SNPBC_Proceedings.pdf

Proceedings

Plant Breeding In Post Genomics Era

Proceedings of

Second National Plant Breeding Congress March 1-3, 2006

Jointly organized by

Indian Society of Plant Breeders &

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore 641 003, India

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Proceedings of the

Second National Plant Breeding Congress March 1-3, 2006 Coimbatore, INDIA

Jointly organized by

Indian Society of Plant Breeders & Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore 641 003, India

The organizers and publishers take no responsibility of the contents of papers presented and included in this publication

Publication No. 2

Published by the Indian Society of Plant Breeders Coimbatore 641 003

Editorial Committee

Convenor Dr. T.S. Raveendran Members Dr. S.R. Sree Rangasamy Dr. M. Kadambavanasundaram Dr. N. Nadarajan Dr. P. Vindhiya varman Dr. P.Sumathi Dr. J.R.Kannan Bapu Dr. S.Ganesh Ram Dr. M.Kumar Dr. K.K.Vinod

Printed at M/s. Laser Park, Coimbatore

Foreword Agricultural research has made great strides in terms of innovations and development of viable, applicable and relevant technologies. These technological advancements were responsible for increasing productivity and production and made India an exporting country from the status of importing country. Nevertheless, we cannot be complacent and have to constantly work for enhancing the production to feed the population which increase every day. The estimated requirement of food grains for 2020 AD it is 300 million tonnes and by 2050 AD is 400 million tonnes as against the present production of 210 million tonnes with the rider of shrinking land and water resources. Among all the technologies responsible for overall agricultural production, improved varieties acclaim top most importance as they have a direct bearing on the production. From a simple procedure of mass selection during early 20th century, the crop improvement technologies have very steadily and rapidly evolved to the present stage of molecular breeding through the untiring efforts of Geneticists and Plant Breeders. During this transformation, a large volume of scientific data would also be generated, which on interpretation, provide the younger generation precise guidelines and directions on how to proceed the programmes in future. Such informations are constantly and periodically discussed in many scientific fora by scientists involved in crop improvement. The Indian Society of Plant Breeders a Forum registered under Societies Act, is striving hard for the scientific upliftment in the field of Plant Breeding and Genetics by organizing such Congresses, special lectures for the benefit of students and scientists and supporting meritorious students through fellowship programme and providing travel grant for attending seminars etc. This is the Second National Plant Breeding Congress organized by the Society to document the research findings and information generated after 1998, when it conducted the First National Plant Breeding Congress. Classifying the 305 papers contributed for the seminar, under six important titles such as, crop biodiversity, quantitative genetics, ploidy variations, hybrid breeding, in vitro breeding tools and genomics. The editors have chosen invited papers and presentations to cover the entire gamut of crop improvement and presented in a lucid form and assimilation of scientists particularly the younger group. I hope the reader will make the best of the information available in this book. I congratulate the editorial committee for bringing out this informative and useful publication for the benefit of researchers and students. Coimbatore

Prof. C. Ramasamy Vice-Chancellor iii

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PREFACE The science of plant breeding has great antiquity and is the most useful branch of science to the mankind. Though it was a simple procedure of selection of desirable plants for further perpetuation and utility to human community, the recent plant breeding procedures are technologically highly advanced and packed up with strong genetic base. Thus today, the methods are complicated but very efficient and precise to yield the desired results. The scientists engaged in crop improvement activities should also keep themselves abreast of the latest developments in Genetics, Cytogenetics, Genomics, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology. Besides, they should also listen to the socio-economic preferences and adjust to the IPR system. The Indian Society of Plant Breeders was started at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University during 1998 with a view to promote the interest of Plant breeders and to provide a common platform for exchange, discuss and disseminate the latest knowledge and developments to the end-users. The society organized the First National Plant Breeding Congress in July 1998 with the primary objective of taking stock of the developments made during 20th century and to programme the crop improvement technologies during 21st century. Now, this second congress was organized jointly with the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore to consolidate the research information generated during the last eight years in the field of crop diversity, heterosis breeding, ploidy breeding, biometrical and quantitative genetics and biotechnological approaches. There was overwhelming response from the scientists and more than 300 papers were received. The editorial committee carefully selected 46 articles including 11 invited papers for oral presentation and allotted 259 for poster presentations. There were 311 registered participants including scientists from SAUs, CSIR, ICAR and GOI institutes, International institutes and postgraduate and research scholars. A few represented private institutions too. There was also a special panel discussion on IPR issues which was valued by the participants. The Editorial Committee deem it a honour to publish all the oral presentation papers in this proceedings, the abstracts being printed and distributed to the participants on the inauguration day of the congress. The proceedings also contains the recommendations of the six technical sessions for easy follow up of the future program. The Editorial committee thank all the participants for their cooperation in sending the papers, revising them in the light of editors comments and sending back in time. The committee also thank the President, Secretary and Organizing Secretary of the Congress for their help. The committee also acknowledges the cooperation of the press M/s. Laser Park, Coimbatore in bringing out this publication in a nice way. The committee believes that this book will be very much useful to all the scientists engaged in crop improvement programmes including students and research scholars.

Coimbatore 09.02.07

Editorial Committee

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INDIAN SOCIETY OF PLANT BREEDERS The commencement of crop breeding research work in Tamil Nadu dates back to 1870 when an exotic cotton variety was introduced in India from Mauritius. The first breeding station in Tamil Nadu was established in 1901 at Kovilpatti to take up breeding work in cotton and millets. Subsequently breeding stations for sugarcane (1912), paddy (1913), cotton (1922), millets (1923), oilseeds (1930) and pulses (1943) were established. A separate department for forage crops was started in 1976. During this period, the importance of crop breeding which formed the backbone activity of all the agricultural research stations and the institutes was well recognized. However, subsequently there was a change in this trend and the plant breeding science, started to lose its prime importance. Therefore, the plant breeders felt that a common forum, which can rejuvenate the interests of the breeders and revitalise the activities would be necessary. With the above idea in view, it was decided by a group of breeders headed by Dr. M. Rangaswamy, Director, School of Genetics (presently known as Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore to start a forum for the plant breeders for encouraging the plant breeders serving in various capacities in different public and private sector institutions with the following objectives. 1. To promote brotherhood and progress among plant breeders 2. To encourage scientific and technological research on various aspects of plant breeding. 3. To provide a medium for the exchange, discussion and dissemination of current development in the field of plant breeding to its members. 4. To promote the general advancement of plant breeding science, to create a common platform to bring together and facilitate the exchange of Information and provide opportunities for its members to establish a firm link between the plant breeders in India and abroad. 5. To promote the profession of plant breeding and increase professional competence in developing improved varieties and hybrids in different crops. 6. Establishing a literature communication service to plant breeders.

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The plant breeders’ forum was inaugurated on February 26, 1995 by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan and the forum was registered as per S. No. 191 of 1995 on 6.11.1995. A total of 110 breeders from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Central Institute for Cotton Research (Regional Station), Forest Research Institute, Coimbatore scientists from private Companies and institutions and retired plant breeders joined the forum. Dr. J. Thuljaram Rao, Retired Director, Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore delivered the keynote address. To extend the services of the forum from state level to national level, the members felt the need of changing its nomenclature as Indian Society of Plant Breeders (ISPB) and the society was reregistered as a national body. Now the society is having 200 members including 140 life members and 3 foreign scientists. The society is actively involved in organizing seminars, special lectures for the benefit of students and scientists, supporting meritorious students through fellowship programme and providing travel grant for attending seminars etc. The society is looking for the enrollment of scientists involved in crop improvement for strengthening its existence and activities in the years to come.

President Indian Society for Plant Breeders TNAU, Coimbatore – 3.

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SECOND NATIONAL PLANT BREEDING CONGRESS PLANT BREEDING IN POST GENOMICS ERA CONTENTS I.

Inaugural address

II.

Presidential address

III.

Keynote address

IV.

Valedictory address

Technical Session I - Evaluation and utilization of crop biodiversity 1. Advances in breeding of vegetables Peter, K.V. and K.R.M. Swamy 2. Advances in spices breeding Peter, K.V. and K. Nirmal Babu 3. Enhancing utilization of plant genetic resources in crop improvement Upadhyaya, H.D. and C.L.L. Gowda 4. Rice biodiversity and its utilization Subramanian, M. and S. Tirumeni 5. Genetic diversity of Robusta - Arabica hybrids of coffee and utilization in breeding Santa Ram, A., D. Ganesh, N. Sandhyarani, S.R. Mythrasree, C. Murugan, R.K. Sabir, K.P. Dinesh, A. Manoharan, M.K. Mishra and Jayarama 6. Evaluation and utilization of biodiversity in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Santha V. Pillai, R.R. Nair, M.S. Palaniswami, C.S. Ravindran, S.N. Moorthy, V. Ravi and S. Sree Lekha 7. Agro-morphological characterization and evaluation of rice germplasm for major biotic stress tolerance Subba Rao. L.V., T. Ram, N. Shobha Rani, V. Ravindra Babu, I.C.Pasalu, C.S. Reddy, A.S. Ram Prasad, B.C. Viraktmath and S.V. Subbaiah 8. Characterization of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) genotypes and evaluation of genetic divergence Preetha-, S. and T.S. Raveendran viii

9. Interfamily variation and family selection in intervarietal crosses in sugarcane under excess water stress condition Govindaraj, P. 10. Developing high yielding rice varieties for Kerala a new approach Chandrasekharan, P. Technical Session II - Quantitative genetics and analysis of genotype x environment interaction

1. Quantitative genetics - Where are we today? Arunachalam, V. 2. Variability and association analysis for floral traits of coconut genotypes Augustine Jerard, B., V. Niral, V. Arunachalam and P.M. Kumaran 3. Breeding for improved yield and yellow mosaic virus disease resistance in black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) Murugan, E. and N. Nadarajan 4. Complex inheritance in rice variety MR 1523 of resistance to gall midge biotypes Suneetha, K., J.S. Bentur, K. Hima Bindu, P. Vijaya Lakshmi, C. Cheeralu, P.Ram Mohan Rao 5. Leaf trichome density – an indicator of jassid tolerance in cotton Kannan, S., R. Ravikesavan and M. Kumar 6. Variability for yield and quality attributes in interspecific progenies of Saccharum sp. Nagarajan, R., S. Alarmelu and R.M. Shanthi 7. Genetic studies on plant, maturity and physiological characters of maize (Zea mays L.) under rainfed and irrigated conditions Subba Rao, M. and R.D. Singh 8. Genetic analysis of leaf anatomical characters associated with jassid resistance in cotton (Gossypium spp.) Shimna Bhaskaran, R. Ravikesavan and T.S. Raveendran

Technical Session III - Utilization of ploidy breeding in crop improvement 1. Pre-breeding through ploidy manipulation to exploit alien genetic variability Amala J. Prabhakaran 2. Wheat polyploids as a model system for crop improvement ] Dalmir Singh and P.K.P. Meena ix

3. Role of polyploidy in cotton Khadi, B.M. and Vinita P. Gotmare 4. Cryptic genomic exchange between cultivated safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) and wild species, C. glaucus M. Bieb. Subsp anatolicus (Bioss.) Anjani, K. and M. Pallavi 5. Morphological, biochemical and molecular characterization of ploidy variants in coffee for genetic improvement Mishra, M.K., M. Violet D’Souza, N. Sandhyarani, S.B. Hareesh, Anil Kumar, S. R. Mythrasree, R.K. Sabir, A. SantaRam and Jayarama 6. Cytological studies on sugarcane intergeneric hybrids Babu, C., K.Koodalingam, U.S. Natarajan, R.M. Shanthi and S. Thangasamy 7. Cytological observations in colchicine induced hexaploids and their triploids of cross between Gossypium hirsutum [2n=4x=52, (AD1)] and Gossypium raimondii [2n = 2x = 26, D5] Saravanan, N.A., T.S. Raveendran and M. Kumar 8. Studies on the effect of preconditioning of pollen and dynamics of pollen tube growth in Gossypium sp. Gunasekaran, M. and T.S. Raveendran 9. Cytological analysis Vigna radiate x V. umbellata L. Hybrids Pandian, M., B. Subbalakshmi, AR. Muthiah and M. Kumar

Technical Session IV - Hybrid breeding in crops 1. Transgenic hybrid cotton technology and some genetic observations Narayanan, S.S. 2. Expression of Brix in tomato intervarietal hybrids Panagiotis A. Michalakopoulos and S.R. Sree Rangasamy 3. Development of male lines resistant to Fusarium wilt in castor (Ricinus communis L) Lavanya, C.and Raoof, M.A. 4. Development of superior inbreds and selection of efficient restorers for diverse CMS sources in sunflower Ranganatha, A.R.G., V. Vijay, C. Lavanya and K. Rukminidevi x

5. Restorer identification for CMS line IR 66707 A with O. perennis cytoplasm Banumathy, S., K. Thiyagarajan and K. Siddeswaran 6. Evaluation of isonuclear alloplasmic hybrids in chilli (Capsicum annuum L) Nanda, C., A. Mohan Rao, S. Ramesh and R.S. Kulkarni 7. Combining ability studies for quality traits in Indian mustard Mahak Singh and R.K.Dixit

Technical Session V - In vitro breeding tools in genetic enhancement of crops 1.

Combined expression of chitinase and â-1,3-glucanase generates high levels of sheath blight resistance in homozygous transgenic rice lines Sridevi, G., C. Parameswari, N. Sabapathy and K. Veluthambi

2.

Transformation of three antioxidant genes from a highly salt tolerant gray mangrove, Aveicennia marina Forsk. (vierh.) in Indica rice Ajay Parida, S.R. Prashanth, M.N. Jithesh and K.R. Sivaprakash

3.

In vitro genetic transformation for the Helicoverpa resistance using Cry 1 A(B) in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L cv Maroti) Sandhyarani, N., Mukund Shiragur. Sumangala Bhat and M.S.Kuruvinshetti

4.

Direct organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) Josnamol Kurian, K. Ramakrishnan, R. Gnanam and A. Manickam

5.

Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from immature inflorescence and leaf explants of sorghum cultivars Kumaravadivel, N., M.Umadevi and Susan Eapen

6.

Engineering sheath rot resistance in rice Rajesh, T., K. Kalpana, S. Maruthasalam, K. Poovannan, R. Samiyappan, D. Sudhakar and P. Balasubramanian

Technical Session VI - Contributions of genomic tools in crop improvement 1. Molecular breeding for brown planthopper (BPH) and blast resistance in rice Kshirod K. Jena and David J. Mackill 2. Quantitative trait loci, DNA markers and candidate genes What do we do with these? –Shashidhar, H.E. xi

3. Microsatellite and isozyme based genetic diversity measures for deciding productive cross combinations in sugarcane improvement Hemaprabha, G., U.S. Natarajan, N. Balasundaram and N.K. Singh 4. Sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) marker for the identification of cytoplasmic genic male sterile (CGMS) lines in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) Souframanien, J., A. Joshi Saha, J.G. Manjaya and T. Gopalakrishna 5. Molecular tagging of fertility restorer gene in cotton Amudha, J., G.Balasubramani, Suman.B.Singh, P.Singh and B.M.Khadi 6. Assessment of genetic diversity and interrelationship among wild mulberry (Morus laevigata and M. serrata) collections of India through DNA marker analysis Girish Naik , M. V., B. Mathi Thumilan, Bhaskar Roy and S. B. Dandin 7. Use of SSR markers for the identification of interspecific and intergeneric hybrids of Saccharum Vijayan Nair, N., A. Selvi, S. Suresh Ramraj and K. Sundaravel Pandian 8. QTL pyramiding for rice root morphological traits and its effect on grain yield, roots and plant characters under submerged, aerobic and drought situations Shailaja Hittalmani, Grace Arul Selvi and Pavana J. Hiremath 9. Tracing quantitative trait loci – the best and rest with reference to brown plant hopper resistance and nitrogen uptake in rice Maheswaran, M., S. Geethanjali, K.K. Vinod, P. Meenakshisundaram, T. Elaiyabharathi, P. Kadirvel, S. Senthilvel, P. Govindaraj, S. Arumugachamy, P. Shanmugasundaram, P. Malarvizhi and K. Gunathilagaraj

Sessionwise recommendations

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INAUGURAL ADDRESS Dr. C. Ramasamy. Vice Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

The world population is expanding rapidly and may reach 7.75 billion by 2020 and 10 billion by 2050 from the current population of about 6.5 billion. In India, the population may increase from the current 1.025 billion to 1.334 billion by the year 2020. Currently 800 million people are chronically malnourished and 2 billion people lack physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary needs. Limited availability of additional aerable land and water resources, and the declining trend in crop yields globally make food security a major challenge in the 21st century. To meet the demand of increasing population, India’s food grain production must be increased from 200 m.t. in 2000 to about 300 m.t. by the year 2020. According to the projections, to achieve these targets, food grain production must increase at the rate of 5 m.t. per year over the next two decades to meet food demand of the growing world population. Agricultural production in India has made great strides during the post independent period. The food grain production has increased from 50 m.tonnes in 1950 to 220 m.tonnes during 200405. This was primarily due to the advent of high yielding varieties by various crop breeding strategies. Crop improvement is the introduction and adaptation of genetically improved crop varieties giving higher yields than the local varieties used by farmers. The discovery and successful transfer of dwarfing genes from Norin 10 in wheat and Dee gee woo gen in rice had opened a new chapter in the history of global agriculture. The new varieties supported by other inputs had resulted in a multifold increase in food grain production and saved millions of lives from starvation, providing sustainability to national food security. The crop breeding work in Tamil Nadu commenced as early as in 1870 by way of introduction of a foreign cotton variety from Mauritius. With the appointment of a separate economic botanist, in 1898, the crop breeding work was initiated in sugarcane. The first crop breeding station was established in the year 1901 at Kovilpatti for cotton and millets followed by a research station for paddy, sugarcane and groundnut at Palur in 1905. By establishment of full fledged breeding stations at Coimbatore in 1912 for sugarcane, 1912 for paddy, 1922 for cotton, 1923 for millets, 1930 for oilseeds, 1943 for pulses, 1976 for forage crops, the crop breeding work was intensified. xiv

Simultaneously, crop breeding stations were started for these crops in other centres of this state also. At present, there are 31 research stations which are actively engaged in crop breeding work for evolution of crop varieties and hybrids and for maintaining crop genetic resources. Concerted efforts by TNAU scientists through research programmes resulted in the release of 262 crop varieties in agriculture, 155 in horticulture, 9 varieties in mushroom and two tree species. o

I am pleased to recollect the works rendered by our earlier breeders and genetists like Sir. T.S. Venkatraman (1912), famous Sugarcane Breeder who developed sugarcane varieties incorporating with biotic and abiotic stress and high biomass production gene complexes. Revolutionary changes in sugarcane cultivation and sugar industry with vastly improved yield and quality under nobilization programme by crossing among tropical S. officinarum, sub-tropical S.barberi and the wild S.spontaneum

