton. Th DFD had bn ondd n 1948, shotly at th DSSP. DSSP. Th namn n th t h lat 1970s snald a nwond commtmnt to advocatn o condnsd matt as a basc sach ntps and, n so don, thatnd th oanzatons that had lld that pst. vod n th yas whn sold stat physcs was a mo thoohly ndstal Sold stat physcs had always had a ston ndstal patna. In th Natonal Rsach Concl’s 1946 svy o US ndstal laboatos, jst bo th DSSP’s ondn, only Bll Laboatos contd “sold stat physcs” amon ts sach spcalts.49 By th t h 1960 dton o th sam svy, svy, th tm was not lmtd to th lks o Bll, whch mantand a la basc sach sta. Th Amcan Machn and Fondy Company n Stamod, Connctct, Hhs Acat Company’s Nwpot Bach lab, and Contol Data Copoaton n Mnnapols w amon th dozns o laboatos that contd sold stat amon th spcalts, ncldn many that lstd no physcsts amon th sachs.50 Sold stat’s appld bnt was wll ndstood by ts pacttons, vn thos who pd to nd t away om ndsty. Rsach o th Pak pot concldd that n 1963 60 pcnt o ndn o sold stat was spnt n ndsty.51 Th sccss s ccss o ARP ARPA A’s ntdscplnay laboatos (IDLs) n th nvsts, thoh wdly clbatd, natd concns abot th latonshp btwn sold stat and physcs as a whol. Havy Books wod n a 1964 ltt to Walt Kohn that th owth o IDLs and appld physcs dpatmnts had xacbatd an xstn tndncy o sold stat to solat tsl. H was most concnd o sold stat thosts, who, whn colocatd wth matals sachs, lost connctons to oth thotcal physcsts,
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hampn th ablty to patcpat n th vbal xchans that h dntd as bn ctcal to thoy th oy..52 By th aly 1970s, condnsd matt physcs had bn to sm lk an altnatv that cold addss ths concns. THE BRINKMAN REPORT
Th yas btwn th 1972 Bomly pot and th nxt majo svy, n 1986, wtnssd systmc chans n th sold stat and condnsd matt commnty. In th md-1970s, th US Jstc Dpatmnt ld an anttst st aanst AT&T, whch ld to a 1982 consnt dc nd whch th company lnqshd contol o ts local tlphon ntwoks.53 Th bakp o th Bll Systm was compltd n 1984. Th tmol wthn th company n advanc o th bakp spad to Bll Labs, whos scntsts ban an xods, scattn what had bn a powl, cntalzd cad o smcondcto physcsts acoss many nvsty dpatmnts and oth sach s ach labs.54 Th ndstal ocs at Bll Labs had kpt on o th conty’s most nntal sold stat physcs ops ocsd ocs d on solds. Its sachs njoyd th sam typs domswhos acadmc njoyd, bt wth Bll aas was pdsposd to hophyscsts bascsachs ntsts alnd closly o potntal applcaton to tlcommncatons—nw sach aas o ntst to condnsd matt physcsts, sch as qantm ds, hld lttl ntst o Bll. Th xods om what had bn th most powl cnt o sold stat stat physcs tho asd th tanston to a boad concpton o th ld. A natonwd sht away om sold stat and towad condnsd matt that clmnatd wth th bakp o th Bll op was also nactd thoh chans n a nmb o majo nstttons and poams. Th Aspn Cnt o Physcs, a pomnnt smm tat o thotcal physcsts bn n 1962, ntatd condnsd matt physcs nto ts poam p oam n th lat 1970s, nd th nnc o Phlp Andson. 55 In 1979, th Unvsty o Calona, Santa Babaa ondd ts Insttt o Thotcal Physcs wth Walt Kohn as th ondn dcto dcto.. Kohn was a pon o dnsty nctonal thoy (DFT), whch modls th lcton stct o molcls and matals sn nctons o lcton dnsty dnsty..56 Th sach poam Kohn dvlopd sn DFT mphaszd ts wdst possbl applcaton to all phass o condnsd matt—on mas o ts sccss n ths ad s that th Physical Review atcl ntodcn th thoy s on o th most hhly ctd physcs paps to dat.57 Th Santa F Insttt, ondd n 1984 and amn ts ntllctal msson nd th danc o condnsd matt physcst Davd Pns, took th scnc o complxty as ts msson. 58
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Ths chans cam abot n la pat bcas o thotcal dvlopmnts. Th qantm mchancal tchnqs o th 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s wokd wll o la solds bt w statd sta td by oth condnsd matt systms. DFT, wth ts makabl nalty, was a habn o th thotcal advancs n th 1970s. Th Btsh/Isal physcst Cyl Domb mmbd th aly 1970s as th momnt whn th stdy o ctcal phnomna—sch as phas tanstons—and thotcal 59 spctablty thoh th applcaton o nomalzaton op thoy. It soldd ts possonal spctablty thoh conncs sch as th Battll Colloqm, whch mt n Gnva and Gstaad, Swtzland, n Sptmb 1970 to xplo th lvanc o ctcal phnomna to th scnc o matals. 60 Th Battll Colloqm ncldd Lo Kadano, thn at Bown Unvsty, who n 1978 was hd by th Unvsty o Chcao to jon ts Jams Fanck Insttt (JFI). Th JFI os a psntatv xampl o th nstttonal tanstons occn wthn sold stat and condnsd matt physcs n th lat 1970s and aly 1980s. It had bn ondd at th Scond Wold Wa as th Insttttoocay th on Stdy o Mtals (ISM), th -n sach nsttts concvd th concptal wok oon thoManhattan Manhatta Pojct sach th nvsty had hostd, albt wth an mphass on basc, nonmltay sach. Its aly msson, “to ps stds n th ndamntal popts o matt as latd to mtals,” ctd th stat o sold stat physcs, ncpnt thoh t was, n th lat la t 1940s, and smbld somthn Roman Smolchowsk, who ntally soht an APS dvson o mtals physcsts that wold ncoa coss-dscplnay collaboaton, mht hav nvsad.61 Onally dctd by th mtallst Cyl Stanly Smth, th ISM took ts c om th stdy o th popts o anm and pltonm that th watm Mtallcal Laboatoy had condctd, mns th mltay mphass, and psd th ntdscplnay stdy o mtals. By th tm Smth snd as dcto n 1957, that ntal msson had tanslatd nto a ohly qal balanc btwn sold stat physcs and physcal chmsty. Th ISM’s sach dvson mployd nn physcsts, ht physcal chmsts, and two mtallsts, whos most lvly sach aas ncldd cystalloaphy, mantsm, lastc and nlastc popts o mtals, and low-tmpat sach, ncldn spcondctvty.62 It was, n oth wods, mly wthn th manstam o 1950s sold stat sach. Its mphass on mtals mpld a sach poam on cystalln solds, and th ntdscplnay consttton o th nsttton nsd that th physcs condctd th pocdd n clos collaboaton wth chmsty and mtally mtally..
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Th ISM chand ts nam n 1967 to commmoat mts posso o chmsty, and 1925 physcs Nobl laat, Jams Fanck, who had dd n 1964. Bt anoth ppos ctd an nkln that th nsttt’s hstocal ocs on mtals wold soon pov lmtn. An ntnal mmo xpland: “On o th pposs o th chan n nam s to avod a possbl nhbtn acto n pomotn a nw dcton n th sach to b cad on n ths aclty. At th psnt tm ths sach s nally lmtd to th aas o chmcal physcs and sold stat physcs. It s blvd to b dsabl to xpand th actvts n ths aas by dvlopn sach poams n th aa o chmcal boloy. Th nam o th Insttt o Mtals may tnd to b an nhbtn acto n pomotn ths dvlopmnt.”63 On o th motvs o consdn a nw mphass on chmcal boloy was th 1964 dssolton o th ISM’s sbln nsttt, th Insttt o Radoboloy and Bophyscs, whch pomptd ISM sachs to thnk abot movn nto ttoy t had onc occpd.64 Bt th pomsd xpanson nto chmcal boloy was not othcomn. Th JFI’sbdtay st w yas nd tsthat nwhad monk wdssolton makd byoth stnnt nvonmnt ld to th thsam bophyscs nsttt. Sval tmnts waknd ts standn n sold stat physcs and shtd ts mphass towad chmsty. chmsty. Whn th physcal chmst Ol Klppa took ov as dcto, h placd an mphass on covn th nsttt’s lost capacty n physcs, “to achv a somwhat clos nmcal balanc btwn th physcal and chmsty componnts o o aclty.”65 Th sns that th nsttt wold nd to xpand ts topcal scop nonthlss povd pscnt. By th lat 1970s, whn th nsttt soht to xpand ts aclty, t took advanta o ts nw nam’s xblty to mphasz cnt thotcal dvlopmnts n condnsd matt physcs. Th addton o Kadano n 1978 and Albt Lbchab n 1982 shtd th mphass o th JFI away om physcal mtally and towad th stdy o ctcal phnomna and nonlna dynamcs, lds n whch t sbsqntly stablshd tsl as a majo natonal cnt. Th JFI’s tajctoy llstats th wd natonal contxt wthn whch condnsd matt lana won avo amon thos who soht to dstanc th ld om ndsty and connct wth th p scnc tadton that mand a ston dolocal oc n Amcan physcs. Th 1986 NRC pot on condnsd matt physcs—dbbd th Bnkman pot at commtt chaman Wllam F. Bnkman o Sanda San da Natonal Laboatos— Laboato s— addssd th poblm o ntllctal pst by hhlhtn “th act that
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condnsd matt physcs s th physcs o systms wth an nomos nmb o ds d s o dom.” dom.” As a consqnc, th pot mantand, chon th sbstanc o Andson’s 1972 amnts, “[a] hh d o catvty s qd to nd concptally concptally,, mathmatcally, mathmatcally, and xpmntally tactabl ways o xtactn th ssntal ats o sch systms, wh xact tatmnt s an mpossbl task.” Th Bnkman pot wnt to at lnths to dnty condnsd matt physcs as a ndamntal and ntllctally valabl ld o scnc, and thby to dstnsh t om matals scnc. “Condnsd-matt physcs s ntllctally stmlatn,” th pot mphaszd, “bcas o th dscovs o ndamntal nw phnomna and stats o matt, th dvlopmnt o nw concpts, and th opnn p p o nw sbs blds that hav occd contnosly thohot ts sxty-ya hstoy. hstoy.”66 Th choc o a sxty-ya tmln o th ld s tlln o th athos’ anda, spcally snc th Pak pot commtt thoht Max von La’s dscovy o X-ay dacton n 1912 a mo appopat landmak.67 Haknn back to 1926, th ya n whch qantm mchancs dsplacd th old qantm thoy , placd condnsd mly n th ta dton tadton o achtcts th qantm thoythoy, o solds, whch mdmatt n th lat 1920s as som o th o qantm mchancs xplod th nw thoy’s tlty o dscbn lctons n mtals and th mpotanc o sch applcatons o ndstandn th ondatons o th nw thoy.68 Pcsly datn condnsd matt to th advnt o qantm mchancs mad t cla that condnsd matt physcs was dnd, at co, by ts ntllctal contbtons to physcs and that t was ntd aond th mthods qd to dscb th complx ntactons o atoms and molcls n clos poxmty. Sold stat physcsts bo th 1980s pd al tochstons, mostly n th lat nntnth and aly twntth cnts. Slat, o nstanc, lanchd an ovvw o th ld n 1952, wtn: “Th physcs o th sold stat s nothn nw. In 1900 t was as wll alzd as now that mchancs, hat, lctcty, mantsm, optcs, all hav th soldstat aspcts.”69 Follown sch a staty o condnsd matt physcs wold hav mad t mo dclt to dstnsh t om matals scnc. Makn that spaaton vdnt mphaszd that condnsd matt physcsts wold not cay wat o tchnolocal ntsts. Th pot ban by dclan, “W a not svyn svyn matals scnc no th consdabl mpact o condnsd-matt physcs on tchnoloy.”70 By th md-1980s, th dstnctons btwn condnsd matt—th “ndamntal” dscpln—and matals scnc—ts appld cosn—w soldyn, whl th al po-
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ssonal allanc that had sstand s stand sold stat physcs thoh th pcdn dcads loosnd. Thoh dstancn thmslvs om ndstal assocatons, condnsd matt physcsts notably dd not sk a clan bak wth sold stat physcs, choosn nstad to mphasz th concptal and mthodolocal contnts btwn th lds, a mov mad as by th wdspad mpsson that sold stat had bn pooly namd. Sold stat’s tchnolocal accomplshmnts—sch as th tanssto, spcondctn mants, and mantc sonanc man—mand ntal to condnsd matt’s htocal asnal. Dspt ts potstatons that t was not svyn th tchnolocal dmnson o condnsd matt physcs, th Bnkman pot totd condnsd matt as “th ld o physcs that has th atst mpact on o daly lvs thoh th tchnolocal dvlopmnts to whch t vs s.” It was not, howv, wthn th job dscpton o condnsd matt physcsts to ps thos dvlopmnts. It mht b “a ld whos halth s ssntal o mantann th vtal ow o nw tchnoloy, tchnoloy,” bt alzn thos tchnol71
os wasmpld to b lt to oth Th dvson o dscplns. labo kpt condnsd matt physcsts on d movd om actal tchnolocal applcatons, whch ll to matals scntsts and nns. Ths pspctv pspposd somthn akn to th lna modl o nnovaton, namly th phlosophy, npopla wth matals scntsts, that nttd and nscptd basc sach was th pmay wllspn o tchnolocal advanc.72 Rstm Roy, coond o th Matals Rsach Socty, Socty, calld th noton that t hat basc scnc bts nnovaton, whch n tn bts pospty, “ppostos, ctanly n la wth pptal moton.”73 Fo condnsd matt physcsts, thoh, t pomsd to alz th hops o cavn ot a at popoton o th dal bdt o ndamntal sach, spcally whn combnd wth mnds that condnsd matt physcs was bhnd som o th most pomnnt tchncal accomplshmnts o th pcdn dcads. Condnsd matt physcsts, vn n dtald svys sch as th 1986 NRC pot, lmtd thmslvs to shown that basc scntc knowld was boadly lvant to xstn aas o tchnolocal mpotanc. Thy dd not spll ot how ndn o basc sach wold tanslat nto tchnolocal advancs on th ond—and so n ths sns thy w not atclatn a stct vson o th lna modl.74 Most lkly thy hld no dp commtmnt to any patcla vson o how scntc knowld was connctd to tchnolocal dvlopmnt. Th al commtmnt was to th ovall val
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o basc sach; htoc stablshn som conncton to tchnoloy was a tool std to that oal, and th conncton was va, all th btt. Th owth o matals scnc nto th dvlopmnt am o th old sold stat constllaton allowd condnsd matt physcsts th lattd to backt th qston o how th aw knowld mnd by physcsts wold b nd nto sabl tchnoloy as sombody ls’s poblm. Dawn too clos an assocaton btwn basc sach and appld appl d oals tmptd xplct lnks btwn basc sach ndn and appld tats, ta ts, th vy vy spct condnsd matt physcsts hopd to avod. Thy tho walkd a n ln, pssn had o ntllctal pst whl stll hopn to mantan a plasbl clam to tchnolocal lvanc. Th dmandn poblms psntd by th physcal complxty o solds w by no mans nq to that phas o matt. Th mthods and concpts dvlopd to nvstat and ndstand solds tanstond dly nto th boad catoy o condnsd matt wth th s o nw sach aas. As thy dd, th possonal objctvs to whch thy w tnd chand makdly makdly. . Solds w onally chosn a dscplnay catoy bcas o th shad lvanc to ndstal andasacadmc physcsts. In th 1940s, that choc svd th pcvd nd to bn ndstal sachs nto th possonal old and to stablsh btt lns o commncaton byond th acadmy. By th 1970s, condnsd matt svd th oppost mpls. Sold stat’s ndstal past was a lablty n th ys o thos who dndd th mt o ts ntllctal contnt, vn ts tchnolocal accomplshmnts w a htocal ncssty. Th catoy o condnsd matt physcs, by tnn to shad pactcs as a way o dnn th ld, add physcsts ntstd n th basc poblms posd by complx matal systms n th ots to mphasz th ntllctally challnn lmnts o th ntps, bt wthot also aboatn th clam to tchnolocal tlty t lty.. Thoh th postwa dcads, sold stat physcs cold tat wok on nonsolds as lvant, bt manal. By th md-1980s, qantm ds, ctcal phnomna, nonlna dynamcs, complxty stds, and smla sach aas that cold not b asly lmpd n wth solds w th most ntllctally xctn aas, at a tm whn mphaszn concptal contbtons bcam on o th ld’s most pssn oals. Whn ths aas blossomd n th aly 1970s, thy pt th l to th pssmstc otlook o sold stat sta t physcs that Ban Pppad had atclatd n 1961. 75 Bt th nw pomnnc also stand th concptal consstncy o sold stat physcs, alady a pont o concn, byond cdlty. cdlty. Ramn mch o what had bn b n calld sold
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stat physcs as condnsd matt physcs boht ths pactcs to th cnt and mphaszd th ld’s clam on th ntllctal stats o Amcan physcs, whl also skn to tan th ptaton o tchnolocal cndty that sold stat physcs njoyd.
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Bcas t s so dvs and dspsd, small scnc has lackd th snl voc wth whch b scnc has bn abl to spak, ths pmttn a nmb o myths to psst: sch as th myth o tckl-down tchnoloy; th myth o th snl ntllctal ont; and th myth o th non-zosm an. Ths mply that sppotn b scnc s a ood conomc nvstmnt that can b don wthot htn small scnc. —PAUL A. FLEURY FLEU RY,, 1991
In 1982, th Amcan Physcal Socty’s Dvson o Patcls and Flds hld th st o what wold bcom la mtns n Snowmass, Coloado, to plan th ld’s t. Th loty lvaton and ad atmosph o th Rocky Montans std th ambtons. Attnds conontd th qston o wh, whn, and how to bld th nxt-naton patcl acclato. Th massv machn thy nvsond wold hav bn th last physcal laboatoy v constctd, and th most xpnsv. Th dctonst dal that had dvn hh ny physcs snc th 1960s dd ts concpton and msson. Almost a cnty at Hny Rowland atclatd hs p scnc vson, th hh ny physcs commnty was posd to psh t to ts local xtms wth a taxpay-ndd ot to pob basc qstons abot th stct o th nvs, wth scant concsson to tchnolocal o conomc consdatons. Th acclato mand at Snowmass wold q so mch chap, at, and spasly poplatd spac that t wold by ncssty b a “machnn-th-dst,” as Lon Ldman—who wold wn th Nobl Pz n 1988 o hs ntno sach—pt t.1 Follown Ldman’s lad, Snowmass patcpants ban calln ths mand machn “th Dston.” 2 Nws otlts szd on th ashy nam o what wold vntally bcom th llstad Spcondctn Sp Colld, o SSC. Time, The Economist , New
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Scientist , and oths potd bathlssly at Snowmass 1982 on how th
Dston, a mltbllon-dolla patcl physcs dam machn, wold shap o ndstandn o th nvs.3 Th mammoth acclato, wth a bam pp 54.1 mls n ccmnc, wold vntally b std n Waxahach, Txas, soth o Dallas-Fot Woth. Fom th standpont o 1980s patcl physcs, an acclato spassn th ns avalabl at Fmlab’s Tvaton was ncssay to povd xpmntal ondn o th nal pcs o th standad modl o patcl physcs and to xplo ts lmts. Th tat ny o th SSC was 20 TV, blow whch patcl physcsts w ctan th Hs boson, on o th last pcs o th standad modl that awatd xpmntal dscovy, wold b ond. Stvn Wnb Wnb jstd jst d th 20 TV TV tat to Conss wth an a n analoy to Chstoph Colmbs: “It s a lttl bt lk Colmbs saln wst om Span. Colmbs pomsd that h wold t to th Inds h cold sal a noh Wst. Wll, that was won, bt what h shold hav sad, whch wold hav bn coct, s that h sald a a noh Wst, Wst, h wold 4
t to thtat Indsaantd nlss somthn qally ntstn otmachn n th way.” Th 20 TV ndn th Hs, nlss th st ond physcs that bok th standad modl and ocd a adcal mann o th ld. Hh ny physcsts hopd o th Hs, and ond th possblty that th jony jo ny to 20 TV wold b ntptd nt ptd by ndscovd contnnts vn mo tantalzn. Bt wh Wnb saw Colmbs, oths saw Bk and Wlls, th Astalan xplos who sccdd n cossn th contnnt om soth to noth, bt ond lttl noshmnt n th mpty dst btwn th coasts and dd tyn to complt th tn jony. 5 Som concptons o th standad modl sstd that, althoh th jony to t o 20 TV TV wold sly val th Hs, lttl ls o ntst was lkly to appa alon th way, and that th Dston cold tho b xpctd to map ot a vast, mpty concptal dst. Stmbln pon an nadond Hs as an oass amd a wastland cam to b known as th “nhtma scnao” o patcl physcs, and t appas to b playn ot now at th La Hadon Colld, wh a Hs boson consstnt wth th standad modl was ncovd n 2012.6 Unctanty abot th potntal o a 20 TV acclato to do mo than nd th Hs (and phaps th top qak, whch wold b dtctd n 1995 at th Tvaton) opnd th doo to oth objctons, most notably om condnsd matt physcsts who compland that th Dston pomsd a ndn dst o physcsts psn ndamntal sach n
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anythn oth than lmntay patcl physcs. Th objctons o physcsts who wod abot a b-scnc monopoly on dal spndn o basc sach contbtd to Conss yankn th SSC’s ndn, vn at constcton on th Waxahach st was wll nd way, n 1993. Unlk th al ntncn nt ncn sqabbls that had shapd sha pd post–Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa pst hachs and ndn dynamcs, whch tndd to man laly wthn th physcs commnty, commnty, ths dbats playd p layd ot n pblc, wh amnts abot th SSC contstd mch mo than th mts o a snl aclty. Th SSC dbats, as sn thoh th conssonal cod, popla books, and op-d colmns, constttd a ndm on th t o Amcan physcs. Th ndm was hh staks. Th sccss o a mltbllon-dolla acclato, concvd at npcdntd scal, wold hav amd th stats o hh ny physcs as th maq Amcan scnc n th ac o ov a dcad o challns chall ns to ts pvl. Th Atomc Eny Commsson (AEC), whos closd-doo dcson-makn pocss avod th whms o nntal ndvdals, was dssolvd n 1974. As Mchal Rodan, Lllan Hoddson, Adnn Kolb docmnt n Tunnel , th dntv hstoy o thand SSC, th Dpatmnt o Eny, whchVisions took th AEC’s plac and appovd nds thoh th la conssonal appopatons pocsss, ban a slow oson o th nnc hh ny physcsts p hyscsts hld ov th dal ndn o scnc.7 Th 1970s also saw th bth o combnant DNA tchnqs and th 1980s lanchd wth th passa o th Bayh–Dol Act, whch pmttd nvsts and oth oanzatons to l o patnts on ntllctal popty dvn om dally ndd sach. In conjncton, ths dvlopmnts ncoad th commcalzaton o acadmc molcla boloy and st th ondwok o bomdcn to xpand both ts pblc pol and ts ndn potolo. Boloy ban to claw ts way p th nstttonal hachs o Amcan nvsts wth th pchas od by th poms o patnt vns.8 Th SSC’s al amd ths tnds, whas ts sccss mht hav ostalld thm. Th actos that ld to th SSC’s dms ncldd lack o ntnatonal collaboatos, ntnal msmanamnt, cost ovns that placd th nal stmatd pc ta at ov $11 bllon, and th nd o th Cold Wa, wth th ncntv t had povdd to otcompt th Sovt Unon n all thns. Ths cas stdy dos not o a ll accontn o ths actos, bt nstad xamns th SSC om th pspctv o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs.9 What dd th SSC man o condnsd matt physcs and what dd condnsd matt physcs man o th SSC? Condnsd matt phys-
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csts tndd to oppos th pojct, p ojct, and thy dd so wth at ntnsty ntnsty,, qncy, and volm thoh th lat 1980s and aly 1990s. Conssonal bdt hawks, whos nmbs ncasd at th 1992 lctons, consdd th SSC poat and an d ond val n sch tstmony. tstmony. Hh ny physcsts bstld. Thy lt blndsdd by th collas’ attacks on a pojct thy vwd as ncssay to advanc ndamntal knowld, and to ns dal sppot o basc sach o any knd. Vocal, pblc opposton to so hh-pol a pojct om wthn physcs was la. Dssnt, n th nspokn ls o th physcs commnty, stayd n th amly amly.. Moblzn that dssnt n od to nnc thos holdn th dal ps stns wold b pcvd as a btayal. Sold stat physcsts, lk Bnjamn Lax, mht hav habod svatons abot th mts o Fmlab whn t was takn shap n th lat 1960s, bt thy w catos abot vocn thm n pblc. Evn at th pak o hs statons abot tpd dal sppot o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy, Lax avodd vntn thm n th dcton o any patcla pojct, at last n wtn. Alvn althoh cta o scntc choc wlvl navoabl to hhWnb, ny physcs, alsohskpt hs ctqs on th nal and dd not sk to ndmn any spcc ndn qst. So whn Snato John O. Pasto askd Robt Wlson n a conssonal han abot appopatons o th Natonal Acclato Laboatoy Laboatoy,, “Wold “Wold yo say as a as yo know,, th whol scntc commnty s bhnd ths, wthot a dssnt?” Wlknow son cold co ld ply, ply, “Thy do not dssnt ds snt to m, s.” s.”10 Th SSC wold not njoy th sam dnc. Rsstanc om condnsd matt physcsts and matals scntsts who consdd th SSC SS C an xtavaant toy o th amsmnt o a small slc o physcsts was pvalnt and pblc. That opposton snald th boln ov o tnsons that had stand th Amcan physcs commnty o hal a cnty. Dspt th nnc o th Cold Wa Wa scty stat, th apd xpanson o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs, and th ncasn psnc o physcsts n ndsty, th p scnc dal lvd on n hh ny physcs, wh t combnd wth a ston dctonst phlosophy. By th tm o th SSC hans, howv, condnsd matt physcs had synthszd a cla altnatv: an mbac o basc condnsd matt sach as a mo pobabl ondaton o t tchnolocal bnts than oth sach as well as a ood n tsl. Ths comptn dal povd btt adaptd to th contxt o th aly a ly 1990s. At th dms o th SSC dlvd a blow to th dctonst spn on th p scnc dal that had sstand hh ny physcs o dcads, th con-
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dnsd matt physcsts’ vw o physcs mand as th vson that physcsts wold hav to adopt to contn dal sppot o th ld. Th ollown s oanzd aond th th myths Pal A. Fly, a physcst thn at Bll Laboatos, dntd n hs conssonal tstmony opposn th SSC: th myth o tckl-down tchnoloy, th myth o th snl ntllctal ont, and th myth o th non-zo-sm an. 11 Ths capt th thold objcton that sold stat physcsts posd to th SSC and to th htoc n ts avo: st, that hh ny physcsts w clamn spn-o tchnolos o th SSC that shold mo htly b cdtd to condnsd matt physcs; scond, that hh ny physcs was not th only ot to ndamntal knowld; and thd, that a snl, mltbllondolla laboatoy svn a small mnoty o physcsts was not th bst way to ns t advancs o th tchnoloy o ndamntal knowld. Ths objctons dvd om th altnatv vson o physcs and ts plac n Amcan socty that sold stat physcsts had dvlopd by th tm o th SSC dbats. Analyzn ths objctons as thy w dployd n th motonally chad battlthat ovdnd th SSC’s at bns ntoatocs dolocal dsamnt Amcan physcs th th ndcntal o th twntth cnty and dmonstats how sold stat physcs, n ts st hal cnty as a pat o Amcan physcs, shtd th ld’s cnt. THE MYTH OF TRICKLE-DOWN TECHNOLOGY
Spn-o clams w pat o th standad atonal o th SSC. Althoh hh ny physcsts had lon nvokd ncdntal tchnolocal dvlopmnts as a n bnt o th sach, thos jstcatons w mly sbodnat. Hh ny physcsts, whn thy sstd that spn-os shold b actod nto th val o ndamntal scnc, tadtonally took pans to mphasz that thy cold not pdct o aant spcc spn-o tchnolos.12 “To xtapolat om th condt topcs o cnt ndamntal scntc nvstaton to a tchnolocal spn-o s to ndl n andos spclaton. Rsponsbl collas shk th task almost as a tadton,” Lon Ldman wot n a 1984 Scientic American atcl psntn hs amnts o sppotn ndamntal sach to a popla adnc.13 Bt spn-o clams wold assm a nw and otszd mpotanc dn th psh to t th SSC blt. By th lat 1980s, th Cold Wa a,, nan ts nd, no lon waantd waant d th hthto potnt assmpton that all physcs was potntally dns-lvant, and ctanly bn psd p sd by th Sovt Unon. Economc compttvnss
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had takn th plac o natonal dns as th standad by whch dal xpndts on scnc wold b masd. 14 Economc and tchnolocal spn-o clams w nto a nw ol as an answ to ths challn. chall n. Th xactxactn dmands o acclato dsn and constcton, SSC boosts ad, wold advanc xstn tchnolos, ncov novl applcatons, and nat nw job-makn ndsts. Spcc pomss—whch som o Ldman’s collas w wlln to mak dspt hs nsstnc on th tlssnss—ncldd btt mant and spcondctn tchnolos sch as thos that powd MRI (mantc sonanc man) machns, advancs n comptn, and vn mpovd mpovd tnnln tchnqs tchnq s that cold b appld to th constcton o sbway systms. Sch bnts cold, th amnt wnt, b xpctd to ost th p-ont cost o th pojct n th lon tm. Bt spn-os, hh ny physcsts catond, w otn nantcpatd; nosn bnts shold acto nto th qaton as wll. Th st slcton comptton that an om aly 1987 to lat 1988 dd a consdabl amont to mak spn-o clams mo pomnnt. Mchan psntatv Robt (Bob) Ca pt th pont sccnctly n a Mach 1988 Hos Mlton Appopatons Commtt h an. han. “That’s not th way th Govnos a lookn at t,” h spondd to Sctay o Eny John Hanton’s nsstnc that th SSC was a basc sach pojct st and omost, “thy’ lookn at th jobs and th conomc dvlopmnt and th spnos.”15 Coaxn sppot o stn poposals om stat ovnmnts qd atclatn cla and conct bnts to th on, and ths amnts pcolatd nto th ovall atonal o bldn th SSC. Thoh ths pocss, spn-os w askd to cay a jstcatoy ol thy cold not sstan, opnn a ln o attack o condnsd matt physcsts who bdld at th sston that th own ld’s tchncal contbtons cont btons w m allot om th acclato xploson. Lslatos’ actons to spn-o clams val som o th ptalls. In a Mach 5, 1986, sbcommtt han on th Dpatmnt o Eny (DOE) bdt, th chaman, Floda Dmocat Don Fqa, askd Alvn Tvlpc, dcto o th DOE’s Oc o Eny Rsach: “Th appas to b som conson btwn th Dpatmnt’s Hh Eny Physcs Poam and th Statc Dns Intatv. W W had a wtnss ystday that sad hh ny physcs was mostly SDI. Can yo knd o clay th latonshp btwn thos two poams?” Th asston that th DOE’s hh ny physcs poam was bond p n th Statc Dns Intatv (SDI)—btt known by th sacastc ptht “Sta Was,” th mssl dns poam that by th
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nd o th 1980s wold bcom a paadm boondol—won-ootd Tvlpc, who pld: “I hav no da what th oth wtnss may hav had n mnd. It’s dclt to man pttn p ttn Fmlab Fmlab nto obt, bt phaps phap s w cold v a ty. Somtms som o th ndvdals th sm to b n obt, bt yo can ha mo abot that om Lon [Ldman].” [Ldman].”16 Th statmnt to whch Fqa d had com c om om Chals J. Mankn, th stat olost o Oklahoma, who on Mach 4 mstaknly conatd th potons o th DOE bdt ddcatd to hh ny physcs and SDI n hs pla o mo dal ndn o ossl l sach. 17 Bt Tvlpc hmsl mht hav contbtd to Fqa’s assocatn SDI wth th SSC. In hs own tstmony ladn p to Fqa’s qston, h had sad: “Th cnt collcton o actvts that a n th Statc Dns Intatv to som xtnt ow th xstnc to th basc sach that has bn don n hhny physcs, ncla physcs, and th son poam, and basc ny scncs n oth pats o th Dpatmnt. So th s a lot o contmpoay tchnoloy tans.”18 Fqa’s msndstandn llstats two mpotant ptalls spn-o Fst, lslatos otn aldtstmony, to dstnsh btwn dnto typs o clams. xpts whn valatn xpt whch mad t dclt o hh ny physcsts to plac spn-os n th contxt thy dsd. Mankn, a olost, cold not b xpctd to o xpts on hh ny physcs spndn, bt thoh th nd o lon commtt hans, hs tstmony was admxd wth thos o oth wtnsss and th pcs nat o hs xpts lost lvanc. Scond, th mo cntal spn-os bcam, th mo som lslatos ban to ndstand th pncpl ppos pp os o th SSC to b th naton o nw applcatons, waknn th ntllctal jstcaton o th pojct. Many hh ny physcsts w tho ambvalnt abot spn-o clams, and bcam mo so n th lat 1980s and aly 1990s as th poltcal hat atchtd p and t bcam dclt to sstan th da that an ncasnly xpnsv SSC was a btt bt than dct nvstmnt n th tchnolocal anas t wold ppotdly advanc. Thy conzd spn-os as sl psntd as a bons Conss cold xpct o t sppotd th pblc ood o ndamntal sach, bt th mo cntal th noton o spn-os bcam to th ovall jstcaton o th SSC, th lss th pojct smd woth th pc ta. Conss wold hav to b convncd to pay o th oods; thy w nlkly to shll ot o th lanapp. Spn-o clams nonthlss povd had to contan. Lslatos otn pshd o spcc bnts to th hom stats o to th naton. Pontn to
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a tack cod o tchnolocal t chnolocal and mdcal advancs lnkd, howv howv wakly, wakly, to hh ny physcs, whttd lslatos’ apptt o pok. Many SSC advocats, ncldn SSC dcto Roy Schwtts, pcvd that hh-mndd hh- mndd dclaatons o th nnobln nat o ndamntal knowld wold not sc to convnc lslatos that th pojct was wothwhl. “Elmntay patcl physcs dos not xst n solaton,” Schwtts asstd n hs wttn statmnt o a 1989 Snat sbcommtt mtn on th DOE bdt: “Stmlaton, nomaton, and tchnqs ow both ways: om oth actvts towad patcl physcs, and om patcl physcs towad oth actvts.”19 H mphaszd ntllctal ovlap wth ncla physcs, cosmoloy, and condnsd matt physcs, and stssd that th dmands o acclato nnn had tchnolocal amcatons o comptn, spcondctn mants, and smcondcto dvcs. Th cttn-d tchncal nds o acclatos, Schwtts mantand, “povd tl ntchan wth oth sachs, manacts, and dvlops o tchnoloy n lds sch as mdcal may.”20 Cosmolost Go Smoot, n a a1992 han, contd an ancdot abot shantstyn a plan wth opSnat o cataact patnts tavln o las sy only avalabl n th Untd Stats, whch h sd to llstat th clam: “It jst shows yo do not know what dvlopmnt s on to tn ot to b somthn sl. . . . Yo ally hav to ndstand th bascs o all scnc. sc nc. That s wh physcs, and patclaly hh ny physcs coms toth bcas physcs s what w call th qn o scncs. It s th basc ndlyn stct o all o scncs, th ondaton vythn sts on. Yo hav to ndstand physcs to ndstand what s on on.”21 Sch tatmnt was avalabl, h mpld, and avalabl n th Untd Stats, at last n pat bcas o obst sppot o basc sach n th om o hh ny physcs. Bt tyn th spposd natv pow o hh ny physcs to ts stats as th scnc o th ndamntal scal povd contntos, vn amon SSC advocats. Smoot, o xampl, tstd mmdatly at Ldman, who dssocatd th dctonst jstcaton om spn-o clams: “[Tchnolocal bnts] wold b a cazy ason to bld th SSC. W do not bld t o th spn-os. W bld t bcas w a hmans who thnk and a nsatably cos, and hav an nqnchabl dtmnaton to know,” calln Robt Wlson’s apoloy o th Natonal Acclato Laboatoy twnty-v yas al.22 Ldman’s amnt contasts th wllnnss o hs yon collas to adopt spn-o amnts whn convnnt. Th
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splt mht wll hav bn natonal. Schwtts and Smoot w both bon n th md-1940s and and th doctoats n th aly 1970s. In contast, Ldman, bon n 1922, alon wth anoth advocat o th nmbllshd dctonst jstcaton, Stvn Wnb, bon n 1933, w amon th naton who had ovsn th atclaton o th phlosophy n th 1960s. Fo thm, stoopn to amnts on th bass o tchnolocal otpt waknd th jstcaton o psn ndamntal physcs o ts own sak. Th hh staks o th SSC dbats nncd ths two ops dntly. On on hand, t pomotd an ntnscaton o th dctonsm that had ndwttn patcl physcs’ psh to hh ns thoh th 1960s and 1970s. At th sam tm, sspcons that sch a jstcaton wold not wok on ts own pomptd yon physcsts to advanc spn-o clams, whch Ldman, Wnb, and oth mmbs o th old ad ond dstactn and at tms contpodctv. Th psstnc o spn-o clams, spcally thos latd to spcondctos, smcondctos, smcondctos, ncla mantc sonanc, and oth lmnts o th sold stat doman, stokd th o opposton amon w condnsd matt physcsts. Th vy spn-os thats hh ny physcsts clamn o acclato dvlopmnt, thy nsstd, w w actally th slt o sach n sold stat physcs, whch nvthlss acd lmtd socs o basc sach that w lkly to bcom lan n th shadow o th SSC. Ths vaty o sstanc mad an mpsson on lslatos, who spondd by pshn back on spn-o clams and askn hh ny physcsts to atclat spcc tatd otcoms, whch whch was anathma to th oals o th pojct. Som o th most damnn tstmony t stmony cam om Ncolaas Blombn, a Havad-basd condnsd matt physcst and 1991 psdnt o th Amcan Physcal Socty. Socty. Blombn had won a sha o th 1981 Nobl Pz n Physcs o hs wok on las spctoscopy and had also contbtd cont btd to th aly wok on ncla mantc sonanc that ld to MRI tchnqs.23 Th MRI was pobably th most-ctd spn-o addcd n avo o hh ny physcs sach dn th SSC hans. It connctd th othws mot phnomnon o spcondctvty, whch was, at all, pat o th pojct’s nam, to a wll-known mdcal tchnoloy o obvos hmantaan bnt. Bt Blombn assd th Snat: “As on o th pons n th ld o mantc sonanc, I can ass yo that ths [MRI and spcondctn mants] a spnos o small-scal scnc, and not o th SSC.”24 H also wokd bhnd th scns to ty to tamp down sch clams. In a shap ltt to Fmlab’s Rchad A. Caan J., Blombn chastsd SSC sppot-
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s o tlln Conss that MRI was a spn-o o hh ny physcs. Sch a clam, h wot, was both “nwaantd and ill-advised . It compltly nos th ssntal contbtons by a vy la nmb o physcsts who hav boht MRI to ton. MRI wold b alv and wll today Fmlab Fmlab had nv xstd.”25 Th ltt ond ts way nto th conssonal cod jxtaposd wth a ocos mssv by Mchan Dmocat Howad Wolp Wolp and Nw Yok Rpblcan Shwood Bohlt, both mmbs o th Hos Sbcommtt on Invstatons and Ovsht, castatn th Dpatmnt o Eny o msladn Conss abot th SSC’s cost and tmln. 26 Blombn was not th only APS psdnt to thow th clot o hs oc bhnd hs objctons to th SSC. In Mach 1991, Conll’s Jams Kmhansl pblshd a pc n Physics Today Today basd on hs oton psdntal addss at th 1990 APS mtn n Washnton, n whch h mad vld ncs—lbl to hs adnc as ncs to th SSC—to th dan o hypbol and al to assn appopat cdt whn vanlzn o on’s ld.27 Th spch tsl cam only two months bo Kmhansl wot to jonalst Malcolm Bown, had pblshd an dtoalt n th New York Times asn dobtswho “as hmsl to whth th nw knowld [th SSC] nats wll b commnsat wth th nomos n omos cost.” cost.”28 Kmhansl’s ltt chad that “xtavaant psntaton to th pblc o th potntal ts om th SSC was cttos and thcally sponsbl and that accat acknowldmnt was not vn to sachs n many oth sblds o physcs whch w th t soc o contbtons om physcs to mdcn, tchnoloy, conomcs and dcaton bt mptd to patcl physcs.”29 Matals Rsach Socty coond Rstm Roy, o hs pat, nvokd nvokd Alvn Wnb’s Wnb’s cta ct a o scntc scn tc choc n 1993 to nsst: “Nothn th spclatv scnc th SSC can dscov can v hav any mpact on chmsty, boloy, nnn scnc, matals, aclt.”30 As th SSC’s bdt balloond n th last yas o th 1980s and nto th aly 1990s, skptcsm abot spn-o clams w n popla oms as wll. Hstoan o scnc Alx Assms wot n an op-d o th Wall Street Journal , “In act, th SSC ss old tchnoloy: th nam ‘spcondctn’ n SSC s to hlm-coold spcondctn mants that hav bn sd o mo than 30 yas, not to th nw hh-tmpat spcondctos that hav cntly bn dscovd by condnsd matt physcsts.” physcsts.”31 A wdly syndcatd colmn by Los Angeles Times contbto and tchnoloy consltant Mchal Scha skwd spn-os n Ast 1992, wtn that th osy vson o onal and natonal conomc vtalzaton that otn ac-
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Figure 9.1. Th Spcomplant Sppovd, 1993. John Tv Tv catoon dpctn th dsconnct btwn hh ny physcsts’ p hyscsts’ xpctatons and dal pots. Cdt: Copyht 1993 by John Tv, Albuquerque Journal . Rpntd by pmsson
compand panycs o th SSC “has not a ntno o tth to sppot t.”” Pok, t. Pok, not tchnolocal poss, was th al spn-o n Scha’s ys.32 Spn-o clams bcam mo and mo assocatd wth th “qak-bal poltcs” that th New Republic Republic had had ddd dn th st-slcton st-sl cton pocss, and that contbtd to th schadnd that accompand th pojct’s cancllaton ( 9.1).33 Th collaps o th spn-o naatv bcam a convnnt cdl wth whch skptcal lslatos cold hamm th pojct. Rpsntatv Vna Smth, a Nbaska Rpblcan, askd Jams F. Dck, actn dcto o th Oc o Eny Rsach, n Mach 1988: “I not that yo bdt jstcaton, D D.. Dck Dck,, says ‘Th SSC wll hav dscovs, nnovatons and spnos that wll poondly toch vy Amcan.’ Amcan.’ I com om th scond most acltal dstct n th Naton. Cold yo tll m jst how th SSC wll poondly toch vy am n Wstn Nbaska?” 34 Bohlt, th most colol o th SSC’s conssonal opponnts, opponn ts, was mo mo pontd n May 1993: “Non o thm [spn-o clams o th SSC] a a slt o what s on on wth th SSC pojct, not on snl on, and th SSC s not on
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to d th hny popl o Somala, and t s not on to nd th nocd n Yoslava. It s jst atn p mo o o socs.”35 Th ons condnsd matt physcsts xpssd abot spn-o clams that tspassd on th t both alvanzd th opposton to th pojct and connctd ctvly wth lslatos. Both a vdnt n Pal Fly’s dntcaton o spn-o clams as “th myth o tckl-down tchnoloy.” Th tm cad a spcc dolocal sonanc n th aly 1990s. It nvtd compasons btwn th ndn stct o hh ny physcs and “tckl-down conomcs,” a pjoatv commonly hld at th spply-sd scal polcs o th Ronald Raan and Go H. W. W. Bsh admnstatons. Th analoy mpld that th ntsts o hh ny physcsts w jst as mot om th nds o tchnoloy tchnoloy,, conomy, conomy, and oth aas o scnc as th ntsts o la copoatons and th walthy manats who an thm w om th nds o th mddl-ncom Amcans to whom poltcans lably pandd. Pantn Pantn th SSC as mot was ntal nt al to th cas aanst t, and t xtndd also nto condnsd matt physcsts’ objctons to th knowld clams that hh ny physcsts mad on bhal o th machn. THE MYTH OF THE SINGLE INTELLECTUAL FRONTIER
Althoh dvdd abot th mts and cacy o spn-o clams, hh ny physcsts—and cosmolosts, who w th clos alls thohot th hans—w nomly o th opnon that th SSC was valabl bcas t cold o ndamntal knowld wh oth aclts, and oth banchs o physcs, cold not. Thy mantand th bl, smmazd by Slvan S. Schwb, that “lmntay patcl physcs has a pvld poston, n that th ontoloy o ts doman and th od manstd by that doman to th bldn blocks o th hh lvls.”36 Most pactcn physcsts who tstd on th pojct’s bhal conzd th lmtatons o spn-o clams, and th consqnt nd to psh as had as possbl on th ntllctal ncssty o th SSC. Rdctonsm, alady th nyn phlosophcal thst o hh ny physcs, wold b hammd to an vn shap pont n th o o Conss, pomptn condnsd matt physcsts to dploy th mntst phlosophy n spons. Hh ny physcsts psntd th ston dctonsm that was qd to cat a sns o ncy aond th SSC to Conss wappd wth a sns o th antqty o th dctonst ntps and td wth a bow o vnt htoc abot th mpotanc o dscovn th nvs’s
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most dply hddn scts. Lon Ldman commonly mployd th staty o castn th SSC as th clmnaton o a naatv bnnn n Ancnt Gc: “Th oad om Mlts [ sic ] to th SSC s what phlosophs call a dctonst oad. . . . Untl w can complt th ncaton pocss and mak th pct mathmatcally whol, th qston o how th wold woks wll not n ot b answd. answd.””37 Psntn th SSC as th apothoss o a twomllnnm-old qst addd to th sns that t contbtd to som constttonal hman ds o mann. Bton Rcht pomsd that, shold th SSC sccd, “Yo’d “Yo’d know vythn th was to know abot o physcal wold, and yo wold know mch btt what man’s plac s n that physcal wold. And that s sptal, ntllctal, what-hav-yo, that knd o knowld and satsacton. satsacton.””38 Bt n th lat 1980s and aly 1990s, th pstly mn hh ny physcsts had adoptd sccsslly o mch o th Cold Wa was losn ts potncy. Hmo wt Dav Bay, n hs syndcatd colmn n Novmb 1987, skwd th SSC’s cost ovns alonsd th mot nat o th physcs wold ps and“ant th hh-mndd o t. Ht sstd that th ndondjstcatons actack ophyscsts nvsbl av patcls” was concvd only at “a 400-oot-lon ncla-powd ndsa saxophon” was dmd “too pactcal.” “Ndlss to say,” Bay wot, “th Spcondctn Sp Colld concpt was concvd by sach scntsts, who a dvn, as always, by a bnn ds to psh back th onts ont s o obtann dal dal nds.” nds.”39 In danc o sch backlash, thos hh ny physcsts who oht shy o spn-o clams pshd to mak th ntllctal cas o th SSC as ston as possbl, whch mant mbacn a ston om o dctonsm. Stvn Wnb povdd th most consstnt and mpassond dns o th ston dctonst poston. Th 1979 Nobl Pz had conzd hs wok nyn lctomantsm and th wak ncla oc, and h was a vsbl pblc advocat o dctonst scnc, wtn a popla book that xpssd optmsm o th clmnaton o physcs wth a nd physcal thoy.40 Thohot th hans, hs boad vw o scnc and spcc jstcatons o bldn th SSC wokd n lockstp. Th cas h od Ast 1993 aptly smmazs hs poston and s notabl o th dct contast psntd by Phlp W. Andson, who tstd mmdatly at hm. “W a at th ont,” Wnb tstd, “w hav pshd th chan o qstons why as a as w can, and as a as w can tll w cannot mak any poss wthot th sp colld.” H contnd: “Wll, who cas? Yo
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know, th a a lot o popl, a lot o Amcans, a lot o mmbs o Conss who ally s scnc only n tms o ts applcatons. And that s a spctabl vw. vw. Not vyon s tnd on by th sam thns. Not vyon lks classcal msc. Not vyon has ths hn to know why th wold s th way t s, and w hav to lv wth that. I nd t sad, mysl, bt that s th way popl a.”41 By dntyn thos who cad only abot applcatons as th SSC’s man opponnts, Wnb dsadd th objcton Andson and oths montd that patcl physcs was not, n act, th only ot to ndamntal physcal nsht. Wnb’s tstmony thohot th SSC hans assmd that “wthot ths machn w smply cannot contn th pocss o ncovn nat’s ndamntal ndamntal laws.” laws.”42 Hs clam was that th Untd Stats shold nd th SSC not only bcas t povdd ndamntal knowld bt also bcas t was th only ot to ndamntal knowld; vythn ls was dvatv. By th aly 1990s, th stat o th at a t n dctonsm was sbstantally mo vlnt than t had bn n th 1960s and 1970s. 43 Vcto W sskop consdd scnc most dctd towad ndamntal pncpls,patcl bt hphyscs saw t asthoccpyn on lly xtm o a smooth scal ath than as a catocally nq ntps. Th psycholocal ctvnss o opn ndamntal scnc wth po-SSC vws and appld scnc wth ant-SSC vws bcam vdnt mmdatly at Wnb’s Ast 1993 tstmony whn th commtt chaman, Snato J. Bnntt Johnston J J.,., a Losana Dmocat, ntodcd th nxt wtnss: “a dstnshd Nobl laat. Posso Phlp P. P. Andson om th Dpatmnt o Physcs, I thnk that s Appld Physcs, at Pncton Unvsty.” Dpatn om hs ppad tstmony, Andson od two coctons o th cod: “Snato Johnston and ths commtt, and th Dmocatc Natonal Commtt a th only two popl who v m th mddl ntal ‘P’ whn my actal mddl ntal s ‘W.’ And I cv a lot o mal om th Dmocatc Natonal Commtt to Phl P. Andson. And I am not an appld physcst. I lk to call mysl a ndamntal physcst as wll. I jst am ndamntal n somwhat dnt ways.” 44 Andson ndavod to ndmn Wnb’s had and ast dstncton btwn dctonst ndamntal physcs and appld physcs, jst as h had soht to ndmn Wsskop Wsskop’s ’s dstncton btwn ntnsv nt nsv and xtnsv sach two dcads al. Johnston’s ntal o povdd hm an oppotn opp otn s nto that amnt. Andson pasd hs objctons to th SSC n tms o how patcl phys-
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cs t nto hs own boad vw o scnc. Bo th Hos o Rpsntatvs Task Foc on Dns, Fon Polcy and Spac n 1991 h dlvd th sam mssa h wold v th Snat: Th standad tstmony yo wll cv on bhal o th SSC wll tll yo that n som sns lmntay patcl physcs, hh-ny physcs s th bllwth o th scncs, th on whch s ot th ladn th pack, th on whch n som sns s nvstatn th “dpst” lays o alty n th wold aond s and th “most ndamntal” laws o physcs. . . . Th s at last on oth knd o ont n th physcal scncs wh a lot o acton—and I wold a mo acton—s takn plac: th ont o lookn at b and mo complx aats o matt whch otn bhav n nw ways and accodn to nw laws. Ths nw laws don’t contadct th laws th lmntay patcl popl dscov; thy a smply ndpndnt o thm, and I wold a thy a n no way any lss o any [mo] ndamntal.45
Gvn th xpns o patcl physcs, Andson’s tstmony contnd, what dos n popoton to th nds t cvs? How many scntsts dos tt contbt mploy? Dos th knowld t podcs th motvat pactcal applcatons o stmlat sach n oth aas o scnc? Th answs to ths qstons shold, n hs vw, dtmn how scnc s ndd. Th mplcaton was cla: ndamntal knowld cold b had o a acton o th pc o th SSC, why spnd bllons? As condnsd matt physcst Thodo Gball pt t, “Yo a xplon jst as mch o an nknown, bt what yo nd ot s mo lvant.”46 Whas n th 1970s, Andson had dstancd hmsl om om th Wnb Wnb cton o a o assocatn sold stat physcs too closly wth tchnoloy, th psss o th SSC dbats casd hm and hs alls to amnt th plalstc vw o ndamntal sach wth amnts o th poxmty o th wok to applcatons. Wnb and Andson An dson ach had andas that tanscndd th SSC and amd th tstmons. Conss tho had comptn vws o scntc sach and ts oals as mch as thy had amnts o o aanst th SSC. That mo was at stak than a snl sach aclty a clty s vdnt om th xtnt to whch th SSC dbat splld ov nto th popla pss. Both Wnb and Ldman pblshd popla books sposn a dctonst vw o scnc.47 W Wnb nb took hs cas to th pas o th New York York Times n Mach 1993 as th SSC’s pospcts w d. In an op-d nttld “Th Answ to (Almost) Evythn,” h appald to a popla adnc wth an xampl abot th wath, wtn: “Elmntay patcl physcs s mo
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ndamntal than, say, mtooloy, not bcas t wll hlp s pdct th wath,, bt bcas th a no ndpndnt pncpls o mtooloy that wath do not st on th popts o lmntay patcls.” 48 Th op-d and condnsd matt physcsts, som o whom shot back. Nothwstn Nothwstn Unvsty’s Plak Dtta totd to td n a ltt to th dto: “Th pblc latons tmph o patcl physcs s that t has cast tsl as th sol h o atomc physcs and qantm mchancs, and ths tably ‘ndamntal.’ Howv . . . w’v known o som tm that lmntay patcls a mad o qaks, bt that hasn’t mad (and sn’t lkly to mak) any dnc to any oth aa o hman actvty. actvty. It jst sn’t ndamntal n damntal to anythn.”49 Dtta’s hasal o Alvn Wnb’s cton o scntc choc n th ac ac o Stvn Wnb’s hh-poo dctonsm ctd th mood amon condnsd matt sachs. Thy vwd hh ny physcsts as dmandn xtaodnay socs whl malnn th ntllctal mt o th own ndavos and makn nalstc spn-o clams o a ld wth lttl masabl mpotanc to oth aas o scnc and w pospcts o makn socally o tchnolocally slhlpd contbtons. Thoh dctonst htoc had sc Fmlab’s ndn n th 1960s, t was mch lss ctv wth th 1990s Conss, n pat bcas th objctons o condnsd matt physcsts povdd poltcal cov. cov. Th amnts w chod n th statmnts o th SSC’s lslatv opponnts. Shwood Bohlt, chaman o th Hos Commtt on Scnc, Spac, and Tchnoloy, opnd a May 1993 han by hasn amnts sold stat physcsts had psntd: “My st concn s th basc qston o pots. SSC sppots lk to sst that to oppos th SSC s to oppos scnc. Nothn cold b th om th tth. Scnc s not som ndvsbl doman bt s mad p o spaat, latd, dscplns.” dscplns.”50 Sm Smlaly laly,, n th Snat, Dmocat Dal Bmps o Akansas bsqly dsmssd th amnt that patcl physcs and basc scnc w on and th sam: “Th assmpton that anybody who opposs ths pojct s opposd to basc scnc s a dstacton and a dvson.” dvson.”51 Th comptn vw that condnsd matt physcsts od hlpd lslatos oppos a majo scntc bdt tm wthot appan to b ant-scnc. Th ntncn snpn ov th SSC ntd a dalo wthn physcs abot th nty, o dsnty, o th ld. In Physics Today Today, th wdly dstbtd nws maazn pblshd by th Amcan Insttt o Physcs, dscssons o th nty o physcs paallld th dbat that playd ot n conssonal tstmony and popla wtns.52 In a ltt ltt pblshd n Mach 1991,
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Lawnc Canb, a td Unvsty o Vna physcst who stdd th physcs o wood as t appld to domstc ny nds, wot that patcl physcsts showd lttl ntst n wok not dctly latd to th own. H chad that “th qst o nty has bcom a spcalty that naows so ntnsly th ntllctal ocs o ts dvots that thy a nwlln to b ntstd n anythn ls n physcs,” and askd, htocally: “Is that what w want to ncoa whn w spak o ‘th nty o physcs’? O dos sch ‘nty’ condmn on to a snobbsh solaton om th manstam o scntc and hman concns?” Canb advocatd accptn dvsty as an qally potnt dal.53 Hs ctcsms o th hh ny physcs anda show that th sam tnsons that aos ov hh-staks pojcts lk th SSC w mch dp, shapn dscssons o th dscpln’s dcton thohot th physcs commnty. Th sam ss o Physics Today atd two atcls om condnsd matt physcsts an o th mpotanc o hh-lvl phnomna, shon p th ondatons o pblc amnts aanst th SSC, and avon ncasd sppot owot small In th st, o Chcao thost Lo Kadano on pojcts. sl-oanzaton n Unvsty physcal systms, dscbn how plms dvlop n hatd ds and ndn “many dnt laws and many dnt lvls o dscpton.”54 Kadano’s ocs on complx phnomna complmntd th pspctv h had psntd as a la contbto to Physics Today Today’s “Rnc Fam” op-d pa snc th md-1980s. In 1986 h pasd th ablty to dscn btwn pactcal and mpactcal dmands o ndstandn and contolln complx systms as a ky componnt o scntc jdmnt.55 In 1988 h boht hs noton o ood scntc jdmnt to ba on contmpoay tnds n ovnmnt scnc ndn: “Th t val o scnc s n th dvlopmnt o batl and powl das. Ovnvstmnt n b scnc dtacts om what s ally wothwhl. I do not thnk that th naton’s o th ovnmnt’s bdt o sach o o R&D s too small. It s, howv howv,, ncasnly msdctd towad andos pojcts. W W physcsts hav a sponsblty to ndstand ndstan d what s tly valabl n scnc and s ths ndstandn to hlp th naton n aton dvlop and xpss ts pots.”56 Clos lnks btwn ntllctal mt and boad lvanc, o th typ Andson xpssd bo Conss and Kadano atclatd n Physics Today Today, bcam ctcal to th condnsd matt commnty’s otlook on th oanzaton o scnc n Amca n th 1980s and 1990s. Unty, o condnsd matt physcsts, dd not man dcton, bt
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ath th lvanc o knowld at all lvls to th whol o physcs. Andson wot n Physics Today Today n Jly 1991: “Wth th mataton o physcs, a nw and dnt st o paadms ban to dvlop that pontd th oth way [om dctonsm], towad dvlopn complxty ot o smplcty.” 57 Dvsty and complxty, o sold stat sachs wokn n th shadow o patcl physcs, w ctcal pqsts o nty. Thy ndcatd that physcal knowld was ntdpndnt ath than hachcal, whch 58 cmntd th clam to ndamntal knowld. Thohot th SSC dbats, ths shad bl av condnsd matt sachs a snlnss o ppos that th actonalzd ld had ond wantn o mch o ts hstoy. By th 1990s, sold stat physcsts w xpssn a consstnt vw o ndamntal knowld, at last o a natonal adnc. It was smla to what Fancs Btt and Alvn Wnb dscbd dcads al. Sold stat physcsts champond a pmssv appoach that pomotd sach acoss dscplnay bondas and ncoad dvs applcatons. Wthot dctonst hmony and ts nnc on ovnmnt ndn,th thoh, th poston champond by th condnsd mattscnc commnty wold nv hav dvlopd to th xtnt t dd. Vlnt dctonsm, and th sccss o ts poponnts, ocd sold stat physcsts to dvlop th vws on why knowld o complx systms was not lss ndamntal than knowld o smpl systms, and on how mony and pst p st shold b dstbtd accodnly. Andson’s “Mo Is Dnt” spondd to bwn dscontnt n th sold stat commnty whl physcs was at th hht o ts pst. Lkws, th snc o th Wnb cton amon condnsd matt physcsts, Andson ncldd, dn th SSC dbats was dvn by anst ov condtons that mht allow th SSC to domnat th ndn landscap as physcs as a whol watchd ts cltal pst wan. THE MYTH OF THE NON-ZERO-SUM GAIN
Evn thy acknowldd that spn-os w ovsold and that th SSC was not th only ot to ndamntal nsht, SSC sppots cold all back on a thd, pamatc jstcaton: that klln th SSC wold not p nds o oth knds o basc sach. Fthmo, hh ny physcsts and th alls ad, sch a la dal xpndt was a sn td. It cmntd a dal commtmnt to basc sach, and was ths lkly to psnt a at abndanc o nds o all typs o scnc n th lon n, not lss ndn. As a slt, th physcs commnty was obld to nt bhnd
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th opton that was on th tabl. Ths s what Fly calld “th myth o th non-zo-sm an. an.”” Wth spct to th bllons o dollas’ woth o appopatons to nd th SSC, th amnt that n thm p wold not acc to th bnt o oth aas o scnc was n som sns coct. Conssman Jo Baton o Txas mad ths cas n 1993 n a bd to sav what wold hav bn a boon o hs stat: “I wold pophsz that w zo ot th SSC . . . that mony s not on to walk on th wat wat to oth appld physcs o any oth basc scnc, t s on to, n th bst cas, not b spnt at all—n oth wods, o to dct dcton—o t s on to o to oth pojcts that a nonscntc latd. latd.””59 Unlk ndn o th Natonal Scnc Fondaton o th Natonal Insttts o Halth, th SSC’s appopaton was a spaat bdt tm. Its cancllaton wold not man that thos nds wold b dstbtd to oth dsvn scntc pojcts n th absnc o a spaat appopaton. Howv,, th cas aanst ths amnt Howv a mnt was abot mo than th ndn amakd th SSC; t had toclt. do wthTh thqston, cts thatobcondnsd scnc pojcts mad on thonatonal sach matt physcsts, was not whth th sam $11.8 bllon qd o th SSC mht b cavd p amon oth lds, t was whth mascnc pojcts lk th SSC podcd an ovall daman ct on small scnc. And that qston thy answd n th mphatc amatv. Th concn mand that th SSC’s lon-tm pkp costs wold mak t ndn appals mo dclt o oth pojcts. Both th scal o b physcs pojcts and th htoc sd to jsty thm, condnsd matt physcsts chad, dd dama to oth aas o physcs by naown th dnton o basc sach and optmzn physcs tann o patcla aas. Hh ny physcsts had mad th ntllctal am am zo sm by nsstn on a monopoly ov ndamntal sach. And th skw n th ndn nvonmnt bld ov nto pdaoy: tachs and advss cold b xpctd to dvot mo attnton to mo ndabl aas, and tm n th classoom dvotd to som topcs was tm not xplon oths. Th st hal o ths objcton contndd that th thos bhnd th SSC pptatd th stat o aas n whch condnsd matt sach was vwd only n tms o applcatons, and aan Phlp Andson A ndson was th pncpal mssn. Andson, n hs opposton to th SSC, dpatd somwhat om th cas h had mad n “Mo Is Dnt” two dcads al. In th
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aly 1970s, th qston o ndn mand n th backond. Hs SSC tstmony pposd hs amnts abot th chaact o scntc knowld to ndwt a pct o how scnc ndn shold b oanzd. Andson dd not oppos th SSC p s, bt objctd to th consoldaton o nancal sppot o nonappld sach n b-bdt patcl physcs nstallatons whl sold stat, connd to small labs, psd naow naow,, pactcal objctvs and ond scant sca nt oppotnty o o ntllctal costy costy.. Th naow ocs was a consqnc, h blvd, o th conaton o ndamntalty n damntalty wth dcton. H dscbd ndamntal sach n sold stat as “caht btwn th Scylla o th lamoos b scnc pojcts lk th SSC, th nom, and th spac staton, and th Chaybds o th poammd sach, wh yo hav dlvabls, wh yo a askd to do vy spcc pcs o sach amd at som vy shot-tm shot -tm oal.” oal.”60 Andson attmptd a pcaos tavs o ths htocal Stat o Mssna. H advocatd ndn ndamntal sach o ts own sak and sstd tyn ndn to pconcvd, na-tm tchnolocal otcoms. H opposd thphyscs, SSC bcas, condnsd matt condnsd was jst as matt ndamntal as hh ny and (b)(a) ndn xploatoy sach wth no stns attachd wold, as a matt o cos, podc mo socally lvant and tchnolocally valabl slts. Condnsd matt physcs cold boast stln tchnolocal bona ds, bt advocatn advocatn ndn poty ov th SSC stctly on that bass wold ndct Andson’s msson to dmonstat sold stat’s ntllctal mt. Evn a tchnolocal jstcaton wold hav alln mo mscally on many lslatos’ as, condnsd matt’s ht o ntllctal pst was too ston a componnt o ts dntty o Andson to sll t shot. It was a vson that cold nv t o th ond n a wold n whch b physcs and ndamntal ndamntal physcs w synonymos. Th xtmophla o hh ny physcs and cosmoloy ( 9.2) had lt condnsd matt physcsts, and oths who wokd on msoscal phnomna, htn ov th ds o th dal basc sach bdt o tyn to mak do wth ndn that was naowly tatd and td to pconcvd otcoms. Th qston o tann dd not cv qt as mch attnton as th qston o ntllctal pots. It was nvthlss, o Andson at last, jst as ctcal o assssn th nnc o th SSC on th dcton o physphyscs. In hs wttn tstmony sbmttd to th Hos Sbcommtt on Eny Rsach and Dvlopmnt o th Commtt on Eny and Natal
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Figure 9.2. Extmophla n physcs, 1988. Ths catoon by S. Has appad alonsd an atcl ctcal o th atttds t llstats. Lo Kadano, “Cathdals and Oth Edcs,” Physics Today Today 41, no. 2 (1988), 9–11. Rpntd by pmsson o ScncCatoonsPls.com
Rsocs n 1987, h od som obsvatons on how th pomnnc o hh ny physcs, n tms o both ndn and pst, shapd th way physcs was taht. Patcl physcs, Andson obsvd, “domnats many o th most pstos nstttons bcas th spa chan om la contacts n patcl
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physcs o astophyscs can b sd to sppot jno tachn postons, th lamo o whch attacts vy abl yon popl n spt o th nscty o th tn.” In addton, bcas sklls and lann condnsd matt, chmcal, plasma, and oth complx systms physcs tanslatd mo asly nto ndstal sttns, xtm-scal physcs ndd p ovpsntd n th acadmy. And dpatmnts that mht hav lkd to b p th psntaton n lds lk condnsd matt w hampd by th scacty o dal ndn to sppot sach n thos aas. As a slt, Andson potd han “aan and aan om stdnts that thy jst nv had anythn om th tachs abot any oth banchs o physcs ntl thy achd adat school, thn.”61 Th dal mphass on b scnc, n oth wods, was ampld by dbacks that hhtnd th bas to condctn ndamntal sach nto th popts o complx matt. What mht othws hav bn a paochal concn abot th latv stats o sbdscplns wthn th poams that podcd th conty’s physcsts was pojctd nto natonal-scal dscos as a qston o scntc stan. Was th contytopodcn nohnatonal physcsts, and noh o th ht knds o physcsts, addss statc pots? Condnsd matt physcsts w not abov waponzn natvsm to mak th pont. Kmhansl mantand: “W a not sppotn som vy capabl popl. W a not tann a scnt nmb o Amcans and w hav bcom dpndnt on a stady nx o on scntsts. W hav allowd th ndn o mpssv aclts to tak th sppot om poams at th ndvdal lvl.”62 Andson commntd that “t s bnnn to b a sps to ha an Amcan accnt n th physcs dpatmnts o ths conty bcas w a havn to ll n mo and mo wth mmants and vstos n o jno postons.” postons.”63 Condnsd matt physcsts mht not hav bn so concnd abot th ld swnn back towad ndsty. Indsty was, at all, ntal to th ld’s ons and had mdwd som o ts most ndamntal contbtons. Bt th ndstal laboatos o th 1980s and 1990s w not th ndstal laboatos o th 1950s and 1960s. Whas th latt had boht nto ashtd, npoammd, lon-an sach as a bass o tchnolotchn olocal dvlopmnt, th s o th nnovaton conomy std th “sach” ot o “sach and dvlopmnt” and ocsd n-hos ots on shottm adtn.64 I th Blls, GEs, and Wstnhoss o th wold w not wlln to sppot basc condnsd matt sach thn t wold hav to occ n th nvsts and th natonal laboatos, whch lt condnsd
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matt physcsts mo sscptbl to th whms o dal ndn than thy w accstomd to and mo actly awa o th dct thy acd wth spct to hh ny physcs. In on sns, th myth o th non-zo-sm an was no myth at all: cancln th SSC dd not, n act, p bllons o basc condnsd matt physcs. Th blk o dal ndn o basc condnsd matt sach cam om two socs, th Natonal Scnc Fondaton and th DOE’s Basc Eny Scncs (BES) bdt. Th total NSF sach bdt w slowly and stadly thoh th 1990s, jst manally ahad o naton, and showd no sn o spondn to th SSC’s cancllaton.65 Evy BES bdt qst, and vy conssonal appopaton, o th mand o th 1990s wold b less than th 1993 appopaton. Only n 2000 wold BES ndn aan ach 1993 lvls n actal dollas.66 Bt condnsd matt physcsts w lss concnd wth th athmtc o dal appopaton than thy w wth th thos dvn t. Th qston o what happnd to th nds om SSC appopatons was sconday 67 to o th domnanc o b ndn. scnc—and monopoly soht on th bcts qstons—n dn dal Thth dcton andtmsson o physcs had bn laly lt to th dscton o b physcsts. In 1989, as Andson hhlhtd th s o msson-ontd sach and dcd th dama t was don to condnsd matt physcs, Bton Rcht cold commnt: “Th Dpatmnt Dpa tmnt o Eny En y,, om whch hh-ny physcs ts almost all o t[s] mony, and om whch ncla physcs ts almost o ts mony, has bn ath ood abot not tyn to ocs sach too thtly o dct t too cntally.”68 That was th sot o contol ov th ld condnsd matt physcsts lt thy had lost whl opatn n th shadow o b scnc, and thy hopd stoppn th SSC wold b a st stp towad scapn om that shadow.