Dr. K.Ramaiah o

Started scientific career in 1914 in the Paddy Breeding Station, Coimbatore

o

PBS is the oldest rice research station in India

o

He was the founder Director of the CRRI, Cuttack

o

In 1949, he led the International Rice Commission of the FAO

o

Initiated the indica-japonica hybridization program in 1952

o

First and the only Rajya Sabha M.P. among Agricultural Scientists

Dr. G.N. Rangaswamy Ayyangar o

A great doyan among millet researchers

o

Millet Breeding Station started in 1923

o

Set strong foundation to millet breeding in India

o

Made land mark contributions in genetics and improvement of Sorghum and minor millets, particularly little and Italian Millets Dr. V.S. Raman’s contribution to cytogenetics, Dr. Appadurai’s contribution to biometrics,

Prof. A. Subramanian’s role in green revolution are note worthy. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University is the pioneer in release of first rice hybrid in India, in the identification of CGMS system in pearl millet and sesamum, in development of GMS based hybrids in Pigeon pea and leader in the development of photoinsensitive lab lab varieties. It is our pride to mention the contribution of GEB 24 and TKM 6 rice varieties as a donor of genes to many international rice varieties. SPV 462 (CO 26) Sorghum and PT 732A, the indigenous Bellary xv

cytoplasm in Pearl Millet are important contributions from Millets. Cotton variety MCU 5 conforming to high fibre qualities required by mills is the only variety that can spin to 60s counts. TMV 2 and TMV 7 groundnut varieties highly demanded by groundnut growers even after so many decades of release are land marks in Plant Breeding. I am happy that the Plant Breeders of this prestigious institution have started a National Society called Indian Society of Plant Breeders in 1995 to promote the science of Plant Breeding and the society is effectively functioning by organizing special lectures honoring eminent Plant Breeders etc. It has organized First National Plant Breeding Congress during 1998. The growth rate of agricultural productivity is in declining trend and we need to intensify our efforts to enhance the rate of genetic upgradation in crops. We will have to look for newer genes, methodologies to transfer them at a much faster rate so that the variety developed with the required new trait in the already well adapted background can be transferred to the field without much loss of precious time. Biotechnology offers several advantages over classical breeding, in terms of precision, technology, gestation period, and gene transfer for specific traits even from the unrelated organisms. The conventional approach of breeding crops by itself may not be able to deliver the goods in the required time frame given the magnitude and urgency to feed the growing millions. In the context of a holistic agricultural development and ensuring household food security, role of biotechnology is going to be essentially much more important and vital than ever before. The conventional breeding methods will have to be complemented by an array of biotechnological tools and in a variety of ways such as tissue culture, DNA fingerprinting, molecular breeding, genomics, diagnostics, development of transgenics etc. Bioprospecting will have to essentially lay the foundation for effective mining and transfer of genes for specific traits. The first transgenic plants engineered for insect resistance in cotton, corn and soybean were released for commercial cultivation in 1996. In less than a decade (1996 to 2004), area under biotech crops has increased more than 47 times globally, from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 81.0 million hectares in 17 countries in 2004. Application of biotechnology in crop improvement programmes has started giving dividends. The area under Bt cotton has increased tremendously. Bt cotton and Bt corn are the important transgenic crops now under cultivation in India. Another exciting development in Biotechnology is the GM rice called ‘golden rice’, which is genetically engineered to produce beta-carotene, a xvi

substance which the body can convert to Vitamin A. The new rice could prove effective to overcome vitamin A deficiency, a condition which afflicts millions of people in developing countries, especially children and pregnant women. This rice is a product of genes transferred from a bacterium and a flower plant (daffodil). Tissue culture is yet another area with lot of scope for commercial exploitation. TNAU has developed protocols for successful dihaploid production in rice and micropropogation of banana, neem, jamun, pomegranate, rose, paulownia, orchid, Sthalavrisksha (trees) etc. which could be commercially exploited to benefit the community. While pursuing for higher productivity levels, we need to redesign the crop and to add value to the farm produce so as to make agriculture more rewarding to farmers. Also, the formation of harmful substances such as aflatoxin in groundnuts, neurotoxins in khesari dal, and cyanide in tapioca, besides several undesirable elements in chickpea, sweet pea, and potato, can be prevented by the use of modern biotechnological methods. There is no end to innovating the transformations in our future crop varieties/hybrids but it is important to look for our own indigenous gene constructs and promoters so as to be self-dependent and cost-effective in the wake of strong global IPR regimes. Incidentally, the onus lies on the public sector institutions, which undertake most of the transgenic research in India. Often referred to as “Gene Revolution or Biorevolution”, biotechnology - if judiciously harnessed, blended with traditional and conventional technologies and supported by policies - can lead to an ever-green revolution synergizing the sustainable pace of growth and development. The uncommon opportunities provided by fast developments in functional genomics, proteomics and DNA microchips must be brought to developing countries for progress in scientific research and development. It is high time to come up with the strategies for protecting our own varieties with new era of WTO and TRIPS. New varieties offered farmers a far higher yield and profit than traditional varieties. Naturally, the seeds of these varieties were in high demand. Seed saving and sharing by farmers met most of the demand, while the public and private seed supply systems met the rest. There was no demand for ownership on plant varieties during the days of the Green Revolution, when the seeds of many high yielding varieties evolved by scientists were in high demand. For agricultural sector, it was a kind of anathema, mainly because the Indian Patent Act xvii

1970 clearly prohibited patenting of methods of agriculture and horticulture. However, intellectual property protection has received enormous attention since 1986 when it was included in the Uruguay Round of Talks and particularly when Dunkel’s Proposal relating to GATT was published in 1991. TRIPS Provisions Relating to Agricultural Sector The provisions of the TRIPS Agreement have widened the scope of protection of intellectual property rights relating to agriculture through plant variety protection. A reference to Article 27 of the TRIPS will show that all inventions regardless of the field of technology are eligible for protection. Member countries will have to provide a legal framework for the protection of inventions relating to plant varieties. Indian Patent Act (1970) does not permit the patenting of plant varieties and animal breeds which are existing in nature. To protect the rights of the breeders and farmers, Govt. of India has enacted the Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers Rights (PVPFR ACT, 2001). Under the PPV&FR Act, Plant Breeders Right on a plant variety is established by registration of the variety. The PBR holder can be one person, a group or community or an institution. By registering a variety, the person or the institution becomes its PBR holder. The PBR holder alone has the exclusive right to produce, sell, market or distribute the seeds or planting material of that variety. Sensitizing agricultural scientists in IPR related issues will enhance the inventive capability of the agricultural research system, induce investment in agricultural research, strengthen domestic agricultural industries and generate confidence among domestic trade associations in our country. IPRs and Outlook for Scientific Research in Agriculture Out of the eight IPRs of the TRIPs Agreement, patents and plant variety protection will produce a marked change in the outlook for scientific research in agriculture. With a legal system in place for the protection of plant varieties, the scientists will try to come up with research and inventions of commercial value. Research especially in agriculture will not be carried out for the name sake of research. Agricultural scientists will endeavor to come up with inventions which can prove to be a commercial success. The provision for the protection of new plant varieties will have all pervasive effect in various fields of agriculture. In India, agricultural scientists have a unique orientation. Generally they develop varieties as they have to develop varieties for resource poor farmers. They do not visualize or anticipate any monetary reward to them forthcoming from their research. The protection available to them xviii

with Plant Breeders’ Rights will induce them to develop varieties which may command premium price in the market. In other words, the provision for the protection of new varieties in India will prove to be a great motivating force for the scientific community in agriculture. It will change their outlook for research. They should try to ensure before launching a research project that the products of their inventions are in demand in the market. IPRs and Inventive Capability of State Agricultural Universities Achieving self-sufficiency in food has been the cherished policy objective of our planners. As a result, a. reasonable infrastructure for agricultural research has come up. This infrastructure strives for developing varieties which can contribute to food production. However, the State Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes may have to be necessarily active and vibrant. With a legal system of protection of inventions in place, the SAUs will be induced to prioritize research from the standpoint of the commercial value of the research. The SAUs will also be induced to catalogue indigenous germplasm and develop an inventory of the plant genetic resources. The inventories will enhance the bargaining power of our country. Our agricultural research system will thus experience many changes leading to their enhanced inventive capabilities. Our agricultural scientists may modify their approach from quantitative gains in crop yields to qualitative attributes of the crop products. They may gear up their research system to meet the quality requirements of the consumers, having high willingness to pay for the quality of the product. IPRs and Investment in Agriculture With increased inventive capability of SAUs and assured protection of new varieties and agricultural inventions, the level of investment in agriculture may increase. Assured protection of IPRs may induce the private sector to take up the protected varieties for commercial production. The domestic seed industry in India may expand and flourish. However, the prospects of enhanced investment in agricultural sector through IPRs will depend upon the configuration of the private sector, the level of involvement of public sector in agriculture and the size of the market of the new products. IPRs and Regulations of Access to Biological Resources The Biological Diversity Act (BOA) 2002 envisages regulation of access to biological resources. The biological resources have been defined as resources which include plants, animals,

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micro-organisms or plant thereof (excluding value added product) with actual or potential use but do not include human genetic material. Section ‘6’ of the BDA-2002 stipulates that application for IPRs cannot be made without the prior approval of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) if the research is based on the use of biological material from India. The NBA may dispose such application for permission in 90 days and impose benefit sharing. All the IPR granting authorities will endorse a copy of the sanction issued by them in relevant cases to NBA. Thus IPRs will be used to regulate access to biological resources of India which is a very important for the economy of India. It would thus appear that new developments relating to IPRs in India have wide ranging implication for various sections in Indian economy. They will have implication for change in the outlook of scientists in agriculture, inventive capability of SAUs, investment in agriculture, trade association, growth of domestic industries, and regulation of access to biological resources. It is appropriate and worthy to take stock of the results achieved in each of the research area so far document and discuss them and based on the outcome, plan for the future. If we consider the plant breeding research early part of the 20th century was devoted to gaining basic information, cytogenetical and biometrical investigations during middle part, heterotic exploitation and germplasm conservation and utilization took place while during the current phase the beginning of biotechnological research, molecular biology and genetic transformation started. Now it is the blend of conventional and biotechnological investigations. It is therefore appropriate that the Congress will be useful to consolidate the research findings and plan for Plant Breeding activities in the 21st century so that the food and clothing needs of the growing population can be readily met without any shortage. I am happy to inaugurate the congress and wish that fruitful results should come out from the deliberations and the results should be transformed into action.

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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS Dr. K.V. Peter, Vice Chancellor, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala

India was rich in biodiversity and home to a large numbers of medicinal plants. Indians had adopted agriculture as early as 2000 B.C., and the wisdom of plant breeders was “tremendous”, having accumulated over a period of 4000 years. Despite adequate food stocks in the country, a large section of the people did not have the purchasing power to buy what they needed for adequate nutrition.

Biotechnology is one of the answers, at least regarding micro propagation in cardamom, vanilla and pepper, where there have been success stories.

In 2006, the food production of crops such as rice, wheat, barley and millets was about 208 million tonnes. However, by nutritional standards, the country needs 260 million tonnes. India was likely to import rice. However, this was an unwise step, for Mahatma Gandhi himself had cautioned against it, saying that import of agriculture amounted to import of unemployment.

Planners and administrators had predicted that by 2015, India would require 400 million tones of food grain for its population of 120 crores.

Plant breeders would face marketing challenges to sustain “production by the masses rather than mass production”

xxi

KEY-NOTE ADDRESS Dr. S. Prakash Tiwari, Director, National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (ICAR), Hyderabad It is my pleasure and privilege to be here at the TNAU, which lies in one of the most progressive states of India, i.e. Tamil Nadu, and is a leading agro-technology provider of India. Its graduates are recognized throughout the world. The University, since its genesis as an Agricultural School at Saidapet, Chennai, and its subsequent relocation at Coimbatore during 1906, has already completed its 100 years with laudable achievements. The science and practice of crop improvement has made great strides in the recent past. Truly, it is a post genomic era for plant breeding. I am happy to note that keeping in line with the great tradition of the TNAU, the Indian Society of Plant Breeders, Coimbatore has very timely organized this Second National Plant Breeding Congress on “Plant Breeding in Post Genomic Era”. The future of agriculture essentially lies in the new science-led agricultural growth towards farm prosperity. The whole biological world now belongs to a single gene pool. Gene of any organism can be transferred to any other organism. We can have designer plants. Crop improvement will benefit in an overall manner but mainly through the use of hybrid technology (used earlier as well) and agricultural applications of biotechnology, both being not mutually exclusive. The new tools of science, however, need deft handling in the interest of human welfare at large. The technologies have to be robust, farm-worthy, eco-friendly and to be made available to farmers at affordable cost in a scale-neutral manner. The farmers’ interests have to be protected. Farmers’ rights are primary rights and those should not be construed as secondary or concomitant benefits and privileges only. In the new era of the advent of GMOs / transgenics, bio safety of endemic variability riches such as that of Western Ghats are to be preserved. Our bio resources should be utilized on sustainable basis with equitable benefit sharing. We shall not replicate anything similar to what happened to maize land races in Mexico. Regulatory and operational bio safety regulations should be rigorously followed. There is a need for construction of an Integrated Database on Bio safety and use of GMOs in India. xxii

Any organism, including crop plants, can now be examined in terms of its whole hereditary organization through study of expression and interaction of genes – a field that is broadly referred to as ‘genomics’. The genomics of Arabidopsis thaliana and rice has already provided a wealth of information. India has contributed in this endeavor as one of the global partners in the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project. The focus of genetic research has now shifted from highthroughput sequencing to elucidation of gene function i.e. from structural to functional genomics. There could be myriad positive implications of genomics with respect to food, nutrition and environmental security of the nation. The science of genomics offers tremendous opportunities for the humanity in the field of medicine, agriculture and industry alike. Novel genes and DNA markers linked to agriculturally important traits are being identified and these can be used for rapid variety improvement in a more precise and targeted manner using markers assisted selection (MAS). Genetically modified improved plant varieties or transgenics can be produced. Also, plants can be engineered to produce novel products including vaccines and nutraceuticals. Plants, thus, serve as bio-factories. The major challenge for decoding genomes of crop plants is their enormous size. For example, the size of maize genome is 6 times and that of wheat is 40 times bigger than the rice genome. Hence, so far sequencing of only two genomes of higher plant namely Arabidopsis (125 Mb) and rice (400 Mb) have been completed. International efforts are underway for the sequencing of banana, tomato, cotton and maize genomes and the gene-rich regions of wheat. Still bigger challenge is to understand the functions (functional genomics, proteomics) of each and every new gene. For example, scientists have predicted nearly 62,000 genes in rice. Each of these genes will also have several alternative forms (alleles) and their structure and function needs to be deciphered by allele mining. We shall start with developing mapping populations such as RILs, NILs etc. and undertake molecular characterization and systematic phenotyping. Eventually, QTL analysis, fine mapping and reducing the number of candidate genes would enable gene identification and validation. The old paradigm of looking for the phenotype is giving way to the new paradigm of looking for the genes. In India, several genes such as Am A1 and OXDC have been isolated, xxiii

sequenced and used for transformation. Successful isolation of protease inhibitor and lectin genes and promoter sequences from indigenous legumes have been obtained. These genes are being mobilized in different crop species for developing transgenic crop plants. Genomic synteny and comparative genomics can help in gene discovery for desirable traits. Map-based cloning and allele mining is gaining importance (e.g. Rice blast resistance Pi-kh gene). Continuous gene and allele mining is needed for eventual gene deployment by (i) transgenics development, (ii) marker assisted selection, and (iii) gene pyramiding for (a) durable resistance for biotic stress and/or, (b) multiple stress tolerance. Thus, the research has to traverse the journey from gene discovery to trait synthesis for crop improvement. Innovative and Strategic Research in crop improvement is called for towards novel methods of gene transfer, marker-free selection of transformants, super promoters, tissue-specific expression and more insecticidal toxins.High power computing and a range of DNA analysis and data base management software along with the Internet revolution have played a crucial role in the wide spread genomic research. It has enabled scientists to work from anywhere in the world. Bioinformatics through orthologs identification and display, auto-pipeline and availability of gene expression data centralized to enable comparative analysis data mining would greatly help in plant breeding efforts. Gene Bank EST resources for crop plants are rapidly growing day by day. Use of the new tools of science is also enormous in biodiversity management viz. molecular characterization for biodiversity assessment, for IPR protection, for bio resource utilization, for building up core collections etc. Gene detection technologies can also help in minimising adventitious presence of transgenes in germplasm collections and farmers’/traditional varieties and land races. We are in the new IPR-regime as well. We have to stake the claims of national sovereignty on our germplasm and varieties. A single biotech-generated product may have several IP-protections. Holder of one of them can block the commercialization of the product. This calls for partnership among public and private sectors to overcome IPR-encumbrances. The country is well-poised to benefit from the new approaches in crop improvement. The conventional plant breeding efforts should, however, have a desirable confluence with biotechnological applications and these two should not be taken as mutually exclusive approaches.

xxiv

VALEDICTORY ADDRESS V. Santhanam, FAO Expert President, Indian Society of Plant Breeders, Dr. T.S. Raveendran, President of this Session Dr. N.M. Ramaswamy, my esteemed colleagues, Dr. S.S. Narayanan, Secretary of ISPB Dr. N. Sivasamy, and distinguished participants of the Second National Plant Breeding Congress, I deem it honour and privilege to have this opportunity to address the galaxy of plant breeders and biotechnologists in the broader sense who have gathered at the Second National Plant Breeding Congress. Thanks to the dynamic efforts of the President, Dr. T.S. Raveendran, and all his colleagues of the organizing committee. I understand that you had a very hectic schedule during the last 3 days with comprehensive presentations and discussion on the widest range of topics covering the entire gamut of technological tools now available with the plant breeders before arriving at this closing session. Dr. Narayanan had very ably summarized the recommendations followed by the presidential address by Dr. Ramasamy and very critical review of the entire congress presented by Dr. Raveendran. I do not think therefore, that I should deliver a formal valedictory address which will add only to your fatigue at the end of the day. It is a very happy coincidence that this campus is in its centenary year, the function for an agricultural institute being laid for this very building in the year 1906. The institution which has grown around this main clock tower building in which we are meeting today during last 100 years, provides testimony to the vibrant growth of agricultural education, research and extension in this part of the country which have gained national and international recognition. The crop improvement and breeding sections established at the Coimbatore campus as a part of Agricultural College and Research Institute during early decades of 20th century have rendered yeoman service to the cause of agriculture and increasing crop production and quality. It may be pertinent to recall the names of the some of the early pioneers in plant breeding who built up the high traditions for the vibrant plant breeding programmes which are actively being continued by the present generation scientists in this campus and its regional stations. I see many known faces and distinguished scientists among the audience and it may be difficult for me to list out all of them. Among the older pioneers who are not here the names of Dr. K. Ramaiah, the eminent Rice breeder, who recognized the importance of rice quality with yield in varietal xxv

improvement, Dr. B.W.X. Ponniah, in millet breeding, Rao Baghadur Dr. Ramanatha Iyer and Prof. Balasubramanian in cotton breeding come to my mind. Some of the early pioneers or stalwarts like Dr. P. Madhava Menon in the millet breeding station in the early 1950’s who was the first breeder to exploit hybrid vigour in the pearl millet improvement and Dr. P.V. Marappan, the former Director of School of Genetics, a predecessor to Dr. Raveendran, was responsible for milestone development of cotton variety MCU 5, the best ever hirsutum cotton released in India through introgressive hybridization. The world’s worst recorded food disaster happened in the year 1943 in Bengal of British India when an estimated 4 million people died of hunger. In a recent meeting held at CIRCOT, Bombay in December 2005, Mr. R.M. Lala, Chairman, Centre for Advancement of Philanthropy and also a trustee of MSSRF introduced Dr. Swaminathan, the main speaker at the function with the information that the Bengal catatrosphy in the year 1943 ignited a spark in young Swaminthan to choose an agriculture based career for himself. He joined Agricultural College, Coimbatore in the year 1944 and graduated in 1947. The latest history is too well known to be repeated to this august audience. The average Indian who was leading dependent life on food grain shipment in mid 1950’s literally had a slip to mouth to existence, now proudly holds his head high in the international scenario due to Green Revolution. Food production has increased from 50 mt. in 1950 to over 200 mt. estimated for the current year with enough stock to feed over 1 billion people. It is the miracle of application of science and technology complimented with administrative support and political will. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, as you all know, is now spreading a movement for an ‘evergreen revolution’ to sustain the development. I started my professional career in the Cotton Breeding Station of this Institute in mid 1947 and I may therefore take the liberty of a couple of minutes saying specifically on the cotton breeding and varietal improvement scenario. The Indian cotton crop is the most diverse in the world in terms of botany and fibre quality range. A major landmark in the history of cotton breeding in India is the exploitation of hybrid technology with the release of the intra hirsutum hybrid in Gujarat by Dr. C.T. Patel in 1970 and the extension to commercial cultivation of first generation hybrid cottons. Subsequently a large number of hybrids both of intra and interspecific nature like Varalaxmi and DCH 32 from Karnataka and TCHB 213 from this Institute have all been extended in large scale cultivation. Currently, nearly 50% total cotton area is estimated to be covered by xxvi

hybrids developed by the public sector as well as the dynamic private sector research and hybrid seed production contributing to over 50% of total cotton output in the country. Another significant milestone in the cotton breeding programme is the recent utilization of transgenic technology utilizing the Bt gene conferring resistance to Helicoverpa bollworms. I am sure this subject would have been dealt at length by my esteemed colleague Dr. S.S. Narayanan yesterday. To say, during the year 2005-2006, the transgenic Bt hybrid cotton is estimated to have covered about 18% of National cotton area and contribute about 25% of production. Genes for jeans is the slogan with target genes in mind. Insecticidal and herbicidal resistance, drought tolerance, seed oil and protein improvement, fibre modification and inducing male sterility are other avenues in biotechnological research. The phenomenal increase in cotton production to about 240 lakh bales of cotton lint in the current year 2005-2006 as against 26 lakh bales only in 1947 – 48 at the time of independence may well be considered a “white revolution” comparable to the praiseworthy green revolution in food crops. To commemorate this achievement, I may venture to suggest that the Indian Society of Plant Breeders consider their motto of ‘breed and feed’ to be amended as ‘breed, seed and feed’ the Nation. Perhaps seed alone in the broader sense includes agro industry also apart from alleviating hunger of billion mouths. Before I conclude, I wish to close with relevance to plant breeders. Dr. Norman Ernest Borlaug, the Nobel Laureate who is mainly responsible for high yielding varieties of Mexican dwarf wheat which seeded the green revolution in many parts of the world apart from India during 1970’s used to observe in mock seriousness. I quote “An ideal crop variety is an elusive to secure as an ideal wife”. If the breeders were to wait to release an ideal variety combining in one cultivar of all desirable traits, he will retire from service, as a frustrated person without releasing any variety. Similarly the gentleman waiting for an ideal wife will remain unmarried for life. I would like to thank once again the Society and Organizing Committee for giving me this valuable opportunity to meet you all in this afternoon. I wish to congratulate one and all of you for the significant contributions made by you to breed and feed. May I close and wish you all good future. Thank you. xxvii

TECHNICAL SESSION I EVALUATION AND UTILIZATION OF CROP BIODIVERSITY

ADVANCES IN BREEDING OF VEGETABLES Peter, K.V1. and K.R.M. Swamy2

ABSTRACT Vegetable crops are important sources of carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and proteins. India is credited as the second largest producer of vegetables in the world next only to China. Because of varied agro-climatic conditions in India, a large number of vegetable crops are grown here and a great deal of research work conducted in the disciplines of vegetable breeding, production technology, plant protection, seed production and postharvest technology.

has to go a long way for boosting vegetable production to meet minimum need for nutritional security of population. Scope for horizontal expansion of area under vegetable crops is much limited due to lack of suitable land and thus option is for vertical increase by enhancing productivity.

Advantages of vegetables are as follows: - Nutritional security. - Production of more biomass. - Reduction in malnutrition. - Digestible protein. - Economical to grow. - Well fitting in farming systems. - Suitable for mixed, companion and intercropping. - Maximum output and more income / unit area. - Suitable for small farmers. - Source of supplementary income. - Intensive employment. - Higher income. - Export potential.

Estimated area under vegetables in India is 8.0 million ha and production is 95 million tonnes with productivity of 13- 15 tonnes/ha. By 2020, area should be 12.5 million ha and production should be 200-250 million tonnes with productivity of 20 tonnes/ha. History of vegetable breeding in India Vegetable research in India is of recent origin. Major milestones of vegetable research

Quantity of vegetables produced / capita in India is much lower than what is recommended by dieticians. In India, per capita availability is around 135 g against minimum requirement of about 300 g for a balanced diet. World’s per capita availability is 160 g/day as against 236 g/ capita/day in developed countries. In general, average/ capita / day availability of vegetables in South Asian region is only 96 g which is higher than only South-East Asia (63 g), sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. In a few developed and developing countries, per capita /day consumption of vegetables is very high, e.g., Italy (593 g), Japan (523 g), USA (469 g), Canada (428 g), Australia (346 g), China (195 g), Philippines (167 g) and Thailand (163 g). India

* 1940 – Successful attempt of seed production of temperate vegetables at Quetta (now in Pakistan). * 1947 – Sanctioning of nucleus ‘Plant Introduction Scheme’ at Indian agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. * Simultaneous start of ad-hoc schemes by Indian Council of Agricultural Research in different states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Tamil * 1949– Establishment of Vegetable Breeding Station at Katrain in Kullu Valley,Himachal

1. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. 2. Division of Vegetable Crops, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore

1

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vegetable improvement, a Central University on Agriculture with headquarters at Imphal, Manipur came into existence in 1993.This University has various colleges including a College of Horticulture with a separate Department of Vegetable Science.

Pradesh for production of seeds of te mperate vegetables. * 1955 – Transfer of Vegetable Breeding Station, Katrain to Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to undertake research on temperate vegetable crops, standardization of seed production technology and to produce seeds of improved varieties of temp erate vegetable crops.

* 1968 - Establishment of Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore with a strong focus on vegetable improvement among other things. * 1970 – Initiation of All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project (AICRIP) with headquarters at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi headed by a Project Co-ordinator.

* 1956 – Creation of Division of Horticulture at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi * 1960 – Establishment of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs): The G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, formerly known as Uttar Pradesh Agricultural University (UPAU), Pantnagar was the first agricultural university to be established on land grant pattern in 1960. State agricultural universities establishment on the pattern of land grant colleges/ universities of United States of America had full-fledged and separate Departments of Horticulture and/or Vegetable Science started from 1960 onwards. These developments gave thrust to vegetable research. Twenty six state agricultural universities plus one central university on agriculture as given in Table-1 are now engaged in the conduct of research on vegetable improvement. In the past, vegetable improvement programmes were located in combined Departments of Horticulture. Lately, there has been a shift towards creation of separate and independent Departments of Vegetable Science after bifurcation/trifurcation of existing Departments of Horticulture to carry out vegetable breeding and production work more efficiently.

* 1984–Recommendation of Quin quennial Review Team (QRT) of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research to upgrade the All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project to the level of Project Directorate of Vegetable Research (PDVR). * 1987 – Start of Project Directorate of Vegetable Research during the Seventh Five Year Plan by upgrading erstwhile All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project, with head quarters at IARI, New Delhi. * 1992 – Shifting of headquarters of PDVR from New Delhi to Varanasi. * 1994- Initiation of All India Co-ordinated Nadu Research Project under National Seed Project (NSP) for production of breeder seed of vegetable crops with a financial outlay of Rs.303.59 lakhs for 3 years spread over various centers engaged in vegetable research. * 1995 – Initiation of ICAR research network on promotion of hybrid research in vegetable crops (ad-hoc project) for 3 years with total cost of Rs.330.38 lakhs spread over different vegetable research centers/

Besides these 26 State Agricultural Universities conducting researches on 2

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State Agricultural Universities.

testing. At present, around 30 % of area under vegetable crops is covered by improved varieties. Non-availability of seeds of improved varieties is one of the major production constraints in India.

The PDVR was later upgraded as an Institute, Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR). All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Vegetable Crops (AICRP-VC) has its headquarters at IIVR, Varanasi, and it includes seven main centers, 18 sub-centers, 19 voluntary centers and 34 private seed companies for conducting experiments/trials on vegetable crops.

Resistant varieties Vegetable crops are highly susceptible to a number of diseases. Breeding for disease resistance is given due importance to develop varieties against important diseases. Over 80 disease-resistant varieties/hybrids are developed in 13 vegetable crops (Table-11). Breeding methods depend on source of resistance and its inheritance. For simply inherited resistance, back-cross method of breeding is commonly employed to transfer resistance from donor parent to commercial variety. In certain cases, simple selection, pedigree methods and combination of backcross and pedigree method are employed in breeding. In polygenic control of resistance, mass selection, recurrent selection, controlled matings (among resistant progeny) in F2 and succeeding generations and other breeding methods involving gene pyramiding are employed. Biotechnological approaches like embryo rescue and protoplast fusion techniques need to be employed to overcome interspecific and even inter-generic barriers as shown by the crosses: (S.melongena x S.sisymbrifolium, S. gilo x S.integrifolium), (L.esculentum x L.peruvianum), (C.annum x C.baccatum var. pendulum), (Sinapis alba x Brassica oleracea var. botrytis), etc. Specific programmes need to be taken to integrate resistance breeding with heterosis breeding to develop promising disease-resistant hybrids. Parents resistant to indigenous pathogens or races of pathogens should be developed for their subsequent utilization to develop resistant hybrids. In India, resistance to diseases forms a significant objective in vegetable breeding programmes. Several resistant varieties were developed by simple selection and incorporation

Achievements in breeding of vegetables Significant achievements were made in breeding of vegetable crops in India since 1950’s by adopting different methods of breeding such as plant introduction, plant selection (individual plant selection, pure line selection, mass selection, line breeding, family breeding, selfing and massing, recurrent selection), hybridization and selection, back-cross method of breeding, mutation breeding, synthetic varieties, heterosis breeding etc. depending upon crops involved. Development of improved and high yielding varieties Tremendous progress was made in the development of improved and high yielding varieties of different vegetable crops. Over 400 varieties of different vegetable crops comprising solanaceous fruits, cole crops, bulb crops, peas and beans, cucurbits, root crops, leaf vegetables and others developed/identified by different ICAR institutes and agricultural universities by adopting breeding methods like introduction and acclimatization (Table-2), pure line selection (Table-3), mass selection (Table-4), line/ family breeding (Table-5), inbreeding/ inbred selection (Table-6), recurrent selection, hybridization and selection/ pedigree selection (Table 7–8), synthetic varieties development (Table 9), mutation breeding (Table 10), and back cross method of breeding (Table 11) are recommended for cultivation in various agro-climatic conditions based on multilocation and multidisciplinary 3

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origin.

of resistance from donor parents. Interspecific hybridizations are successfully accomplished to develop resistant varieties. Yellow vein mosaic virus resistant varieties of okra (Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika etc.,) were developed employing resistant wild species Albemoschus manihot ssp. manihot and ssp. tetraphyllus. Two leaf curl resistant tomato varieties, Hisar Anmol and Hisar Gaurav were developed by transferring resistance from Lycopersicon hirsutum f.glabratum. Resistant varieties so far developed in India are presented in Table-11. Resistance in breeding should be viewed as a continuous process. Due attention must be paid to develop new varieties with higher level of resistance coupled with high quality attributes. In vegetable crops, resistant varieties would be of little use unless it possesses good horticultural characters. Resistance breeding must be integral part of any breeding programme.

Development of hybrid cultivars in various vegetable crops is receiving due and increasing attention by the All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project. Importance being given to heterosis breeding in vegetable crops in India by Indian Council of Agricultural Research can be recognized from the fact that ICAR sanctioned a special adhoc research project on promotion of hybrid research in vegetable crops for a period of 3 years (1995-96 to 1997-98) with a total cost of Rs.330.38 lakhs. Vegetable crops included in this programme were tomato, chilli, capsicum, okra, onion, cucumber, bitter gourd, cabbage and brinjal. Future Thrusts * Emphasis needs to be given to introduce germplasm resistant to iotic and abiotic stresses, hybrids and varieties with high export potential (Table 14). * Development of highly stable resistant cultivars of okra to yellow vein mosaic virus which normally results in breakdown, besides resistance to other diseases, insects and nematodes.

Hybrid varieties ICAR Research Institutes and Agricultural Universities contributed considerably to develop F1 hybrids. At present, over 80 F1 hybrid cultivars of 16 vegetable crops were developed by public sector organizations Table 12. Private seed companies did commendable work in popularizing hybrid varieties in India. Over 200 F1 hybrids in 15 vegetable crops are being sold by seed companies in India (Table 13). At present, there is competition among the private seed companies (both national and multi-national) in the present liberalization of seed policy. Most of hybrids released at national level were developed by public sector but their popularity among farmers is rather poor due to very weak seed production and marketing infrastructures at Government level. Private sector establishments are rather prompt and well planned in seed distribution. For this reason, most of the hybrids grown in India are of private sector

* Varieties suitable for processing purposes. * Varieties suitable for export purposes. * Okra seed contains good amount of oil (1820%) and crude protein (20- 23%) which needs commercial exploi tation. * Being sensitive to day length, ability to flowerthroughout the year, especially in tropics and sub-tropical regions, needs exploitation. * Short duration cultivars with branching habits, early flowering, more nodes, less inter-nodal distance need to be bred.

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Table 1. List of State Agricultural Universities showing combined Department of Horticulture/ independent Department of Vegetable Science. Sl. No.

State Agricultural University

Year of Establishment

Department

1. G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and Technology

1960

Vegetable science

2. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaneer, Rajasthan

1962

Horticulture,

3. Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Orissa

1962

Horticulture

4. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab

1963

Vegetable science

5. Jawaharalal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh

1964

Vegetable science

6. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh

1965

Horticulture

7. University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka

1965

Horticulture

8. Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra

1969

Horticulture

9. Punjab Rao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra.

1969

Horticulture

10. Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam

1969

Horticulture

11. Chaudhury Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, Haryana.

1970

Vegetable science

12. Tamil Nadu Agriculture University,Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

1971

Vegetable science

13. Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar

1971

Vegetable science

14. Marathawada Agricultural University, Parbhani, Maharashtra

1972

Horticulture

15. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

1972

Horticulture

16. Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Kerala.

1972

Vegetable science

17. Gujarat Agricultural University, Sardar, Krishinagar, Dantiwada, Gujarat (with Colleges of Agriculture at Anand, Navsari, Junnagadh, Sardar Krishinagar Vegetable science

1972

Horticulture

18. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya,Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal

1974

Horticulture

19. Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture andTechnology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh [Vegetable Improvement under Economic Botanist (Veg.) at Kalyani]

1975

Horticulture

20. Narendra Deo University of Agriculture and Technology, Narendranagar, Kumarganj, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh

1975

Vegetable science

21. Himachal Pradesh Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh

1978

Vegetable science

22. Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Bihar

1982

Horticulture

23. Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agriculture and Technology, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir

1982

Horticulture

24. Y.S.Parmar University of Agriculture and Forestry, Solan, Himachal Pradesh.

1984

Vegetable science

25. University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar, Karnataka

1986

Horticulture

26. Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh.