COMPETING PRODUCTIVITY CLAIMS
Condnsd matt physcsts and hh ny physcsts w n on sns nad n an ntllctal popty dspt thohot th SSC dbats. Thy w not span ov patnt hts, bt thy w nad n th typ o wd dscos abot ntllctal popty that Chstn MacLod and Goy Radck dnty whn thy to productivity claims, whch thy dn as “clams o bods o scntc knowld as havn nhntly sl oshoots,” n whch “th ownshp asstd s that o a thotcalmpcal dscpln ov a doman o tchncal pactc. pa ctc.””69 Th SSC dbats
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o a cla xampl o how ths mo xpansv vw o ntllctal popty s sl. Th physcsts nvolvd w nv n a poston to patnt pat nt th tchnolos thy wantd to clam as podcts o th th lds, bt thy nonthlss soht to stablsh som mas o ownshp ov thm and to tanslat that ownshp nto matal sppot o th sach. Th dncs n how thy st abot that task a valn o th dstnct vws o th ppos and dntty o physcs thy boht to th SSC dbats. Th poltcal nvonmnt sondn th SSC ncoad podctvty clams. Unlk al hh ny physcs aclts, th SSC dmandd a ston amnt that t wold contbt dctly to natonal conomc compttvnss. SSC sppots advancd podctvty clams thoh spn-o htoc, amn to attbt tchncal accomplshmnts n aas as dvs as mdcn, comptn, constcton, and manactn manact n to hh ny n y physcs on th jont bass o ts ndamntal nat nat and th dmands o acclato constcton. Whas n th 1960s and 1970s, hh ny physcsts had bn assvly dsmssv o connctons btwn th wok and tchnolocal dvlopmnt, post–Cold Wa ccmstancs ccmstanc s av podctvty clams nw tlty. Condnsd matt physcsts had a lon hstoy o makn podctvty clams—thy ssd th Natonal Rsach Concl pots that tacd th ld’s dvlopmnt—bt that dd not dcas th ncy n th aly 1990s. It was a pod o act malas o th ld, vn as t mand wll poplatd and ch wth xctn nw sach topcs. Th collaps o Bll was mblmatc o a la daton o ndstal sach, waknn th mploymnt makt. Fom Bll Labs physcst John M. Rowll attbtd th dcas n ndstal ntst n sach to a dcas n dmand o th knowld that condnsd matt physcsts podcd. Whas ndstal concns thoh md-cnty had thvd on obst sach opatons, lat-cnty copoatons sccdd thoh commcalzn xstn knowld—vy IBM had ts MCI. Th atttd pvaln n ndsty was that “sach s ssntal, bt yo’d b smat to lt somon ls do t.” 70 Condnsd matt physcsts tho had ason to woy whth th podctvty clams w potnt noh, and comptn clams that hh ny physcsts advancd on what thy pcvd as som o th podst tchnolocal accomplshmnts addd nslt to njy njy.. Th opposton tho tatd th sam tchnolocal otcoms that hh ny physcsts clamd. I t was possbl to show that oth aas w qally o mo podctv than hh ny physcs, th SSC wold
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bn to sm lk a poo nvstmnt. Ths amnt alon wold hav povdd a powl cas aanst th SSC n th poltcal clmat o th lat 1980s and aly 1990s, and o anyon ntnt on smply snkn th pojct, t wold hav bn asy to stop th. Bt condnsd matt physcsts w not bnt on dstcton. Th pmay objctv was to pomot a ndl clmat o th own sach. Fo Fo hh ny ny physcsts, podctvty clams w a way o makn a ld that lslatos w nclnd to nd mot sm mo lvant. Bt condnsd matt physcsts acd th somwhat dnt challn o nocn th xstn, poblmatc clams to tchncal lvanc wthot bndn thmslvs too thtly to tchnoloy and ndcttn th clam to sppot o xploatoy sach. Ths qd shown that th ntllctal standn was on a pa wth hh ny n y physcs, whch thy amd to do by sbvtn dctonsm. Th jstcatons that condnsd matt physcsts had dvlopd o th ld thoh th md-1980s, whch sstd that basc sach cold b xpctd to yld tl slts and pontd to th tack cod o sold stat physcs don jst that,mascnc w nadqat to addss th nq challno challn that lat twntth-cnty posd. Thy av no danc dstnshn th potntally applcabl om th tnally absts. Rowall ad th that condnsd matt physcsts had to “ac th possblty that th chans n ndstal sach labs ov th past 20 yas consttt an xpsson o dssatsacton wth o contbtons ov that tm. tm.””71 Makn th cas aanst th SSC and n avo o at sppot o basc condnsd matt sach qd movn byond both th nct mntsm Andson had pddld n “Mo Is Dnt” and th nal amnts o th cndty o basc sach that makd th aly htoc o condnsd matt physcs. Fndn both o ths jstcatons nadqat o th pposs at hand, condnsd matt physcsts sstd mo pontdly that som aas o ndamntal nqy w, n act, nhntly clos to sl applcatons than oths. Th poston was a acton both to th al o mntsm to mak a cas o th ld’s conomc lvanc, and th al o smpl basc sach htoc th to xplan why condnsd matt physcs was a btt nvstmnt than hh ny physcs o to advanc ts aspatons to ntllctal pst. Amnts o th mpotanc o basc sach hstocally std on th pms that t s mpossbl to know n advanc whch basc sach wold tn ot to b sl sl and whch wold not. In th lat 1980s and aly 1990s, condnsd matt physcsts jctd that pms xplctly. Th ssnc o
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th sltn poston can b smmazd by som o th shap ctcsms Andson lvld at th SSC. H lt hs staton show n asstn, “Scnc can b ndamntal wthot bn lvant.”72 At anoth pont h wold contnd: “Th basc scnc o today—xcpt o patcl physcs and mch o spac scnc—s sc nc—s th tchnoloy o tomoow tomoow..”73 Basc sach, that s, dos not always d th wllspn o tchnoloy t chnoloy.. Its tlnss dpnds on ts poxmty to th domans o knowld that most otn mak thmslvs sl o tchncal applcatons. A poston o ths sot was ncssay to dstnsh a ld namla o most lslatos om on that was mch mo vsbl. Rnn th podctvty clams n th contxt o th SSC dbats pomptd condnsd matt physcsts to bld a mo xplct and postv conncton btwn th sns o th wok’s ntllctal mpotanc and th convctons abot ts tchnolocal tlnss. A ocs on what mht appa to b mndan sbstancs and sbjcts had not hstocally bn an asst o sold stat physcs. Whas hh ny physcs and cosmoloy bntd om ont ont htoc, sold stat physcsts 74 t mo dclt to clam wokd at th scal o th vyday, vyday , makn cla m that thy w pshn nto nxplod ttoy. An o th nhntly at poxmty o basc condnsd matt physcs to pactcal otcoms hlpd sht ths dynamcs n condnsd matt physcsts’ avo. Th objctons to th SSC std, n ln wth th th dmnsons xplod abov, on nsstn that hh ny physcs was mot, ndstnctv, and xtotonat. Andson tstd, “I thnk o Japans compttos hav shown, and I sncly blv, (and, n my own ca, hav shown by xampl) that th ac s mch mo otn won by ‘don what coms natally na tally,,’ and lookn aond at mndan sbjcts lk lass o condctn oxds. Dolla o dolla, w n condnsd matt physcs hav spn o a lot mo bllons than thy hav, and w can honstly poms to t o contn to do so.”75 Th physcs o th mndan, n oth wods, lt to ts own dvcs, was both ntllctally nt llctally valabl and pdsposd to lad n sl dctons, and thos bnts cold b had at a acton o th astonomcal cost o th SSC. Ths ln o amnt was a synthss o a hal cnty o thnkn abot sold stat and condnsd matt physcs that boht toth th vaos and somtms dvnt stands o th ld. Ealy amnts on bhal o sold stat physcs had potzd bnn ndstal sachs n om th cold. In th 1970s and 1980s, ndstal sach bcam mch btt ntatd nto th nastct na stct o Amcan physcs and, by th tm o th SSC dbats, condnsd matt physcsts shtd to advancn th ld’s plac
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wthn th ntllctal hachy o Amcan scnc. Th cas psntd n opposton to th SSC was a way to lnk ths stands and psnt an ma o condnsd matt physcs as a ld that cold both l th Amcan conomy and advanc th ntllctal ambtons o Amcan physcs. By takn th npcdntd stp o pblcly and vocosly opposn th collas’ ashp pojct, thos n condnsd matt physcs w adtonn th own vw o th ld as th domnant mod o ntacton btwn physcs and Amcan socty. Th SSC’s dms, n th ac o aantan cost ovns and manamnt dclts, mht sm to dpnd lttl on sch opposton, whch mht hav don lttl mo than povd a small mas o poltcal cov o skptcal lslatos. Bt t dd psnt th sccss that sold stat and condnsd matt physcsts had attand ov a hal cnty o catn a possonal dntty that spok to th ondn msson o th Amcan Physcal Socty whl smltanosly mbacn tchnolocal lvanc. EPILOGUE: SOLID ST STA ATE AND THE NEW BIG SCIENCE
In 1967, th mnnt las physcst Ath Schawlow wot to Flx Bloch, “It may b that th thoy o sold and lqd stats s now so complcatd that on has to allow tm o a man to ach a boad pspctv.” 76 H d to th tann qd bo pomsn thosts o th day cold b xpctd to mak ondbakn contbtons, bt th sam obsvaton mht b appld to th hstoy o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs. Gown hstocal pspctv otn pompts a sach o contnts acoss what w pvosly ndstood as adcal shts. Hstoans hav vstd th damatc chans that occd n th scntc volton to show how th spposdly nw way o lookn at th wold that appad n th Enlhtnmnt dw lbally om mdval thoht and pactc. Thy hav xamnd th qantm and latvty voltons to mphasz th dbt to nntnth-cnty physcs. Thy hav soht ot th oots o b scnc— otn consdd th podct o an abpt conaton o th pactc o scnc dn th Scond Wold Wa—n th 1920s and 1930s, and somtms al a l..77 Thy wll no dobt look n anst o th bds o stablty that spannd th tblnt nd to th Cold Wa. Whn thy do, condnsd matt physcs s ctan to b amon thm. Th dath o th SSC psnts a damatc and powl p owl dscontnty. dscontnty. “It symbolzd th nd o an a o physcs n th Untd Stats,” accodn to Danl Kvls’s assssmnt, pblshd two yas at th Hos o Rp-
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sntatvs yankd th pojct’s ndn.78 Th SSC’s dms makd th nd o th US ovnmnt’s pvosly onclad commtmnt to la-scal physcs blt on th dctonst poam. It mo boadly snald th momnt whn physcs was nsatd, ns atd, n avo o boloy, boloy, as th maq Amcan scnc. Kvls sstd that th SSC’s dms n 1993 clmnatd a pocss bn n th 1970s that odd th sky-hh athoty and nq pvl physcs had njoyd n Amcan socty and poltcs dn th aly Cold Wa, and mad t jst as sponsv to th pvaln poltcal wnds as any oth ntst op. How dos th stoy o sold stat physcs am that pct? Fst, as th stls o sold stat physcs show, th btt pat o Amcan physcs had bn btd on th poltcal wnds that snk th SSC o mch lon, so th physcs commnty, ndstood mo boadly, alady contand sbstantal xpts navatn thm. Scond, mxn sold stat back nto th stoy mans that w do not nd to ndstand th SSC n smpl dclnsonst tms. Th opposton to th SSC om wthn physcs hhlhts how th SSC’s absnc chand th sach landscap n wayssthat catd nw possblts o Amcan physcs. Ths standpont allows ocs on a lon-tm tanston thoh th 1980s and 1990s, whch shtd majo US aclts away om hh-ny acclatos and towad mlts aclts hostd both at nvsts, sch as Conll, and at natonal laboatos, sch as th Natonal Synchoton Lht Soc at Bookhavn, th Advancd Photon Soc at Aonn, and th Hh Flx Isotop Racto at Oak Rd. 79 Ths aclts o th “nw b scnc,” as Robt P. Cas and Cathn Wstall call t, a adaptabl to mltpl sach poams, ndly to otsd s ops, ncldn thos om ndsty, and, nlk oont hh ny aclts, a ocd to compt o thos ss wth smla nstallatons aond th wold.80 Thy w dsnd wth lds lk sold stat physcs and matals scnc n mnd, and soon ond a consttncs n stctal boloy and bomdcn, phamactcal sach, and vn at hstoy and achaoloy. Th machns o th nw b scnc hav mch n common wth th Natonal Mant Laboatoy, whch smlaly was ootd n sold stat physcs and was tho dsnd wthot nc to a naow thotcal poam, makn t lvant to an assotmnt o xtnal s ops. Sn aanst ths backdop, th al o th SSC appas mch lss dscontnos. Sold stat had bn plln Amcan physcs th towad tchnolocal slnss, ndstal collaboaton, and xtadscplnay l-
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vanc o dcads. It was a natal nxt stp to bn th landmak, dally ndd physcal sach aclts alon wth t. Th qstons that as whn w ty to ndstand th complx sach coloy that ms wthn a synchoton adaton aclty n th aly twnty-st cnty hav mch n common wth th qstons w hav to conont whn tyn to ndstand th complx constllaton o sach poblms, thotcal appoachs, xpmntal tchnqs, and nstttonal contxts that was sold stat physcs n th md-twntth cnty. cnty. Amcan physcs lvd wth a sct o dcads: almost snc ts omaton, t had bn otnly nathl to ts sposd dals. Bt t was that vy nathlnss that allowd t to hold on to thos dals o so lon. Th stady dmbat o tchncal labo cad ot by sold stat physcsts kpt th pblc and polcymaks comotabl that, whatv th htoc ssn om th psts o th ld, t wold ltmatly podc somthn sl. Th nw b scnc psnts, n som sns, an abandonmnt o Hny Rowland’s p scnc dal. Bt t s also a conton o physcs as a hhly htonos ld, and on solctos o th socty that sppots t.