1987

Horticulture

5

Table 2. Promising introductions in various vegetable crops Crop Tomato(9)

Sweet Pepper (6)

Pea (10)

French bean (6)

Cowpea (1) Cauliflower(2) Cabbage(5)

Knol-khol(3)

Variety Roma Labonita Sioux Marvel Best of All Money Maker VC 48-1 NDT-10NDT-5 California Wonder Yolo Wonder World Beater Chinese Giant Golden Cal Wonder Bullnose Early Superb Meteor Arkel Little Marvel Early Badger Bonneville Lincon Alderman Perfection New Line Sylvia Contender Giant Stringless Kentucky Wonder Bountiful Masterpiece Jampa Philippines Early Improved Japanese D-96 Golden Acre Copenhagen Market Glory of Enkhuizen September Red Acre (Red cabbage) White Vienna 6

Introduced from USA USA USA USA USA USA Taiwan --USA USA USA USA USA USA UK UK UK UK USA USA USA USA USA USA Sweden USA USA USA USA USA Mexico Philippines Israel Israel Denmark Denmark The Netherlands Germany -Europe

Brussels sprouts(5)

Radish(3)

Carrot (3)

Garden beet (4)

Turnip (4)

Onion(3)

Watermelon(6)

Cucumber(4)

Summer squash(2) Bitter gourd (1)

Purple Vienna King of North Hilds Ideal Amager Market Catskill Danish Giant Danish Prize White Icicle Scarlet Globe Japanese White Nantes Chantney Danvers Detroit Dark Red Crimson Globe Crosby Egyptian Early Wonder Purple Top White Globe Golden Ball Snowball Early Millan Red Top Early Grano Barmuda Yellow Brown Spanish Asahi Yamato Sugar Baby New Hampshire Midget Improved Shipper Dixielee Fuken Japanese Long Green Straight Eight Poinsettee China Australian Green Patty Pan MD-4

7

Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Denmark Denmark Europe Europe Japan Europe Europe Europe USA USA --Europe Europe Europe Europe USA Philippines Philippines USA USA USA USA USA -Japan USA USA -Australia USA --

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Table 3. Vegetable varieties developed by pure line selection

Crop

Variety

Genetic stock

Tomato (15)

Improved Meeruti HS-110 Sonali Pant Bahar Arka Vikas Arka Saurabh Punjab Tropic Pusa-120 S-12 Arka Abha Arka Alok Arka Ahuti Pant-T-3 CO-1 CO-2

Indigenous Exotic Exotic Exotic Exotic (USA) Exotic(Canada) Exotic (USA) Exotic (USA) Exotic (USA) Exotic (Taiwan) Exotic (Taiwan) Exotic (Canada) Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Brinjal (12)

Pusa Purple Long Pusa Purple Cluster Pusa Purple Round Pant Samrat Arka Shirish Arka Kusumakar Arka Sheel Punjab Chamkila T-3 Krishnanagar Green Long Punjab Neelam Punjab Bahar

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Chilli (15)

G-2 G-3 K-1 CO-1 CO-2 GCA-154 Kaliayanpur Yellow Kaliyanpur Red Kaliyanpur Chaman Sabour Angar Sabour Arun Arka Lohit CA-960 Bhagyalakshmi Sindhur

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Exotic (Portugal) Exotic (Sri Lanka) Exotic (C.A. 960)

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Crop

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Variety

Genetic stock

Pea (2)

Asauji Harbhajan

Indigenous Exotic

French bean(4)

Pant Anupama VL Boni-1 Arka Komal Arka Bold

Indigenous Indigenous Exotic(Australia) Exotic(Hungary)

Cowpea (3)

Cowpea 263 Pusa Barsati Pusa Phalguni

Indigenous Exotic (Philippines) Exotic (Canada)

Cucumber(1)

Sheetal

Indigenous

Muskmelon(5)

RM-43 Durgapura Madhu Arka Rajhans Arka Jeet Pusa Madhuras

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Watermelon (2)

Durgapura Meetha Durgapura Kesar

Indigenous Indigenous

Pumpkin (4)

CO-1 CO-2 CM-14 Arka Chandan`

Indigenous Exotic Indigenous Indigenous

Summer Squash(2)

Punjab Chappan Kaddu-1 Early Yellow Prolific

Indigenous Indigenous

Winter Squash(1)

Arka Suryamukhi

Indigenous

Bitter gourd (11)

Coimbatore Long Pusa Do Mousami Arka Harit VK-1a-Priya CO-1 MC-23 Pusa Vishesh Punjab BG-14 NDB-1 Phule BG-6 Kaliyanpur Sona

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Ridge gourd (3)

Pusa Nasdar CO-1 CO-2

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Bottle gourd (7)

Pusa Summer Prolific Long Punjab Long Arka Bahar Pusa Naveen

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

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Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Variety

Genetic stock

Pusa Summer Prolific Round Punjab Round CO-1

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Wax gourd (2)

CO-1 KAU Local

Indigenous Indigenous

Snake gourd(3)

CO-1 CO-2 TA-19

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Indian Squash (Tinda) (1)

Tinda S-48

Indigenous

Sponge gourd (1)

Pusa Chikni

Indigenous

Long melon(2)

Arka Sheetal Karnal Selection

Indigenous Indigenous

Amaranth(10)

Badi Chaulai Kannara Local Pusa Kiran Chhoti Chaulai Pusa Kriti CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 Arka Suguna Arka Arunima

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Exotic (Taiwan) Indigenous

Pusa Early Prolific JDL-79 JDL-53 K-6802 JDL-37 HD-18 HD-60 Deepaliwal Rajni CO-1 CO-8

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Cluster bean(3)

Pusa Sadabahar Pusa Mausami PLG-850

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Okra (5)

CO-1 Perkins Long Green Punjab No.13 Pusa Makhmali Gujarat Bhendi-1

Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous

Dolichos/ Hyacinth bean(11)

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Table 4. Vegetable varieties developed by mass selection Crop

Variety

Genetic stock

Tomato(1)

Arka Ashish

Exotic

Capsicum (3)

Arka Mohini

Exotic

Arka Gourav

Exotic

Arka Basant

Exotic

Cauliflower(1)

Pusa Katki

Indigenous

Onion(16)

Punjab Selection

Indigenous

Pusa Red

Indigenous

Arka Niketan

Indigenous

Arka Kalyan

Indigenous

Agrifound Dark Red

Indigenous

CO-2

Indigenous

Nasik Red

Indigenous

Arka Pragati

Indigenous

Patna Red

Indigenous

Pusa White Round

Indigenous

N-53

Indigenous

Kaliyanpur Red Round

Indigenous

Agrifound Light Red

Indigenous

Hisar-2

Indigenous

Arka Bindu

Indigenous

Pusa Madhavi

Indigenous

Pusa Desi

Indigenous

Punjab Safed

Indigenous

Punjab Ageti

Indigenous

Kaliyanpur-1

Indigenous

Arka Nishant

Exotic

HS-23

Indigenous

Radish (5)

Palak (1)

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Table 5. Vegetable varieties developed by Line/Family breeding Crop

Variety

Cauliflower (6)

Genetic stock

Hisar -1

Exotic

Pusa Himiyoti

Exotic

Snowball-16

Exotic

Pusa Snowball K-1

Exotic

Punjab Giant-26

Exotic

Punjab Gant-35

Exotic

Cabbage (1)

Pride of India

Exotic (Denmark)

Onion (2)

Pusa Ratnar

Exotic (USA)

Hisar-2

Indigenous

Pusa Chetki

Indigenous

CO-1

Indigenous

Pusa Sweti

Exotic

Radish (2) Turnip (1)

Table 6. Vegetable varieties developed by Inbreeding/Inbred selection Crop

Variety

Cauliflower (3)

Genetic stock

Pusa Deepali

Indigenous

Dania Kalimpong

Exotic

Pusa Snowball-2

Exotic

Muskmelon (1)

Hara Madhu

Indigenous

Palak(1)

All Green

Indigenous

Table 7. Vegetable varieties developed by recurrent selection. Crop

Variety

Cauliflower (2)

Genetic stock

Pant Gobhi-4

Indigenous

Pant Shubhra

Indigenous

Table 8. Hybridization and selection from advanced generations /Pedigree selection Crop

Variety

Parents involved

Tomato(17)

Pusa Early Dwarf Pusa Ruby HS-101 HS-102 Hisar Arun (Sel.7)

Improved Meeruti x Red Cloud Sioux x Improved Meeruti Sel.2-3 x Exotic cultivar Sel.12 x Pusa Early Dwarf Pusa Early Dwarf x K-2 12

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Variety

Parents involved

Punjab Chhuhara Hisar Lalima (Sel.18) Hisar Lalit Pusa Sheetal

PH-4 Hisar Shyamal (H-8) Hisar Jamuni (H-9) Pant Rituraj Pusa Anupam Punjab Barsati Sadabahar Baingan Pusa Uttam Pusa Bindu Pusa Upkar Arka Nidhi Arka Keshav Arka Neelkanth

Punjab Tropic x EC-55055 Pusa Early Dwarf x HS-101 Bangalore (resistant) x HS-101 Balkan (exotic, Bulgaria) x Jemnorrosnej (exotic, Russia) Pusa Red Plum x Sioux Glamour (exotic) x Watch (exotic) Punjab Tropic x EC-55055 Marvel x Globe Kachmethi x Rutgers L.esculentum x L.pimpinellifolium (HS-101 x Punjab Tropic) x (H-14 x Punjab Tropic) Arka Vikas x IIHR 554 (Pusa Purple Long x Hyderpur) x Wynad Giant Pusa Purple Long x Hyderpur Aushey x BR-112 Aushey x R-34 T-3 x Pusa Purple Cluster Pusa Kranti x Pusa Purple Cluster Pusa Purple Cluster x R-34 Japanese Long x R-34 GR x Pant Rituraj GR x Pant Rituraj GR x PB 91-1 Dingrass Multiple Purple x Arka Sheel Dingrass Multiple Purple x Arka Sheel Dingrass Multiple Purple x Arka Sheel

K-2 Jawahar Mirch-218 X-235 (Bhaskar) G-5 NP 46A Pusa Jwala Punjab Lal Pant C-1 X-197 X-200 Arka Lohit

B-70A x Sathur Samba Kalipeeth x Pusa Jwala Bhagyalakshmix Yellow anther mutant G-2 x B-31 Local x Puri Red NP 46-A x Puri Red Perennial chilli x Long Red NP-46-A x Kandhari (natural cross) G-3 x Huntaka (Exotic, Japan) Lavang Mirche x G-2 Indigenous

Sweet-72 Pusa Gaurav Punjab Kesri Marglobe Keck-Ruth Ageti Pusa Red Plum Sel.2

Brinjal (14)

Chilli (12)

Arka Meghali Pusa Kranti

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Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop Pea (13)

P-88

Cowpea (11)

Hyacinth bean (5)

Cluster Bean (2) Okra (7)

Cauliflower(2)

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Variety

Parents involved

Arka Suphal Jawahar Matar-1 (GC-141) Jawahar Matar-2 (GC-477) Jawahar Matar-3 Jawahar Peas-54 Jawahar Peas-83 Hisar Harit Pusa-2 x Morrasis-55 Jawahar Peas-15 (JP-15) JM-6 (JP-4) VL-3 Matar Ageta-6 Arka Karthik Pusa Dofasli S-203 S-488 Pusa Komal Aseem Pusa Rituraj Narendra Lobia-1 BCKV-1

Pant C1 x IIHR 517A T-19 x Greater Progress Greater Progress x Russian-2 T-19 x Little Marvel (Early December) (Arkel x JM-5) x (‘46C x JP-501) (JM-1 x JP-829) x (‘46C x JP-501) Bonneville x P-23 VL-7 (VL Ageti Matar-7) IP-3 x Arkel (JM-1 x R-98B) x JR-501 A/2 Local Yellow Batri x (6588 x ‘46C) Old SugarxEarly WrinkledDwarf-2-2-9 Massey Gem x Harabona Arka Ajit x IIHR 554 Pusa Phalguni x Philippines Bush Sel.2 x Virginia Virginia x Iron Grey (Pusa Dofasli x EC-26410) x P-426 Pusa Dofasli x Philippines Bush Pusa Dofasli x EC-26410 Pusa Komal x Varanasi Local EC-243954 (Unguiculata) x EC-305827 (Sesquipedalis) V-70(Biflora)xSel.TM-3 (Sesquipedlais) Pusa Komal x Arka Garima Arka Garima x P.Komal Local Avare x Red Typicus Hebbal Avare-1 x US 67-31 Hebbal Avare x CO-8 Wal-2-K2 x Wal 125-36 CO-8 x CO-1 Pusa Sadabahar x Pusa Mausami Pusa Naubahar x IC-11521 Pusa Makhmali x IC-1542 (Pusa Sawani x Best-1) x (Pusa Sawani x IC7-194) A.escuelntusx A.manihot ssp. Manihot A.escuelntusx A.manihot ssp. Manihot A.escuelntusx A.manihot ssp. Manihot A.esculentusxA.manihot ssp. Tetraphyllus A.esculentus x A.manihot ssp. Tetraphyllus (MGS-2-3 x 15-1-1) x D-96 EC-12012 x EC-12013

BCKV-2 Arka Suman Arka Samrudhi Hebbal Avare-1 Hebbal Avare-3 Hebbal Avare-4 Wal Konkan-1 CO-2 Pusa Naubahar P-28-1-1 Pusa Sawani Selection-2 Punjab Padmini Punjab-7 Parbhani Kranti Arka Anamika Arka Abhay Pusa Shubhra Pusa Snowball-1 14

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Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Crop

Variety

Parents involved

Cabbage (2)

Pusa Mukta Pusa Drumhead Pusa Himani Pusa Safed Pusa Reshmi Imperator Selection-233 Pusa Kesar Pusa Meghali Pusa Yamadagni Pusa Chandrima Pusa Kanchan Pusa Swarnima Pusa Sharbati Punjab Sunheri Hisar Madhur Arka Manik Pusa Bedana (triploid) Punjab Komal Pusa Palak Pusa Harit Banarjee’s Giant Arka Arunima Arka Pitambar Arka Tinda Arka Sujat Arka Sumeet

EC-10109 x EC-24855 F1 hybrid from Japan Radish Black x Japanese White White-5 x Japanese White Green Top x Desi Type (Asiatic) Nantes x Chanteny Nantes x No.29 Local Red x Nantes Pusa Kesar x Nantes EC-9981 x Nantes Snowball x Japanese White Local Red Round x Golden Ball Golden Ball x Japanese White Kutana x PUR-6 (Cantaloupe) Hara Madhu x Edisto Pusa Sharbati x 75-34 IIHR-21 x Crimson Sweet Tetra-2 x Pusa Rasal LC-11 (inbred) x LC-5 (inbred) Swiss Chard x Local Palak Sugarbeet x Local Palak Local Palak x Beetroot IIHR 10 x IIHR 8 UD-102 (White) x IHR-396 (Red) T3(Raj) x T8 (Punjab) IIHR 54 x IIHR 18 IIHR 54 x IIHR 18

Arka Suvidha

Blue Crop X IIHR 909

Radish (2)

Carrot(5)

Turnip(3)

Muskmelon(3)

Watermelon(2) Bottle gourd(1) Palak (4)

Onion (1) Round Melon (1) Ridge gourd (2)

French Bean (1)

Table 9. Development of synthetic varieties. Crop

Variety

Cauliflower(4)

Pusa Early Synthetic

6

Synthetic 78-1

-

Pant Gobi-3

8

Pusa Synthetic

7

Pusa Synthetic

-

Cabbage (1)

Number of inbred lines involved

15

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Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Table 10. Vegetable varieties developed by mutation breeding Crop

Variety

Tomato(4)

Mutant type

S-12

X-ray mutant of Sioux

Maruthan (CO-3)

Mutant of CO-1

PKM-1

Mutant of Annagi

Pusa Lal Meeruti

Gamma ray mutant of Meeruti

Chilli (1)

MDU-1

Gamma ray mutant of K-1

French bean (1)

Pusa Parbati

X-ray mutant of Wax pod

Hyacinth bean (1)

CO-10

Gamma ray mutant of CO-6

Okra (1)

EMS-8

EMS-treated mutant of Pusa Sawani

Bitter gourd (1)

MDU-1

Gamma ray mutant of MC-103

Ridge gourd (1)

PKM-1

—

Palak (1)

Jobner Green

Spontaneous mutant from local cultivar

Table11. Vegetable varieties developed by backcross method of breeding / Disease Resistant varieties Crop

Disease

Resistant or tolerant Variety developed

Source*

Tomato(15)

Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)

Shakti (LE-79) Arka Alok, Arka Abhay VC-48-1 Utkal pallavi (BT-1), Utkal Deepali (BT-2), BT-10 Sonali TRB-1,TRB-2

Kerala I.I.H.R. Assam Bhubaneswar Dapoli Ludhiana

Pant Bahar

Pantnagar

Hisar Anmol (H-24), Hisar Gaurav (H-36), H-86, H-88 Arka Keshav, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkanth Pusa Purple Cluster Pusa Anupam Utkal Tarini (BB-7)

Hisar

Soorya (SM-6-6) ARU-2C Pant Rituraj JC-1, JC-2

Kerala Almora Pantnagar Assam

Late blight (Phytophthora infestans) Verticillium wilt (Verticillium sp.) and Fusarium wilt (oxysporum f.lycopersici) Leaf curl virus

Brinjal (13)

Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)

I.I.H.R. I.A.R.I. Katrain

Bhubaneswar

16

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop

Chilli (10)

Disease

Resistant or tolerant Variety developed

Source*

Phomopsis blight (Phomopsis vexans) Bacterial wilt and Phomopsis Blight Fruit rot (Colletotrichum capsici) Leaf curl virus

Pusa Bhairav

I.A.R.I.

Pant Samrat

Pantnagar

K-2

Kovilpatti

Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar Pant C-1 Punjab Lal, Punjab Surkh

I.A.R.I. Pantnagar Ludhiana

Leaf curl,CMV and TMV, wilt and die back Bacterial wilt

Okra (10)

Pea (16)

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Powdery Mildew Yellow vein mosaic Virus

Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni)

French bean(1) Leaf spot (Cercospora cruenta), Cowpea(3) Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas vignicola) Golden mosaic virus Hyacinth(3) Dolichs

Yellow mosaic virus

Muskmelon(4)

Powdery mildew (Sphaerotheca fuliginea) Downy mildew (Pseudopernospora cubensis) Cucumber green Virus

Utkal Rashmi, AAUM-1, AAUM-2 Arka Suphal Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay Sel-2 Parvani Kranti Punjab Padmini, Punjab-7 Varsha Upahar (HRB-9-2) Hisar Barsati (HRB-55) Utkal Gaurav (BO-2) KS-404 Arka Ajit (FC-1) KS-225, KS-245 JP-4, JP-83, JP-7L, JP-885 Pant P-5, PMR-21 DPP-62 VP-9003, VP:-8902 DMR-7 HFP-4, HFP-12 HUP-1 Pant Anupama Bean common mosaic Pusa Komal

Bhubaneswar I.I.H.R. I.I.H.R. N.B.P.G.R. Parvani Ludhiana Hisar Bhubaneswar Kaliyanpur I.I.H.R. Kaliayanpur Jabalpur Pantnagar Palampur Almora I.A.R.I. Hisar BHU, Pantnagar I.A.R.I.

BCKV-1 Arka Garima Wal Konkan-1 Arka Jay Arka Vijay Arka Rajhans

B.C.K.V. IIHR Dapoli IIHR IIHR I.I.H.R.

Punjab Rasila

Ludhiana

DVRM-1, DVRM-2

I.A.RI.

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Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Crop

Disease

Watermelon(1)

Anthracnose Arka Manik (Colletotrichum lagenarium), Powdery Mildew (S.fuliginea) and Downy Mildew (P.cubensis) Purple blotch Arka Kalyan (Alternaria porri) Nasik Red

I.I.H.R.