CONCLUSIONS
A plalstc socty aly has consnsal oals xcpt n acton to som xtnal that (.., wa, tad comptton, wann natonal nnc) o som ntnal dan (.., dpsson, nscton, nvonmntal dadaton). Lackn sch challns, ach man tnds to o hs own way. —COSMAT —COS MAT,, 1975 197 5
Hny Rowland, who dd Amcan physcs nto th twntth cnty, wold not hav conzd t at th dawn o th twnty-st. It had own wll ov a thosandold, had sbdvdd n ways h wold hav ond atonal and bza, and had bcom nancally dpndnt on ndstal lass n a way h wold hav ond poondly woyn. 1 Hs nnc nvthlss mand. Th tnson btwn Rowland’s p scnc dal and th pamatsm o th Amcan contxt nv lly solvd, and t povd podctv. podctv. Sold stat physcs was ton btwn bt wn ts ds to phold th p scnc dal and ts ablty to lva ts tchnolocal lvanc thoh th scond hal o th twntth cnty. Stvn o pty mad sold stat lvant to th concptal co o physcs; contnd tchnolocal lvanc nabld th most abstact potons o physcs to thv wthn an nvonmnt that mht othws hav bn hostl to thm. Th back and oth btwn th p scnc dal and th all o tchncal and conomc wads pomptd physcs to boadn ts scop n md-cnty, motvatd nw appoachs to ndamntal knowld, and ltmatly mad th dntty o Amcan physcs. Sold stat physcs was sch an nly allanc that ndstandn t as a whol qs xamnn ts nstttonal manstatons. That standpont
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vals a stoy o how t adally omd th nstttons o Amcan physcs to b mo condcv to ts nds. Th Amcan Physcal Socty (APS) dvlopd mo mchansms to accommodat ndstal and appld physcs. Th Physical Review splt and dvotd on scton to sold stat physcs. La nstallatons lk th Natonal Mant Laboatoy ddcatd mch o th sach to sold stat qstons. Ths nstttonal dvlopmnts w shapd by th ambvalnc o Amcan physcs towad ts p scnc msson n th ac o ts manst tchnolocal lvanc. Thy av th most tchnolocally, conomcally, and mltaly lvant poton o physcs th spac to sccd, and n don so shod p th lvanc o physcs o Amcan socty. socty. Th sold stat nscton, whch moblzd aanst th nstttons and dals that cad on Rowland’s lacy, pocdd on th onts. It was a volt aanst th manalzaton o appld physcs, aanst th tadtonal ndstandn o dscplns, and aanst th xcsss o mascnc. Fo mch o th lat twntth cnty, sold stat and condnsd matt physcsts consdd thmslvs a psctd psct d plalty, plalty , htn th nstttons that dd an d contolld and Amcan physcs, whchtoobn th most pat took ncla and hh ny physcs as th dalt, mo n ln wth th ntsts. Lk most nsncs, th sold stat nscton was wackd by ntnal dsamnt and dvson, bt t also sccdd n shtn th cnt o Amcan physcs, whch, by th lat 1990s and aly 2000s, was mo accptn o appld sach, mo xbl n dnn ts sblds, and lss bholdn to vy la aclts. By way o conclson, I wll vw ths onts on whch th sold stat nscton advancd, ach o whch shows how vwn Amcan physcs om th standpont o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs can pomot a mo complt ndstandn o th hstoy o Amcan physcs as a whol. APPLIED PHYSICS COMES IN FROM THE COLD
In 2014, th Amcan Physcal Socty addd a twlth jonal to th Physical Review amly. Physical Review Applied appad appad wth a mandat to pblsh th “hhst qalty paps at th ntscton o physcs and nnn, wth th oal o bdn th atcal dvd btwn ths lds.”2 As smla chans to th pblshn and possonal landscap noldd om th 1930s thoh 1950s, physcsts consdd a nmb o dvds to b atcal—btwn mtals and solds, solds and oth oms o matt matt , nds-
CONCLUSIONS
201
ty and acadma, vn, at tms, physcs and chmsty. chmsty. Bt th ln btwn physcs and nnn sally mand bht.3 Th oad that mad t possbl o a banch o th Physical Review, th nn sanctm o p scnc n md-cnty,, to dcla physcs and nnn md-cnty nn n o a pc was cctos, bt t ban wth th st stns o th sold stat nscton. Th thad o physcs pblshn that ns thoh ths book llstats th bbs and ows o th stats o appld and ndstal physcs n th Untd Stats, and th mann n whch sold stat physcs nncd thm. Jonals polatd to sv sv appld physcsts physcsts n th st w dcads o o th twntth cnty. Ths ll nto th catos. Som w lanchd by possonal socts wth a ston appld ocs, sch as th Journal o the Optical Society o America, th Journal o the Acoustical Society o America, and th Journal o Rheology , whch soht to cat nw commnts and oms o appld physcs that th APS was not povdn. Oths ond th stat as pat o ots to stm th nx o sbmssons to th Physical Review. Tchnoloy Tchnoloy and nstmnt-ocsd nst mnt-ocsd sach constttd constt td th blk o o Applied Physics Physics and Review th ow tatd o dvson nto th o Scientic Instruments . Follown Follown th Journal omaton o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs (AIP) n th 1930s, jonals sch as th Journal o Chemical Physics and th American Journal o Physics catd otlts o spcalts that w othws ndsvd. Th cmlatv ct was to naow th Physical Review’s ocs, n tandm wth th qantm volton, whch ncoad an ncas n thotcal paps, amn ts stats as a p scnc jonal and snaln th contnn manal stats o appld physcs, n spt o ts owth. Th 1940s boht wdspad hand-wnn abot th soy stat o th acadma-ndsty latonshp. Sold stat physcs stablshd tsl as a dvson o th APS, and as a conzd sbdscpln o physcs, n spons to thos anxts. It was not obvos that th loos constllaton o actvts that bcam sold stat physcs wold b lly o vn mostly classd as physcs. Bt th act that thy w had consqncs o th pblshn habts o sold stat physcsts. Paps n th Physical Review w th con o th alm. Th apd and sbstantal ncas n th poplaton o sold stat physcsts thoh th lat 1940s and aly 1950s contbtd contbt d sncantly to a nw wav o pss on th APS’s ashp jonal, whch ban to s om backlos and bdt dcts. Ths consdatons blossomd nto th pblcaton poblm o th md-
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1950s, wth th Physical Review opatn at a loss and nabl to poms apd pblcaton. Sold stat physcsts sosly consdd odann th Journal o Chemical Physics th pncpal pblcaton otlt o th ld, o catn a nw jonal o cod o sold stat physcs d novo. Sch poposals w abandond n avo o a solton to bld sold stat nto a manstam physcs sbld, whch aspd to b o scnt ntst to oth physcsts to mt nclson n ts nal-ntst jonal. Sold stat physcs n th 1950s, actos and compatmntalzd by sach topc, nspd som to woy that t mht dt away om th co dntty o physcs to xplo collaboatv oppotnts wth nhbon lds. Th dcson to play th am on th tms st by th APS and th Physical Review mant that th at o Amcan physcs and th at o sold stat physcs, appld baa and all, bcam lnkd. Sold stat physcs, n shot, was th pncpl vcto that ntodcd appld sach nto th manstam o Amcan physcs. Sold stat wold sccd n ts bd to nstall tsl as a manln phys Physical Review wold amnt n 1970, wth on o th cs osbld. sctonsTh ddcatd to sold stat physcs and latd lds. Th 1970s and 1980s saw th s o condnsd matt physcs, an volton om sold stat physcs that soht a mo consstnt dscplnay dntty and mo tadtonal mphass on p scnc vals. Nvthlss, poxmty poxmty to tchnolocal applcatons mand a pont o pd o what was now by a th last smnt o Amcan physcs. By th tm th Spcondctn Sp Colld (SSC) was cancld n 1993, a sncant poton o th physcs commnty had land lan d to wa th th appld lvanc comotably comotably.. Th condnsd matt otlook on physcs was not so mch th cla vcto o th SSC dbats as t was th poston that was lt standn. Th hh-powd dctonsm that had nsd p scnc htoc manatn om th patcl physcs commnty sd a sos blow wth th dath o th SSC. Evn bo th pojct’s cancllaton, th lks o Stvn Wnb Wnb and Lon Ldman w movd to dstanc thmslvs om th ampant spn-o clams that dltd th ntllctal and cltal amnts n avo o hh-pc hh ny physcs. SSC spn-o clams, howv, w pal chos o mch ston amnts o tchnolocal lvanc that sold stat and condnsd matt physcsts had bn makn o som tm. Movn nto th twntth cnty, ths assmd a mch la ol n Amcan physcs. Th dclaaton n Physical Review Applied that th bas spaatn physcs om nnn w atcal and woth dmolshn
CONCLUSIONS
203
s on lacy o th momntm sold stat physcs adally mpatd to th Amcan physcs commnty, commnty, ndn t away om a p scnc dal and towad accptanc o tchnolocal lvanc. THE CHANGING SHAPE OF PHYSICAL DISCIPLINES
Physcs s what physcsts dcd t s. Amcan physcsts thmslvs, howv, ald to tap nto that ancy o mch o th aly twntth cnty. Th dawnn alzaton n th 1940s that dscplnay bondas cold b ymandd to st mmdat possonal nds av physcsts a powl and xbl tool to oanz a apdly own poplaton and to mana th dvnt and somtms comptn ntsts o th ops that md wthn t. Sold stat physcs was th most mmdat and an d th most sccssl slt o ths alzaton. Oanzn aond somthn oth than a spposdly natal catoy mad t oté n th 1940s and 1950s, bt ts sccss psad th dlbat ots to statcally nn and somtms ndmn dscplnay stct lat n th twntth cnty. Foman hastodntd Foman n th lat, concdn twntth cnty cnt an acltal o tanston omPal dscplnaty antdscplnaty, antdscplnaty wthy a la la sht om modnsm to postmodnsm. Th noton o dscplns as dstnct and omalzd bods o possonal knowld and pactc, p actc, Foman Foman as, s o spsnly cnt hstocal vnta, a podct o a md-cnty modnst mphass on possonal dscpln (n th sns o land sl-contol) and xpts. Th 1960s and 1970s, thoh, saw th bnnns o an antdscplnay acton, whch dspaad dscplns as Pocstan mpdmnts to both pstmc and socal poss.4 Th s o sold stat physcs concds wth th a a n whch Foman locats ths tanston, and psnts a tlln llstaton o how physcsts w notatn th concpt o dscplnaty both n ts hyday and thoh ts dcln. It s an amsn ony that on o sold stat’s ky contbtons to th oanzaton o Amcan scnc—ts sl-conscosly convntonal ot bonday—was th vy chaactstc that mad t dosyncatc whn t omd. It s also ttn that th ld ddcatd to stdyn complx physcal systms was tsl sch a complx dscplnay assmbly. Sold stat pond a nw mod o dscplnay oanzaton, on that an cont to th pvaln md-cnty md-cnt y wsdom. Contmpoay sstanc asd, t wold soon nsp mtatos. Matals scnc, a podct o aly 1960s ots to combn basc scntc sach n th physcal scncs wth nnn ots tatd at statc matals, was lkws a dscpln dscpln by convnton,
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assmbld n la pat to captalz on th statd pncs o powl nds. A smla pattn wold nold lat n th cnty wth th advnt o nanoscnc and nanotchnoloy, whch w not om a st o poblms o pactcs, bt om an oppotnstc acton to dal dvlopmnt pots and accompanyn ndn oppotnts.5 Sold stat, as an antcdnt to ths and oth dvlopmnts, tho povds a powl bass om whch to ndstand dscplns and th nnc ov scntc dscos dn th twntth cnty, whn th apdly own poplaton o scntsts avod nw mods o oanzaton. Fthmo, th sold stat xampl clas th mpotanc o dscplnay dntty o mdatn scntc athoty, ovnn pst dspts, and dn soc allocaton. Th lack o a clan sach- o concpts-basd answ to th qston “what s t that sold stat physcsts dd?” ocss attnton on th sns o possonal soldaty that nd th ld o dcads. Thoh th scond hal ha l o th twntth t wntth cnty, cnty, physcs as a whol cam to a constllaton o loosly ntsts lk sold stat physcssmbl mch mo than t smbld th latd concptally cohnt dscpln that physcsts lk John Van Van Vlck had soht so ht to psv n th ac o 1940s dvsonalzaton. Naatvs dvn by th polaton o qantm mchancs and ots to hastn thotcal ncaton otn obsc ths vdnt stat o aas. Bt th volton o th possonal nastct o Amcan physcs—a stoy to whch sold stat was cntal—was a posson away om th aly twntth-cnty Rowlandan vson o a commnty nd by ll-thoatd advocacy o p sach. Th APS spotd dvsons bnnn n th aly 1940s, ntatn a pocss o spcalzaton and compatmntalzaton that contnd o th st o th cnty.6 Physics Physics Today lanchd n 1948, boastn o ts altaan dtoal polcy. polcy. Fom th 1960s on, own own nmbs o physcsts patcpatd patcpa td n nw ntdscplnay lds sch as matals scnc. All ths actos ndcat that physcs stadly bcam a b tnt wth thnn walls thoh th scond hal o th twntth cnty. Undstandn how and why sold stat omd tho os a cas stdy, on a small scal, o how Amcan physcs volvd. Th nat o physcs chand as mmbshp n th dscplnay commnty bcam lss a matt o wokn on a small st o commnally sanctond poblms and mo abot tann and sl-dntcaton. As wth th condnsd matt movmnt wth spct to sold stat, th was som pshback aanst ths
CONCLUSIONS
205
dvlopmnt wthn physcs. Th psh o and ncaton and th ston dctonst mpls that dov hh ny physcs om th 1960s thoh th 1990s, howv, appas n a dnt lht consdd as a contpont to a dvsyn ld than t dos whn psntd as th cntal naatv o Amcan physcs. Sold stat can ncoa a mo complt hstocal ndstandn o Amcan physcs n th lat twntth cnty by tsl bn a mcocosm o how th la commnty was stctd. MEGASCIENCE UNDERMINED
I th ntsts o appld scnc povdd th mpts o th sold stat nscton, and th mann o physcal dscplns was ts consqnc, thn ssntmnt boht abot by th xcsss o b scnc was ts l. Pst looms last to thos who l thy lack th a sha. Sold stat physcsts spnt mch o th Cold Wa watchn th oppost nmbs n ncla and patcl physcs ap th socal, poltcal, and pcnay bnts o physcs’ nwond cltal vsblty. Mch o that vsblty cam n th om o hstocally nstallatons. As patcl physcsts pobd small and small lmntsla o th atom, th machns thy sd to do t w, and th sold stat commnty’s stats conscosnss hhtnd n dct popoton. Many a sold stat physcst spotd a chp on th shold shold,, and that pnacos stak avod th ld’s possonal stoy om th 1960s on. 7 Th nstallatons o b scnc w monmntal. Thy w, o cos, physcally la. Bt an nomos patcl acclato cold also ncton, n th wods Danl Klppn, “as a monmnt to o Natonal aspatons.” 8 Klppn, an atomc physcst, sppotd th SSC, althoh h chod sold stat physcsts’ admontons that t shold not b sppotd at th xpns o oth aas o scnc. By dntyn th monmntal ncton th SSC and oth la acclatos svd, Klppn nvthlss atclatd on o th pncpl statons sold stat and condnsd matt physcsts had wth b scnc. Monmnts, n th popla manaton, clbat patcla pats o an vnt o ntps at th xpns o oths. Undstandn hh ny patcl acclatos as monmnts to natonal scntc accomplshmnt mpld a patcla slant on what typs o scntc accomplshmnts w mpotant to th naton. Sold stat physcs lackd a monmnt on whch t cold pn ts aspatons. A ld dspsd amon laboatos acoss acadmc, ndstal, and ovnmntal nstttons, sppotn an abndanc o sach poams, sold stat dd not lnd tsl to physcs by monolthc machn. Many n th
206
STATE INSURRECTIO N SOLID STATE
ld spondd by blln aanst monmntalsm tsl, sstn that la, s ns aclts w a poo nvstmnt and daman to th halth o th st o scnc—th atttd that amd th scntc cas aanst th SSC. It wold b a sttch to call th dath o th SSC a vctoy o small scnc. It dd not yld ncasd ntst n ndn xploatoy sach on th lab-bnch scal o dc dmands o wll-atclatd tchncal o commcal otcoms that cam wth mch small-scnc ndn. It dd, howv,, snal th closn o an a n Amcan scnc n whch th dchowv tonst vw o physcs champond by th hh ny commnty wold xt otszd nnc on natonal-scal scnc polcy. polcy. Opposton to th ndn stct mpld by b scnc was ntmatly lnkd to opposton to th dctonst phlosophy. Althoh hh ny physcsts otn psntd dctonsm as th pncpl that had poplld physcs o mllnna, datn to ancnt Gk atomsm, th avo o dctonsm that dd hh ny sach n th latt hal o th twntth cnty s mo poply ndstood as a nw ntllctal amwok, dvlopd om andTh o th sach poam thatbyld to thAndson standadand modl o patcl physcs. mntsm dvlopd Phlp oth condnsd matt physcsts, whch mantand th concptal ndpndnc o concpts con cpts at hh scals o complxty, complxty, was lkws dawn om th phnomna o condnsd matt physcs. Bt n addton to codyn concptal dncs btwn th hh- and low-ny domans, phlosophcal dsamnts abot dcton and mnc had wd-ann consqncs o th sl-ma o physcs and ts oanzaton. Thy contstd whth th had co o ndamntal physcs shold man an xclsv clb o wdn nto a b tnt. Rdctonsm was a na ncssty to ndwt th clams that la xpnsv aclts w ncssay to psh owad th bondas o ndamntal knowld. I, howv, ndamntal nsht cold b and at any scal o oanzaton, thn th natonal commtmnt to scnc as clt cold asonably b spad mo wdly. Fo ths ason, phlosophcal amnts abot th pstmc chaactstcs o ndamntal knowld omd an ntal componnt o condnsd matt physcsts’ cas aanst th SSC. Condnsd matt physcsts not only oht aanst mascnc bcas t sqstd socs o basc sach n a w la l a aclts bt also bcas thy smatd at th ntllctal avac o th dctonst mov to monopolz ndamntal knowld. Amcan physcs wold not com
CONCLUSIONS
207
to mbac appld lvanc as pat o ts dntty wthot thos aas that boastd ths lvanc st dmonstatn that thy cold contbt to th ntllctal co o physcs. Th stls o sold stat physcsts to cav ot spac o th sach and pblcz th accomplshmnts whl labon n th shadow o b physcs also has lssons o how to tll th hstoy o twntth-cnty scnc. Th monmnts t ctd stand ot n o vsta o th past, bt th most mposn ats o th skyln a otn only dmly psntatv o th sondn tan wh most popl spnd most o th tm. Sold stat physcsts, scattd thohot th oothlls o montanos b scnc nstallatons, accontd o a mch la popoton o scntc otpt n th lat twntth cnty. Th sntmnt o b scnc was not smply a matt o tnn p th noss at hh-hann t, bt o advocacy o a systm o sppot and accontablty that btt ctd th dmoaphcs o Amcan physcs. MAKING AMERICAN PHYSICS MATTER
Th stoy o th sold stat nscton nvts vstn standad naatvs o Amcan physcs n th twntth cnty, many o whch hav bn shapd by th Inward Bound naatv, naatv, atclatd n Abaham Pas’s book o that ttl. Pas psnts th twntth cnty as a s a voya nto th atom, whch ncovd th dpst and most ndamntal scts o nat amon th most basc consttton o matt and voltonzd o ndstandn o th nvs.9 Raly s th ocs on patcl physcs as th bass o th st o th dscpln so stctv and xplct as n Inward Bound Bou nd , yt patcl physcs has stood n o physcs n nal n many o th most nntal hstooaphcal movmnts o cnt yas. Hstoans o physcs thnk abot th latonshp btwn thoy and xpmnt and th nat o physcal knowld thoh th lns o bbbl chambs, wak ntal cnts, and qaks, appoach pdaoy thoh Fynman daams, and ndstand laboatoy clt thoh th stos o th Stanod Lna Acclato, Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy, and Fmlab.10 Th cmlatv slt s that th dctonst naatv that patcl physcs thmslvs avod has bcom th backbon o th hstooaphy o twntth-cnty physcs. Bt om anoth pspctv, th advancs n ncla and sbncla physcs at abot 1930 mht sm povncal and ncmntal. By 1930, wth th dscovy o th nton, physcsts had a cla da o th lmnts
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SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
o ncla stct. st ct. Ncla physcs, wthot a dobt, povd povd ts mpotanc n damatc ashon dn th Scond Wold Wa. Bt both th Manhattan Pojct and sbsqnt bomb and acto wok w pncpally nnn ntpss. So a as th basc physcs o ncla matt s concnd, th st o th cnty sccdd only n shn ot th pct that was laly n plac by 1930 and pshn t back on lvl to dvlop a sns o sbnclonc stct—an achvmnt to b s, bt a paochal on, vn that th phnomna n qston can only b catd and obsvd n hhly spcalzd laboatos. Fom ths pspctv, th al acton o twntth-cnty physcs noldd lswh. Anyon walkn alon a black-sand bach n Hawa, o Nw Zaland, o Hon Kon can obsv, wthot nstmntaton, th popty o omantsm n th mantt dposts that v ths bachs th dstnctv colo. Yt that phnomnon and many oth asly a sly obsvd popts o matt mand mystos bo th advnt o thotcal and xpmntal tchnqs dvlopd wthn sold stat sta t physcs. Fom Fom ths pspctv, th most ont oont. th twntth was not th o hhny ont, btactv th complxty It wascnty th dmystcaton th popts o complx matt and th applcatons o thos popts, whch mad o tchnolocal wold, om hom comptn, sto qpmnt, and cookwa to commncaton, tanspotaton, mdcn, and waa. Ths s a tndntos amn, bt t svs a ppos: t xposs th hstooaphcal contnncy o th dspopotonat ocs on ncla physcs, hh ny physcs, and cosmoloy, alonsd th hstocal contnncy o th domnanc thos lds assmd ov pblc dscos abot physcs n th scond hal o th twntth cnty. Two contactal scnaos hlp to pob that contnncy th, ach o whch os hstc tlty by thown nto l th ol sold stat physcs playd, dspt lackn th pblc acclam o ts sbln sblds, n scn th pomnnc o Amcan physcs.11 Fst, vn th hh d o nstttonal volatlty n th aly post– Scond Wold Wa a, t s asy to man a contactal scnao n whch sold stat physcsts mat away om physcs and nto chmsty, mtally, and nnn, mch as lctcal nnn had som dcads al. It was a contnncy abot whch th ld’s onds actvly wod, and th Amcan Physcal Socty concl was dmonstably sqamsh abot clan th typ o nstttonal spac that wold v th socty a mo ndstal avo. Wthot sold stat, whch accontd o a
CONCLUSIONS
209
la popoton o th postwa poplaton boom, physcs wold hav stayd small and own mo slowly.12 Th pblshn css o th 1950s wold hav bn manad by dctn sold stat wok nto th jonals o oth lds. Most mpotant, th tchncal accomplshmnts o sold stat physcs wold hav accd to th bnt o thos oth lds. In that scnao, t s dclt to man how Amcan physcs wold hav mantand th poltcal wll ncssay to contn th mascnc pojcts that bcam ts most conzabl and bst-pblczd accomplshmnts. Physcs wold no dobt hav njoyd a pod o vsblty and nnc on th coattals o ncla wapons, bt th hal-l o that nnc wold lkly hav bn mch shot. Physcs was ondd, podly, on th ns o Amcan vals, and n dct opposton to som o thm. Sold stat was nstmntal n challnn that t hat paochalsm and makn Amcan physcs mo sponsv to th nds o socty n whch t was mbddd. In contast, many patcl physcsts, dply dsllsond wth wapons sach, shapnd th noton o scntc pty to an vn n pont. Sch an wold bn dclt to sstan wthot a banch olvanc physcs thatatttd ddcatd tslhav to xplon th aas that w o mmdat n th Cold Wa and sppotd th pcpton that physcs was contnally, not mly occasonally, sl. W can man a scond scon d contactal scnao sc nao n whch th Manhattan Pojct nv acqd th scal o socs t ndd to constct a wokn bomb bo th nd o th wa n th Pacc. Phaps Lo Szlad ald to nd Albt Enstn, who nv cosnd hs atl ltt to Fankln Roosvlt dmandn a US spons to th Gman ncla poam. Phaps Goy Bt mand, nhapply, th Coodnato o Rapd Rpt and was not abl to nstll th amos spt that tha t makd J. Robt Oppnhm’s dctoshp o th t h Los Alamos laboatoy laboatoy.. Sppos, o whatv ason, th Scond Wold Wa nds wthot a damatc, pblc dmonstaton o th pow o th ncls. It s had to man that ncla wapons sach wold not hav contnd, bt t wold hav don so n sct, nd th danc o a vy dnt postwa od. Ncla physcsts wold not hav bn catapltd to clbty n qt th sam way and hh ny physcs wold ths not hav bntd om th pblc pomnnc that th psycholocal pow o ncla wapons boht to mcophyscs. In ths scond scnao, sold stat physcsts wold hav bn wll postond to bcom mch mo poltcally nntal n th aly Cold Wa, n patcla on th stnth o ada sach, whch, n th absnc o th
210
SOLID STATE STATE INSURRECTIO N
bomb, wold lkly hav domnatd naatvs abot physcsts’ contbtons to th wa ot. Ncla physcsts, shackld both by sccy ms and dobts abot th sccss and cost ctvnss o th poposal o a sp wapon, wold hav acd at dclty ann poltcal and cltal tacton. It wold b asonabl to xpct a mch mo apd mbac o appld lvanc om Amcan physcsts—not an nscton bt a cop, mch lk th on that catapltd molcla boloy to th oont o boloy aond th sam tm. Hstoans wold look back on Rowland’s dals as qxotc, mavl that physcsts w abl to sstan thm vn nto md-cnty, and nd th oots o th dms n th ntwa stctn o th jonal and socty nastct. Th ppos o a contactal shold always b to v s a sh pspctv on th actal. Ths scnaos, whch pob nttons abot what actos shapd postwa physcs, show s that th hstoy o twntth-cnty Amcan physcs dos not t toth wthot th stoy o sold stat physcs contbtn answs to som o th most complln qstons q stons abot t. How and dddd physcs antosch mantan t odd so lon?why What t man b apomnnc physcst nsothqckly Untdand Stats and how that dntty chan ov tm? How do physcsts notat what t mans o knowld to b ndamntal? Ths a qstons that t to th co o why th hstoy o physcs matts, and th answs to thm look qt dnt, as I hav ad h, whn takn th xpncs o sold stat physcsts nto accont. Th contactal xcs abov also maks cla that th pcs ta jctoy that th twntth cnty dd tak tak conspd to mask th sncanc o sold stat physcs wthn t. Hh ny physcs, n spt o ts scon o th typs o shot-tm tchnolocal nds that th scty stat otn dmandd, was wll adaptd to th cltal momnt o th Cold Wa. Th Jams Bond lms povd an analoy that maks ths compatblty cla. cla. Th Bond ss s amon th lonst nnn n cnma, and ts ttla chaact on o th most conzabl ctonal s n Wstn popla clt. Bt whn Danl Ca took ov as th anchs’s ladn man, th amla chaact took an namla tn. No lon dd th dbona spy’s copos consmpton o vodka matns mly mak hs am t as h battld otszd spvllans and th Rb Goldb–sq plans o wold domnaton. Instad, Bond was psntd as a ayn alcoholc, bckln nd th motonal toll o hs job as hs dmons thatnd to ndmn hs ht aanst nms catd by hs own conty’s malasanc. Unlk th Cold
CONCLUSIONS
211
Wa Bond mad amos by San Conny—th podct o a wold pantd n black and wht—Ca’s dpcton bts a wold that stls st ls to com to tms wth statlss nms, ndscmnat lctonc svllanc, and th moalty o don stks. St aanst th Manchasm o th Cold Wa, Conny’s Bond mad sns. Ca, n tn, plays a mssy Bond o a mssy wold. Bt th dyads o captalsm and commnsm, East and Wst, ood and vl, that playd so stonly on Cold Wa psycholoy vnc th maskn, not th absnc, o ndlyn complxts.13 In physcs, as n th opoltcs o th Cold Wa, th mssnss was th all alon, bt w hav bn at tms dolocally ndsposd to notc t. Th pct o physcs as dvdd btwn dctonst, ndamntal sach on on hand han d and dvatv, appld physcs on th oth was powl to physcsts—spcally dn th Cold Wa, whn t t th spt o th tms—and t has mpntd th hstoy o physcs as wll. Tlln th stoy o Cold Wa Wa physcs qs q s pln back ths sdctv vn and conontn th mssnss o Schmutzphysik. It was not a consnss dolocal vson, th dmands o adolocal Cold Wadvsty contxt, that mad physcs schcompatbl a sccsslwth scnc; t was th that allowd t to adapt to th many nchs that a complx contxt od.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION. What Is Solid State Physics and Why Does It Matter?
Epigraph: Goy H. Wann, qotd n an nttld docmnt, 1943, CRS, old 3. 1. Establishing Priorities in Science Funding: Hearing Beore the Task For Force ce on De ense, Foreign Foreign Policy and Space o the t he Committee on the Budget, House o Representatives,
102nd Con. 67 (Jly ( Jly 11 and 18, 1991) (statmnt o Phlp W. W. Andson, Ph.D., Josph Hny Posso, Pncton Unvsty). Th tms “patcl physcs” and “hh ny physcs” w w sd ntchanably aond ths tm, and a sd that way n ths book. 2. Th latonshp btwn ths two nams, whch s not npoblmatc, s dscssd n chapt 8. 3. Stds o dscpln omaton hav ocsd pncpally on how commnts coalsc aond sach poblms and tchnqs, o on how pacttons bcom “dscplnd” thoh pdaocal poams and possonalzaton pocds, both omal and nomal. Rpsntatv xampls ncld: Jackson, “Chmsty as th Dnn Scnc,” whch shows how th owth o ston laboatos catd th condtons n whch consnss pactcs cold m, adn th stablshmnt o chmsty as a dscpln n nntnth-cnty Gmany; Lon, “Wllam McEloy, McEloy,” whch xamns how th st o nw poblms posd by molcla ntcs contbtd to th mnc o bochmsty; and Lno and Lécy L écy,, “Instmnt Maks,” Maks,” whch mphaszs how th dstnctv st o pactcs that spn p aond nstmnts and nstmnt makn hlp assmbl dscplnay commnts. Oths hav challnd th nvsalty o ths appoach, spcally n th alm o mo cnt scnc, whn commnts bcam la, mo complx, and mo poltcally p oltcally nad. S, o xampl, Good, “Assmbly “Assmbly o Gophyscs.” I ollow Good n ndstandn dscplns as xbl tools that can b sd to solv possonal and nstttonal poblms as wll as concptal ons. 4. Hoddson t al., Out o the Crystal Maze, v. 5. Ths, o nstanc, w th pmay catos dntd by th Wa Polcy Commtt o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs n th aly 1940s. Klopst, “Wok “Wok o th Wa Polcy Commtt.” 6. Althoh otn patd, th ons o ths appantly vbal mak a ncla. It had ntd patcl physcs lo by 1966 at th latst, whn May Gll-Mann patd t at th 13th Intnatonal Connc on Hh-Eny Physcs. Gll-Mann, “Cnt Topcs n Patcl Physcs.” 7. Danls and K, “Byond th Rach.” I thank John K o shan a ppnt o ths pap wth m. 8. In a smla mann, w s th hstoy o scnc dntly w stat om th pspctv o appld scnc. Johnson, “What I W Wot?”; Mody, “Towad a Hstoy o Scnc.”
214
NOTES TO PAGES 8–19
9. Th most comphnsv accont o th SSC’s s and all all s Rodan, Hoddson, and Kolb, Tunnel Visions. 10. S Kas, “Atomc Sct,” o an accont o how th Manhattan Pojct dvlopd ts popla ptaton as a tmph o thotcal physcs, ath than o mtally, mtally, chmsty, and nnn. 11. On th postwa pst o physcsts, s Kvls, Physicists, and Bown, Dsdn, and Hoddson, “Pons to Qaks.” Robt W. Sdl has statd th ons o th own pst o Amcan physcs slhtly bo th wa n th sccss o th Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy. Sdl, “Ons o th Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy.” On th ncasd nnc o physcs on polcymakn, s, n addton to Kvls, Physicists, Klnman, Politics on the Endless Frontier Frontier . 12. S Kvls, “B Scnc.” 13. Mssn, “Why Enstn Bcam Famos.” 14. Dp, Science in the Federal Government , s th on o a boad hstooaphcal consnss. Stds bldn on Dp’s wok hav xplod th dtals o th mchansms that nactd th dal ovnmnt’s nwly obst commtmnt to ndn scntc sach. S: Enland, E nland, Patr Patron on or Pure Science; Thboda, “Scnc n th Fdal Govnmnt”; Klnman, Politics on the Endless Frontier ; Edton, “Tm, Mony, and Hstoy.” 15. Wstwck, National Labs; Cas, Making Physics; Sdl, “Natonal Laboatos” and “Hom o B Scnc.” Scnc.” 16. Hcht, Hch t, “Atomc “Atomc Ho.” 17. Dol, “Scntsts as Polcymaks”; Wat, Scientists in Po Power wer ; Fnkbn, Jasons. 18. Hoddson, Kolb, and Wstall, Fermilab. 19. Wol, Competing with the Soviets, 43. 20. Stvns, “Fndamntal Physcs.” 21. Bd, B d, Scientists at War , 270. 22. Rowland, “Hhst Am,” 828. 23. Joas, “Campos q ntam.” 24. I laly avod nan wth th many ntstn sss n th concptal hstoy o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs, whch do not psnt a cohsv stoy o th ld and hav bn consdd pcmal by oths. Fo an ovvw o ths woks, s th scton “Concptal Dvlopmnt o Rsach Poams,” n Matn, “Rsoc Ltt,” 91–93. 25. Th a that patcl acclatos mht cat mnscl black hols that wold ow and nl th plant was th soc o potsts dctd at both th La Hadon Colld n Gnva and th Rlatvstc Havy Ion Colld on Lon Island. Fo an dyn hstoy o ths as, as , and a dscsson o th lal sss sondn njnctons ld on th bass o o thm, s Johnson, “Black Hol Cas.” Cas.” CHAPTER 1. THE PURE SCIENCE IDEAL AND ITS MALCONTENTS
Epigraph: Rowland, “Hhst Am,” 825. 1. Tocqv Tocqvll, ll, Democracy in America, 2:48. 2. S Wawck awck,, Masters o Theory.
3. On physcs n Pssan sconday dcaton, s Olsko, “Physcs Instcton” and Physics as a Calling . On th Physkalsch-Tchnsch Rchsanstalt, s Cahan, Institute or an Empire. 4. Fo an ovvw o both th connctons btwn scnc and ndsty n nn-
NOTES TO PAGES 19–24
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tnth-cnty Eop, and th ltat dscssn t, s Hnt, Pursuing Po Power wer and Light . 5. Th conncton btwn scnc (ncldn physcs) and tchnoloy n aly twntth-cnty Amca has bn wll docmntd, notably n Nobl, American by Design. 6. Ths analyss blds mplctly on th walth o ltat that chats th tansomaton o th Amcan physcs commnty n th 1920s and th nnc o scntc maton n th 1930s. Rpsntatv o th n a: Wn n,, “Nw St o th Smna”; Cobn, “Scntc Establshmnt”; Holton, “Fomaton”; Hoch, “Rcpton”; Stw, “Ncla Physcsts”; Rd, “Alam and Oppotnty”; Schwb, “Empcst Tmp”; and Assms, “Amcanzaton o Molcla Physcs.” 7. Rowland, “Hhst Am,” Am,” 826. A thooh accont o Rowland’s possonal ta jctoy and ntllctal dvlopmnt can b ond n Swtnam, Command o Light . On Edson as a ol ol o Rowland, s Honshll, “Edson and th P Scnc Idal.” 8. S Kohlstdt, Sokal, and Lwnstn, L wnstn, Establishment o Science. 9. Rowland “Hhst Am,” 833. 10. S Lc, “Ons o P and Appld Scnc.” 11. Fo a dscsson o bst-scnc ltsm and ts ol n aly twntth-cnty Amcan physcs, s Kvls, Physicists. 12. Amcan Physcal Socty, “Mmbs. Jn 15, 1902,” APSM. Sx oth mmbs lstd only an addss, placn an pp bond on ndstal mmbshp at 6.9 pcnt. Th mand o mmbs potd acadmc o ovnmnt alatons, and ovwhlmnly th om. Fo Fo a dscsson o th s o Amcan ndstal sach n ths a, s Rch, Making o American Industrial Research. 13. “Lst o Mmbs o th Amcan Physcal Socty toth wth Lsts o Ocs o 1920 and Past Ocs, a Goaphcal Indx, and th Consttton and By-Laws,” Jly 1920, APSM. Th blk o th mann mmbs w mployd n sconday dcaton, nonovnmntal, nonpot laboatos, sch as th Can Insttton o Washnton, o dd not ndcat th mploymnt. 14. “Lst o APS Mmbs,” Jly 1920, APSM. Maj. Go O. Sq o th Wa Dpatmnt and Go K. Bss o th Ba o Standads w lctd mmbs o th concl, as, t appas was Fank Jwtt o th Wstn Elctc Company. Th lst o concl mmbs nams “J. B. Jwtt,” as an lctd mmb, bt Fank, lat to bcom psdnt o Bll Laboatos, s th only Jwtt n th APS mmb ols o 1920. 15. Lc, Lc, “Ons o P and Appld Scnc”; Nobl, American by Design. 16. Gooday, “‘Va and Atcal.’” 17. Hxly, “Scnc and Pactcal L,” 167. 18. Hnt, Maxwellians; Cadwll, From Watt Watt to Clausius. 19. Caty, “Rlaton o P Scnc,” 512. 20. Colt, “Rol o Scnc,” 22. 21. Rch, Making o American Industrial Research. 22. Wat, “Physcs Bsnss.” 23. S Ws, “Ionsts n Indsty.” 24. A. Robt, “It An’t th Mony,” Dcmb 2, 1944, KBP, box 10, old Rabb [ sic ], ], Isdo Isaac. 25. Hyd, “Why 1916?” 26. “Ancdotal Hstoy.” 27. “Edtoal.”
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28. Watall, ntvw by Lndsay. 29. Govnn Boad o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Mnts o Mtn hld May 3, 1931, AIPM, accssd Fbay 7, 2017, https://www.ap.o/hstoy-poams /nls-boh-lbay/collctons/ovnn-boad/may-3–1931. 30. “Plmnay Rpot o th Polcy Commtt on th Roanzaton o Physcs,” Addndm to th Mnts o th Jont Mtn o th Exctv Commtt and Polcy Commtt, Mach 8, 1945, AIPS. 31. Pas, “‘Physcal Rvw.’” 32. Fo a dscsson o th owth and ncton o vw ltat n th physcs commnty, s Lall, “Nw Scntc Jonal.” 33. Rchtmy, “Edtoal,” 1. 34. I s atcls, ath than pas, as a mas o sz wth th opatn assmpton that anyon adn th jonal wold appoach ach atcl statcally, statcally, and so that adn tm wold b colatd mo closly to nmb o atcls than to nmb o pas. 35. Qotd n Dncan and Janssn, “On th V,” 566. 36. Van Vlck and N, “John Tonc Tat,” 471. 37. Tat and Van Vlck, “Edto’s Colmn,” 69. 38. S Amboso, “Hstocty o Pc’s Classcaton”; Cssza, “Salty.” 39. Whwll, Philosophy o the Inductive Sciences, 278. 40. S Schwb, “Empcst “Emp cst Tmp. mp.”” CHAPTER 2. How Physics Became “What Physicists Do”
Epigraph: Bckly, “What’s n a Nam?” 301.