Black rot (Xanthomonas campestris) and curd and inflorescence blight Alternaria brasicicola) Black rot

Pusa Shubhra Pusa Snowball K-1

I.A.R.I. Katrain

Pusa Mukta, Pusa Drumhead

Katrain

Onion (2)

Cauliflower(2)

Cabbage(2) (X.campestris)

Resistant or tolerant Variety developed

Source*

I.I.H.R. Rahuri

* Full name of the Agricultural Universities and ICAR Research Institutes have been mentioned in Annexure I Table12. Heterosis breeding- Public sector hybrids of vegetables Crop

Name of hybrid

Source

Tomato(24)

Pusa Hybrid-1, Pusa Hybrid-2, DTH-4, DTH-8, Pusa Hybrid-4 KT-4 Arka Vishal, Arka Vardan, Arka Shreshta, Arka Abhijit Pant Hybrid-1, Pant Hybrid-2, Pant Hybrid-10, Pant Hybrid-11 NDTH-1, NDTH-2, NDTH-6, NDTH-4 Rajashree,Phule Hybrid-1, Hybrid-37 TH-2312 Arka Ananya Kashi Vishesh Brinjal(18) Arka Navneet, Arka Anand Pusa Anmol, Pusa Hybrid-5, Pusa Hybrid-6, Pusa Hybrid-9 Vijay Hybrid, Azad Hybrid NDBH-1, NDBH-6, NDBH-11, NDBH-7 Hybrid-2 Punjab Hybrid, BH-1 ABH-1, ABH-2 Pant Hybrid-2 Chilli (3) CH-1 Arka Meghana, Arka Sweta Sweet pepper(4) Solan Hybrid-1 KT-1 (Pusa Deepti), KT-2 Sel-2 Okra (5) DOH-3, DOH-4 JOH-5 DVR-1, DVR-2

18

IARI Katrain IIHR Pantnagar Faizabad Rahuri Ludhiana IIHR IIVR IIHR IARI Kanpur Faizabad Rahuri Ludhiana Anand Pantnagar Ludhiana IIHR Solan Katrain Srinagar IARI Parbani PDVR, Varanasi

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop Cauliflower(1) Cabbage(2) Watermelon(2) Muskmelon(6)

Cucumber(7)

Bottle gourd(7)

Pumpkin(7) Summer Squash(1) Bitter gourd(1) Onion (2)

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Name of hybrid Pusa Hybrid-2 (F1 hybrid) H-64 (Hybrid), BRH-5 Arka Jyoti RHRWH-2 Punjab Hybrid-1, MH-10 MHY-3, MHY-5 Pusa Rasaraj, DMH-4 Pusa Sanyog AAUC-1, AAUC-2 PCUC-F1, Pant Sankar Khura-1 DCH-1, DCH-2 NDBGH-4, NDBGH-7 Pusa Manjari, Pusa Hybrid-2, Pusa Meghdoot PBOG-1, PBOG-2 Pusa Hybrid-1

Source IARI Katrain IIHR Rahuri Ludhiana Durgapura IARI Katrain Jorhat Pantnagar IARI Faizabad IARI Pantnagar IARI

Pusa Alankar Pusa Hybrid-1 Arka Kirthiman Arka Lalima

Katrain IARI IIHR IIHR Hybrid-1 Katrain

Carrot (1)

Table 13. Heterosis breeding - Private sector hybrids of vegetables Crop Tomato

Name of hybrid

Source

Karnatak, Vaishali, Rupali, Mangala, Naveen, Rashmi, Sheetal JTH-9 TC-161, TC-159 XLE-006, Sun-230 Gotya, NS-386, NS-815, Summerset Cross B MTH-1, MTH-2, MTH-3, MTH-4, Cross B, S-16, Gulmohar, MTH-15, MTH-16,S-28, Sonali, Samridhi,S-15 Madhuri, Meenakshi, Manisha, Megha Ratna, Larica, Avinash-2 Arjuna, Krishna, Karna, Bhim, Nakul SG-9, SG-12, SG-18, SG Prolific, SG Wonder NA-601, NA-501, NA-701 Swarna, Maitri, Century-12, Rishi ARTH-3, ARTH-4, ARTH-13, ARTH-15, ARTH-16 NH-25, NH-15, NH-38 HOE-303, HOE-606, HOE-909, HOE-616 LHB-230

19

Indo-American Hybrid Seeds Zuari Agro Hindustan Lever Sun Seeds Namdhari Mahyco

Beejo Sheetal Novartis Sungro Suttons Nath Seeds Century Seeds Ankur Seeds Nijjar Seeds HOECHEST Pioneer

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop Brinjal

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Name of hybrid

Source

Sungrow Mukta, Sungrow Pragati, Kanhaya, Navkiran Suphal Hybrid Seeds AHB-2, AHB-4, ARBH-201, ARBH-527, ARBH-258. Shyamal MHB-1, MHB-2, MH-10 (Kalpataru), MHB-39, MHB-10, MH-39 (Ravalya) HOE-404, HOE-414 Neembakar-01 PHB-10 Nisha, Vardan, Shiva

Sungrow Indo-American Ankur Seeds Mahyco Hoechest Neembakar Pandey Beej Century Seeds

Chilli

Delhi Hot, Hot Green, Skyline Tejaswini Agni ARCH-236 BSS-141,Gayatri Champion HOE-808, HOE-888

Hung Nong Mahyco Novartis Ankur Seeds Bejo Sheetal Seoul Hoechest

Sweet Pepper

HOE-80 Bharat

Hoechest Indo-American Hybrid Seeds Novartis Suttons Nath Seeds Mahyco

Indira, Lario Early Bounty, Gem Giant Hira, NAFCR-101 Green Gold Okra

Cauliflower

Varsha, Vijay Hybrid Seeds AROH-8, AROH-9 Panchali, Adhunik NIHB-090, HIHC-083, Supriya No.7, No.8 Nath Shobha Sungrow-35

Indo-American Ankur Seeds Century Seeds Pioneer Seeds Mahyco Nath Seeds Sungrow

Candid Charm, White Flesh, Cashmere Early Himlata, Early Himangine Nath Ujwala, nath Shweta Serrano Namdhari-84 Himani

Sakata Century Nath Seeds Novartis Namdhari Indo-American Hybrid Seeds

20

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop Cabbage

Watermelon

Muskmelon

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Name of hybrid Nath-401, Nath-501 Questo Sri Ganesh Gol, Hari Rani, Cabbage No.8 Vishesh, Uttam, Uttara Green Express Bajrang, Suvarna, Sudha, BSS-44, BSS-32 Gloria, Runa, Rotan Rare Ball Green Boy, Green Express, Stone Head, Herculis Regalia KK Cross, OS Cross, Resistalke, Green Cornet, Green Challenger

Source Nath Seeds Novartis Mahyco Hidnsutan Lever Suttons Beejo Sheetal Daehanfeldt Kaneko Sakata

Madhur, Milan, Mohini Hybrid Seeds MHW-4, MHW-5, MHW-6, MHW-11 Charlie Seeds Nath-101, Nath-102, Nath-202 NS-246, NS-295 Suruchi Century No.2

Indo-American

MHC-5, MHC-6, MHC-2 Shweta Seeds Swarna, Sona

Mahyco Sheetal Hybrid

Mahyco Sheetal Hybrid Nath Seeds Namdhari ProAgro Century

Indo-American Hybrid Seeds Namdhari Seeds Century

Abhijit, NS-7455 Madhubala Cucumber

Bottle gourd

Takli Hung Nong

Priya Hybrid Seeds Malini Rajdhani NS-404 US-6125 Tripti Aman

Indo-American

Gutka,Harit Varad

Century Mahyco

Seminis (Syngenta) Golden Seeds Namdhari Senp World Nunhems ProAgro

21

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Crop Bitter gourd

Ridge gourd

Sponge gourd Carrot

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Name of hybrid

Source

MBTH-101, MBTH-1202 No.49, No.711 Hybrid Seeds. Vivek Tijarti

Mahyco Indo-American

Surekha Rohini Gaurav

Mahyco Sluisgroat Sungrow

Harita, MSGH-1 Utsav Hybrid-1

Mahyco Century Mahyco

Sngrow Century

Table 14. Future needs of introduction of vegetable materials with specific traits. Crop Tomato Cucumber Muskmelon Watermelon Onion Garlic Chillies Sweet Pepper Cole Crops

Nature of germplasm to be introduced Bitoic and abiotic resistance, long shelf life and good paste type. Biotic resistance, gynoecious and breeding lines. Good storage capacity, multiple fruiting and early lines, male sterile lines. Yellow fleshed, good storage types and Fusarium wilt resistant. Lines with high TSS and resistant to storage diseases. Lines with large bulb and clove. Hot types (Mexican types) lines. Heat tolerant lines. Heat tolerant and lines to biotic stresses

22

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Annexure I – Source Katrain I.A.R.I. Ludhiana Solan Hisar Coimbatore Faizabad Kaliyanpur

: : : : : : : :

Pantnagar Periakulam Dapoli I.I.H.R. Bhubaneswar N.B.P.G.R. Almora West Bengal Anand Akola Kovilpetti Jabbalpur Rahuri Lam

: : : : : : : : : : : : : :

Madurai AADF Udaipur Nasik Sabour Ranchi Bangalore Godhra Durgapura Kurnool Vellanikara Palampur Parbhani Jobner

: : : : : : : : : : : : : :

Dholi Hyderabad Gwalior Jorhat Srinagar B.C.K.V. Ranchi (CHES)

: : : : : : :

IARI Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Agriculture College, Solan, Himachal Pradesh. Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad, UP Vegetable Research Station, Kaliyanpur, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur, U.P. G.B.Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, U.P. Horticulture Research Station, Periyakulam, TNAU, Coimbatore, T.N. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore. Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi. Vivekananda Krishi Anusandhanshala, Almora, U.P. Horticulture Research Station, Government of West Bengal, Krishnanagar. Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand Campus, Gujarat. Punjab Rao Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra. Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpetti, Tamil Nadu. Jawaharalal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Jabbalpur, M.P. Mahatma Phule Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Rahuri, Maharashtra. Regional Agricultural Research Station, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Lam, Guntur. Department of Horticulture, Agriculture College, T.N.A.U. Madurai. Associated Agricultural Development Foundation, New Delhi. Rajasthan Agricultural University, Udaipur. Onion Research Station, Nasik, Maharashtra. Rajendra Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar. Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Bihar. University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka. Central Horticultural Research Station, Godhra, Gujarat (of IIHR). Agricultural Research Station, Durgapura, Department of Agriculture, Rajasthan. Kurnool Research Station, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh. Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara, Kerala. Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Himachal Pradesh. Marathawada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, Maharashtra. Department of Horticulture, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Udaipur, Jobner Campus. College of Agriculture, Dholi, Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar. Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad. Regional Agricultural Research Institute, Gwalior, M.P. Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat. Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agriculture & Technology, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, West Bengal. Central Horticultural Experiment Station, Bihar, Ranchi (of IIHR). 23

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

ADVANCES IN SPICES BREEDING Peter, K.V.1 and K. Nirmal Babu2

Spices are defined as natural plant or vegetable products or mixtures thereof, which are used for imparting flavour, aroma, pungency and for seasoning the food. The International Standards Organization (ISO) listed about 112 plant species as spices but only 53 spices are included in spices Act, Govt. of India. Of these, only 12 are commercially important and are grown at large scale in one or the other states and play a major role in the economy. India is considered as the magic land of spices and is the native home of black pepper, cardamom, tamarind, curry leaf and to certain extent ginger, turmeric, garcinia and cinnamon where the good variability exists. From the Indian sub-continent, these spices spread over to most of the tropical part of the countries, around the world, and many of these countries eventually became competitors for India in production and trade of spices. Other seed spices like coriander, fennel, fenugreek, paprika and cumin were introduced from other countries. Spices are generally tropical, some especially herbal spices are of temperate and seed spices are sub tropical or arid in distribution. They are cultivated in many countries in wide variety of geographical regions. Each country has its own traditional cultivars/ races/ types of the different spices.

of a large collection of germplasm and development of over 200 improved cultivars of various spices including the seed and tree spices. Conservation of genetic resources Conservation of genetic resources is extremely important in the context of rapid gene erosion that is taking place due to a variety of abiotic, biotic, social, political and economic factors. The loss of land races and traditional varieties is rapid in certain crops such as black pepper due to devastating diseases, spread of improved cultivars, deforestation etc. At the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), National Conservatories have been established for all major spices. Germplasm collections are also being maintained at the All India Coordinated Research project on Spices (AICRPS) Centers (Table 1). The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) also maintains germplasm collections of various spices at its regional stations. However, due to the specific agro-climatic requirements of most spices and their vegetatively propagated nature the conservation is mainly at Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR). The germplasm of spices is conserved in clonal field repositories and also in in vitro gene banks in vegetatively propagated crop species and seed gene banks in paprika, seed and herbal spices as a safe additive (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 1994, Madhusoodanan et al., 1994a, Mohanty and Panda 1994, Rao and Rao, 1994, Ravindran and Babu, 1994, Nirmal Babu et al. 1999, Ravindran et al., 2000, Sasikumar et al., 1992).

India is blessed with varied agro-climatic and agro-ecological approaches that enable us to grow a large number of spices in one or the other. In fact, there is no state in India that does not grow spices and in turn play an important role for the lives of the people and for their own economic sustainability. The research and development programmes initiated by Indian Council of Agricultural Research and various State Agricultural Universities and Departments during last few decades led to the assemblage

Cultivars and land races Black pepper: Over 100 cultivars exist in

1. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. 2. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode.

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crude fibre contents and dry recovery with in the germplasm which determines the suitability of each cultivar for dry ginger making. Cultivars Assam and Thodupuzha have high dry recovery. Exotic cultivar Jamaica has very low fibre content making it highly suitable for making ginger powder. High variation was also observed for oleoresin and essential oil contents which contribute to the quality of the spice. Indian ginger is known for its quality and flavour. The variability in ginger germplasm against the dreaded rhizome rot and bacterial wilt is very narrow. No genotype is either tolerant or resistant to these diseases. Turmeric: There are many popular turmeric cultivars, which are specific to each region of cultivation. Duggirala, Armoor, Sugandham, Nandyal, Alleppey, Rajapuri, GLpuram, Bhavanisagar, Gorakhpur, Jobedi etc, are some of the popular local cultivars which are essentially named after the places where they are grown extensively. The cultivars are grouped into short duration ‘kasturi’ types, medium duration’ kesari’ types and long duration types (Rama Rao and Rao, 1994). Cultivars Armor, Tekurpet, and Mydukur are long duration crops, Kothapeta is medium duration crop while Kasturi is short duration crop. Turmeric sets seed only in certain locations and IISR has developed over 100 seed generated lines. In India, over 22 high yielding varieties have been released for cultivation. There is reasonable variation with regard to reaction to pests and diseases. Cultivars Mannuthy local and Kuchipudi are tolerant to shoot borer. Cultivars Mannuthy local, Tekurpeta and Kodur are tolerant to leaf spot while Mannuthy local, Glpuram-2, Kasturi Tanuku and Armoor are tolerant to leaf blotch. Suguna and Sudarshana were reported to be field tolerant to rhizome rot. Dry recovery, curcumin and oleoresin contents determine the quality of turmeric and high variability was observed in turmeric germplasm with respect

black pepper. They might have had their origin from wild forms by domestication and selection (Ravindran et al., 2000). Considerable variability exists among cultivars with regard to morphology, yield and quality. Cultivar Karimunda is the most popular and it gives consistent yields under varying agro-climatic conditions. Others like Aimpirian, Kottanadan, Neelamundi, Balankotta, Chumala, Narayakodi, Kalluvally, Kuthiravally, Malligesara and Thommankodi are popular in certain locations. The hybrid Panniyur – 1 is also as popular as Karimunda. Cultivar Kuching is most popular variety in Malaysia. Kottanadan, Kumbhakodi and Aimpirian are cultivars with high oleoresin and essential and hence give high quality pepper (Ravindran and Babu, 1994). There is very little variability in pepper germplasm for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Recently a few tolerant lines were identified at IISR. Cardamom : Based on the adaptability, nature of the panicle, shape and size of fruits three types of cultivated cardamom -Malabar, Mysore and Vazhukka - have been identified. Good variability exists in cardamom with regard to quality characters such as essential oil content and the quantity of 1,8-cineole and alpha-terperyl acetate in essential oil (Zachariah et al., 1998). Variations have also been reported in important characters like branching of inflorescence, fruit (capsule) size, shape, leaf and plant pubescence, retention of green colour etc. (Madhusoodanan et al., 1994b). Ginger: There is no natural seed set in ginger which resulted in limited variability with regard to certain characters. This also hampers the conventional breeding programmes. However, many commercial cultivars of ginger are known. They are generally named after the localities from where they are cultivated or collected. Maran, Himachal, Nadia, Rio-de-Janeiro, Jamaica, China, Waynad local, Kuruppampady and Bhaise are some of the local popular cultivars (Mohanty and Panda, 1994). There is good variation for 25

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cyminum L.), Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller) and Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) are the seed spices of relevance in India. None of these are native to India. Yet Coriander, Fennel and Fenugreek are cultivated over wide variety of agro climatic regions in the country. A reasonable amount of genetic diversity is available in India. Except fenugreek, all the seed spices are cross pollinated and hence the traditional varieties of these crops exist in the form of complex gene mixtures. Good range of variability exists for important characters such as days for flowering, plant height, branches per plant, yield per plant, days to maturity etc (Sarma, 1994). But variability for resistance to pests and diseases is limited.

to these characters (Khader et al., 1994). Tree spices: Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Brecht. & Presl.), Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.), Clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. et Perry) Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) and Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel) are tree spices of importance. Cinnamon is the earliest known spice and is native to Sri Lanka. The quality of cinnamon depends on the appearance, content and aroma character of volatile oil for which there is significant variability in the cultivars (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 1994). Nutmeg is a dioecious tree native to Moluccas and was introduced to India. Nutmeg produces two separate spices, the nutmeg and the mace. As it is an obligatory cross-pollinated tree (being dioecious), considerable variation is observed with respect to growth and vigour, sex expression, size and shape of nutmeg and quantity of mace. Myristicin is the most important component of nutmeg. High variability was observed in the chemical and aroma quality with in nutmeg populations. Seed fat ranged from 1048 per cent, oleoresin from 2-14 per cent and essential oil from 1.4-3.4 per cent (Gopalam and Sayed, 1987). Clove also is native to Moluccas and was introduced to India. In India the genetc variability for clove is very narrow because of it’s self pollinating nature. A few variants identified are Zanzibar clove with more anthocianin, king clove with extra bold flower bud and dwarf clove with short and spreading growth habit (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 1994).

Breeding and development of varieties In the effort to raise production and productivity of spices, primary importance was given for evolving high yielding varieties with good quality attributes. Evaluation and selection within the germplasm has led to the isolation of many elite varieties. Most of these varieties were evolved by clonal selections from germplasm, while a few are from seedling selection and very few are due to recombination breeding (Edison et al., 1991, Ravindran and Johny, 2000). The varieties released so far in various spices, their pedigree, the centers responsible for developing the variety, areas of adoption and important agronomic characters are given in Table 2. Black pepper: Black pepper has good variability for various agronomic and quality attributes but variability is limited or resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Hence pepper breeding was essentially dependent on clonal selections, selections from germplasm and selections from open pollinated progenies of popular cultivars. But presently, most improvement programmes are based on inter cultivar hybridization and recombination breeding to develop varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. So far, 12 black pepper

Though India is the native home of tamarind not much work was done in this crop except a few dwarf and sweet types were selected from germplasm. A few selections from curry leaf were also identified and released as varieties with high oil and flavour. Seed and herbal spices: Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), Cumin (Cuminum 26

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were the first ever varieties developed from seedling progenies. They are also rich in curcumin content. Varieties Suguna and Sudarshana are short duration varieties with field tolerance to rhizome rot. In turmeric, we have varieties suitable for every turmeric growing state. Mutant and polyploid lines were also developed and are in various stages of evaluation.

varieties were released for cultivation in India. Of these, only two are hybrids while others are of clonal selections from germplasm or from open pollinated progenies. PLD 2 is a high quality variety suitable for industrial extraction of oils and oleoresins while Pournami is tolerant to root knot nematode. Panniyur 1 has bold berries while Panniyur 5 is suitable for mixed cropping. Malaysia and Indonesia have research programmes on black pepper. Malaysia has developed two important varieties. The variety Semongok Perak was developed by clonal selection and Semongok Emas by hybridization followed by back crossing. The latter is highly tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot disease. In Indonesia, two selections – Natar 1 and Natar 2 have been evolved. In Madagascar selections Sel IV.1, Sel IV.2 have been developed from cultivars introduced from Indonesia (Ravindran et al., 2000).

Tree spices In cinnamon, priority is given to develop lines with high cinnamaldehyde. The varieties Navashree and Nithyashree have high cinnamaldehyde (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 1994, Krishnamoorthy et al., 1996). So far, five high yielding varieties of cinnamon, two high quality and high yielding nutmegs selected from germplasm were recommended for release. In curry leaf, only one high yielding high essential oil variety with good flavour, named Suvasini was released for cultivation.

Cardamom: Cardamom breeding depend on selections from germplasm and from open pollinated progenies of popular cultivars. Nine high yielding varieties of cardamom were released for cultivation while one more line NKE –12, a katte virus tolerant line is in the final process of release. RR1 is a variety tolerant to rhizome rot disease of cardamom while ICRI 4 is relatively field tolerant. PV 1 has long and bold capsules while CCS 1 was highly suitable for high density planting because of its compact plant type. Hybridization between NKE, RR, extra bold and Multibranch types are in progress to pyramid these characters into single varieties.

Seed and herbal spices: Among seed spices, powdery mildew and Fusarium wilt in coriander, Fusarium wilt and Alternaria blight in cumin, powdery mildew and sugary disease in fennel and powdery mildew and wood rot in fenugreek are the major production constraints. So far, 18 coriander, 5 cumin, 6 fennel and 4 fenugreek varieties were released for cultivation. Though most of the released varieties are high yielders, only few of them have shown partial field tolerance to these diseases and resistant varieties are not available. Only Gujarat cumin 3 was reported to be resistant to wilt (Vedamuthu et al., 1994). Fennel variety PF35 is moderately tolerant to leaf spot, leaf blight and sugary disease. Fenugreek variety Lam selection-1 has field tolerance to major pests and diseases. Coriander varieties Co 2, Co 3 and Hissar Anand are dual purpose varieties while Sadhana and Swathi are tolerant to white fly.

Ginger and Turmeric: Five ginger and eighteen turmeric varieties were released so far for cultivation. In ginger variety IISR Varada has low fibre while Suruchi has bold and attractive rhizomes. Surabhi is an induced mutant suitable for both rainfed as well as irrigated conditions. Himgiri is suitable for green ginger and reported to have tolerance to rhizome rot. In turmeric most of the varieties are clonal selections from germplasm except Prabha and Prathibha which

Most of the earlier work on spices 27

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DNA technology and use of transgenics with increased production levels have great significance in spices (Nirmal Babu et al 2005). Micro rhizomes: Rhizome formation in vitro, was reported in long term cultures of ginger, turmeric and Kaempheria. In vitro formed rhizomes are important source of disease-free planting material ideally suited for germplasm exchange, transportation and conservation similar to that of microtubers of potato.

improvement concentrated mainly on developing high yielding lines alone. Some of them incidentally have high quality and good adaptability. Lesser importance was given to other characters like high quality and diseases and pest resistance, though they were not lost from the programme. Only in seed spices, mass or pureline selection and in some case recurrent selection methods were adopted. Occasionally, mutation breeding was used in ginger, turmeric and cumin which resulted in development of new varieties. Recently, more emphasis is being given to convergent breeding programmes of various spice crops to develop high quality lines and resistant lines to biotic and abiotic stresses, in addition to higher yield. For example, high priority is now given to develop varieties tolerant/ resistant to Phytophthora foot rot. A large number of inter cultivar hybrids, open pollinated seedling progenies and accessions in germplasm are being evaluated for this purpose. A few intercultivar hybrids in black pepper, inter varietal hybrids and natural katte escapes in cardamom have been developed. Seedling progenies in turmeric are highly promising and are in advanced stages of evaluation. Promising and high yielding black pepper genotypes suitable for mixed cropping system in coffee and tea plantations which can give good yields at low shade and high elevations (3,000 ft MSL) are in advanced stages of evaluation (Madhusoodanan et al., 1994b, Ravindran and Babu, 1994, Ravindran et al., 2000).

In vitro conservation of germplasm: Storage of germplasm in seed banks is not ideal in many spices as most of them are vegetatively propagated and seeds are recalcitrant and heterozygous. Hence, storage of germplasm in vitro is a safe alternative. Conservation of pepper, cardamom, seed and herbal spices, vanilla and ginger germplasm in in vitro gene bank by slow growth and through cryopreservation was reported. Conservation of genetic resources in invitro gene banks is now an established convention and two gene banks for conservation of spices germplasm functions at IISR and National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. Somaclonal variation and in vitro selection for tolerance to diseases Somaclonal variation is an important source of variability in crops like ginger, turmeric and vanilla where the native variability is very low and seed set is either absent or difficult. Attempts on induction of variability on somaclones for important agronomic characters and tolerance to diseases through both in vitro and in vivo selection were reported in black pepper, cardamom, ginger and galangal. Variants with high curcumin content were isolated from tissue cultured plantlets.

Biotechnological approaches for spices crop conservation and improvement The past few years have witnessed a dramatic increase in our ability to manipulate and study tissues and has resulted in commercial propagation of many crop species, development of new varieties and new breeding lines via somaclonal variation, anther culture and protoplast fusion. Production of secondary metabolites, flavour and colouring components through bioreactor technology, recombinant

Genetic transformation Recent advances made in developing techniques for transfer of foreign DNA into plant cells have aroused much interest in the 28

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Genomics In recent times there is increased emphasis in molecular markers for characterization of the genotypes, genetic fingerprinting, in identification and cloning of important genes, marker assisted selection and in understanding of inter relationships at molecular level. Molecular markers were used for crop profiling, molecular taxonomy, identification of duplicates, hybrids, estimation of genetic fidelity of micropropagated and in vitro conserved plants in pepper, ginger, turmeric vanilla cardamom, tree spices etc. Mapping population was also developed for construction of molecular map and to tag important genes in black pepper (Nirmal Babu et al 2005).Studies are also in progress for tagging important genes for useful agronomic traits and QTLs for marker aided selection in black pepper and cardamom.

possibility of utilizing recombinant DNA technology in crop improvement. Reports are available on Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer system in black pepper, bell pepper and direct gene transfer by particle bombardment in ginger and cardamom. Production of secondary metabolites Biotechnology can be utilized to exploit the potential of spices for bioproduction of useful plant metabolites. Plant cells cultured in vitro produce wide range of primary and secondary metabolites of economic value. This technique is all the more relevant in recent years due to the ruthless exploitation of plants in the field leading to reduced availability. Trials are in progress for production of primary and secondary metabolites and flavour and colouring compounds like capsaicin and biotransformation of ferulic acid vanillamine to capsacin and vanillin in immobilised cell cultures of Capsicum frutescen and in vitro synthesis of crocin, picrocrocin and safranel from saffron stigma and colour components from cells derived from pistils. Production of essential oils from cell cultures and accumulation of essential oils by Agrobacterium tumefaciens transformed shoot cultures of Pimpinella anisum was also reported. Regulation of the shikimate pathway in suspension culture cells of parsley and production of anethole from cell cultures of Foeniculum vulgare, production of monoterpene by transformed shoot cultures of Mentha , biosynthesis of sesquturpenic phytoalexin capsidol in elicited root cultures of chilli, production of rosmarinic acid in suspension cultures of Salvia officinali, production of phenolic flavour compounds using cultured cells and tissues of vanilla, in vitro production of petroselinic acid from cell suspension cultures of coriander are also available. Though the feasibility of in vitro production of spice principles has been demonstrated, methodology for scaling up and reproducibility need to be developed before it can reach commercial levels.

Comparative genomics has already made much headway in US for solanaceous crops to which capsicum belongs (Tanksley et al 1988, Livingstone et al 1999). Similarly Global Musa Genome Consortium involving 27 institutions in 18 countries was in operation to elucidate musa genome architecture. The Musa Genome Resources Centre (MGRC) was established at the Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Cytometry of the Institute of Experimental Botany (IEB), Olomouc, Czech Republic in 2003. The information generated helps in better understanding of other related sub families like Zingiberaceae to which important spices like cardamom, ginger and turmeric belongs. REFERENCES Edison, S., Johny, A.K., Nirmal Babu, K. and Ramadasan, A. (1991) Spices Varieties. A Compendium of morphological and agronomic characters of improved varieties of spices in India. National Research Centre for Spices (ICAR), Kerala, 63 p. Gopalan, A. and Sayed A.A.M (1987) 29

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Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 150 -168. Nirmal Babu, K., Geetha, S. P., Minoo, D., Ravindran, P. N. and Peter, K. V. (1999) In vitro conservation of germplasm. pp :106-129, In. Biotechnology and its application in Horticulture. In S P Ghosh (ed) Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi.

Evaluating chemical and aroma quality of nutmeg accessions, Myristica fragrans L, Indian Spices 14: 9-11. Khader, M.A., Vedamuthu, P. G. B. and Balashanmugam, P. V. (1994) Improvement of Turmeric. In Advances in Horticulture, Plantation Crops and Spices. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, Vol. 9. p. 315- 332.

Nirmal Babu, K., Sasikumar, B., Ratnambal, M. J., Johnson George, K. and Ravindran, P. N. (1993) Genetic variability in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) Indian J. Genetics. 53: 91-93.

Krishnamoorthy, B. and Rema, J. (1994) Genetic Resourses of Tree Spices.In Advances in Horticulture, Plantation Crops and Spices. K L Chadha and PRethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 169 -192.

Nirmal Babu, K., Minoo, D., Geetha, S.P., Ravindran, P.N. and Peter, K.V. (2005) Advances in Biotechnology of Spices and Herbs. Ind. J.Bot.Res. 1: 155-214.

Krishnamoorthy, B., Rema, J., Zachariah, T.J., Abraham, J. and Gopalam, A. (1996) Navashree and Nithyashree – two new high yielding and high quality cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Bercht & Presl.) selections, J. Spices and Aromatic Crops, 5 : 28 –33. Livingstone, K.D., Lackney, V.K., Blauth, J.R., van Wijk, R. and Jahn, M.K. 1999. Genoome mapping in Capsicum and the evolution of genome structure in the Solanaceae. Genetics. 152 : 1183-1202.

Rao, M. R. and Rao, D. V .R. (1994) Genetic Resourses of Turmeric. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 131 – 150. Rattan, R. S. (1994) Improvement of Ginger, Advances in Horticulture, Vol.9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. KL Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.)Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p.333– 344.

Madhusoodanan, K. J., Kuruvilla, K.M. and Priyadarshan, P.M. (1994a) Genetic Resourses of Cardamom. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 121 - 130.

Ravindran, P.N. and Nirmal Babu, K. (1988) Black pepper cultivars suitable for various regions. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut & Spices J. 11 : 110-112 Ravindran, P. N. and Nirmal Babu, K. (1994) Genetic resources of Black pepper. In. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 99-120 Ravindran, P. N., Nirmal Babu, K., Sasikumar, B. and Krishnamoorthy, K. S. (2000) Botany and crop improvement of black pepper, pp. 23-142, In. Black pepper, Piper

Madhusoodanan, K. J., Kuruvilla, K .M. and Priyadarshan, P. M. (1994b) Improvement of Cardamom. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 307-314. Mohanty, D. C. and Panda, B. S. (1994) Genetic Resourses of Ginger. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.)Plantation Crops and Spices. 30

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Black pepper. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.). Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 293-206. Tanksley, S.D., Bernatzky, R., Lapitan, N.L. and Prince, J.P. 1988. Conservation of gene repertoire but not gene order in pepper and tomato. Proc. Natl. Sci. USA. 85 : 64196423.

nigrum. P N Ravindran (ed.).Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Ravindran, P.N. and Johny, A.K. (2000) High yielding varieties in Spices, Indian Spices 37: 17-19. Ravindran, P.N., Sasikumar, B., Johnson George, K., Ratnambal, M. J., Nirmal Babu, K., Zachariah, T.J. and Ramakrishnan Nair, R. (1994). Genetic resources of ginger and its conservation in India. Plant Genetic resources News letter, (IPGRI) 98: 1-4.

Vedamuthu , P. G. B., Khader, M. A .and Rajan, F. S. (1994) Improvement of Seed Spices Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 345 – 374.

Sarma, Y.R., Ramana, K.V., Devasahayam, S. and Rema, J. (eds) (2001) The Saga of Spice Research – A voyage through history of spice research at Indian Institute of Spices Research. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala.

Zacharia, T. J., Mulge, R. and Venugopal, M. N. (1998) Quality of cardamom from different accessions. In. Developments in Plantation Crops Research, Mathew N M and Jacob C K (Eds.). Allied publishers, India. pp. 337-340

Sasikumar, B., Nirmal Babu, K., Jose Abraham. and Ravindran, P. N. (1992) Variability, correlation and path analysis of ginger germplasm. Indian J. Genetics, 52 : 428431. Sharma ,A. K. (1994) Genetic Resourses of Seed Spices. Advances in Horticulture, Vol. 9. Plantation Crops and Spices. In. K L Chadha and P Rethinam (eds.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 193 - 208. Sukumara Pillay, V., Ibrahim. K. K. and Sasikumaran, S. (1994) Improvement of

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Table 1. Germplasm collections of spices at major canters in India Crop

IISR

AICRPS centres

Black pepper

2299

367

Maintenance centres IISR, Panniyur, Sirsi, Chinthapalli, Yercaud, Pundibari, Dapoli

Cardaman

395

336

IISR, ICRI, Mudigere,Pampadumpara

Ginger

659

406

IISR, Solan, Pottangi, Kumarganj, Pundibari, Raigarh, Dholi

Turmeric

899

1136

IISR, NBPGR, Jagtial, Dholi, Pottangi, Raigarh,

Clove

235

42

IISR, Yercaud, Dapoli, Pechiparai

Cinnamon

408

41

IISR, Yercaud, Dapoli, Pechiparai

Nutmeg

482

42

IISR, Yercaud, Dapoli, Pechiparai

Pundibari,

Garcinia

61

—

IISR, KAU

Vanilla

68

—

IISR, ICRI, KAU

Paprika

40

—

IISR

—

495 Jobner, Jagudan

Cumin Fennel

—

420

Jobner, Jagudan, Dholi

Fenugreek

—

944

Coimbatore, Guntur, Jobner, Jagudan, Hisar , Dholi,

Coriander

—

1467

Coimbatore, Jobner, Guntur, Hisar, Dholi, Raigarh, Kumarganj

Table 2. Improved varieties of Spices Crop

Breeding strategies

Released varieties

Black pepper Selection from clonal and open Panniyur 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, PLD-2, pollinated seed progenies and Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami, Hybridization Pournami, IISR Thevam, IISR Shakti, IISR Malabar excel, IISR Girimunda

Important characters high yield, high oleoresin, high oil, high piperine, suitable for high elevation and resistant to Phytophthora and M.incognita

Cardamom

Selection from open pollinated Mudigere 1, Mudigere 2 PV 1, High yield, high quality bold and seed progenies and Hybridization PV 2 CCS 1, ICRI 1, ICRI 2, elongated fruits, resistance to ICRI 3, ICRI 4, RR-1, IISR Katte and rhizome rot Avinash, IISR Vijeta

Ginger

Selection and mutation breeding

Suprabha, Suruchi, Surabhi, High yield, low fibre, extra bold Himgiri, IISR Varada, IISR rhizomes, Rejatha, IISR Mahima

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Turmeric

Selection from germplasm, from open pollinated and seedling progenies

Co.1, Krishna, Sugandham, BSR.1, Roma, Suroma, Rajendra Sonia, Suguna, Suvarna, Sudharsana, Ranga, Rasmi, BSR.2. IISR Prabha, IISR Prathiba, Megha turmeric 1, Kanthi, Sobha, IISR Kedaram, Sona, Varna .Alleppey Supreme, Suranjana, Pant Peethabh

High yield, high curcumin, short duration, field resistance to rhizome rot, suitable for both rainfed and irrigated conditions

Cinnamon

Selections from elite lines and seed progenies

Nithyasree, Navasree, YCD.1, Konkan Tej, RRL(B) C-6, Sugandhini, , PPI (C)-1

High yield, high quality

Nutmeg

Selections from elite lines and seed progenies

Konkan Sugandha, Vishwasree, Konkan Swad

High yield, high myristicin

Coriander

Bulk, pure line and recurrent selections

Guj. Cor.1 Co.1, Co.2, Co. 3 and Co.4 Guj.Cor.2, Rajendra Swathi, RCr.41, RCr 436, RCr 684,Sadhana, Swathi CS 287 CO.3 Sindhu Hisar Anand, Azad Dhania-1 RCr 20 RCr 435, Pant Haritima, Hisar Sugandh, Hisar Surabhi, CIMPO-33, CIMPO33

High yield, high quality

Cumin

Bulk, pure line and recurrent selections,Mutation breeding

Mc.43, 5-404, Guj. Cumin 1,RZ-19 Guj Cumin 2, Guj. Cumin 3, Guj. Cumin 4, RZ-209, RZ-223

High yield, high quality

PF – 35, Co.1, Guj Fennel 1 Guj fennel 2 RF 101, RF 125, Azad snauf-1, S-7-9, Pant Madhurika, Rajendra Saurabh

High yield, high quality

Fennel

Bulk, pure line and recurrent selections

Fenugreek

Bulk, pure line and recurrent selections

Co.1 Rajendra kanti RMt.1 Lam sel.1 Hisar Sonali, Co 2 ,RMt 303 Guj Methi 1 , Rajendra Abha, Hisar Madhuri, Hisar Suvarna, Hisar Muktha, , Guj Methi 1, RMt 1, RMt 143, RMt 305, Rajendra Khushbu, Pant Ragni, Pusa early bunching

Chilli

Bulk and pure line selection, Convergent breeding

About 56 vareties

High yield, good colour, bacterial wilt and virus resistance, short plant

Curry leaf

Clonal and seedling selection

DWA-1, DWA-2,

High oil

Tamarind

Clonal and seedling selection

PKM-1, DTS –1, Prathisthan, MH- 263

Dwarf high yielding and sweet types

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High yield, high quality, duel purpose types, early maturing types, bold grains, short plant types,

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Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

ENHANCING UTILIZATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN CROP IMPROVEMENT Upadhyaya, H.D1. and C.L.L. Gowda

ABSTRACT Crop plant genetic resources (PGR) including landraces, old and new cultivars, mutant etc., are vital to crop improvement. These were used in research to develop improved cultivars that has resulted in increase of productivity and production considerably of various crops. The need for collecting and conserving germplasm was realized during 1960s, when there was threat of loss of landraces due to large adoption of improved varieties. Currently over six million-germplasm accessions are held in over 1300 genebanks across the world. This paper discusses assembly and management of genetic resources of sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea, groundnut and six small millets at the Rajendra S Paroda Genebank at ICRISAT-Patancheru, India and means to further enhance their utilization for sustainable agriculture globally. Various institutes and organizations worldwide have donated germplasm to the ICRISAT genebank. In addition, two hundred and thirteen germplasm collection missions were organized in 62 countries securing 33,194 germplasm accessions. The entire holding is over 118,800 accessions of the above crops from 130 countries. The germplasm accessions receive high priority for regeneration, characterization, conservation and distribution. The focus of research is on diversity assessment and on developing representative core, mini-core and composite collections to enhance utilization by the breeders. Molecular characterization of diverse germplasm sets is pursued for value addition and to enhance their utilization. Most of the accessions have been characterized. Germplasm seeds are conserved under very precise (cool and dry) conditions. Adequate seed of each accession is conserved to meet the requests of researchers and for posterity. The ICRISAT genebank has been supplying over 21,000 germplasm samples annually to scientists across the countries. ICRISAT has restored crop germplasm to several countries including India. From the basic germplasm supplied from ICRISAT genebank, 66 varieties were released for cultivation in 44 countries.