1. A sach o atcls that ncld both “ada” n th ttls and “physcs,” “physcst,” o “physcsts” n th txt btwn Janay 1940 and May 1944, whn Bckly spok, tns only two atcls om th New York York Times hstocal achv. On s a b not potn Albt Hoyt Taylo’s Taylo’s Mdal o Mt ctaton; th oth s a andloqnt at nttld “Rada—O Macl Ally,” whch s to Jams Clk Maxwll as a physcst whn sttn down th hstocal backond on whch th “nvnts and nns” sponsbl o ada ld. “Two Gt Mdals o Mt,” New York York Times, Mach 22, 1944; Davs, “Rada.” Fo an ovvw o ada’s nnc on th Scond Wold Wa, s Bown, Radar History. 2. Hll, “Otlook o th Physcst,” 66. 3. Kvls, “Cold Wa,” 263. Th qot sponds to Pal Foman’s amnt that th nx o mltay spndn nto physcs dn th Cold Wa ontd physcs away om basc sach. Kvls accss Foman o bn ssntalst abot physcs and takn th acadmc, p-scnc-ontd smnt o th dscpln as, n som sns, th “t” physcs. Foman, “Bhnd Qantm Elctoncs.” 4. Wllam W. Hansn, ltt to Danl L. Wbst, Fbay 4, 1943, FBPS, ss 1, box 5, old 20. 5. Kas, “Booms, Bsts,” Bsts,” dscsss th systmc chans boht abot by th apd post–Scond Wold Wa poplaton boom n physcs. 6. Davd Kas addsss th povnanc and sncanc o ths tm n “Fom Blackboad to Bombs.” 7. On th dmoaphcs o physcs n th 1930s, s Wat, Wat, “Physcs Bsnss.” Bsnss.” 8. Kas, “Postwa Sbbanzaton.” 9. Wthn dscssons that xplod th t o th Amcan physcs commnty, psntatvs o all camps tndd to map th acadma/ndsty dvd onto th dstnc-
NOTES TO PAGES 35–41
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ton btwn basc and appld sach. Ths mappn assmd, as Mos Mskat, a sach physcst at Gl Rsach Laboatoy, obsvd, that ndstal physcsts “a not mployd to do physcs sach per se, bt to dvlop applcatons o physcal pncpls and tchnqs. Th spcc poblms a nally not sl-catd.” As a consqnc, th Unvsty o Chcao’s Robt Mllkn notcd, “Th acadmc scntsts and th ndstal o appld scntsts ach tnd to ock by thmslvs, bcas th acadmc scntsts somtms lack ntst n th poblms o ndsty, and th ndstal popl nd th paps psntd by th acadmc scntsts too thotcal o too hhbow.” Mskat, “Ltt to th Edto,” 38; Mllkn, “Rmaks on a Possbl Dvson,” 42. Mllkn was not opposd to a spctoscopy dvson, bt soht ways to ncoa t to sv as a cnt o ntaton ath than a soc o onal dntty. dntty. 10. Osood, “Physcs n 1943,” 106. Th school was namd Mchan Stat Unvsty o Aclt and Appld Scnc n 1955 and doppd th ppostonal phas n 1964. 11. Mskat, “Ltt to th Edto,” 38. 12. Hanwll, “Rsach n Physcs.” Th atcl was basd on a talk Hanwll dlvd at th Symposm on th Rol o Physcs n th Postwa Pod, cohostd by th APS and th Amcan Assocaton o Physcs Tachs at Stat Coll, Pnnsylvana, Jn 18, 1943. 13. Hanwll, “Rsach n Physcs,” 232–33, 235–36. 14. Hanwll, “Mo Pct Unon,” 20. 15. At ths tm, Watall was consltn o th US Navy whl bn pad thoh Colmba Unvsty. Htchsson, a Unvsty o Pttsbh posso and dto o th Journal o Applied Physics, wold lat sv as psdnt o th AIP. 16. Watall and Htchsson, “Oanzaton o Physcs,” 408–9. 17. Th IRE was on o two socts—th Amcan Insttt o Elctcal Enns bn th oth—that combnd to om th Insttt o Elctcal and Elctoncs Enns n 1963. 18. Goldsmth, “Commnts,” 649. 19. S Rosnb, “Amcan Physcs.” 20. Sal Dshman t al., “Th Psnt Wa Is a Physcst’s Wa,” CRS, old 3. Fo th dscsson, s chapt 3. 21. Olsn, Cttndn, and Smth, “Ltt to th Edto,” 108. 22. Osood, “Ltt to th Edto,” 108. 23. Whn th AIP’s Govnn Boad hld ts st mtn at th Cosmos Clb n Washnton, DC, n May 1931, on atclaton o ts msson was “to ach a wd adnc o mn wokn n physcs and to v thm asly adabl nws o all knds latn to physcs.” It conscosly amd to avod th lmtatons o th APS and spond to th nds o physcsts whv thy mht b wokn, and whv th ntsts mht tak thm. Sch a msson ncsstatd a mch boad concpton o “physcst” than th mo consvatv vocs n th APS wold hav consdd. Govnn Boad o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Mnts o Mtn hld May 3, 1931, AIPM, accssd Jn 19, 2018, http://www.ap.o/hstoy-poams/nls-boh-lbay/collctons /ovnn-boad/may-3-1931. 24. Ths addss s pntd n Stz, “Whth Amcan Physcs?” Th Janay 1945 mtn o th APS hostd, ho std, and Stz’s talk was a pat o, th st symposm on th sold stat dscssd n th nxt scton. Daow, Daow, “Symposm on th Sold Stat.” Stat.” 25. Stz, “Whth Amcan Physcs?” 40–41.
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26. Stz, “Whth Amcan Physcs?” 41–42. 27. Stz, “Whth Amcan Physcs?” 40. 28. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Pttsbh, Jn 21, 1940, APSM. 29. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Baltmo, May 1, 1942, APSM. It s not cla whth Rtch was a mmb o th APS at th tm h snt ths ltt, snc h had snd hs mmbshp n 1940. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Phladlpha, Dcmb 26, 1940, APSM. 30. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Colmba Unvsty, Jn 5, 1943, APSM. 31. Daow Da ow,, “Cnt “Cn t Tnds,” Tnds,” 437–38. 437–38 . 32. Qotd n Daow, “Cnt Tnds,” 437. 33. Daow, oncally, was mployd by Bll Labs. H jond Wstn Elctc n 1917 and contnd on wth th advnt o th Bll Systm n 1925. Howv, h had mad a habt o accptn vstn possoshps. Daow spnt a ya at Stanod n th lat 1920s, compltd stnts at th Unvsty o Chcao and Colmba Unvsty n th aly 1930s, and at th tm o ths dscssons abot ndsty and acadma n th aly 1940s had bn tachn at Smth Coll, wh h spnt th spn smsts o 1941 and 1942. 34. As a th xampl o th oc o ths polcy, a dvson poposd n 1943 “to b dvotd to th pomoton o physcal pncpls as appld app ld to txtls, plastcs and bb,” d to n aly concl mtn mnts as th “Dvson o Txtl Physcs,” was complld to pocd as th “Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs.” Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Novmb 27, 1942, and Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Colmba Unvsty, Unvsty, Jn 5, 1943, APSM. 35. Baton, “Insttt Dons,” 4. 36. Govnn Boad o th Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Mnts o Mtn Hld Mach 10, 1944, AIPM, accssd Jn 19, 2018, http://www.ap.o/hstoy -poams/nls-boh-lbay/collctons/ovnn-boad/mach-10-1944. 37. “Rpot o th Natonal Rsach Concl,” 283. 38. Stton, “Intodctoy Rmaks,” 285. 39. Bckly, “What’s n a Nam?” 303. 40. Bckly, “What’s n a Nam?” 303. 41. Gbbs, “What Shold B th Mthod, Mthod,”” 305. 42. Kmbl, “What Chans n Gadat Tann?” 291. 43. Bans, “How Can th Plac?” 296. 44. Bans, “How Can th Plac?” 300–301. Sawy was mmb o th Unvsty o Mchan’s physcs aclty, bt at th tm o ths mtn, havn jond th US Naval Rsv, was dctn th xpmntal laboatos o th Naval Povn Gond. 45. Hanwll, “Rol o Oanzaton,” 310–11. 46. Qotd n Hanwll, “Rol o Oanzaton, Oanzaton,”” 312. 47. Hanwll, “Rol o Oanzaton,” 313. 48. Daow, “Conclson,” 327. 49. Th oths w Kal T. Compton, Hom L. Dod, L A. DBd, and Pal E. Klopst. 50. “Plmnay Rpot o th Polcy Commtt on th Roanzaton o Physcs,” Addndm to th Mnts o th Jont Mtn o th Exctv Commtt and Polcy Commtt, Mach 8, 1945, AIPS.
NOTES TO PAGES 52–60
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51. Foman, “Bhnd Qantm Elctoncs”; Wan, American Science; Wat, Rise o Nuclear Fear . 52. Wldhack, “Ltt to th Edto,” 271. 53. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Sptmb 19, 1946, APSM. CHAPTER 3: Balkanizing Physics
Epigraph: Ths xcpt om “La Masllas” tanslats: “that an mp blood
wats o ows.” Th Ba o Standads n Washnton, DC, tadtonally hostd th annal Amcan Physcal Socty mtns. Th nomal chaact ncoad attnds to convs ly on th lawn otsd. John H. Van Vlck, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Fbay 26, 1944, Amcan Physcal Socty, Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs, CRS, old 1. 1. Wat, “Sold Commnty,” 618. Wat dnts th omaton o physcs n th md-nntnth cnty as anoth sch ctcal jnct. 2. Wat, “Bth o th Sold-Stat Physcs Commnty,” 45. 3. Wat, Wat, “Sold “S old Commn Commnty ty,,” 627, 628, 628 , 640. 4. Lyons, “Concnn th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs.” Physcs.” Th Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs, omd by a op o lcton mcoscopsts, had bn appovd al n 1943. 5. Sal Dshman t al., “Th Psnt Wa Is a Physcst’s Wa,” CRS, old 3. Ealy dscsson amon th op o sx and th cospondnts d to a “scton” ath than a “dvson” o th socty. Kal K. Daow, th APS sctay, coctd ths o onc th ptton cam to hs attnton, notn: “Th wod . . . s Division and not Section—o Sctons a th oaphcally-dnd ops o mmbs sch s ch as th Nw Enland Scton.” Kal Daow, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Mach 22, 1944, CRS, old 1. Th as wth whch most physcsts ntchand th two tms dmonstats that a lack o amlaty amlaty wth th ntnal stct st ct o th APS, n patcla wth dvsons and th oals, mand wdspad n th md-1940s. 6. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Stanly R. Mach, Jly Jly 10, 1947, CRS, old 4. 7. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Sdny Sl, Dcmb 17, 1943, CRS, old 1. 8. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Conys Hn, Fbay 15, 1944, CRS, old 1. 9. John Van Vlck, ltt to Sal Dshman, Janay 29, 1944, CRS, old 1. Althoh Smolchowsk was th pmay achtct o th ot, th ltt nstctd cpnts to ply to whomv amon th op o sx thy pd. Dshman, th st alphabtcally, tho cvd th ppondanc o th pls, whch h dtlly passd on to Smolchowsk. 10. Daow, “How to Addss th APS,” 4. 11. Van Vlck, ltt to Dshman, Janay 29, 1944. Van Vlck, a commttd Rpblcan, n psonal cospondnc o ths pod otn xpssd skptcsm o Fankln Roosvlt’s polcs. Hs nc to th Nw Dal may b ad as doatoy doatoy.. 12. S, most notably, Van Vlck , Theory o Electric and Magnetic Mag netic Susceptibilities. 13. Fo a dtald valaton o th contbtons to th qantm volton that ondd Van Vlck’s standn stand n amon hs h s ps, ps , s Dncan and Janssn, Janss n, “On th V.” V.” 14. Th two w clos noh that Daow lt comotabl wtn Van Vlck n Latn n od to coodnat th nomnaton o mtal nd En Wn o llowshp n th Amcan Phlosophcal Socty: “Amo Gmanom, m cm coca cola,
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t dbltas mmoa snt adcs mltom malom. Sct ct dxst, Wn non st socs nost n Soctat Phlosphca Amcana” [Lov o th Gmans, m and Coca-Cola, and waknss o mmoy a th oots o many vls. As yo hav coctly sad, Wn s not o assocat n th Amcan Phlosophcal Phlos ophcal Socty]. Kal Daow, Daow, ltt to John Van Vlck, May 15, 1945, KKDP, box 19. (Tanslaton not: Daow ss th ntv “Gmanom,” “Gmanom,” whch ltally tanslats as “possssd by th Gmans.” Gvn th contxt—jst a wk at VE Day—t appas that h wold hav bn btt svd by th datv “Gmans,” o “o th Gmans. Gmans.”) ”) Van Van Vlck also had occason to stay wth Daow whl th latt was a vstn posso at Smth Coll n 1941. At Van Van Vlck dpatd, msplacn a pa o sspnds n th pocss, th two xchand a ss o ltts spclatn on whth o not sspnds cold b had n th Smth colos and whth o not ths ctd satoal tnds n womn’s colls. John Van Van Vlck, ltt to Kal Daow, Mach 6, 1941; Kal Daow, ltt to Van Vlck, Mach 13, 1941; and John Van Vlck, ltt to Daow, Mach 25, 1941, JHVVP, 1853–1981, box 9. 15. John Van Vlck, ltt to Kal Daow, Sptmb 19, 1943, KKDP, box 19, old 1943 TUV. Th nc to th al-stat bsnss s to th Physcal Socty’s pchas o a bldn to hos ts opatons n Nw Yok Cty. Cty. 16. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to John Van Vlck, Fbay 3, 1944, CRS, old 1. 17. Van Vlck, ltt to Smolchowsk, Fbay 26, 1944. 18. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to John Van Van Vlck, Fbay 21, 1944, CRS, old 1. 19. Fdck Stz, ltt to Kal Daow, May 6, 1944, CRS, old 1. Ths opponnts o dvsonalzaton ncldd, at th last, Van Vlck and En Wn, th latt o whom was amosly ppattc n hs sach ntsts and wold tho nd lttl to commnd a topcally dvdd APS. 20. Kal Daow, ltt to Fdck Stz, May 16, 1944, CRS, old 1. 21. Fdck Stz, ltt to Kal Daow, May 25, 1944, CRS, old 1. Th appant mallablty o Stz’s convctons and hs adptnss at navatn th comptn ntsts nvolvd cas addtonal sncanc n lht o hs sbsqnt wok on bhal o copoat ntsts n th ac o th scntc consnsss on th dans o tobacco and anthoponc clmat chan. S Osks and Conway, Merchants o Doubt . 22. Daow, ltt to Stz, May 16, 1944. 23. Fdck Stz, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, May 25, 1944, CRS, old 1. 24. Léon Bllon, ltt to Sal Dshman, Janay 25, 1944, CRS, old 1. Bllon sktd th smla ss that wold lat do sold stat physcs, namly that th bod btwn solds and oth stats o matt cold b smlaly zzy. zzy. 25. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Sdny Sl, Dcmb 17, 17, 1943, CRS, old 1. 26. Gaylod P. Hanwll, ltt to Ghad D, Sptmb 20, 1939, GPHP, box 6, old 2. Fancs Btt, a physcst hd by MIT’s Dpatmnt o o Mnn and Mtally n th md-1930s who took stps to bnd th ld to a physcst’s noton o o, o, povds anoth xampl o th poston and aspatons o mtally n th lat 1930s. By th aly 1960s, th stdy o mtals had lost ts lst n th ac ac o “a own tnd thohot th wold towads th nd tatmnt o th scnc o mtallc and non-mtallc matals.” “Fndn a Fom,” 361. 27. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Industrial Research Laboratories, 7th d. (1946), 34. Th nclson o “sold stat physcs” was nw n th 1946 pot, havn bn absnt om 6th dton o 1938. 28. Labs lstn sold stat physcs n 1950 ncld, n addton to Bll: th Fankln Insttt o th Stat o Pnnsylvana; th Mlwak Gas Spcalty Company; Phlps
NOTES TO PAGES 64–69
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Laboatos, Inc. o Hdson, NY; NY; Wstnhos Wstnhos Elctc Copoaton (“sold stat lctoncs”), and Cal A. Zap’s Laboatoy, o Baltmo, MD. Natonal Rsach Concl, Industrial Research Laboratories, 9th d. (1950). Inomaton o 1956 and 1960 n Natonal Rsach Concl, Industrial Research Laboratories, 10th d. (1956) and 11th d. (1960). 29. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Fdck Stz, May 30, 1944, CRS, old 1. 30. Fdck Stz, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Jn 14, 1944, CRS, old 1. 31. Kal Daow Daow,, “Mmoandm o a Convsaton wth R. Smolchowsk—Jn 16, 1944,” CRS, old 1. Daow ndcatd n th mmo that h had wth hm a copy o Stz’s Jn 14 ltt to Smolchowsk, solvn th qston o whth o not Smolchowsk had an oppotnty to ad t bo talkn th matt ov wth Daow. Daow. 32. Kal Daow, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Jn 28, 1944, CRS, old 1. 33. Dshman t al., “Physcs o th Sold Stat.” 34. Dshman t al. , , “Physcs o th th Sold Stat,” 791. 35. John Van Vlck, ltt to Fdck Stz, Sptmb 9, 1944, CRS, old 1. 36. In 1944, Journal o Applied Physics pblshd an appoxmatly qal nmb o atcls om physcsts n ndsty and acadma. Ths two ops toth accontd o abot 40 pcnt o contbtons ach, wth th mand comn om th ovnmnt scto—mostly concntatd n an ss ddcatd to naval sach—alon wth two atcls om Sovt sachs. In contast, dn th sam ya th Physical Review, by thn consdd th ashp jonal o Amcan physcs, p hyscs, pblshd hty-nn atcls, sx o whch, lss than 7 pcnt, cam om ndstal physcsts. Unvstyalatd physcsts accontd o svnty-nn o th hty-nn Physical Review atcls, o abot 89 pcnt. 37. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to John Van Vlck, Fbay 13, 1945, CRS, old 2. 38. John Van Vlck t al., ltt to Kal Daow, Janay 29, 1945, CRS, old 2. 39. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to John Van Vlck, Mach 15, 1945, CRS, old 2. 40. John Van Vlck, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Mach 21, 1945, CRS, old 2. 41. Fdck Stz, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Mach 30, 1945, CRS, old 2. 42. Stz, ltt to Smolchowsk, Mach 30, 1945. 43. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to Thomas Rad, Sal Dshman, Sdny Sl, Wllam Shockly, and Fdck Stz, Dcmb 13, 1946, CRS, old 4. Th commtt also ncldd Kal Daow, Go Pam, and John T. Tat. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Sptmb 19, 1946, APSM. 44. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Mnnapols, Novmb 30, 1946, APSM. 45. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Novmb 30, 1946. 46. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Washnton, May 2, 1947, APSM. 47. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, May 2, 1947. 48. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, May 2, 1947. 49. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Montal, Jn 20, 1947, APSM. Th Dvson o Hh-Polym Physcs had bn wth th polcy o accptn assocat mmbs who w not mmbs o th APS and who pad ds dctly to th dvson. 50. Roman Smolchowsk, ltt to th Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Sptmb 20, 1946, CRS, old 4.
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51. Kal K. Daow, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Dcmb 4, 1946, CRS, old 4. 52. Kal K. Daow, “Fomaton o a Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs n th Amcan Physcal Socty,” ltt to APS mmbshp, May 1947, CRS, old 4. 53. Daow, “Fomaton o a Dvson.” 54. Wann, “Statstcal Poblm.” 55. Van Vlck, “Svy o th Thoy,” 30. On th hstoy o th xchan concpt, s Cason, “Pcla Noton.” 56. Bozoth and Wllams, “Ect o Small Stsss.” 57. Zn, “Fact Stss o Stl.” 58. Bck, “Catalyss.” 59. Bdman, “Ects o Hh Hydostatc Pss.” 60. Stz, Modern Theory o Solids. Stz acknowldd contbtons om hs physcst w, Elzabth Mashall Stz, that today wold lkly xtnd as a as to mt coathoshp. 61. Kttl, Introduction to Solid State Physics. 62. Hopld, “Whatv Happnd?” 3. 63. Dsslhas, Mldd. 3.42J Thoy o Solds, Cos Nots o Randall R andall M. Rchadson, Fall 1972. Rchadson—who I thank o shan ths nots wth m—jons oths wth whom I hav spokn n calln ths cos as a modl o claty, and on o th hhlhts o th MIT physcs cclm. 64. Dtald acconts o th tanssto’s nvnton and nmnt can b ond n Hoddson, “Dscovy o th Pont-Contact Tanssto,” and Rodan, Hoddson, and Hn, “Invnton o th Tanssto.” 65. Kttl, Introduction to Solid State Physics, v. 66. Ath von Hppl, “Nw Flds o Elctcal Ennn,” AvHP, box 1, old 44. CHAPTER 4. The Publication Problem
Epigraph: Alan T. Watman, ltt to Kal K. Daow, Jly 5, 1955, Concl o th
Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Novmb 25 and 26, 1955, APSM. 1. Th total mmbshp was btwn 230 and a nd 240 n Apl o 1948, accodn to an nomal assay condctd at th tm. Elas Bstn, ltt to Kal Daow, Octob 19, 1956, APSR, sbop sbop 2, box 14, old 11. Th APS as a whol potd a mmbshp o 7,649 n 1948. 2. Exact DSSP mmbshp o 1961 s navalabl, bt th dvson had 670 mmbs n 1958 and 951 by 1963. Th 5 pcnt stmat s basd on 1958 nmbs, th closst dat o whch both DSSP and APS mmbshp data a avalabl: that ya, th DSSP nolld 670 o th Physcal Socty’s 13,844 mmbs. DSSP mmbshp nmbs om: Sstna F. Gco, ltt to Gal Dody, Mach 22, 1963, APSR, sbop 2, box 17, old 10; Kal Daow, ltt to John C. Slat, Fbay 13, 1958, JCSP, old Daow, Kal #3. Amcan Physcal Socty mmbshp s om: Amcan Physcal Socty, “Hstocal Mmbshp Conts, 1899–2016,” accssd Fbay 20, 2017, http://www.aps.o/mmbshp/statstcs/ndx.cm. 3. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn at Oak Rd, Mach 18, 1950, APSM. Th th dvsons w th DSSP, th Dvson o Hh Polym Physcs, and th Dvson o Elcton Physcs, whch had chand ts nam om
NOTES TO PAGES 77–85
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“Elcton and Ion Optcs” n 1948. To ths day, th APS holds two majo annal mtns. Th Mach mtn s domnatd by sold stat–styl sach, and th Apl mtn by hh ny, ncla, and astophyscs. 4. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn at Washnton, Apl 29, 1953, APSM. Van Van Vlck, at ths pont, was th past psdnt o th APS. Ioncally, vn hs nsvd advocacy o basc sach, h had bn mad Dan o Ennn and Appld Physcs at Havad n 1951. In 1960 h wold bcom cha o th DSSP xctv commtt. 5. Fdck Stz, ltt to Elas Bstn, Janay 6, 1961, JHVVP, box 35, old Amcan Physcal Socty. 6. Kal Daow, Daow, ltt to th Mmbs o th Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Janay 18, 1960, APSM. 7. Stz, ltt to Bstn, Janay 6, 1961. 8. Elas Bstn, ltt to DSSP Mmbshp, ndatd 1956, JCSP, old Bstn, E. 9. A smla staty was psd, wth mo sccss, n Eop wh Physica Status Solidi was st pblshd n 1961. Fo a smmay o ths jonal’s ol n th stablshmnt o Eopan sold stat physcs, and spcally as a mchansm o scntc xchan btwn East and Wst dn th Cold Wa, s Homann, “Fty Yas o Physica Status Solidi .” 10. Data collctd om th onln Physical Review achv at http://pola.aps.o/. Th cont nclds only ll atcls, omttn ltts, mno contbtons, ata, and dtoal nots. 11. S Kas, “Cold Wa Rqstons,” on th boom n physcs PhD podcton. S Foman, “Bhnd Qantm Elctoncs,” Elctoncs,” on postwa ndn pattns. 12. Baton, “Insttt Dons,” 4. 13. Gaylod P. Hanwll, ltt to Fdck Stz, Sptmb 29, 1950, PTDR, box 3, old S. 14. Katch, “Edtoal,” 3. 15. Wn, “ Physics Today Today.” 16. Th atcls ncd a, spctvly: Sl and Snnott, “El Cto Cycloton”; Gamow, “Ralty o Ntnos”; Tsza, “Hlm”; Solomon, “Physcs and Canc”; Jnson, “Ptals”; Pa, “On o th Eath”; Isln, “Down to th Sa.” Sa.” 17. Gamow, “Any Physcs Tomoow?” 18. 18. Raymond, “Ltt to th Edto,” 5. 19. Hh-mndd spclaton was bcomn common n ctan smnts o th physcs commnty by th mddl o th cnty. Fo an accont that placs thm n th contxt o a lon tadton o sch and thozn, s Kah, Higher Speculations. 20. Go R. Hason, ltt to Gaylod P. Hanwll, Janay 20, 1950, GPHP, box 2, old 22. 21. Sam Godsmt, ltt to Gaylod P. Hanwll, Jn 29, 1950, GPHP, box 2, old 22. 22. John H. Van Vlck, ltt to Gaylod P. Hanwll, Jn 27, 1950, GPHP, box 2, old 22. 23. Robnson, “Challn o Indstal Physcs,” 5. 24. Bsh, “Tnds n Amcan Scnc,” 7. 25. Fdck Stz, ltt to Wllam Shockly, Fbay 28, 1945, WSP, box 1, Shockly Cospondnc, Jly 25, 1939–Mach 30, 1948, Volm I.
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26. Stz, ltt to Shockly, Fbay 28, 1945. 27. “On o Rada R ada Contmass (Roh Dat), Da t),”” RRLR, box 4, old Admnstatv Rpot Accmlaton. 28. S Foman, “‘Swods nto Plohshas.’” 29. Hny A. Baton, “Amcan Insttt o Physcs, Dcto’s Rpot o 1954,” Mach 12, 1955, FSP, box 1, old AIP Cospondnc #1. Ths nmbs ndcat not only that mo popl tand as physcsts w takn jobs n ndsty, bt also that th dnton o “physcst” had boadnd to ncld scntsts who mht hav bn othws classd n th 1930s o aly 1940s. 30. Stz, On the Frontier , 67. Ths ancdot s also contd n Shkn, Broken Genius, 30–31. 31. Fo a dtald contn o Van Vlck’s physcal and concptal pnatons, s Fllows, “J. H. Van Vlck.” 32. Wn, Recollections, 171–79. 33. Stz, On the Frontier , 58–59. Stz was Wn’s st Amcan adat stdnt. Hs scond and thd w John Badn and Conys Hn. Badn wold o on to wn two Nobl Pzs o hs sold stat wok and Hn wold ond th nntal thotcal sold stat physcs dvson o Bll Labs. 34. S: Assms, “Amcanzaton o Molcla Physcs, Physcs,”” sp. 22; Dncan and Janssn, “On th V”; Schwb, “Yon John Clak Slat”; and Gavol and Smõs, “Th Amcans, th Gmans, and th Bnnns. Bnnns.”” 35. Rosnld, “Mn and Idas,” 77. 36. John Van Vlck, ltt to John Slat, Novmb 17, 1971, JHVVP, box 28, old 615. 37. Slat, “Qantm Physcs n Amca.” 38. Th dstnctv sond o th Hnaan accnt, combnd wth th ptnatal ablty ths mn showd n scnc and mathmatcs, ld to th ncknam. Hatta, Martians o Science. 39. Tanscpt o talk nttld “My L as a Physcst,” EPWP, box 13, old 3. 40. Wn, “On th Mass Dct o Hlm.” 41. Slat, ntvw by Khn and Van Vlck. Nvthlss, Slat dd pblsh a ollow-p to th BKS pap whn h tnd to th Untd Stats: Slat, “Qantm Thoy o Optcal Phnomna.” Dncan and Janssn sst that, dspt hs constnaton wth hs collaboatos n Copnhan, Slat contnd to dnd BKS wll at Boh had snd hmsl to th alty o lht qanta. Dncan and Janssn, “On th V.” Slat’s sbsqnt wok on sold stat and molcla physcs, howv, whch consstd mostly o condctn ab nto calclatons wth possvly mo powl dtal compts, s consstnt wth hs sl-potd dsdan o ondatonal spclaton, whch was vdntly nocd by hs xpnc aboad. Fo an ovvw o th Compton ct, s Stw, Compton Eect . 42. Slat, ntvw by Khn and Van Vlck. 43. Wn and Stz, “On th Consttton o Mtallc Sodm. Sodm.”” 44. Mo dtald dscsson o th dvlopmnt o th lcton thoy o mtals can b ond n: Hoddson and Baym, “Dvlopmnt o th . . . Thoy o Mtals”; Eckt, “Popaanda n Scnc”; and Joas and Katz, “Analoy, Extnson, and Novlty.” 45. Th Wn–Stz mthod bns wth th lattc stct o a mtal and dns a cll by bsctn th lns btwn any vn lattc pont and ts nast nhbo. Th
NOTES TO PAGES 90–93
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ponts nsd th polyhdon dnd n ths way a clos to that lattc pont than any oth and a st o ths polyhdons packs to ll th nt lattc. Fo solds wth hhly symmtcal lattc stcts, ach o ths clls may b appoxmatd by a sph, allown Schödn’s qaton o o a sold to b solvd latvly smply. smply. Sch clls, ndd n cpocal spac, psst nd th amla monk “Bllon zons,” as a nod to hs ondatonal wok, Bllon, Bll on, Die Quantenstatistik . S also Hoch, “Dvlopmnt o th Band Thoy, Thoy,” whch also contans a mo dtald xposton o th tchncal ats o th Wn–Stz mthod. 46. Stz, Modern Theory o Solids . 47. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Janay 29, 1948, APSM. 48. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Washnton, Apl 29, 1953, APSM. 49. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Washnton, Apl 27, 1955, APSM. A dscsson o th conomcs o physcs pblshn n ths a, wth an mphass on pa chas, can b ond n Schdn, “Payn o Knowld.” 50. Baton, “Dcto’s Rpot o 1954.” 51. Fdck Stz, ltt to Hny A. Baton, Novmb 3, 1954, FSP, box 1, old AIP Cospondnc #1. 52. Alan T. Watman, ltt to Kal K. Daow, Jly 5, 1955, APSM. 53. Th dstbton lst o th ltt s not avalabl, bt th commtt poposd contactn “ladn sold stat physcsts and chmcal physcsts,” namn as psntatv o ths op: “[LRoy] Akp, [John] Badn, [Havy] Books, [Conys] Hn, [Chals] Kttl, [Andw W.] Lawson, [Hmboldt] Lvnz, [Godon] McKay, [Fdck] Stz, [Wllam] Shockly, [ John C.] Slat Slat,, Smth, C. S. [Cyl Stanly], [Ath H.] Snll, [John] Van Vlck, [En] Wn.” “Rcommndatons o th AIP-APS Commtt on Jont Pblcaton Poblms wth Rad to th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP,, box 1, old AIP Cospondnc #1. FSP 54. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Novmb 25 and 26, 1949, 1949 , APSM. 55. Th Journal o Chemical Physics was pdomnantly a chmcal jonal dspt ts mmbshp n th AIP amly o pblcatons. O th paps t pblshd, 65 pcnt onatd n chmsty dpatmnts. “Rcommndatons o th AIP-APS Commtt on Jont Pblcaton Poblms wth Rad to th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs, P hyscs,”” FSP, FSP, box 1, old AIP Cospondnc #1. 56. An llstaton: n 1967 Robt Pa, thn basd at Johns Hopkns, who was dply nvolvd nvolv d wth pomotn chmcal physcs n both th Amcan Physcal P hyscal Socty and th Amcan Chmcal Socty (ACS), obsvd: “Inspcton o th pas o th Journal o Chemical Physics shows that som chmcal physcsts a possonal chmsts, som a possonal physcsts. (Fo xampl, thty-two o th paps n th Apl 1, 1967, ss o Journal o Chemical Physics a by athos claly dntabl as chmsts, nn by athos claly dntabl as physcsts and twnty-nn by athos not claly dntabl as on o th oth.) Th sbjct s tly ntdscplnay, althoh mo chmsts o nto t than do physcsts. physcsts.”” Oal Rpot to th Physcal Scncs Gop on May 19, 1967, RGPP, box 131, old Chmcal Physcs poam. By 1967, appoxmatly 40 pcnt o th mmbs o th ACS’s Dvson o Physcal Chmsty w also mmbs o th
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APS. Hbt S. Gtowsky, ltt to ACS mmbshp, Octob 11, 1967, AIPK, old 64:24. 57. Fdck Stz, ltt to slct sold stat and chmcal physcsts, Jn 1, 1955, FSP, box 1, old AIP—Cospondnc #1. 58. Th twnty-two sponss psvd n th Stz paps bak down as ollows: o th sold stat physcsts spondn, thtn opposd th poposal, two avod t, and th potd no ston opnon. All th chmcal physcsts spondn w n avo. On addtonal avoabl vot cam om a sl-dntd “oth.” Th nal tally o ths pots: sx n avo avo,, thtn opposd, th wth no ston opnon. 59. Havy Books, ltt to Fdck Stz, Jn 23, 1955, FSP, box 2, old AIP— Roanzaton o Jonals. 60. Wllam Shockly, compltd svy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” cvd Jn 16, 1955, FSP, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. 61. Go E. Pak, compltd svy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP, FSP, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. Pak’s sstanc to th tm “sold stat” s notabl. Pak’s sach and dcaton w psntatv o sl-dntd sold stat physcsts at th tm; h had takn a PhD at Havad wth Edwad Mlls Pcll and pblshd xtnsvly on ncla mantc sonanc and paamantsm. Hs avodanc o th tm, and hs s o an ncommon altnatv, “stct “stct o matt physcs,” ct dscomot wth “sold stat” amon potons o th commnty. 62. Walt Walt Kohn, compltd svy: s vy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP FSP,, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. 63. Mody, Instrumental Community. 64. It s tho a lovly ony that Kohn wold wn th 1998 Nobl Pz n Chmsty,, whch h shad wth John Popl. Kohn was ctd o hs ol n dvlopn dnsty sty nctonal thoy (DFT), whch had boad lvanc o both sold stat and chmcal poblms. On Kohn and DFT, s Zanwll, “Edcaton o Walt Kohn” and “Hat and Thomas.” Thomas.” On th mpotanc o nstmntal pactc o aly ncla mantc sonanc sachs, s Lno and Lécy, “Instmnt Maks.” 65. Hllad B. Hntnton, compltd svy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. 66. Conys Hn, compltd svy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. 67. Shly L. Qmby, compltd svy: “Opnon o th Rcommndatons Concnn th Jonal o Chmcal Physcs,” FSP, box 2, old AIP—Roanzaton o Jonals. 68. Wat, Wat, “Sold “ Sold Commn Commnty ty,,” 652. 69. S Gavol and Smõs, Neither Physics nor Chemistry. 70. Havy Books, “Mmoandm Concnn th Scop and Ams o th Intnatonal Jonal o th Physcs and Chmsty o Solds,” Fbay 1956, FSP, box 11, old Havy Books. 71. Books, Book s, “Fowod,” “Fowod,” 1. 72. Havy Books, ltt to Fdck Stz, Novmb 15, 1955, FSP, box 11, old Havy Books.