Introduction The wealth of plant genetic resources that includes landraces, old and new cultivars, genetic stocks, mutants etc., has contributed enormously towards achieving the global objectives of food security, poverty alleviation, environment protection and sustainable development. The value of genetic resources in developing superior crop cultivars is well recognized. The utilization of Norin 10 gene in wheat and Dee Geo Woo Gen in rice (sources of reducing plant height) have revolutionized the production of these crops globally. Wheat productivity increased by 137%

and of rice by 93% in last 40 years due to the improved cultivars (Table 1), coupled with good agronomic management. Diverse genotypes were used in developing improved cultivars of soybean (resistance to diseases and insectpests, tolerance to pod shattering, promiscuous nodulation and high yield; cf Dashiell and Fatokun, 1997) and groundnut (broadening genetic base, adding disease resistance and high yield; cf Singh and Nigam, 1997) that resulted in 93.2% productivity increase in soybean and 69.6% in groundnut in the last 40 years. Similarly, diverse germplasm sources having traits of

1. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India

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(sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea and groundnut) and six small millets (finger millet, foxtail millet, kodo millet, little millet, proso millet and barnyard millet) and their wild relatives.

short-duration, large seed size and disease resistance were used to develop new and high yielding cultivars of Chickpea (cf Singh et al., 1997) and pigeonpea (cf Remanandan and Singh, 1997). The concern of PGR exploration and ex-situ conservation was not serious until 1960s. The development and spread of high yielding varieties of wheat and other crops by 1960s started replacing the local cultivars very rapidly leading to erosion of plant diversity. This loss of native crop landraces and cultivars prompted the international organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Bank to create new institutional structures for the collection and preservation of valuable plant genetic resources in ex-situ genebanks. Since the last four decades, this program has achieved spectacular success. Over six million germplasm accessions have been collected and/or assembled in 1308 genebanks world over (FAO, 1998).

Germplasm Assembly in the ICRISAT Genebank When ICRISAT was established in 1972, efforts were begun to assemble the germplasm of the mandate crops that existed with various research institutes in India and other countries. The Rockefeller Foundation had assembled over 16,000 sorghum germplasm accessions from major sorghum areas, and ICRISAT acquired 11,961 accessions of this collection in 1974 that existed in India and USA, besides 2000 pearl millet accessions. ICRISAT also obtained 2000 accessions of pearl millet collected by the Institut Francais de Recherché Scientifique pour le Development en Cooperation (ORSTOM) in francophone West Africa. The germplasm material of chickpea and pigeonpea originally collected and assembled by the former Regional Pulse Improvement Project (RPIP), a joint project of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Karaj Agricultural University in Iran, formed the initial collection. Sets of this germplasm, which were available in several agricultural research institutes in India and Iran, and at the USDA, were donated to ICRISAT in 1973. ICRISAT also acquired over 1,200 chickpea accessions from the Arid Lands Agricultural Development (ALAD) program in Lebanon. Similarly, much of the groundnut germplasm was received from the Indian groundnut research program, [now the National Research Center for Groundnut (NRCG), Junagadh], and USDA. Besides germplasm donations by the All India Coordinated Research Projects on various crops, considerable number of germplasm were received from agricultural universities at

Created in 1971, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is an association of public and private members supporting a system of 15 Future Harvest Centers that work in more than 100 developing countries to achieve sustainable food security and reduce poverty through scientific research and development activities in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, policy and environment. The CGIAR germplasm collections are a unique resource, available to all researchers. Germplasm contributions have helped lay the foundations of recovery by jumpstarting agricultural growth in countries emerging from conflict such as Afghanistan, Angola, Mozambique and Somalia. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), one of the 15 CGIAR centers, is responsible for germplasm assembly, characterization, conservation and distribution of germplasm of five mandate crops 35

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disciplinary scientists. Grains were tested for nutritional value. Germplasm sets were evaluated over locations jointly with scientists in India, Nepal, Thailand, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Kenya and more intensively with the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India. The results of joint evaluations have led to a better understanding of the germplasm material.

Pantnagar (Uttranchal), Rajendranagar (Andhra Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab), Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu), Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), Rahuri (Maharashtra) and IARI at New Delhi. Fifteen Indian organizations that donated highest number of germplasm are listed in Table 2. Recently, in 2004-05, we obtained chickpea germplasm samples from Washington State University, Pullman, USA (2083 cultivated, 68 wild) and ICARDA, Syria (682 cultivated, 21 wild). We also received 622 groundnut germplasm samples from the National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Japan. Over 400 accessions of sorghum collected in Niger were received from our regional genebank in Niamey.

Regeneration Regeneration was carried out to meet the seed increase of (1) accessions that had reached a critical low level of seed stock or viability; (2) accessions required for mediumterm storage (MTS; 5 oC, 25-30%RH) or longterm storage (LTS; -20 oC); and (3) germplasm repatriation, particularly to the NBPGR, India. Some of the germplasm accessions that do not produce seeds under ICRISAT-Patancheru climatic conditions (some wild Arachis species) are maintained vegetatively in the greenhouse. Some other accessions (wild Cicer species) need long day length and cool weather to grow and produce seeds. These species are also regenerated in greenhouse facilities.

ICRISAT initiated activities to add new germplasm of its mandate crops from areas that were not adequately represented in the germplasm collection. Between 1975 and 2000, a total of 213 joint missions were launched in 62 countries, from which 33,194 accessions (sorghum 9011; pearl millet 10841; chickpea 4228, pigeonpea 3873, groundnut 2776; and small millets 2465) were collected. A large number of breeding lines or germplasm selections are developed and evaluated at important locations. The promising/improved germplasm lines were also registered in the genebank and conserved for future utilization. The genebank currently holds 118,833 accessions of which 73.8% have been conserved as base collection and 93.0% are designated with FAO (Table 3).

Conservation Germplasm conservation requires cleaning the seed material, drying to minimal seed moisture content, storing in cool and dry conditions and regular monitoring of seed health during storage. In the ICRISAT genebank, the seeds are stored in medium-term storage (MTS) in aluminium cans. A recent monitoring of the health of seed conserved for 10–25 years (MTS) indicated greater than 75% seed viability for majority of the accessions. Accessions with declining seed viability (less than 75% seed germination) are regenerated on priority and the old stock is replaced with fresh seeds. The germplasm accessions are also conserved in long-term storage (LTS) after packing in vacuum-sealed aluminium foil pouches. Before packing, the seeds are dried to about 5%

Germplasm Management Phenotypic characterization and evaluation Agronomic and morphological characterization is necessary to facilitate the utilization of germplasm. To achieve this, germplasm accessions of all the crops were sown in batches over the years and characterized for morphological and agronomic traits. Germplasm screening against biotic and abiotic stresses were conducted in collaboration with various 36

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Repatriation of germplasm to national programs The global collections held at ICRISAT serve the purpose of restoration germplasm to the source countries when national collections are lost due to natural calamities, civil strife, etc. We supplied 362 sorghum accessions to Botswana; 1827 sorghum and 922 pearl millet to Cameroon; 1723 sorghum and 931 chickpea to Ethiopia; 838 sorghum and 332 pigeonpea to Kenya; 1436 and 445 sorghum accessions respectively to Nigeria and Somalia; and 71 pigeonpea accessions to Sri Lanka. The germplasm collection maintained in the ICRISAT genebank includes 44,822 accessions received from or jointly collected with the Indian National Programs. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India requested ICRISAT for restoration of this germplasm. As part of ICAR/ICRISAT Partnership Projects, the genebank has repatriated almost full set of this germplasm by July 2004 (Table 5). Thus the NARS of several countries have regained their precious heritage which could have been lost if this was not conserved in the ICRISAT genebank.

moisture content in a walk-in drying room (100 m3 size; 15 oC and 15% RH) facility. At present, we have about 76% of the FAO designated germplasm in the LTS facility. Documentation and supply of information The vast germplasm data gathered on chickpea and pigeonpea germplasm has been summarized and presented to the users in the form of catalogs (Pundir et al., 1988; Remanandan et al., 1988). During the last 20 years, we had a very purposeful collaboration with NBPGR, India, on germplasm exploration, and evaluation at a number of locations, and results were published as ‘Collaboration on Genetic Resources’ (ICRISAT 1989). The data on joint germplasm evaluations were analyzed and published two catalogs each on forage sorghum germplasm (Mathur et al., 1991, 1992), and pearl millet (Mathur et al., 1993b and 1993c), and one on chickpea (Mathur et al., 1993a). Core and minicore collections of ICRISAT mandate crops were established and the information was published for the benefit of fellow research workers. A Manual of Genebank Operations and Procedures was published (Rao and Bramel, 2000) documenting the procedures for germplasm acquisition, maintenance, documentation, conservation, and distribution. Existing procedures were reviewed and revised to maintain the collections according to international standards. A taxonomic key for the identification of wild species of the mandate crops has also been included in the manual.

Impact of germplasm supplied to NARS worldwide Besides the utilization of germplasm in ongoing research at other institutes, 66 germplasm accessions (sorghum 30, pigeonpea 7, chickpea 19, groundnut 6, finger millet 2, and 1 each of pearl millet and barnyard millet) supplied from the ICRISAT genebank have been directly released as cultivars in 44 countries (Figure 1). Pigeonpea germplasm accession ICP 8863 collected from farmer’s field in India was found very promising against fusarium wilt and was purified for the trait. The purified line was found high yielding and it was released for cultivation in 1986 as Maruthi in Karnataka state, India. This variety is also

Global germplasm supply to scientists and institutions The ICRISAT genebank is holding germplasm that was donated by various institutes, organizations and farm communities and is ever willing to supply the same for research. From the beginning of our work (1973) until 2005, we have supplied 674,108 germplasm samples to scientists in 142 countries (Table 4).

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grown on large hectarage in adjacent states, namely, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Bantilan and Joshi 1996). A sorghum variety, Parbhani Moti was released in Maharashtra, India, in 2002. This variety is an excellent Maldandi-type [predominant postrainy (Rabi) sorghum landrace in Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India) with large lustrous grains and high yield. This was selected from a germplasm collection from Ghane Gaon, Sholapur, Maharashtra, made by ICRISAT genebank staff during 1989.

program at ICRISAT (1986-2002) revealed that 986 unique parents were used in developing 8279 breeding lines, but this included only 132 unique germplasm accessions of groundnut and 10 of wild Arachis species. The two most often used cultivars were Robut 33-1 (3096 times) and Chico (1180 times). In the ICRISAT chickpea-breeding program (1978-2004), 12,887 parents (586 unique parents) were used in developing 3548 breeding lines, which included only 91 unique germplasm accessions of chickpea and five of wild Cicer species (Upadhyaya et al., 2006). The two most frequently used cultivars were L 550 (903 times) and K 850 (851 times). The data analysis from the Indian chickpea research program revealed that during 1967 - 2003, a total of 86 varieties was developed through hybridization that traced back to 95 unique parents. The top 10 parents contributed more than 35% to the genetic base of the released varieties. Most frequently used parents were Pb 7, IP 58, F 8, Rabat and S 26. About 41% varieties developed have Pb 7 as one of the parents in their pedigree (Kumar et al., 2004). There are similar reports from China (Jiang and Duan, 1998), and the USA (Knauft and Gorbet, 1989) in groundnut.

Another example is the release of barnyard variety (PRJ 1) in Uttranchal state during 2003. This variety yielded 45.4% higher grain yield compared to the check variety VL 29. It provides substantial fodder yield as well. This variety is a selection from ICRISAT germplasm collection IEC 542 that originated in Japan. Present scenario of PGR utilization Much progress has been in developing stable and high-yielding cultivars using diverse germplasm resources. This has resulted in area increase under some crops. During the last 40 years, area under soybean increased by 250.9%; pigeonpea: 60.7%; groundnut: 47.9% and rice: 22.4%. For other crops such as wheat and chickpea, area remained nearly unchanged. Productivity has improved considerably in most of the crops (Table 1). However, in future, there is much to be done to further improve productivity of the crops to meet the food requirement of ever increasing population.

Strategies to enhance germplasm utilization Assessment of diversity in the germplasm collection The germplasm characterization and assessment of diversity is important to plant breeders for crop improvement and to genebank curators for efficient and effective management of their collection.

A glance of ICRISAT genebank service to researchers revealed that on an average, 21,065 germplasm samples are supplied annually to users outside the ICRISAT (mean from 1974 to 2005). According to Marshall (1989), this figure indicates satisfactory germplasm distribution service of the genebank. However, the use of basic germplasm in breeding programs is scanty. For example, the summary of parental lines used in the ICRISAT groundnut-breeding

The chickpea germplasm collection (16,820 accessions) was characterized for seven morphological and 13 agronomic traits and reaction to fusarium wilt to determine phenotypic variation in different geographical regions. The means for different agronomic traits differed significantly between regions. 38

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the first Cluster, South America in the second cluster, and West Africa, Europe, Central Africa, South Asia, Oceania, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa in second cluster and Southeast and Central Asia and the Caribbean in the third cluster (Upadhyaya et al., 2002b) (Figure 3).

The variances for all the traits among regions were heterogeneous. South Asia region contained the largest range of variation for all the traits. The Shannon-Weaver (Shannon and Weaver, 1949) diversity index (H‘) was variable in different regions for different traits. Analysis revealed the need to secure more germplasm collections from Mediterranean countries and Ethiopia. Cluster analysis delineated two regional clusters consisting Africa and South and Southeast Asia in the first cluster; and the Americas, Europe, West Asia, Mediterranean and East Asia in the second cluster (Upadhyaya, 2003) (Figure 2). An earlier study of chickpea germplasm data at ICRISAT (Pundir et al., 1988) revealed that in general, Indian accessions were highest yielding and the accessions from Chile had higher plant height and greater seed mass. The accessions from Spain and Syria had longer flowering duration and the accessions from Greece and Russia had erect growth habit. Resistance to fusarium wilt was more common in accessions from Bangladesh than from other countries.

The pigeonpea germplasm collection (11,402 accessions from 54 countries grouped into 11 regions) was analyzed for patterns of variation for 14 qualitative and 12 quantitative traits. Semi-spreading growth habit, green stem color, indeterminate flowering pattern, and yellow flower color were predominant among qualitative traits. Primary seed color had maximum variability and orange color, followed by cream were the two most frequent seed colors in the collection. Variances for all the traits were heterogeneous among regions. The germplasm accessions from Oceania were conspicuous by short growth duration, short height, fewer branches, pods with fewer seeds, smaller seed size, and lower seed yields. The accessions from Africa were of longer duration, taller, with multiseeded pods, and larger seeds. The germplasm diversity, indicated by H‘ pooled over all traits, was highest for Africa and lowest for Oceania. The cluster analysis delineated three clusters: cluster 1 includes accessions from Oceania; cluster 2 from India and adjacent countries, and cluster 3 from Indonesia, Thailand, The Philippines, Europe, Africa, America and the Caribbean countries. Pigeonpea-rich countries such as Myanmar, Uganda, and others like Bahamas, Burundi, Comoros, Haiti, and Panama are not adequately represented in the collection, and need priority attention for germplasm exploration (Upadhyaya et al., 2005c).