NOTES TO PAGES 98–107
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73. Fdck Stz, ltt to Havy Books, Novmb 19, 1955, FSP, box 11, old Havy Books. 74. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Pat o Plmnay Anda o Janay 29, 1957, APSM. Th statsman n qston was Psdnt Gov Clvland. Sa, “Pnmba o Dstd.” 75. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Janay 26, 1960, APSM. 76. Scton A was dvotd to atomc, molcla, and optcal physcs, C to ncla physcs, and D to patcl and astophyscs. CHAPTER 5. Big Solid State Physics at the National Magnet Laboratory
Epigraph: Bnjamn Lax, ltt to Lland Hawoth, May May 10, 1967, NMLR.
1. Rsh, “US “U S Nton Nt on Faclty Facl ty..” 2. Cas, “Natonal Synchoton Lht Soc.” 3. Cas and Wstall, “Nw B Scnc.” 4. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Novmb 25 and 26, 1955, APSM. Ths Ths conncs contn thoh to th psnt. 5. Fo an ovvw o how b scnc has bn sd as a hstooaphcal catoy, s Capshw and Rad, “B Scnc.” Scnc.” Th lmtatons o th b scnc s cnc amwok a xplod n Wstall, “Rthnkn B Scnc.” 6. As o 1969, th AEC accontd o pwad o 90 pcnt o ndn o US hh ny physcs, wth contbtons to th tn o 6 pcnt om th NSF and abot 1 pcnt om both th DOD and NASA. AEC Authorizing Legislation, Fiscal Year Year 1970: Hearings Beore the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 91st Con. 86 (Apl 17 and 18, 1969). 7. Btt, Magnets, 55. Snc Abaham’s txtbook was not avalabl n Enlsh Enls h tanslaton at th tm, Btt most lkly s to th 1923 Gman dton: Abaham and Föppl, Theorie der Elektrizität . Th Enlsh tanslaton appad n 1937 as Abaham, Classical Theory. 8. Btt njoyd xcllnt placmnt and btt tmn. Caltch was a ladn st o cosmc ay sach n th lat 1920s whl Btt was a postdoc th. Hs stnt at Wstnhos ovlappd wth on o th lab’s most podctv pods o manton sach, whch d dctly nto ada wok dn th Scond Wold Wa. Btt also avd at th Cavndsh mmdatly at Chadwck’s dscovy o th nton and th accompanyn boom n atomc ato mc thoy. thoy. S: X and Bown, “Ealy Hstoy o Cosmc Ray Neutron on and the Bomb. FomaRsach”; Stphan, “Expts at Play”; and Bown, Neutr ntsm sach n th 1930s was patclaly lvly, and pontd to qstons o ondatonal mpotanc o th sbsqnt dvlopmnt o sold stat physcs. S Kth and Qédc, “Mantsm.” 9. Fancs Btt, “Abstact o th Psnt Stat and Possbl Dvlopmnts n Physcal Mtally,” ca. 1939, FBP, box 5, old MIT Mant Lab. 10. Btt, “Abstact o th Psnt Stat.” 11. Btt, “Abstact o th Psnt Stat.” Th appllaton “ndamntal” was commonly mployd pmssvly aond ths tm. Btt was n accodanc wth th accptd sa by sstn that scncs oth than physcs cold b ndamntal. Fdck Stz, wtn jst a w yas lat, dntd “ndamntal” wth “p” sach, dnn t as that “whch has ntnsc val as a om o clt.” H th mod lmnts o Btt’s dnton by sstn that “physcs svs as a soc o ndamn-
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tal knowld o a majoty o th most mpotant lds o nnn. nnn.”” Stz, “Whth Amcan Physcs?” 40. Vannva Vannva Bsh askd htocally n th naal ss o Physics Today, “Who wold hav xpctd, lookn owad om, say, 1939, to nd th Untd Stats Navy voosly thn a poam n ndamntal scnc, ncldn ncloncs, ntcs, and mathmatcs?” Bsh, “Tnds n Amcan Scnc,” 6. Clak, “P Scnc,” dmonstats that “ndamntal sach” took on a an o manns n th st hal o th twntth cnty that dd not oby th basc/appld dstncton. Fo th dscsson, s Matn, “Fndamntal Dsptatons.” Dsptatons.” 12. “Poposal o a Hh Fld Mant Laboatoy,” Sptmb 8, 1958, NMLR, box 1, old 55. 13. Btt took a lav o absnc om MIT to wok on dassn naval shps dn th Scond Wold Wold Wa Wa.. Dn ths tm, hs mtallcal mantsm laboatoy was dsmantld and ts socs dstbtd to wa wok. On hs tn to MIT at th nd o th wa, both h and th admnstaton thoht t mo appopat to assmbl th mantsm poam nd th aspcs o th physcs dpatmnt. 14. Fancs Btt, “Ddcaton o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy,” Apl 30, 1963, FBP, box 5, old NML Ddcaton Nots. 15. Th xtnt to whch t was possbl n pactc o an nstallaton sch as th NML to b tly dvotd to basc sach whl opatn on mltay ndn s a matt o som dbat. S: Foman, “Bhnd Qantm Elctoncs”; Lsl, Cold War ; Bomb, “Dvc Physcs”; and Wlson, “Consltants.” “Consltants.” Foman Foman and Lsl a that mltay ntst dvtd—o at last nclnd—Cold Wa sold stat sach away om ndamntal wok. In contast, Bomb and Wlson a that appld mltay sach coxstd, and ndd ntactd constctvly constctvly,, wth ndamntal thotcal wok. I do not tak a poston on ths dbat h. Thoh I am sympathtc to th cas Bomb and Wlson advanc, t s noh h that a ds to ps basc sach manstd tsl n th laboatoy’s oals and opatons. 16. Natonal Mant Laboatoy pomotonal boch, 1963, FBP, box 5, old NML Ddcaton Nots. 17. “Vstn Scntsts and Stdnts,” 1965, NMLR, box 2, old 17. 18. John C. Slat, ltt to Jls A. Statton, Ast 8, 1958, FBP box 3, old Hh Fld Mant Faclty, No. 1 o 3. 19. “Th Natonal Mant Laboatoy and th Tchnoloy o th Ft,” Fbay 20, 1963, NMLR, box 3. 20. Bnjamn Bnjam n Lax to Roman Smolchowsk, Smolchows k, Mach 10, 1965, NMLR, box 3, old 25. 21. “NML Pblcatons Rcod,” Dcmb 31, 1965, NMLR, box 2, 17. Fom 1963 to 1965, sta ncasd om thty-two to thty-ht. 22. Th mand w spad ov th Journal o Applied Physics (8), Review o Scientic Instruments (4), Applied Physics Letters (2), and on ach n th Journal o Chemical Physics, Journal o Mathematical Physics, Physics o Fluids, and Physics Today. 23. Bnjamn Lax, ltt to Roman Smolchowsk, Mach 10, 1965, JCSP, old Natonal Acadmy o Scnc-Natonal Rsach Concl, Sold Stat Scncs Panl. 24. Bnjamn Lax, ltt to Go H. Vnyad, Mach 17, 1967, NMLR, box 2, old 18. 25. Lloyd A. Wood, ltt to Bnjamn Lax, Apl 19, 1967, NMLR, box 2, old 18. 26. Lax, ltt to Vnyad, Mach 17, 1967. 27. Lax, ltt to th Sbcommtt on Scnc, Rsach and Dvlopmnt o th
NOTES TO PAGES 111–119
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Commtt on Scnc and a nd Astonatcs, Mach 5, 1971, NMLR, box box 2, old 4. Lax dd s “copln” lana h, bt was cal to wt that th slts o basc sach cold b copld wth appld qstons, ath than wth th plannn, xcton, o ndn o th sach. 28. “Rpot o th Advsoy Commtt o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy,” Fbay 1966, NMLR, box 2, old 17. 29. “Rpot o th Advsoy Commtt o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy,” Apl 1967, NMLR, box 2, old 18. 30. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 89. 31. Bnjamn Lax, ltt to Ncolaas Blombn, May 10, 1967, NMLR, box 2, old 18. In 1967 th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs had 1,193 mmbs, compad to 762 n th Dvson o Ncla Physcs, th nxt-last dvson. Th Dvson o Patcls and Flds hld ts naal mtn n Janay 1968 wth a chat mmbshp o 551. W. V. Smth to Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs Mmbs, Janay 6, 1967, JCSP, old Amcan Phlosophcal Socty, #5; “Pocdns o th Amcan Physcal Socty Mtn #425, #425,”” 1967, APSM; M. Davs to Chamn and Sctay-Tass Sctay-Tass o APS Dvsons, Fbay 15, 1968, APSR, sbop 2, box 17, old 10. 32. Lax, ltt to Hawoth, May 10, 1967. 33. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 106–7. 34. “Pblcatons o th Fancs Btt Natonal Laboatoy n 1968,” NMLR, box 2, old 20. In 1965, by contast, th nmb o pblcatons n th latt two jonals mo than dobld thos n th om. 35. “Mtn o th Advsoy Commtt,” Apl 1969, NMLR, box 2, old 20. 36. Hny Kolm, ltt to Bnjamn Lax, Jn 2, 1973, NMLR, box 2, old 32. Th bad blood btwn th two psstd, to th xtnt that Kolm was movd to pant a dply nattn potat o Lax on hs atoboaphcal wbst. “MIT Mant Lab (1961–1982), (1961–1982),”” accssd May 24, 2015, http://hnykolm.wbly.com/mt-mantc http://hnykolm.wbly.com/mt-mantc -lab-1961–82.html. Th pa s now down, bt can b vwd at https://wb.achv.o /wb/20161103214555/http://hnykolm.wbly /wb/20161103214555/http://hnykolm.w bly.com/mt-mantc-lab-1961–82.html. .com/mt-mantc-lab-1961–82.html. 37. S Kvls, Physicists, sp. 420–21, and Asn, “Lna Modl.” 38. Stanord Accelerator Power Supply: Hearing Beore the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 88th Con. 23 (Janay 29, 1964) (statmnt o D. W. K. H. Panosky, Dcto, Stanod Lna Acclato Cnt). 39. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 113. 40. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 118. 41. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 111–12. 42. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 116. 43. AEC Authorizing Legislation, 115. 44. Stvns, “Fndamntal Physcs,” 175. CHAPTER 6. Solid State and Materials Science
Epigraph: Ath von Hppl, txt o a lct vn at Bown Unvsty, Jly 20,
1969, AvHP, box 5. 1. “Ptton to th Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty to Rqst th Fomaton o a Nw Dvson on th Poblms o Physcs and Socty Socty,,” Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Fbay 5, 1969, APSM. Th commtt was onally poposd as a dvson, bt th concl dmd that ts
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NOTES TO PAGES 120–128
scop was too boad and that a dvson wold lmt patcpaton. It nstad commndd a commtt and appovd a mas that wold allow APS mmbshp mmbsh p ds to pay o commtt mmbs’ tavl to lvant mtns. Th commtt was a pcso to th Fom on Physcs and Socty, th hstoy o whch s addssd n mo dtal n Bd, Scientists at War . 2. Albt M. Closton, “Th Amcan Physcal Socty and th Economc Concns o Amcan Physcsts, Physcsts,”” Mach 10, 1970, n Amcan Physcal Socty Concl, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Washnton, DC, Apl 26, 1970, APSM. 3. Shwn and Isnson, First Interim Report , 13. 4. Fo Fo dtald tatmnts, s Bnsad-Vncnt, “Constcton o a Dscpln” and “Concpt o Matals. Matals.”” 5. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Report, 1953–54, 60. 6. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Report, 1957–58, 46. 7. Matals Advsoy Boad, “Standn Rvw o Dpatmnt o Dns Matals Rsach and Dvlopmnt Poam, Poam,”” FSP, FSP, box 1, old A A Rsach and Dvlopmnt Command, 1952–61 #1. 8. Matals Advsoy Boad, “Standn Rvw.” 9. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, More Eective Organization, ontmatt. Organization, v. 10. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, More Eective Organization 11. Van Vlack, Elements o Materials Science, v. 12. Th ancy was snsodally othht abot ts mphass on mltay sach; ts nam vacllatd btwn ARPA and DARPA (Dns Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy). To avod conson, I to t as ARPA thohot. It was ondd as ARPA n 1958, chand ts nam to DARPA DARPA n 1972, doppd th “D” n 1993, 19 93, and stod t n 1996. 13. “Intdscplnay Laboatos o Basc Rsach n Matals Scncs,” JCSP, old MIT. Dpt. o Physcs #39. 14. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Advancing Materials Research, 36. 15. Mody and Cho, “Fom Matals Scnc to Nanotchnoloy.” 16. S Schwb, “Empcst Tmp,” on th Amcan styl o thoy that w laly om th school Kmbl stablshd. 17. Dsslhas, ntvw by Matn, and 3.42J Thoy o Solds, Cos Nots o Randall M. Rchadson, Fall 1972. 18. John C. Slat, ltt to John Kncad, May 6, 1959, JCSP, old Kncad, John F. #1. 19. “Th Intdscplnay Nat o M.I.T. Rsach,” JCSP, old Poposal o a Matals Cnt at M.I.T., 1960. 20. Ath von Hppl, who stablshd th Laboatoy o Inslaton Rsach, calld choosn an absts nam as “a camoa tck . . . to avod stppn on snstv tos by ncoachn on th ntnchd ntsts o physcsts, chmsts, and mtallsts n th matals ld.” Ath von Hppl, ntvw by Z. Malk, Sptmb 1969, AvHP, box 1, old 16. 21. Slat, ltt to Kncad, May 6, 1959. 22. John C. Slat, nttld mmoandm, JCSP, old M.I.T. Dpt. o Physcs #10. 23. Ath von Hppl, “Nw Flds o Elctcal Ennn,” AvHP, box 1, old 44. Ths was a pc von Hppl ppad o th Apl 1942 dton o The Tech Engineering News, a podcal pblshd by MIT ndadats.
NOTES TO PAGES 128–000
231
24. “Poposal o an Expandd Poam o Matals Rsach at th Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy, Jly 12, 1956,” JCSP, old MIT Matals Rsach #1. Th AEC mad a smla psh wthn th natonal laboatos, as dscssd n Wstwck, Wstwck, National Labs, 257–58. 25. “Matals Rsach Poam (ca. 1956),” JCSP, old MIT. Matals Rsach #1. 26. Slat, ltt to Kncad, May 6, 1959. 27. John C. Slat, ltt to John Kncad, Apl 30, 1959, JCSP, old Kncad, John F. #1. 28. John C. Slat, “On th MIT Matals Cnt,” ca. 1960, JCSP, old Slat, J. C. On th MIT Matals Cnt. 29. Knowls and Lsl, “‘Indstal Vsalls,’” a that th campss at ndstal laboatos sch as Bll, Gnal Motos, and IBM mmckd what th achtct Eo Saann spposd to b th nvsty modl o oanzn sach, namly a lna modl, n whch basc sach pcdd ndstal applcatons. Th htoc aond MIT’s IDL vals smla oals by sstn that placn basc sach n physcs and chmsty alonsd matals matal s nnn lds wold hlp to advanc ARPA’s ARPA’s tchncal ams. 30. ARPA, “Admnstatv Mmo #1,” Jly 20, 1962, JCSP, old MIT. Dpt. o Physcs #138. 31. Wa, Solid State Science, x. 32. Th alst s I hav ond s om 1979, whn th compt scntst Gald Wnb attbtd th qp to mathmatcan Fank Haay. Wnb, Introduction to General Systems Thinking , 25. 33. Mlvn Calvn, ltt to Phlp Handl, Dcmb 1975, n COSMAT, Materials and Man’s Needs: Summary Report , v. v. 34. Smth, “Matt vss Matals.” 35. COSMAT, Materials and Man’s Needs, 2:307. 36. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Novmb 25 and 26, 1949, 1949 , APSM. 37. Amcan Physcal Socty Exctv Commtt, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Flat Rock, NC, Jn 18–20, 1990, APSM. 38. “Statmnt o th Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty,” Apl 28, 1970, n Amcan Physcal Socty Concl, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Washnton, DC, Apl 26, 1970, APSM. 39. Th chat socts ncldd th Amcan Camc Socty, th Amcan Chmcal Socty, th Amcan Insttt o Chmcal Enns, th Amcan Socty o Mtals, th Amcan Socty o Non-Dstctv Tstn, th Insttt o Elctcal and Elctonc Enns, th Socty o Manactn Enns, th Socty o Plastcs Enns, th Amcan Socty o Mchancal Enns, and th Mtallcal Socty o AIME. Th APS wold vntally jon th daton daton n 1995. 40. Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Chcao, Fbay 3, 1974, APSM. 41. “APS “APS Ad Hoc Commtt on Appld Physcs, Physcs,”” n Concl o th Amcan Physcal Socty, Mnts o th Mtn Hld at Nw Yok, Octob 25, 1974, APSM. 42. COSMAT, Materials and Man’s Needs: Summary Report , 140. 43. Gonwn and Pts, “Emnc and Chan.”
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NOTES TO PAGES 136–143
CHAPTER 7. Responses to the Reductionist Worldview
Epigraph: Yan t al., “Hh-Eny Physcs,” 52–53. 1. Stanord Accelerator Power Supply: Hearing Beore the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 88th Con. 23 (Janay 29, 1964) (statmnt o D. W. K. H Panosky, Dcto,
Stanod Lna Acclato Cnt). 2. Lvnston, P Particle article Physics, 6–7. Fo Fo dtald hstocal backond, s Hlbon and Sdl, Lawrence and His Laboratory. 3. Thoh th 1960s and 1970s, th Untd Stats and th Sovt Unon, n a mcocosm o th ams ac and th spac ac, comptd to bld hh-ny acclatos, povdn an addtonal ncntv o th US patcl physcs commnty to ps th ny ont ov th ntnsty ont ont.. S also Sdl, “Acclatn “Acclatn Scnc.” Scnc.” 4. S Stvns, “Fndamntal Physcs.” 5. Boy, University o Chicago, sp. ch. 4. 6. Wnb, First Nuclear Era, 3. 7. Wnb, “Cta o Scntc Choc,” Minerva; Wnb, “Cta o Scntc Choc,” Physics Today, 45. Today, 45. 8. Wnb, “Cta o Scntc Choc,” Physics Today 9. Wnb, “Cta o Scntc Choc,” Physics Today Today, 47. 10. Yan t al., “Hh-Eny Physcs,” 52, 57. 11. Yan t al., “Hh-Eny Physcs,” 55. 12. Wsskop and Wnb, “Two Opn Ltts,” 47. Th qak modl was poposd by May Gll-Mann and Go Zw n 1964 bt dd not an xpmntal tacton ntl 1967, so Wsskop’s dntcaton o nclons as th bass o all matt s, n contnt and htoc, qvalnt to lat clams o th sam stats o th standad modl and ts mand sccssos. 13. Wsskop, “Ncla Stct,” 24. 14. Th assmpton that nal pncpls a wokd ot n on alm bo bn appld n anoth s also pomnnt wthn th hstoy o physcs. It has contbtd to th mpsson that sold stat physcs was a ld dvotd to m applcatons o mo ndamntal wok. Ths assmpton s challnd n Jams and Joas, “Sbsqnt and Sbsday?” Jams and Joas a that so-calld applcatons o aly qantm mchancs mad many ssntal contbtons to th ondatons o th thoy. thoy. 15. Hoddson, “Roots o Sold-Stat Rsach,” dscbs th pocss by whch a basc sach thos took oot at Bll Labs and choncls how th stablshmnt o sold stat sach n ths contxt ld to th lassz-a appoach dstnctv to th majo Amcan ndstal laboatos o th tm. 16. Stan Machlp, ltt to Wllam Shockly, May 30, 1955, WSP, box 2, old Cospondnc 1954 and 1955. 17. On th ol o th tanssto and ntatd cct n shapn th Amcan sach landscap, s Mody, Long Arm o Moore’s Law. 18. Nmbs obtand by sachn o ach nsttton’s ll nam, n qots, wthn th “Alaton” ld n th APS jonals databas at https://jonals.aps.o/sach, accssd Dcmb 21, 2017. 19. Andson, ntvw by Kojvnkov. 20. “Th Nobl Pz n Physcs 1977,” Noblpz.o, accssd Janay 7, 2011, http://www.noblpz.o/nobl_pzs/physcs/laats/1977/.
NOTES TO PAGES 143–151
233
21. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt—On Mo Tm.” 22. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, “Mmbs,” accssd Janay 4, 2018, http:// www.nasonln.o/mmb-dctoy/?=http://nas.nasonln.o/st/D /1742171349?p=sch&vw=basc. Data takn om both cnt and dcasd mmb olls. Th Natonal Acadmy o Scncs databas dos not ndcat dcasd mmbs’ sctons. Thy w contd only only thy cold b dntd as a s nambos xampls o sold stat, ncla, o patcl physcsts. 23. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt,” 393. Perspective spective, 129, 453. Tabls I.6 and 24. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics in Per IV.1 o ths pot show $211.7 mllon n total xpndt o patcl physcs vss $56 mllon o basc condnsd matt sach. 25. Unttld docmnt, APSR, sbop 2, box 17, old 10. Data takn om nmbs collctd ollown a 1968 mmbshp dv. 26. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt,” 393. 27. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt,” 393. 28. Godon, Z, and Towns, “Mas.” 29. S Robts, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, 74–76. 30. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt,” 394. 31. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt,” 396. Ths amnt has paallls amla to phlosophs o boloy; t s a common antdctonst amnt that bolocal pocsss do not mak sns n tms o ns alon, and that nc to th oansmal lvl, at last, s qd to xplan phnomna sch as dntal tnss. Ths poston s asttly smmazd by th hmost Dolas Adams, who obsvs: “I yo ty to tak a cat apat to s how t woks, th st thn yo hav on yo hands s a nonwokn cat.” cat.” Adams, Salmon o Doubt , 135–36. 32. Andson, “On Mo Tm,” 1. 33. Andson, “On Mo Tm,” 4. S also Schmalan, “Fald Thos o Spcondctvty.” 34. Andson, ntvw by Kojvnkov. 35. Pppad, “Cat and th Cam,” 40–41. 36. Andson, ntvw by Kojvnkov. 37. Cat, “Physcsts’ Dbats on Uncaton,” maks a smla obsvaton whn assssn Andson’s poston n tms o th nty o physcs. Andson, accodn accodn to Cat, saw physcs as mthodolocally (ath than ontolocally) nd. I physcs cold b nd by mthodoloy, ath than by th dcton to a snl st o laws and concpts, thn ndamntal physcal knowld nd not b stctd to th lowst lvl o complxty. 38. Cat’s analyss o Andson’s poston n tms o mthodolocal nty s sl whn consdn th latonshp btwn physcs and oth scncs. By avodn ston clams abot th ltmat nat o alty, Andson shtd th ocs to mthodoloy as a bass by whch physcs cold b at onc ntnally nd and dlnatd om oth scncs. Cat, “Physcsts’ Dbats on o n Uncaton,” 99. 39. Andson, More and Dierent , 135. York Times, Octob 12, 40. “2 Fom U.S. Amon 4 Nobl Scnc Wnns,” New York 1977. 41. Sllvan, “Physcs Pz,” 1. 42. Bown, “Nobl Pzs A Awadd,” 1.
234
NOTES TO PAGES 152–156
CHAPTER 8. Becoming Condensed Matter Physics
Epigraph: Gay, “Nw AIP Handbook,” 41. 1. Gay and Bllns, Bll ns, American Institute o Physics Handbook.
2. Gay, “Nw AIP Handbook,” 41. 3. Pocto, “‘-Loos,’ ‘-Ismos,’ and ‘-Ikos,’” 292. 4. Andson, More and Dierent , 90. 5. Kah, Quantum Generations, 366. Kah has mo cntly mad hs own obsvatons abot th mpotanc o o nams n “Namn th B Ban.” 6. Kohn, “Essay on Condnsd Matt Physcs.” 7. Volk Hn, “Hstoy,” Thoy o Condnsd Matt, Unvsty o Cambd, accssd Dcmb 19, 2017, 201 7, http://www.tcm.phy http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.k/abot/hstoy/. .cam.ac.k/abot/hstoy/. 8. Wat, Wat, “Sold “ Sold Commn Commnty ty,,” 651. 9. Qotd n Chicago Tribune, “Yanks Swp Scnc Fld.” Fo th dscsson, s Matn, “Pst Asymmty.” 10. As n Fll, L, and Pal, “Mantc Qnchn.” 11. P Tss Tss nots that n 1971, whn Amcan physcsts w jst bnnn to s “condnsd matt” to dscb th own actvts, P-Glls d Gnns had alady namd hs cha at th Collè d Fanc th “Physcs o Condnsd Matt” cha. Tss Tss, , “Sold-Stat “Sold-Sta t Chmst Ch msty y,,” 251. 12. “Impotant Annoncmnt.” Ths was not a ll-scal sson o th jonal, j onal, snc t dd not yt allow spaat sbscptons to ach scton, bt ath a topcal opn wthn what was stll a snl jonal. A ll-scal splt wold com sval yas lat n 1970. 13. Fo xampl, Gyon t al., “Tnnln nto Dty Spcondctos”; Coon and Fsk, “Josphson ac”; and McFaddn, Tah-Khl, and Taat, “Spac-TmDpndnt Colaton,” 854. 14. In 1975, ths jonal was absobd nto Zeitschrit ür Physik whn th latt splt nto two sctons, th scond o whch was dvotd to condnsd matt and nal physcs. 15. Physik der Kondensierten Materie 1, no. 2 (1963), ontmatt. 16. Homann, “Fty Yas o Physica Status Solidi .” A nal tm spannn physcal, chmcal, bolocal sach, “stköposchn” (sold stat sach), had bn n cclaton snc th lat 1940s as th nam o an nsttt wthn th Acadmy o Scncs n East Bln. Ath, “Das Insttt ü Fstköpphysk,” 27. Festkörperphysik ik. Amon th patc17. Höhl, Lyons, and Nksch, Arbeitstagung Festkörperphys pants was Kal Wolan Bö, who wold ond th jonal Physica Status Solidi n th aly 1960s shotly bo mmatn to th Untd Stats to assm a post at th Unvsty o Dlawa. 18. Pck, “Fstköpphysk. “Fstköpphysk.”” Ths s also th ya n whch th tm st appad n Annalen der Physik.
19. “B d Azähln d oßn Abtsbt d nn physkalschn Foschn tt man mm hä a dn B Fstköpphysk.” Pck, “Fstköpphysk,” 346. 20. “Man st nt, n solchs Wot als Übscht ü n kla mssns, nhtlchs Abtsbt z nhmn. B nam Zshn ndt sch ds Honn znächst ab anz nd a ncht bstätt.” Pck, “Fstköpphysk,” 346. 21. Tss Tss, , “Sold-Stat “Sold-Sta t Chms Chmsty ty..”
NOTES TO PAGES 157–161
235
22. “ls dx appoxmatons ondamntals d la physq d sold t d la chm.” Fdl, “S L’on d Fomanétsm,” 829. 23. Fdl, ntvw by Abat and Bnsad-Vncnt. Intnatonal contacts a common amon aly adopts o th tm. Rssan-bon Fnch physcst Lw Kowask, who stablshd ston ts wth Btsh physcsts dn th wa, podcd podcd a UNESCO pot n 1955 that dntd “physq d l’état sold” as an aa lvant to a pospctv ncla sach aclty. Kowask, “Ls Pls d Rchchs.” 24. Mott, “Mchansm o Wok-Hadnn,” 413. Fo a dtald tatmnt o th dvlopmnt o Mott’s sach school, s Kth and Hoch, “Fomaton o a Rsach School.” 25. Btwn 1945 and 1965, paps wth at last on atho ban a UK alaton (“Untd Kndom,” “Gat Btan,” “Enland,” “Scotland,” “Wals,” o “Nothn Iland”) appad 989 tms n Amcan Physcal Socty jonals, vss 121 slts om Gmany and 258 om Fanc. Data om th APS jonal databas at jonals.aps.o. 26. “Fothcomn Evnts,” 420. 27. “Impotant Annoncmnt,” 1. 28. It s plasbl that th tm was n th a at Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy, wh manan dtos Saml Godsmt and Smon Pastnack w basd. Bookhavn’s acclato poam povdd th oppotnty o thm to b xposd both to th tchncal tm and, thoh commncaton and collaboaton wth ntnatonal labs, most notably CERN (Eopan Oanzaton o Ncla Rsach), to th nwly common Eopan sa. Bookhavn’s collaboatv ots a otlnd n Cas, Making Physics. 29. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook, 67. Th BCS thoy o spcondctvty was a majo tmph o sold stat physcs and dw a at many talntd thotcans nto th ld. It was pblshd n 1957: Badn, Coop, Coop, and Sch, “Thoy o Spcondctvty.” 30. “NAS-NRC Physcs Svy Commtt, Sold Stat Physcs and Condnsd Matt,” dat, Apl 1964, HBP, ss HUGFP 128.13, box 1, old NAS Svy Commtt Mach–Apl 1964. Th ootnot was ct om th Pak pot bt wold sac n a spplmnt that nshd mo dtald pots on th sblds o physcs. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook , 143. 31. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook , 67. 32. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook , 68. 33. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook , 67–69. 34. Pppad, “Cat and th Cam,” 40–41. 35. S Wsl, “Plasma Achplao.” 36. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook , 69. 37. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey and Outlook . 38. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics in Perspective Perspective. 39. Physik der kondensierten Materie 1, no. 1 (1963), ontmatt; “Athos,” 361. 40. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics in Perspective Perspective, 460. Perspective, 458. 41. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics in Perspective Perspective, 459. 42. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics in Perspective 43. Andson, “Mo Is Dnt” 393. 44. Common lo holds that Andson and Volk Volk Hn cond “condnsd matt” n 1967 whl Andson hld a sasonal possoshp at th Unvsty o Cambd and thy chand th nam o th sold stat thoy op at th Cavndsh Laboatoy
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NOTES TO PAGES 161–165
to “thoy o condnsd matt.” Eal occncs o th tm, n patcla n th Spn jonal ttl, bl ths smpl on stoy sto y, bt th adopton o th tm by a ma jo UK sach nt no dobt asd ts pol n th Anlophon wold. 45. Amcan Physcal Socty Jonals, accssd Ast 13, 2014, http://jonals .aps.o/sach. Th ato s stak n AIP jonals, wth 33 nstancs o “condnsd matt” and 4,695 o “sold stat.” Th dnc h s ampld by sval actos, ncldn th appld ocs o AIP jonals dn an a that wtnssd an xploson n topcs sch as sold stat mass and lass and th act that th AIP sach alothm nclds th ttls o ctn atcls, whch nats a hh at o als postvs. Amcan Insttt o Physcs Jonals, accssd Ast 13, 2014, http://sctaton.ap.o/sach. 46. Mnts o th Amcan Physcal Socty Concl Mtn, San Fancsco, Calona, Janay 22, 1978, APSM. 47. Mnts o th Amcan Physcal Socty Concl Mtn, Washnton, DC, Apl 23, 1978, APSM. 48. Hopld, “Whatv Happnd?” ponts to th sccss o th BCS thoy o spcondctvty as th thotcal dvlopmnt that ncoad physcsts to s sold stat poblms as nal physcal poblms. 49. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Industrial Research Laboratories, 7th d. (1946). 50. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Industrial Research Laboratories, 11th d. (1960). 51. Walt Kohn, ltt to Go Pak, Novmb 13, 1964, HPB, ss HUGFP 128.13, box 1, old NAS Svy Commtt May–Dcmb 1964. 52. Havy Books, ltt to Walt Kohn, Mach 30, 1964, HBP, ss HUGFP 128.13, box 1, old NAS Svy Commtt Mach–Apl 1964. 53. Bown, “AT&T and th Consnt Dc.” 54. S Mody, Long Arm o Moore’s Law. 55. Tn, “Aspn Physcs Tns 50.” 56. Elcton dnsty s tsl psntd by a ncton, hnc th nam dnsty nctonal thoy, thoy, a nctonal bn a ncton o a ncton. Fo Fo mo on Kohn and th dvlopmnt and dssmnaton o DFT, s Zanwll “Edcaton o Walt Kohn” and “Hal Cnty.” 57. Kohn and Sham, “Sl-Consstnt Eqatons. Eqatons.”” Fo Fo th dscsson o ths pont, s Zanwll, “Hal Cnty.” As o Janay 1, 2018, jonals.ap.o cods 26,273 ctatons to th pap. Gool Schola, whch cawls a wd aay o socs, cods 46,560. 58. A sthand accont o th ons o Santa F Insttt s avalabl n Cowan, Manhattan Project , chs. 36–38. 59. Domb, “Ctcal Phnomna.” 60. “Battll Colloqm, Ctcal Phnomna: Fnal Poam, Extndd Abstacts, and Anda Dscsson,” LKP, box 1, old Battll Colloqm on Ctcal Phnomna, Poam and Abstacts, 1970. 61. Unvsty o Chcao pss las, Ast 9, 1945, HAR, box box 116, old 4. 62. Andw W. Lawson, “Th Insttt o th Stdy o Mtals at On Dcad,” Dcmb 26, 1957, CSSP, box 2, old 31. 63. Edwad H. Lv, mmo to Commtt on th Bdt, Apl 10, 1967, BAR, box 146, old 2. 64. Sloan, “Molclazn Chcao.” 65. Ol Klppa, ltt to Albt V. Cw, May 23, 1974, LAR, box 173, old 6.
NOTES TO PAGES 166–173
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66. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics through the 1990s, 3. 67. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics: Survey Sur vey and Outlook, 67; Physics in Per Per- spective, 142. 68. S Hoddson and Baym, “Dvlopmnt o . . . th Thoy o Mtals”; Eckt, “Popaanda n Scnc”; Jams and Joas, “Sbsqnt and Sbsday?” 69. Slat, “Sold Stat,” 10. 70. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics through the 1990s. 71. Natonal Acadmy o Scncs, Physics through the 1990s, v, 23. 72. Fo an ovvw o th lna modl, s Asn, “Lna Modl,” and Godn, “Lna Modl.” 73. Roy, “Fndn B Scnc,” 9. 74. S Edton, “Lna Modl,” whch ssts that th canoncal omlaton o th lna modl, n whch basc sach povds th pmay p may and most mmdat bass o tchncal dvlopmnt, was aly, v, dndd. 75. Pppad, “Cat and th Cam.” CHAPTER 9. Mobilizing against Megascience
Epigraph: Department Department o Energy’s Superconducting Super Collider Project: P roject: Hearing Beore the Subcommittee on Energy Research Research and Development o the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate , 102nd Con. 36 (Apl 16, 1991) (statmnt
o D. Pal A. Fly, Dcto, Physcal Rsach Laboatoy, AT&T Bll Laboatos, May Hll, NJ). 1. Ldman, “Fmlab and th Ft,” 125. 2. Pondom, “Fxd Tat,” 104. S also Rodan, Hoddson, and Kolb, Tunnel Visions, 13–15. 3. Goldn, “Mo Mn-Bans”; “Had Chocs”; Hman, “Amcans Want Acclato.” 4. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings Beore the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House o Representatives, 100th Con. 245 (Apl 7, 8, and 9, 1987) (statmnt o D. Stvn Wnb, Thoy Gop, Physcs Dpatmnt, Th Unvsty o Txas at Astn). 5. Fo Fo dscssons o th xpdton o Robt O’Haa Bk and Wllam John Wlls om th pspctv o th hstoy o scnc, s Joyc and McCann, Burke and Wills. 6. Hossnld, “LHC ‘Nhtma Scnao.’” 7. Rodan, Hoddson, and Kolb, Tunnel Visions, sp. ch. 1. 8. Hhs, “Makn Dollas.” 9. Fo Fo thooh acconts o th actos sponsbl o th SSC’s dms, s: Rtson, “Dms o th Txas Spcolld,” a snap acton that alts lack o tst n acadmc xpts on th pat o dal patons and ndstal manas; Kvls, Physicists, x–xl, whch dscsss th chans woht by th nd o th Cold Wa and th s o an nsympathtc shman conssonal dlaton; Rodan, “Tal o Two Clts,” whch xamns dysncton wthn th SSC’s manamnt stct; and Hoddson and Kolb, “Spcondctn Sp Colld’s Font Otpost,” whch xposs th aly dsconnct btwn th vson o th physcsts dsnn th SSC and th nclnatons o thos commandn th dal ps stns. 10. AEC Authorizing Legislation, Fiscal Year 1970: Hearings Beore the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 91st Con. 116 (Apl 17 and 18, 1969).
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NOTES TO PAGES 174–181
11. Fly dd ndd say “non-zo-sm gain,” ath than “am,” th mo common dom, to ndcat th amnt that on ld cold njoy otszd ndn ans wthot mpovshn oth aas. 12. On al ss o spn-o clams, s Hoddson, Kolb, and Wstall, Fermilab, 54–55. 13. Ldman, “Val o Fndamntal Scnc,” 42. 14. Fo Fo a dtald dscsson o th poltcal shts aond th nd o th Cold Wa Wa and how thy nncd th SSC, s Kvls, Physicists. 15. Energy and Water Development Appropriations or 1989: Hearings Beore the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development o the Committee on Appropriations, House o Representatives, 100th Con. 72 (Mach 10, 1988). 16. Fiscal Year Year 1987 Department o Energy Energ y Authorization: Hearings Beore the t he Subcommittee on Energy Research and Production o the Committee on Science and Technology, Technology, House o Representatives, 99th Con. 65 (Mach 5, 1986). On scnc, poltcs, and SDI, s Bd, Scientists at War , ch. 9, and Slayton, “Dscsv Chocs.” 17. Fiscal Year Year 1987 Department o Energy Authorization , 228. 18. Fiscal Year Year 1987 Department o Energy Authorization , 4. 19. Proposed Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Request (DOE’s Ofce o Energy Research): Hearing Beore the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development o the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, United States Senate, 101st Con. 100 (Fbay 24,
1989) (wttn statmnt o D. Roy F. Schwtts, Dcto, SSC Laboatoy). Year 1990 Budget Request , 102. 20. Proposed Fiscal Year 21. Importance and Status o the Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing Be ore the Committee on Energy and Natur Natural al Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Water Development o the Committee on Appropriations, United States S tates Senate , 102nd
Con. 27 (Jn 30, 1992) (statmnt o Go F. Smoot III, Scntst, Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy, Bkly, CA). 22. Importance and Status o the SSC , 25–26. 23. Blombn, Encounters in Magnetic Resonance; Bomb, Laser in America. 24. Department o Energy’s Energ y’s Superconducting Super Su per Collider Project , 43 (statmnt o D.. Ncolaas Blombn, Psdnt, Amcan Physcal Socty). D 25. Ncolaas Blombn, ltt to Rchad A. Caan J., May May 21, 1991, n Importance and Status o the SSC , 12. 26. Howad Wolp and Shwood Bohlt, ltt to Jams D. Watkns, n Importance and Status o the SSC , 5–11. 27. Kmhansl, Kmh ansl, “Unty “U nty,,” 38. 28. Bown, “B Scnc.” 29. Importance and Status o the SSC , 13. 30. Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing Beore the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources and the Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development o the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate , 103d Con. (Ast 4, 1993) (wt-
tn tstmony o Rstm Roy), 10. 31. Assms, “To Most Physcsts.” 32. Scha, “Glmpss o Tth.” 33. Bazll, “Qak Bal Poltcs.” 34. Energy and Water Development Appropriations Appropriations or 1989, 288. 35. The Superconducting Super Collider Project: Hearing Beore the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House o Representatives, 103d Con. 101 (May 26, 1993).
NOTES TO PAGES 181–191
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36. Schwb, “Physcs, Commnty, and th Css,” 40. 37. Importance and Status S tatus o the SSC , 24 (statmnt o Lon M. Ldman, Dcto Emts, Fm Natonal Acclato Laboatoy, Batava, IL). Th mssplln o “Mlts,” th Gk cty that was hom to Thals and s wdly consdd to hav bn th cadl o Gk scnc s cnc and phlosophy, phlosophy, s attbtabl to a tanscpton o ath than to Ldman hmsl. 38. Fiscal Year 1988 Department o Energy Authorization: Hearing Beore the Subcommittee on Energy Research and Development o the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House o Representatives, 100th Con. 143 (Mach 3 and 4, 1987).
39. Bay, “Sachn o Patcls o Loc.” 40. Wnb Wnb,, Dreams. 41. Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing , 51 (statmnt (stat mnt o D. Stvn WnWnb, Thoy Gop, Dpatmnt o Physcs, Unvsty o Txas at Astn). 42. Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing , 58 (statmnt (stat mnt o D. Stvn Wnb, Thoy Gop, Dpatmnt o o Physcs, Unvsty o Txas at Astn). 43. Th xtmty o th dctonsm sposd n th contxt o th SSC dbats has bn mphaszd by Babaa L. Whttn, who as that “Ldman and [Shldon] Glashow, mly ntnchd n th dctonst paadm and totally nabl to ha what th oths a sayn, smbl staw mn constctd by mnst ctcs to dsplay aoant andocntc scnc at ts most lan. lan.”” Whttn, “What Physcs Is Fndamntal, Fndamntal,”” 10. 44. Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing , 57 (statmnt o D. Phlp W. Andson, Dpatmnt o Physcs, Pncton Unvsty, Pncton, NJ). 45. Establishing Priorities Priorit ies in Science Funding: Hearing Beore the Task Force on De ense, Foreign Foreign Policy and Space o the Committee on the Budget, House o Representatives, 102nd Con. 64 (Jly ( Jly 11 and 18, 1991) (statmnt o Phlp W. W. Andson, Ph.D., Josph Hny Posso, Pncton Unvsty). Th wod “mo,” whch was omttd n th tanscpt, can b asonably nd. 46. The SSC Project , 109. 47. Wnb, Dreams; Ldman and Ts, God Particle. 48. Wnb, “Answ.” 49. Dtta, “Spcolld Is Scnc.” 50. Establishing Priorities in Science Funding , 2. 51. Superconducting Super Collider: Joint Hearing , 13. 52. Fo th dscssons o th SSC dbat n tms o ncaton, s Cat, “Physcsts’ Dbats.” 53. Canb, “Paadoxcal ‘Unts,’” 102. 54. Kadano, “Complx Stcts,” 10. 55. Kadano, “Cathdals and Oth Edcs,” 9. 56. Kadano, “Th B, th Bad,” 11. 57. Andson, “Is Complxty Physcs?” 9. 58. As Cat has ad, th dctonst nty patcl physcsts soht was contpodctv o th oal o mthodolocal nty. Cat, “Physcsts’ Dbats.” 59. The SSC Project , 109. Year 1990 Budget Request , 134. 60. Proposed Fiscal Year 61. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings, 906 (wttn statmnt o D. Phlp W. Andson, Josph Hny Posso o Physcs, Pncton Unvsty, Pncton, NJ). 62. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings, 334 (wttn statmnt o D. Jams A. Kmhansl, Hoac Wht Posso o Physcs, Conll Unvsty, Unvsty, Ithaca, NY).
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NOTES TO PAGES 191–201
63. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings, 906 (wttn statmnt o D. Phlp W. Andson). And son). 64. Vama, “Chann Rsach Clts.” 65. Natonal Scnc Fondaton, “NSF Fndn Hstoy by Accont and FY, Constant Dollas,” accssd Apl 5, 2017, https://dllwb.ba.ns.ov/NSFFndnby AccontConstantDollas.pd. 66. US Dpatmnt o Eny, “BES Bdt,” accssd Apl 5, 2017, https://scnc .ny.ov/bs/abot/bs-bdt/. 67. Wsl, Wsl, “Popts and Phnomna, Phnomna,”” s an dyn dy n accont o th concpton o “basc sach” that dvlopd n plasma physcs, whch acd many o th sam challns as sold stat physcs, ncldn th cally cltvatd pcpton that th b qstons o physcs w th nq povnc o hh ny physcs and cosmoloy cosmoloy.. 68. Proposed Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Request , 158 (AAAS Panl Fndn and th Acadmc Physcal Scncs, Janay 17, 1989). 69. MacLod and Radck, “Ownshp n th Tchnoscncs.” 70. Rowall, “Condnsd Matt Physcs.” 71. Rowall, “Condnsd Matt Physcs,” 45. 72. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings, 904 (wttn statmnt o Phlp W. Andson, Josph Hny Posso o Physcs, Pncton Unvsty, Pncton, NJ). 73. Proposed Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Request , 137 (wttn statmnt o Phlp W. Andson, Josph Hny Posso o Physcs, Pncton Unvsty, Pncton, NJ). 74. Hoddson and Kolb, “Spcondctn Sp Colld’s Font Otpost.” Otpost.” S also Matn, “Pst Asymmty.” 75. Proposed Fiscal Year 1990 Budget Request , 138 (wttn statmnt o Phlp W. Andson). And son). 76. Ath L. Schawlow, ltt to Flx Bloch, Octob 18, 1967, FBPS, box 8, old 15. 77. Fo Fo amnt o contnty acoss ach o ths shts, s: Shapn, Scientic Revolution; Taltavll, “Tansmttn Knowld”; and Ny, Beore Big Science. 78. Kvls, Physicists, x. 79. Don, Velvet Revolution; Cas, “Natonal Synchoton Lht Soc”; Rsh, “US Nton Faclty”; Wstall, “Instttonal Psstnc.” Fo a pspctv on th Eopan contxt, s Hnz, Hallonstn, and Hnck, “Fom Pphy to Cnt” and “Tnn “T nn th Shp.” S hp.” 80. Cas and Wstall, “Nw B Scnc.” CONCLUSIONS
Epigraph: COSMAT, Materials and Man’s Needs, 4:10.
1. Th mmbshp o th Amcan Physcal Socty n 2000 was 41,570. It spassd 36,000, on thosand tms ts chat mmbshp, n 1985. 2. Shnbot, “Edtoal.” Physical Review Applied ollowd qckly on th hls o Physical Review X , th APS contbton to onln, opn-accss pblshn, whch boasts boad cova o “p, appld, and ntdscplnay physcs” mnscnt o th aly yas o th onal Physical Review . Data on th Physical Review amly o jonals can b ond at https://jonals.aps.o/abot. 3. Attntv ads wll not that ths s appantly contadctd by Ath von Hppl’s statmnt, potd n chapt 6, to th ct that th bonday btwn physcs and
NOTES TO PAGES 203–211
241
lctcal nnn was cmbln. Th sntmnt von Hppl xpssd, althoh ndcatv o a local pattn o ncoan ntdscplnay xchan at MIT, MIT, was a om bn sanctd by so mhty a chch as th Physical Review n th 1940s. 4. Foman, “On th Hstocal Foms” and “Pmacy o Scnc.” 5. Esl, “‘Ennobln Unty’”; McCay, “Wll Small B Batl?”; Mody, Instrumental Community. 6. Th last dvson to b omd n th twntth cnty, cnty, psntn th physcs o patcl bams, was stablshd n 1989. 7. Chstan Joas obsvs that common ancdots abot aoant qantm o patcl physcsts makn snd maks ddn “sqald stat physcs” (May Gll-Mann) o “Schmtzphysk” (Wolan Pal) a tackd xtnsvly by sold stat physcsts thmslvs, ndcatn that an oppostonal atttd was pat o th ld’s dntty. Joas, “Campos q ntam.” 8. Superconducting Super Collider: Hearings Beore the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House o Representatives, 100th Con. 244 (Apl 7, 8, and 9, 1987) (wttn statmnt o D D.. Danl Klppn, Lst Wol Wol Posso o Physcs and Assocat Dcto o th Rsach Laboatoy o Elctoncs, Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy, Cambd, MA). 9. Pas, Inward Bound . 10. On th thoy-xpmnt latonshp n hh ny physcs, s Pckn, Con structing Quarks, and Galson, How Experiments End , and Image and Logic . On Fynman daams, s Kas, Drawing Theories Apart . Fo acconts o la acclato laboatos, s Tawk, Beamtimes and Lietimes, Hlbon and Sdl, Lawrence and His Laboratory, and Hoddson, Kolb, and Wstall, Fermilab. 11. Th has bn a cnt ptck n ntst n contactal hstoy o scnc, skn to vv th tchnq as a xbl bt nlctd tool o thown lht on othws obsc ats o th hstocal pocss. Fo an ovvw, ovvw, s Radck, “Psdntal Addss.” 12. On th chaact and consqncs o th Cold Wa poplaton boom, s Kas, American Physics. A smmay and chapt otln a avalabl at http://wb.mt.d /dkas/www/CWB.html. 13. On how ths pct o th wold nncd scnc and tchnoloy n th Cold Wa, s Edwads, Closed World .
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INDEX
ab nto mthods, 89, 126, 224n41 Abaham, Max, 105, 227n7 accdtaton o physcsts, 45–47 Acostcal Socty o Amca, 23–25, 40, 50, 201 acostcs, 7, 36, 39, 106, 152 Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy, 121, 124–31, 133, 153, 162, 230n12, 231n29
217n23; pblshn opatons o, 78, 80, 84, 91–93, 96–98, 100, 110, 185, 201, 236n45; svy condctd by, 85; Wa Polcy Commtt o, 213n5 Amcan Phlosophcal Socty, 45, 50, 220n14 Amcan Physcal Socty, concl o, 41–44, 52–53, 56, 61, 65, 68–69, 76– 78, 91–93, 99, 119, 132, 161, 208;
advsoy systm, 26, 133, 153,dal, 159 86, 90–91, 121– A Foc Oc o Scntc Rsach. See Untd Stats A Foc Amcan Assocaton o Physcs Tachs, 40, 217n12 Amcan Chmcal Socty, 50, 59, 78, 225n56, 231n39 Amcan clt: and b scnc, 188, 196–97, 200, 210; plac o physcs wthn, 8–11, 174; p scnc dal as a ol to, 18–20, lvanc o physcs to, 34 Amcan Insttt o Elctcal Enns, 21–22, 107, 217n17 Amcan Insttt o Mchancal Enns, 63–64, 231n39 Amcan Insttt o Physcs, as an altnatv to th Amcan Physcal Socty, 34–37, 39–43; and th Connc o Physcsts, 45, 50–53;
dsposton towad appld200–202; sach, 39–45, 49–54, 65, 74–75, dvsons o, 50, 56–62, 65–69, 73, 76–78, 81, 87, 112, 131–33, 144, 153, 159, 164, 170, 204, 219n5, 220n19, 221n49; domnant plac n Amcan physcs, 33–37, 217n23; as a ol o Amcan pamatsm, 21–24, 31; ondn o, 5, 11–14, 19–20, 196; ntsocty latonshps o, 231n39; jonals o, 26–27, 26–27, 30, 97–98, 100, 157, 225n56, 235n25, 240nn1–2; mtns o, 20, 38, 41–42, 52, 56, 58–59, 61–62, 64–69, 76–78, 92–93, 99, 103, 138, 161, 170, 179, 217n12, 223n3; mmbshp o, 29, 84, 86, 215nn12–14, 218n29, 222nn1–2, 230n1; psdnts o, 11, 32, 42, 44, 50, 68, 178–79; and th al stat bsnss, 60, 220n15 American Physics Physics Teacher Teacher , 25
ondn o, 24; mmb socts o, o ,
Amcan Socty o Mtals, 63–64
268
INDEX
amophos solds, 15, 62, 64, 156, 195 Andson, Phlp W.: opposton to SSC, 3–4, 10, 182–84, 186–92, 194–95; opposton to dctonsm, 15, 137; 140–52, 206, 233nn37–38; aly adopt o condnsd matt physcs,
Aspn Cnt o Physcs, 163 astophyscs, 191, 223n3, 227n76 Atomc Eny Commsson, 10, 102–4, 112–13, 115, 172, 227n6, 231n24 atomc physcs, 27, 73, 87, 135, 185, 227n76
154, 235n44; and ntllctal mt o sold stat physcs, 159, 160–61, 166; ol n th Aspn Cnt o Physcs 163; compason to Dolas Adams 233n31 applcatons. See appld physcs appld physcs: and dscplnay dalsm, 39–44; aly twntth cnty owth o, 24–28, 30, 33, 35; as xtnsv sach 140; and dal
Badn, John, 147, 158, 224n33, 225n53, 235n29 Bans, R. Bowln, 49 Bay, Dav, 182 Baton, Hny, 45, 59, 80, 92 basc sach: accssblty to sold stat sachs, 148, 159–60, 162–64; dal sppot o, 16, 120–25, 128–33, 136, 142, 144, 172–73,
ndn 175–76, 183–89, 194–95;pots, as th t o sold stat sach, 148; manalzaton o, 5, 13–16, 30, 36, 41, 52, 60, 84, 120, 200–202, 205, 207–8; n matals scnc, 122–23, 125, 127, 129–33; n th mda, 150–52, 154; at th Natonal Mant Laboatoy, 104–107, 109, 111–15, 117; and physcs dcaton, 48–49; as a poblmatc catoy, 7, 20–22, 41, 217n9, 228n11; psntaton n th APS, 65–67, 69–75; ots om basc sach to, 160, 162–68, 229n27, 231n29, 232n14; socts and jonals ddcatd to, 35, 39, 240n2; n son, 23 appld sach. See appld physcs appoxmaton tchnqs, 72, 89, 90, 156–57, 225n45 Aonn Natonal Laboatoy, 197 ARPA. See Advancd Rsach Pojcts
175–78, 187–89, 191–92, 194–95, 185, 233n24; ndstal sppot o, 191–92; nstttonal psntaton o, 40–42, 45, 63, 67, 71, 74–75; at la aclts, 14, 206; and mtally, 106; at th Natonal Mant Laboatoy, 108–11, 113–15; and pdaoy, 49, 128; poplaty o, 84; as a poblmatc catoy, 7, 21, 217n9, 228n11, 240n67; potablty o, 119; latonshp to tchncal otcoms, 167–68, 194–95, 203, 216n3, 228n15, 229n27, 231n29, 232n15, 237n74; and scntc mt, 138 Bll Tlphon Laboatos: achtct o, 231n29; bakp o, 163, 193; mploys o, 119, 174, 215n14, 218n33, 224n33; stablshmnt o, 22; lack o gemü gemütlichkeit tlichkeit , 142; mtn hld at, 23; Phlp Andson at, 3, 137, 142–43; psntd at th Con-
Ancy
nc o Physcsts, 32, 46–47, 49–50;
269
INDEX
sold stat sach and, 63, 71, 73, 91, 95, 162, 220n28, 232n15; Wllam Shockly at, 57, 84–85 b scnc: xcsss o, 205–7; and dal spndn, 172, 186–89, 191–92; as a hstooaphcal catoy 227n5;
Bckly, Olv E., Bckly, E. , 32, 34, 47–48, 51 Bstn, Elas, 77
lmts o, 16; o sold stat physcs, 102–4, 117 boloy: antdcton n, 233n31; ascnt to pomnnc, 9, 149, 172, 197; contastd wth physcs, 6; molcla, 210; lvanc o physcs o, 49, 165, 179 Btt, Fancs, 102, 105–11, 114–15, 117, 187, 220n26, 227–28nn8–13 BKS thoy. See Boh–Kams–Slat
235n44 Can Insttt o Tchnolo Tchnoloyy, 57, 63, 69, 84, 94 Cavndsh Laboato L aboatoyy, 87, 105, 154, 227n8, 235n44 camcs. See amophos solds chmcal nnn, 71, 88, 89, 126, 130 chmcal physcs, 52, 93–95, 165, 191, 225n56, 226n58
thoy Bloch, Flx, 89, 147, 196 Blombn, Ncolaas, 112, 178–79 Bohlt, Shwood, 178–80, 185 Boh–Kams–Slat thoy, 88–89, 224n41 Boh, Nls. See Boh-Kams-Slat thoy Bond, Jams, 210–11 Bck, Otto, 71 Bt, Goy, 209 Bllon, Lèon, 62, 89, 220n24, 225n45 Bnkman Rpot, Th, 163–67 Bstol, Unvsty o, 157 Bomly Rpot, Th, 159–63 Bookhavn Natonal Laboatoy, 91, 94, 103–4, 197, 235n28 Books, Havy, 94, 96–98, 100, 158–59, 162, 225n53 Bown Unvsty Unvs ty,, 27, 109, 125, 164 Bown, Malcolm, 150, 179
chmsty, and mnc: 144–45, 179; En Wn and, 88–89; n Fanc, 156–57; as a ndamntal ndamntal scnc, 105–7; ndstal lvanc o, 191; n ndsty, 36; at th Insttt o th Stdy o Mtals, 164–65; and matals scnc, 122–24, 126–27, 130; Nobl Pz o, 150; physcsts’ collaboaton wth, 63, 73, 79, 81, 86, 93–97, 100, 109, 120, 201, 208; n physcs pdaoy, 90; possonal dntty,, 21, 32, 33, 47–49, dntty 47–49 , 51–52, 60–61, 213n3, 214n10, 225n53, 225nn55–56, 226n58, 226n64, 230n20, 231n29; pblcatons, 14, 25, 27, 92–95 Chcao, Unvsty o: aclty o, 22, 159, 123, 164, 186, 217n9, 218n33; as IDL st, 125; nnc on Alvn Wnb, 137–38; pblcatons om, 142
bbbl chambs, 135, 207
Closton, Albt M., 119–20
Calona, Santa Babaa, Unvsty o, 163 Cambd, Unvsty o, 18, 147–48,
270
INDEX
Cohn, Moll, 159 Cold Wa: b scnc and, 103; dmands o th, 14–16, 52, 120–22, 172–74, 209, 216n3; nd o, 172, 174, 196, 237n9; Manchasm o, 211; pst o physcs n, 4–5, 7–11, 56, 197, 205,
cystal stct physcs: as a componnt o sold stat physcs, 5, 69, 156; qantm mchancal appoachs to, 55, 62–63, 72, 89; mtally and, 106, 164; tchncal lvanc o, 130–31, 156
210 Colmba Unvsty Unvsty,, 95, 105, 142, 217n15, 218n32 Colmbs, Chstoph, 171 Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn, 121, 129–33 complxty, 15, 163, 168, 187, 208 Compton ct. See Compton, Ath Holly Compton, Ath Holly, 33, 88, 224n41
DARPA. See Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy Daow, Kal Klch: on absntsm at APS mtns, 58; and th abl o th bll and th cat, 45; ndshp wth John Van Van Vlck, 60, 220n14; 220n14; ovsht o APS dvsons, 42–44, 50, 52, 57, 60–62, 64–66, 68, 75–77, 219n5, 221n31; spons to th pblcaton
Compton, 87, 218n49 compts,Kal, 89, 126, 150, 175, 177, 193, 208 condnsd matt physcs. See sold stat physcs Connc o Physcsts, Natonal Rsach Concl. See Natonal Rsach Concl Conss. See Untd Stats Conss consm clt, 11, 122 Coop, Lon, 147, 158, 235n29 Conll Unvsty Unvsty,, 47, 72, 123, 125, 142, 14 2, 179 COSMAT. See Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn cosmoloy cosmolo y,, 136, 177, 181, 189, 18 9, 195, 208, 240n67 Cosmos Clb, 24, 217n23 contactals, 208–10 Canb, Lawnc, 186 Cas, Robt Rob t P., P., 103, 197
poblm, 92, 98; vstn possoshps, 218n33 Davsson, Clnton, 22 Dns Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy. See Advancd Rsach Pojcts Ancy dnsty nctonal thoy, 163, 226n64, 236n56 Dpatmnt o Dns, 102, 104, 111, 115, 120–21, 123, 127 Dpatmnt o Eny, 10, 172, 175–77, 179, 192 D, Ghad, 63 Dscplns: and accdtaton accdtaton,, 45; bondas o, 5, 13, 33–35, 47–49, 53, 106; comptton amon, 14, 148, 185–87, 191–92; xpmntal, 69, 128–31; omaton o, 7, 31, 55, 78–80, 125, 153–55, 166–68, 213n3; ntacton amon, 17, 91, 95–96, 107, 126, 138, 164, 187, 198;
271
INDEX
and possonal dntty, 12, 21, 99–100, 118, 120–21, 200–205, 207, 216n3; psntaton o, 30; nty o, 86 Dvson o Condnsd Matt Physcs, Amcan Physcal Socty, 132, 161
soc o ntnatonal compttvcompttvnss, 174–75, 193–94 Edson, Thomas, 19–20 Enstn, Albt, 9, 147, 209 lctcal nnn: at MIT 108–9, 126–27; ons n physcs, 39, 208;
Dvson o Elcton and Ion Optcs, Amcan Physcal Socty, 43, 52, 60, 67–68, 219n4, 223n3 Dvson o Fld Dynamcs, Amcan Physcal Socty, 161–62 Dvson o Hh Polym Physcs, Amcan Physcal Socty, 52, 56, 67–69, 218n34, 221n49 Dvson o Matals Physcs, Amcan Physcal Socty, 132
ovlap wth physcs, 36, 73, 130, 240n3; plac n physcs pdaoy, 48 lctomantsm, 6–7, 19, 21, 29, 100, 182 lctoncs. See lctcal nnn mnc: dployd dployd n opposton to th SSC, 181, 194; Phlp Andson’s sppot o, 15, 137, 145, 149; oots n condnsd matt phnomna, 206
Dvson o Patcls Physcal Socty,and 144,Flds, 170 Amcan Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs, Amcan Amcan Physcal Socty: ondn o, 13, 39, 53–54, 56, 69, 87; owth o, 75–78; ntaton o acadmc and ndstal sachs wthn, 65, 70–72, 75; mmbshp o, 133, 222n2, 229n31; nam chan, 161–62; patcpaton n Fdaton o Matals Socts, 132; John Van Van Vlck as cha o, 223n4 Dsslhas, Mldd, 72, 126, 222n63 Dshman, Sal, 57, 219n9 Dtta, Plak, 185
émé physcsts, 30, 86–87 nnn, acclato: acclato: 177; at Bll Laboatos, 24; chmcal, 88; Manhattan Pojct and, 8, 208, 214n10; matals scnc and, 120–24, 126–27, 129–20, 132–33, 231n29; physcs as lod 48–49; possonal dntty o, 21–22; pblcatons, 27; ada and, 216n1; latonshp to physcs, 14, 33, 39, 41–42, 63, 73–74, 96, 106–107, 179, 201–3, 228n11; tann, 105. See also lctcal nnn Enland. See Gat Btan
Eastman-Kodak, 23 conomc lvanc o physcs: dsdan o, 10, 13; hh ny physcsts’ ambvalnc abot, 117, 181; latonshp to p scnc dal, 16, 19–20, 196; ol n sstann pst o physcs, 11, 14, 179, 200;
dal advsoy systm. See advsoy systm, dal dal ndn. See ndn, dal Fmlab. See Natonal Acclato Laboatoy omantsm, 68, 71, 105, 156, 208, 227n8 estkörperphysik estkörperph ysik, 156, 234n16
272
INDEX
Fst Wold Wa, 21 Fltch, Havy, 50, 69 Fly, Pal A., 174, 181, 188, 237n11 ds, 15, 162–63, 186 Foman, Pal, 203, 216n3, 228n15 Fanc, 61–62, 156–57, 234n11, 235n25
Gamow, Go, 83 Gll-Mann, May M ay,, 12, 213n6, 232n12, 232n 12, 241n7 Gnal Elctc: ondn o sach laboatoy, 22; Fdck Stz at, 90, 97; pblcatons o, 142–43; Ro-
Fancs Btt Natonal Mant Laboatoy. See Natonal Mant Laboatoy Fanck, Jams, 165 Fdl, Jacq, 156–57 ndamntal physcs: ndn o, 171, 173–74, 177–78; nstttonal oanzaton to potct, 39, 41–42; matals sach as, 128–29; nat o, 16, 136–40, 142–50, 174, 210, 228n15; dctonsm and, 15, 181, 183–85,
man Smolchowsk at, 13, 39, 56–57, 69 Gmany,, 18–20, 61, 155–57, Gmany 155– 57, 209, 213n3, 213n3 , 235n25 Gbbs, Roswll C., 47–48, 51 lass. See amophos solds Goldsmth, Ald N., 38–39 Godsmt, Saml, 83, 92, 99, 235n28 Gay, Dwht, 152 Gat Btan, 18–19, 21, 87, 157,
187–89, 211;114–18, latonshp to applcatons, 111, 193–95; as a pblc ood, 176–77, 227–28n11; sold stat physcs as, 14, 95, 102, 104–8, 153–54, 158, 164, 166–67, 199, 232n14 ndn, dal: o basc sach, 187; o b scnc, 16, 104, 173, 176, 182, 191–92, 237n9; copld to pactcal oals, 111–13, 117, 120–21, 160, 167, 174–75; o hh ny physcs, 10– 11, 82, 144, 172; ncntvs catd by, 153; nnc on postwa physcs, 35, 52, 149; o matals scnc 14, 129, 131, 133; thoh th Natonal Scnc Fondaton, 102; pots, 11, 116, 137, 189, 204; o socal poams, 103; thtnn o, 14, 103–4, 136, 138 Fqa, Don, 175–76
235n23, 235n25 op o sx, 13, 57–62, 65–69, 76, 86– 87, 93, 219n5 Gnhm Fondaton, 105 Hansn, Wllam Wll am Wbst, Wbst, 33 Hanwll, Gaylod Pobasco: ol n stablshn stabls hn Physcs P hyscs Today Today,, 80, 83; sppot o dscplnay dalsm 36–40, 42, 49–53, 74–75, 217n12; as Unvsty o Pnnsylvana psdnt, 63–64 Havad Unvsty: Edwn Kmbl at, 48; Go Pak at, 226n61; Havy Books at, 94, 96; ntdscplnay laboatoy hostd at, 125; John Slat at, 126; John Van Vlck at, 58, 87, 223n4; Ncolaas Blombn at, 112, 178; Phlp Andson at, 3, 142; Rado Rsach Laboatoy o, 85 Hn, Conys, 95, 224n33, 225n53
273
INDEX
Hs boson, 171 hh ny physcs: APS dvson o, 132; as b scnc, 14–16, 102, 104, 114–18, 197, 205–7; comptton btwn sold stat physcs and, 79, 114–18, 135–40, 143–150; dson
possonal psntaton o, 5, 13–14, 16–17, 24, 31, 36–37, 42–52, 54, 195, 199–201, 208; poposd APS dvson o, 62; latonshp wth acadma, 23, 34–37, 41–44, 47, 72, 75, 84–86, 157, 168, 201, 217n41,
o sold stat physcs wthn, 12, 241n7; ndn o, 11, 227n6; hstooaphcal ocs on, 208–10; potntal soc o wold-atn black hols, 214n25; pst o, 4, 159, 200; podctvty clams o 3, 192–96, 202; pblcatons, 161; and th SSC, 170–90, 192–95, 197; vsblty o, 8, 10–11, 82, 112. See also dctonsm Hoddson, Lllan, 10, 172
218n33; ol sstann pst o physcs, 12; oots o sold stat physcs n, 15, 56, 58, 62–67, 69, 72, 74, 96–97, 153, 162, 168, 198; tchnolos dvlopd n, 11, 54, 73, 142–43 Insttt o th Stdy o Mtals, Unvsty o Chcao, 123, 164–65 Insttt o Thotcal Physcs, Copnhan, 88, 224n41 Insttt o Rado R ado Enns, 38–39,
Hos o Rpsntatvs, 3, 175, 179, 184–85, 189, 196 Hll, Albt W., 32, 44 Htchns, Robt Maynad, 137 Htchsson, Elm, 37–39, 217n15 Hxly, Thomas Hny, 21
217n17popty, 172, 192–93 ntllctal ntdscplnaty: ntdscpln aty: n chmcal physcs, 93, 225n56; n matals scnc, 120–22, 124–26, 128, 131, 133, 204; n mtally, 164; pspctvs o amon sold stat physcsts, 95–97; 95–97; as a val, 56, 240nn2–3 Intdscplnay Intdscpln ay Laboatos, 121, 125– 26, 128–31, 162, 231n29 ntatd ccts, 11, 163
IBM, 132, 14–43, 147, 193, 231n29 Illnos, Unvsty o, 90–91, 126, 142 ndsty: basc sach n, 119, 143; Btsh, 19, 214–15n4; condnsd matt physcs dstancs tsl om, 165, 167–68; Gman, 19, 214–15n4; owth o physcs n, 19–22, 30, 35, 69, 92, 152, 173, 215n12, 224n29; laboatos, 22, 100, 163, 193–94, 197, 205, 231n29, 232n15; manalzaton o, 19, 21, 24, 28–29; phamactcal, 150; and physcs pdaoy, 48–49, 148, 159, 191; and physcs pblshn, 26–27, 142, 221n36;
International Journal o the Physics and Chemistry o Solids, 97–98
Intnatonal Unon o P and Appld Physcs, 78 Jams Fanck Insttt, Insttt, 164–65 Johns Hopkns Unvsty Unvsty,, 20, 225n56 Journal o Applied Applied Physics: dtoal dcton o, 201, 221n36; dtoals and ltts n, 37–39, 43, 65–66;
274
INDEX
Journal o Applied Applied Physics (cont.): dtos
o, 37, 217n15; pblcatons o th Natonal Mant Laboatoy n 113, 228n22; namd om Physics, 27 Journal o Chemical Chemical Physics, 25, 92, 201–2, 225n25 Journal o Rheology, 25, 30, 201 Journal o the Acoustical Acoustical Society o AmerAmerica, 25, 201 Journal o the Optical Society Society o America,
25, 201 jonals. See pblshn Kadano, Lo, 164–65, 186 Katch, Davd A., 80–81 Klly,, Mvn, 49–50 Klly Kmbl, Edwn,J.,48–49, 126, 230n16 Kvls, Danl 32–34,87, 196–97, 216n3 Kncad, John F., 126–28 Kttl, Chals, 72–73, 143, 225n53 Klppa, Ol, 165 Klppn, Danl, 205 Kohn, Walt, 94, 96, 154, 162–63, 226n64 Kolm, Hny, 113–14, 229n36 Kams, Hnk, 88 Kmhansl, Jams, 123, 179, 191 Laboatoy o Inslaton Rsach, 127, 230n20 La Hadon Colld, 171, 214n25 lass, 11, 177–78, 196, 236n45 Lawnc Bkly Laboatoy, 81, 143, 207, 214n11 Lax, Bnjamn, 104, 109–14, 117, 160, 173, 229n36 Ldman, Lon, 170, 174, 176–78, 182, 184, 202
lvls o physcal oanzaton, 15, 139, 144–49, 181, 186–87, 208, 233n31 Lncoln Laboatoy, 109, 126, 143 lna modl o nnovaton, 167, 231n29, 237n74 lqd hlm, 15, 81, 162, 179 lqds, 152, 154–56, 160, 196 Lvnston, M. Stanly, 136 Los Alamos, 112, 209 low tmpats, 6, 108, 147, 164 mantc sonanc man, 167, 175, 178–79 mantsm, 28, 60, 102, 105, 113, 164, 166 mants, 11, 127, 167, 177, 178–79 Manhattan Pojct: Alvn Wnb’s mploymnt wth, 138; assocatons btwn basc sach and, 120, 214n10; Bn Pot’s mploymnt wth, 27; as nnn ndavo, 8–10, 208–9; nstttonal lacy o, 164; sccy aond, 32, 35 Mansld Amndmnts, 115, 120 many-body physcs, 160–61 Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy: aclty o, 72–73, 83, 86–87, 89, 105, 139, 228n13, 240n3; laboatos o, 14, 23, 85, 107–118, 125–26, 143; sold stat thoy cos, 72; stdnts o, 86, 222n63 Matals Advsoy Boad, 122–24. See also Natonal Rsach Concl Materials and Man’s Needs Needs. See Commtt on th Svy o Matals Scnc and Ennn Matals Rsach Cnts. See Intdscplnay Laboatos
275
INDEX
Matals Rsach Socty, 167–79 matals sach. See matals scnc matals scnc: APS dvson o, 132; ARPA sppot o, 124–29; as a dscplnay catoy, 56, 120–24, 129–24, 153–54, 166, 197, 203; ndn o,
Natonal Ba o Standads, 52, 61, 215n14 natonal dns, 10, 22, 120, 123, 125, 174–75 Natonal Insttts o Halth, 111, 188 Natonal Mant Laboatoy: as b sc-
14; pactcal objctvs o, 132, 160, 168; not scnc, 129; tann n, 124 mchancs, 7, 28, 44, 166 mascnc, 188, 194, 200, 206, 209 Mtallcal Laboatoy, Unvsty o Chcao, 164 mtally: collaboaton wth, 58, 63–64, 90, 164–65; Fancs Btt’s vson o, 102–9, 220n26, 228n13; matals scnc and, 120, 122–23, 126, 130;
nc, 14, 102–104, 112, 115, 197, 200; ondn o, 107–10; ndn o, 104, 108, 110–15, 117–18, 173; sach condctd at, 108–111, 113–14 Natonal Rsach Concl: Connc o Physcsts, 32, 45–51, 80; Sold Stat Scncs Panl, 110; svy o ndstal laboatos, 63; svys o sold stat and condnsd matt physcs,
latonshp to physcs, 51, tachn 60–61, 73, 96, 208, 214n10, 230n20; o, 48 Mchan Stat Unvsty, 35, 217n10 Mody, Cys C. M., 94, 126 “Mo Is Dnt,” 15, 143–150, 152, 160, 187, 188, 194 Mott, Nvll, 90, 143, 150, 157 mons, 7, 155 Mskat, Mos, 36, 217n9
157, 159, 160–62, 165, 167, 193. See also Matals Advsoy Boad; Natonal Acadmy o Scncs Natonal Scnc Fondaton: stablshmnt, 102; sppot o APS jonals, 91–92, 98–99; sppot o condnsd matt physcs, 192; sppot o hh ny physcs, 104, 188, 227n6; sppot o matals scnc, 133; sppot o Natonal Mant Laboatoy, 110–12, 114 natonal scty. See natonal dns Natonal Synchoton Lht Soc, 103, 197 nw b scnc, 103, 196–98 New York York Times, 150, 179, 184, 216n1 Nobl Pz: Bton Rcht, 154; Clnton Davsson, 22; Isdo Isaac Rab, R ab, 23; Jams Fanck, 165; John Badn, 224n33; John Van Vlck, 150; Lon Ldman, 170; Nvll Mott,
Natonal Acadmy o Scncs: boaphcal mmos o, 26; mmbshp n, 110, 143, 232–33n22; polcy advc o, 121; pots, 129–30, 153, 157. See also Natonal Rsach Concl Natonal Acclato Laboatoy: contbtons o, 178–79; ndn o, 104, 112, 185; hstos o, 207; jstcatons o 115, 117; mmbs o n obt, 176; opposton to, 112, 173; Tvaton, 171
150; Ncolaas Blombn, 178;
276
INDEX
Nobl Pz (cont.): Phlp Andson, 143, 150, 183; Stvn Wnb, 182; Walt Kohn, 226n64 Nobl, Davd F., 21, 215n5 noncystaln solds. See amophos solds
pdaoy, 32, 35, 72, 109, 126, pdaoy, 126 , 199, 207 Pam, Go, 44, 91, 221n43 Pnnsylvana, Unvsty o, 36, 63–64, 125 Pamon Pss, 97 Philosophical Magazine Magazine, 26
Nothwstn Unvsty, 56, 125, 185 ncla ams ac, 9, 232n3 ncla mantc sonanc, 11, 94, 145, 178, 226n61, 226n64 ncla physcs: APS dvson, 132, 229n31; as a dscpln, 55; ndn o, 102, 192; ovlap wth hh ny physcs, 10–11, 135–36, 177; poltcal nnc o, 4, 8–10, 143, 176, 205; and poplaton owth, 30;
physcal chmsty. See chmcal physcs, 93, 164, 225n56 Physical Review: ablty to ad cov-tocov, 24–27; dtoshp, 83, 92; as ashp jonal, 24; owth o, 79–80, 86, 201–2; naown o ocs, 13, 26–27; potablty o, 91–92; pblcaton dlays, 78, 97, 99; pblcatons n, 110, 113, 221n36; sold stat physcsts consd abandonn, 79,
pst 207–10; pblcatons,o,26,81–84, 79, 93,200, 227n76; sach n 88; and ndsa saxophon, 182 ncla wapons, 32, 34, 52, 112
93–94; 240n2 sbdvson o, 142, 155, 200, Physical Review Applied Applied , 200, 202, 240n2 Physics. S Journal o Applied Applied Physics Physics Today Today: atcls n, 58, 87, 137, 139, 152, 179, 228n11; as a dscsson om, 36, 80–84; ondn ondn o, 51, 204; dscssons o nty n, 185–87 Physik der kondensierten kondensierten Materie, 155, 159 physique du solide solide, 155–57, 235n23 Pck, Hnz, 156 Pns, Davd, 158, 163 Pppad, Ban, 147–48, 158, 168 plasma physcs, 8, 159, 191, 240n67 Pot, Bnad H., 27–30 pst: o th APS, 77–78; dscssd at th Connc o Physcsts, 47–48; lt o n postwa physcs, 39, 148–49, 172; o hh ny physcs, 4; nt-
Oak Rd Natonal Laboatoy, 27, 103, 137–38, 197 Oc o Naval Rsach, 102, 121 Oppnhm, J. Robt, 9, 81, 209 Optcal Socty o Amca, 23, 25, 40, 201 optcs, 7, 39, 49, 108, 155, 166, 227n76 Osood, Thomas H., 35, 40 Pas, Abaham, 24–25, 207 Pak Rpot, Th, 157–59, 162, 166, 235n30 Pak, Go E., 94, 158 Panosky, Wolan, 115, 135 patcl physcs. See hh ny physcs Pasto, John O., 115–17, 173 Pal, Wolan, 12, 147, 241n7
natonal, 104; mantnanc o, 7–10;
277
INDEX
sold stat physcs compts o, 73, 150–51, 159–61, 165, 168, 187, 189–90, 194, 204–5 Pncton Unvsty, 4, 27, 86–87, 89, 143 podctvty podct vty clams, 192–96
as a hstooaphcal catoy, 6, 196; John Slat’s contbtons contbtons to, 87–89; 87–89; John Van Van Vlck’s contbtons contbtons to, 60, 71; as a phnomnolocal catoy, 7; n th Physical Review, 26–27, 201; o solds, 72, 102, 104, 146; as a soc
possonal dntty: and appld sach, 27, 36, 45, 54–56, 74, 207; as concvd n dnt banchs o physcs, 4–5, 81; o nnn, 21; mpact o APS dvsons on, 65; o physcs as a whol, 7, 10, 12, 19, 31–32, 44, 54–56, 121, 134, 137, 193, 199, 210; o sold stat physcs, 9, 14, 78–79, 99, 118, 120, 129, 133, 151–52, 158, 196, 202, 204, 241n7
o concptal nty, 55–56, 204 qantm thoy t hoy,, 48, 62, 126
Pojct Hndsht, 120Insttt o Physpblshn: Amcan cs opatons, 24–27, 30, 50–51; Amcan Physcal Socty opatons, 25–27, 41, 43; and condnsd matt physcs, 155–57; pa chas, 225n49; popla, 184–85; poblms, 14, 76–101, 131, 209; otlts o, 13, 24–27, 200–202, 221n36, 223n9, 225n55 p scnc: Amcan Physcal Socty as a havn o, 12, 20, 59–61, 67; as a catoy, 7, 227–28n11; as an dal, 5, 12–14, 16–17, 18–31, 33, 35, 76, 104, 117, 132, 134, 135, 154, 165, 170, 173, 198–204; and physcs pdaoy, 63; latonshp to appld physcs, 5, 40–42, 84, 148; nty and, 69–70
Rad, Thomas A., 57 ctq o, dctonsm: dctonsm : mnst 239n43; mpotanc to hh ny physcs, 135–36, 140, 170, 173, 181– 85, 197, 202, 205, 211; latonshp to spn-o clams, 177–78; sold stat physcsts’ objctons to, 15, 136–37, 144–45, 148–50, 185–89, 206–7, 233n31; sd to jsty th SSC, 3 Rsach Laboatoy o Elctoncs, 127 Review o Scientic Instruments, 25, 36–37, 201, 228n22 Reviews o Modern Physics Physics, 25 Rcht, Bton, 154, 182, 192 Rchtmy, Floyd K., 25 Robnson, Howad A., 84 Rowland, Hny Asts: as an advocat o p scnc, 12, 19–21, 26, 35, 41, 154, 170, 198–200, 204, 210, 215n7; on th stdy o matt, 11 Roy, Rstm, 167, 179
qantm mchancs: o complx matt, 15, 94–96, 160, 163–64, 166, 168, 232n14; o lmntay patcls, 185;
Rab, Isdo Isaac, 7, 23, 131 Radaton Rada ton Laboato Laboatoy y,, MIT, MIT, 23, 85, 109. 10 9. See also Massachstts Insttt o Tchnoloy Rado Rsach Laboatoy, Havad Unvsty, 85. See also Havad Unvsty
278
INDEX
Santa F Insttt, 163, 236n58 Sawy, Ralph A., 49, 218n44 Schmutzphysik, 12, 211, 241n7 Sch, J. Robt, 147, 158, 235n29 Schwtts, Roy Roy,, 177–78 scnc polcy, 4, 9–11, 113, 130, 130 , 184,
ladn sold stat physcst, 225n53; pspctv on th hstoy o sold stat physcs, 166 Slcht, Chals, 143 small scnc, 178, 188–89, 206 Smth, Cyl Stanly, 123, 130, 164
198, 206 Scond Wold Wa, 9, 31, 35, 56, 62, 196, 208–9 Stz, Fdck: Fdck: as copoat shll, 220n21; cospondnc wth Gaylod Hanwll, 80; dcaton, 224n33; mmb o APS concl, 77–78; mmb o th op o sx, 57, 61–62, 64, 67; mmb o Matals Advsoy Boad, 123; psdncy
Smolchowsk, Roman: aval n Untd Stats, 56; cospondnc wth Bn jamn Lax, 110; cospondnc cospondnc wth wth Fdck Stz, 86; ots to stablsh th Dvson o Sold Stat Physcs, 13, 39, 56–58, 60–67, 69, 219n9, 221n31; mmb o Pak Rpot commtt, 158–59; vson o Amcan physcs, 39, 58, 63–65, 122, 153, 164 Smoot, Go, 177–78
o Natonal o Scncs, 157; and thAcadmy pblcaton poblm, 85–91, 92–98, 100; txtbook athoshp, 72–73, 222n60; vws on APS dvsons, 41–42; vws on postwa psonnl shota, 84–85 smcondctos, 11, 94–95, 150, 163, 177–78 Shockly, Wllam, Wllam, 57, 5 7, 84, 86, 94, 94 , 142, 225n53 Sl, Sdny Sdn y, 57, 63, 221n43 221 n43 SLAC. See Stanod Lna Acclato Slat, John Clak: abstact appoach to physcs, 72; advso o Wllam Shockly, 86; applcatons o th Wn– Stz mthod, 90; calclatonal appoach to physcs, 89; conct wth Nls Boh, 88, 244n41; aly ca, 87; nvolvmnt wth MIT’s ntdscplnay laboatoy, 126–128; nvolvmnt nvolv mnt wth th Natonal Mant
Socty o Rholoy, sold stat lctoncs,24130, 150 sold stat physcs: dnton o, 5–7; dvsty o, 6, 8, 11, 16, 73, 90, 95–96, 187; owth o, 7, 11, 14, 16, 76–79, 92–93, 229n31; stablshmnt o, 56–70; and dntty o Amcan physcs, 4–12, 19, 31, 54–56, 99, 121, 134, 137, 193, 199, 202; as a nam, 15, 62–65, 73, 152–54; as opposd to condnsd matt physcs, 154–69; latonshp to ncla and hh ny physcs, 8–10, 55, 81–84, 93, 132, 136, 143, 176–77, 192, 200, 205–10; sls dctd at, 12, 211, 241n7; as an nsal catoy, 7, 13, 29–31, 70, 152–53. See also applcatons Sovt Unon, 124, 172, 174, 221n36, 232n3 spn-os, 15, 174–82, 185, 187, 193, 202
Laboatoy 107, 109; namd as a
“sqald stat physcs,” 12, 241n7
INDEX
279
Stanod Lna Acclato, 104, 115, 135, 207 Stanod Unvsty Unvsty,, 33, 86, 126, 142, 218n33 Star Wars, 16 sto qpmnt, 11, 208
Untd Stats Conss: and NAL ndn, 104; physcsts’ tstmony bo, 111–12, 115, 135, 171–74, 176, 179, 181, 184–86; and SSC ndn, 3, 171–192 Untd Stats Dpatmnt o Dns. See
Statc Dns Intatv Intatv, , 175–76 Spcondctn Sp Colld, 3–5, 8–10, 15–16, 170–98, 202, 205–6, 239n43 spcondctvty: spcondc tvty: ndstal ss, 11; as consttnt ld o sold stat physcs, 110, 164, 167, 235n29, 236n48; ncoctnss o thos o, 147; Nobl Pz o, 150, 158; and mants, 175, 177–79
Dpatmnt o Dns Untd Stats Dpatmnt o Eny. See Dpatmnt o Eny Untd Stats Navy Navy.. See Oc o Naval Rsach nty: dvsons as a that to, 13, 42, 65, 86; as jstcaton o th SSC, 185– 87; poltcal, 35, 37–38, 40, 56, 70, 73–75; ntllctal, 55–56, 70; Physics Today as catalyst or, 80–82, 84; and
spd spdty ty,, 6, 156, 158, 162 Stton, Rchad M., 46 synchoton adaton, 103–4, 198 Szlad, Lo, 88, 209
dctonsm, 233n37–38, 239n58 Unvsty o Bstol. See Bstol, Unvsty o Unvsty o Calona, Santa Babaa. See Calona, Santa Babaa, Unvsty o Unvsty o Cambd. See Cambd, Unvsty o Unvsty o Chcao. See Chcao, Unvsty o Unvsty o Illnos. See Illnos, Unvsty o Unvsty o Pnnsylvana. See Pnnsylvana, Unvsty o
Tat, John Tonc, 26–27, 51, 79, 91–92 tachn. See pdaoy tchnolocal applcatons. See applcatons txtbooks, 72–73, 90, 124, 136, 227n7 txtls, 24, 85, 218n34 thmodynamcs, 6–7, 19, 21, 44, 105 Tocqvll, Alxs d, 18–19 Towns, Chals, Chal s, 145, 158–59 158–5 9 tann. See pdaoy tanssto, 11, 54, 72–73, 142–43, 167, 222n64, 232n17 Tvlpc, Alvn, A lvn, 175–76 175–7 6 Untd Stats A Foc, 108, 110–11, 115, 117, 123
Van Vlack, Vla ck, Lawnc, 124 Van Vlck, John Hasbook: dcaton, 87, 126; xtnson o Wn-Stz mthod, 90; mpssons o Physical Review, 26; mpssons o Physics Today, 83; as ladn sold stat physcst, 225n53; Nobl Pz, 142–43,
280
INDEX
Van Vlck, John Hasbook: Nobl Pz (cont.), 150; opposton to APS dvsons, 58–63, 65–67, 74–75, 77–78, 80, 88, 204, 219–20nn11–19, 223n4; wok on xchan ntacton 71; wok on mantsm, 96
Wstall, Cathn, 10, 103, 197 Wstnhos Elctc Copoaton, 57, 105, 142–43, 191, 221n28, 227n8 Whwll, Wllam, 30, 33 Wn–Stz mthod, 89, 225n45 Wn, En, 87–90, 219–20n14,
Vtnam Wa, 103, 110–13, 133
220n19, 224n33 Wlson, Robt, 115–17, 173, 177 Wold Wa I. See Fst Wold Wa Wold Wa II. See Scond Wold Wa
Wat atall, all, Wallac, Wallac, 24, 2 4, 37–39, 217n15 2 17n15 Wat, Spnc, 55, 95, 154 Wnb, Alvn, A lvn, 137–140, 137–140 , 144–45, 147–150 Wnb cton, 138–40, 145, 149, 184–85, 187 Wnb, Stvn, St vn, 151, 171, 173, 173 , 178–79, 182–85, 187, 202 Wsskop sskop, , Vcto, 139–40, 144, 14 4, 183, 232n12
X-ay dacton, 103, 166 Zeitschrit ür Physik Physik, 155, 234n14
Zn, Clanc, 71
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