The groundnut germplasm collection (13,342 accessions) was characterized for 16 morphological and 10 agronomic traits in two seasons to determine the phenotypic variation in different geographical regions. The means for different agronomic traits differed significantly among regions. The variances for all the traits among regions were heterogeneous. South America, which showed 100% range variation for 12 of the 16 morphological traits, also revealed highest range variation. From South America among regions, primary seed color among morphological traits and leaflet length among agronomic traits showed highest pooled H‘. Three of the six botanical varieties, aequatoriana, hirsuta, and peruviana were poorly represented indicating the need to be collected. PCA using 38 traits and clustering on first seven PC scores delineated three regional clusters; consisting North America, Middle East, and East Asia in

Developing core collections One of the reasons that plant breeders are using less basic germplasm in research is the lack of information on traits of economic importance, which often shows high genotype x environment interactions and requires 39

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replicated multilocational evaluations. Evaluation is very costly and resource-demanding task owing to the large size of the germplasm collections. To overcome this, our research now focuses on studying the diversity of germplasm collection and developing “core collections,” which are about 10% of the entire collection, but represent almost full diversity of the species. From the germplasm collection in the ICRISAT genebank, we have already developed core collection of sorghum (2,247 accessions, Grenier et al., 2001); pearl millet (1,600 accessions, Bhattacharjee, 2000); chickpea (1,956 accessions, Upadhyaya et al., 2001a); groundnut (1,704 accessions, Upadhyaya et al., 2003); groundnut Asia core (504 accessions, Upadhyaya et al. 2001c); pigeonpea (1,290 accessions, Reddy et al., 2005); finger millet (622 accessions, Upadhyaya et al., 2005a) and foxtail millet (155 accessions, Upadhyaya – unpublished data) (Table 6). Developing mini-core collection When the size of the entire collection is very large, even a core collection size becomes unwieldy for evaluation by breeders. To overcome this, ICRISAT scientists developed a seminal two-stage strategy to develop a minicore collection, which consists of 10% accessions in the core collection (and hence only 1% of the entire collection) (Upadhyaya and Ortiz, 2001). This mini-core collection still represents the diversity of the entire core collection. The first stage involves developing a representative core collection (about 10%) from the entire collection using all the available information on origin, geographical distribution, and characterization and evaluation data of accessions. The second stage involves evaluation of the core collection for various morphological, agronomic, and quality traits, and selecting a further subset of about 10% accessions from the core collection. At both stages standard clustering procedures should be used to form groups (clusters) of similar accessions and then

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

select desired number of accessions from each cluster. At ICRISAT, we have already developed mini-core collections of chickpea consisting of 211 accessions (Upadhyaya and Ortiz, 2001), groundnut (184 accessions) (Upadhyaya et al., 2002a), pigeonpea (146 accessions), and finger millet (65 accessions) (Upadhyaya – unpublished data) (Table 6). Developing composite collection The revolution in molecular biology, bioinformatics, and information technology has provided the scientific community with tremendous opportunities for solving some of the world’s most serious agricultural and food security issues, and has led to the formation of Generation Challenge Program (GCP) entitled “Unlocking Genetic Diversity in Crops for the Resource-Poor ( www.generationcp.org)”. The GCP is designed to utilize molecular tools and comparative biology to explore and exploit the valuable genetic diversity existing in germplasm collections held at the CGIAR and NARS genebanks, with particular focus on drought tolerance. In recent years, several studies conducted on plants have detected DNA markers associated with ecology, geography, disease resistance, and quantitative traits (Thornsberry et al., 2001; Turpeinen et al., 2001; Ivandic et al., 2002, 2003; Russel et al., 2003; Sun et al., 2001, 2003; Gebhardt et al., 2004; Sabharwal et al., 2004; and Amirul Islam et al. 2004) demonstrating that it is a viable alternative to classical QTL analyses, which were time taking and costly measurements. ICRISAT and collaborating institutes have constituted composite collections of chickpea (Upadhyaya et al., 2006a) and sorghum (3000 accessions each) and groundnut, pigeonpea, finger millet (1000 accessions each) (Table 7) that contain maximum diversity known in the species, accessions with economic traits and some representation of the related wild species. The composite collections will be genotyped using SSR markers. The data generated will 40

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controls used in this study (Figure 5). In the groundnut core, 158 accessions had low temperature tolerance at germination (Upadhyaya et al., 2001b). Also found were 15 Valencia, 20 Spanish, and 25 Virginia type germplasm lines in groundnut with high yield, good shelling percentage and 100-seed weight through multilocational evaluation of the ‘Asia region core collection’ (Upadhyaya et al., 2005b). These new sources performed better than or similar to the best control cultivars for particular trait (s), but were diverse from them. Holbrook et al. (1997) achieved similarly through examining all accessions in the groundnut core collection (Holbrook et al., 1993) for resistance to the groundnut root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne arenaria (Neal) race 1) and resistance to pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination (PAC) (Holbrook, 1998) while Franke et al. (1999) later did similarly for resistance to Rhizoctonia limb rot (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn AG-4).

be used to define the genetic structure of the collection for functional and comparative genomics. The analysis of genetic diversity will help to elucidate population structures that influence the analysis of the associations between molecular markers and the morphological or reaction traits. Using all available information, about 10% accessions will be selected containing maximum diversity and those could be used in the breeding programs. Identification of new sources for traits of economic importance for use in crop improvement program Due to the reduced size, the core collection can be evaluated extensively to identify the useful parents for crop improvement. By evaluating core collection of chickpea, we identified new sources of important traits, namely, early maturity (28 accessions), large seeded kabuli (16 accessions) and high-yielding (39 accessions) types. The clustering of 28 early maturing accessions along with four controls revealed three clusters. Cluster-1 was formed of five entries including three controls (ICCVs 2, 96029 and Harigantars). Cluster-2 was formed of 14 entries including control Annigeri. Thirteen entries constituted cluster-3 and no control among them. It can be presumed that these 13 accessions are more distant from controls than other accessions (Figure 4). The phenotypic diversity index was highest between ICC 14648 and ICCV 96029, compared to the other entry pairs. Such information has high value to chickpea breeders.

The mini-core collections of chickpea and groundnut have been evaluated and diverse sources of useful traits were identified. From the chickpea mini-core, 18 accessions having traits related to drought tolerance (Kashiwagi et al., 2005) and 29 accessions tolerant to soil salinity (Serraj et al., 2004) have been identified. Similarly, Pande et al. (2006) screened the minicore collection for resistance to various diseases and identified 67 accessions resistant/highly resistant to fusarium wilt, moderate resistance to ascochyta blight in 3 accessions, botrytis grey mold in 55 accessions, and to dry root rot in 6 accessions. Some accessions also with multiple resistances were identified. The evaluation of groundnut mini-core resulted in identification of 18 diverse accessions with high water use efficiency (Upadhyaya, 2005). The evaluation of chickpea mini-core at the Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur, India during 2002 to 2004 seasons revealed 12 very promising accessions. Of these six accessions

The evaluation of groundnut core collection resulted in identification of 21 accessions with early maturity (Upadhyaya et al., 2005c). The cluster analysis done on these 21 accessions and three controls revealed three clusters. Cluster-1 comprised of four entries including two controls (Gangapuri and Chico). Cluster-2 contained 13 entries including one control (JL-24). Seven test accessions formed cluster-3 and these accessions are more distinct from the three 41

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of the chickpea mini-core (Upadhyaya and Ortiz, 2001) based on morphological and agronomic traits. For DFA analysis, genotypic data from 210 accessions screened with 40 SSR markers was used. Overall most individuals were assigned with a high degree of confidence to the original (phenotypic) clusters from which accessions constituting mini core collection were selected. Only 27% of the individuals were reassigned into new clusters according to genotypic data, which were mainly identified within clusters 4, 6, and 7 of the mini-core (ICRISAT, 2004). This confirmed that the chickpea mini core was well selected.

were involved in hybridization to develop large seeded kabuli cultivars. The evaluation of groundnut mini-core in Thailand (2004-05) indicated ten accessions high-yielding. The groundnut mini-core evaluation in China during 2005 resulted in identification of 14 accessions highly resistant to bacterial wilt, six with high oil content and four with high Oleic and low Linoleic acid. Three accessions had highest Oleic: Linoleic acid ratio. Molecular characterization of germplasm Characterization of germplasm with molecular markers can help improve their utilization. It can form the basis for mining and cloning of genes of agronomically important traits.

Genotyping chickpea accessions of varying maturity duration Sixty-two chickpea germplasm accessions (50 early-, 6 medium- and 6 late-maturing) were analyzed with 37 SSR markers. A total of 673 alleles were found. The number of alleles per marker varied from 4 to 28 with an average of 18. The polymorphic information content (PIC) values ranged from 0.53 to 0.94 with an average of 0.85. Mean heterozygosity was low (0.0276). The principal component analysis (PCA) plot of Rogers’s distance indicated three distinct clusters (ICRISAT, 2004).

Genotyping chickpea accessions A total of 288 chickpea accessions including 211 mini-core subset accessions consisting of 75% desi type (Upadhyaya and Ortiz, 2001), 57 accessions of kabuli chickpea, and 20 accessions of wild Cicer species from ICARDA were genotyped using 40 SSR markers. The results indicated that the chickpea mini-core developed at ICRISAT was allelically more diverse than the germplasm from ICARDA. The accessions from ICARDA consisted of more heterozygous individuals compared with mini-core accessions. The dendogram constructed based on shared allele distance using unweighted pair group mean average (UPGMA) method indicated two main groups: one consisting mainly of accessions from the Indian subcontinent and the other group of accessions from Mediterranean, Middle-East and Ethiopia. The accessions of wild species (C. reticulatum and C. echinospermum) formed two groups of their own flanking two ends of the chickpea accessions (Upadhyaya et al., 2006b).

Genotyping groundnut accessions In groundnut, 26-accessions were analyzed with random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) assays. The genetic similarity (Sij) ranged from 59.0 to 98.8% with an average of 86.2%. Both multidimensional scaling and unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA) dendograms revealed the existence of five distinct clusters. Some accessions with diverse DNA profiles (ICGs 1448, 7101, and 1471, and ICGVs 99006 and 99014) were identified for mapping and genetic enhancement in groundnut (Dwivedi et al., 2001). Molecular marker based diversity estimates are useful to select diverse lines for developing populations that may be used for

Validating the chickpea mini core collection: Discriminant function analysis was used to determine the level of congruence between the genotypic data set and the 28 phenotypic clusters 42

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REFERENCES Amirul Islam, F.M., Beebe, S., Munoz, M., Tohme, J., Redden, R.J. and Basford, K.E. 2004. Using molecular markers to assess the effect of introgression on quantitative attributes of common bean in the Andean gene pool. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 108:243-252.

mapping studies to identify DNA markers linked with resistance to rosette disease in groundnut. Nine amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) using primer pairs were performed on nine rosette resistant and one susceptible accessions. Across the 10 accessions, the nine primer pairs identified 94 unique markers, with an average of 10.4 markers per primer pair. The genetic dissimilarity (Dij) values ranged from 3.92 to 50.53% with an average of 19.56%. Groundnut accessions, namely, ICG 11044 with ICGs 3436, 9558 and 11968 showed greater genetic diversity (36.59 to 50.53%) amongst the nine rosette resistant accessions used. These accessions possess high levels of resistance to rosette, average d”2% compared to e”90% infection in susceptible control ICG 7827 across four seasons’ evaluation at Lilongwe, Malawi. These accessions therefore could be intercrossed among themselves to produce diversified rosette resistant breeding populations (Dwivedi et al., 2003).

Bantilan, M.C.S. and Joshi, P.K. 1996. Adoption and impact pigeonpea ICP 8863. Pages 3639. in Partners in impact assessment: summary proceedings of an ICRISAT/ NARS workshop on methods and joint impact targets in Western and Central Africa, 3-5 May 1995, Sadore, Niger. ICRISAT, Patancheru, 502 324, India. 116 pp. Bhattacharjee, R. 2000. Studies on the establishment of a core collection of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Ph. D. Thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125 004, India. 162 pp. Dashiell, K. and Fatokun, C. 1997. Soybean. Pages 181-190 in Fuccillo D, Sears L and Stapleton P (eds.). Biodiversity in Trust. Cambridge University Press, Cambidge, UK

Conclusion Crop genetic resources have contributed enormously towards sustainability of agriculture and alleviation of poverty. These are being assembled and conserved at several genebanks for future use. Using raw germplasm resources, a large number of crop varieties and hybrids have been developed and released for cultivation. New strategies on core and mini-core collections were developed to enhance the precision of germplasm characterization and reducing cost on germplasm regeneration and conservation. Composite sets of ICRISAT mandate crops are being developed under the Generation Challenge Program. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of these sets will provide vast scope of identifying useful and unique germplasm resources for utilization in crop improvement. Molecular characterization of the germplasm of agronomic importance has been pursued for value addition and to enhance their utilization.

Dwivedi, S.L., Gurtu, S., Chandra, S., Upadhyaya, H.D. and Nigam, S.N. 2003. AFLP Diversity among selected rosette resistant groundnut germplasm. International Arachis Newsletter 23: 2123. Dwivedi, S.L., Gurtu, S., Chandra, S., Yuejin, W. and Nigam, S.N. 2001. Assessment of genetic diversity among selected groundnut germplasm. I: RAPD analysis. Plant Breeding 120: 345-349. FAO. 1998. The state of ex-situ conservation. Page 90 in The state of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Rome, Italy: FAO. Franke, M.D., Brenneman, T.B. and Holbrook, 43

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Archival Report 2004. Patancheru, India: ICRISAT.

C.C. 1999. Identification of resistance to Rhizoctonia limb rot in a core collection of peanut germplasm. Plant Dis. 83: 944-948.

Ivandic, V., Hackett, C.A., Nevo, E., Keith, R., Thomas, W.T.B. and Forster, B.P. 2002. Analysis of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) in wild barley from the Fertile Crescent: associations with ecology, geography and flowering time. Plant Molecular Biology 48:511-527.

Gebhardt, C., Ballvora, A., Walkemeier, B., Oberhagemann, P. and Schuler, K. 2004. Assessing genetic potential in germplasm collections of crop plants by marker-trait association: a case study for potatoes with quantitative variation of resistance to late blight and maturity type. Molecular Breeding 13: 93-102.

Ivandic, V., Thomas, W.T.B., Nevo, E., Zhang, Z. and Forster BP. 2003. Association of simple sequence repeats with quantitative trait variation including biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in Hordeum spontaneum. Plant Breeding 122:300-304.

Grenier, C., Bramel, P.J. and Hamon, P. 2001. Core collection of the genetic resources of sorghum: 1. Stratification based on ecogeographical data. Crop Science 41: 234– 240.

Jiang, H.F. and Duan, N.X. 1998. Utilization of groundnut germplasm resources in breeding programme. Crop Genetic Resources 2:24-25. Kashiwagi, J., Krishnamurthy, L., Upadhyaya, H,D,, Krishna, H., Chandra, S., Vincent Vadez. and Serraj, R. 2005. Genetic variability of drought-avoidance root traits in the mini-core germplasm collection of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Euphytica 146: 213-222.

Holbrook, C.C., Anderson, W.F. and Pittman, R.N. 1993. Selection of a core collection from the U.S. germplasm collection of peanut. Crop Science 33: 859-861. Holbrook, C.C., Stephenson, M.G. and Johnson, A.W. 1997. Level and geographical distribution of resistance to Meloidogyne arenaria in the germplasm collection of peanut. Agron. Abstr.:157. Holbrook, C.C., Wilson, D.W. and Matheron, M.E. 1998. Sources of resistance to preharvest aflatoxin contamination in peanut. Proceedings of the American Peanut Research & Education Society 30:21.

Knauft, D.A. and Gorbet, D.W. 1989. Genetic diversity among peanut cultivars. Crop Science 29:1417-1422. Kumar, S., Gupta, S., Chandra, S. and Singh, B.B. 2004. How wide is the genetic base of pulse crops? In: Ali M, Singh BB, Kumar S and Dhar V (eds.). Pulses in new perspective. Indian Society of Pulses Research and Development, IIPR, Kanpur, India. pp. 211-221.

ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics). 1989. Collaboration on Genetic Resources: summary proceedings of a joint ICRISAT/ NBPGR (ICAR) workshop on germplasm exploration and evaluation in India, 14–15 Nov 1988, ICRISAT, Patancheru, India. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.

Marshall, D.R. 1989. Limitations to the use of germplasm collections. In: Brown AHD, Frankel OH, Marshall DR and Williams JT (eds.). The use of plant genetic resources Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, pp. 105-120.

ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics). 2004. Harnessing Biotechnology for the Poor – 44

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502 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 190 pp.

Mathur, P.N., Prasada Rao, K.E., Singh, I.P., Agrawal, R.C., Mengesha, M.H., and Rana, R.S. 1992. Evaluation of Forage Sorghum Germplasm, Part-2: NBPGR-ICRISAT Collaborative Programme. NBPGR, New Delhi, India. 296 pp. Mathur, P.N., Prasada Rao, K.E., Thomas, T.A., Mengesha, M.H., Sapra, R.L. and Rana, R.S. 1991. Evaluation of Forage Sorghum Germplasm, Part-1: NBPGR-ICRISAT Collaborative Programme. NBPGR, New Delhi, India. 269 pp.

Reddy, L.J., Upadhyaya, H.D., Gowda, C.L.L. and Sube Singh. 2005. Development of core collection in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 52:1049-1056. Remanandan, P., Sastry, D.V.S.S.R. and Mengesha, M.H. 1988. ICRISAT Pigeonpea Germplasm Catalog: Evaluation and Analysis. Patancheru, A P 502 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 89 pp.

Mathur, P.N., Pundir, R.P.S., Patel, D.P., Rana, R.S. and Mengesha, M.H. 1993a. Evaluation of Chickpea Germplasm, Part-1: NBPGRICRISAT Collaborative Programme. NBPGR, New Delhi, India. 194 pp.

Remanandan, P. and Singh, L. 1997. Pigeonpea. Pages 156-167. in Fuccillo D, Sears L and Stapleton P (eds.). Biodiversity in Trust. Cambridge University Press, Cambidge, UK.

Mathur, P.N., Rao, S.A., Agrawal, R.C., Mengesha, M.H. and Rana, R.S. 1993b. Evaluation of Pearl Millet Germplasm, Part1: NBPGR-ICRISAT Collaborative Programme. NBPGR, New Delhi, India. 200 pp. Mathur, P.N., Rao, S.A., Sapra, R.L., Mengesha, M.H., and Rana, R.S. 1993c. Evaluation of Pearl millet Germplasm, Part2: NBPGR-ICRISAT Collaborative Programme. NBPGR, New Delhi, India. 215 pp.

Russel, J.R., Booth, A., Fuller, J.D., Baum ,M., Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S. and Powel, W. 2003. Patterns of polymorphism detected in the chloroplast and nuclear genomes of barley landraces sampled from Syria and Jordan. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 107: 413-421. Sabharwal, V., Negi, M.S., Banga, S.S. and Lakshmikumaran, M. 2004. Mapping of AFLP markers linked to seed coat color loci in Brassica juncea (L) Czern. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 109: 160-166. Serraj, R., Krishnamurthy, L. and Upadhyaya, H.D. 2004. Screening of chickpea minicore germplasm for tolerance to soil salinity. International Chickpea and Pigeonpea Newsletter

Pande, S., Kishore, G.K., Upadhyaya, H.D. and Raom, J.N. 2006. Identification of sources of multiple fungal diseases resistance using mini-core collection in chickpea. Plant Disease (in press). Pundir, R.P.S., Reddy, K.N. and Mengesha, M.H. 1988. ICRISAT Chickpea Germplasm Catalog: Evaluation and Analysis. Patancheru, A. P. 503 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 94 pp.

Shannon, C.E. and Weaver, W.1949. The mathematical theory of Communication. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana.

Rao, N.K. and Bramel, P.J. 2000. Manual of Genebank Operations and Procedures. Technical Manual no. 6. Patancheru, A. P.

Singh, A.K. and Nigam, S.N. 1997. Groundnut. Pages 114-127. in Fuccillo D, Sears L and 45

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Stapleton P (eds.). Biodiversity in Trust. Cambridge University Press, Cambidge, UK.

collections to identify sources of tolerance to low temperature at germination. Indian J. Plant Genet. Resources 14:165-167.

Singh, K.B., Pundir, R.P.S., Robertson, L.D., van Rheenen, H.A., Singh, U., Kelley, T.J., Parthasarthy Rao, P., Johansen, C. and Saxena, N.P. 1997. Chickpea. Pages 100113. in Fuccillo D, Sears L and Stapleton P (eds.). Biodiversity in Trust. Cambridge University Press, Cambidge, UK. Sun, G.L., William ,M., Liu, J., Kasha, K.J. and Pauls. K.P. 2001. Microsatellites and RAPD polymorphisms in Ontario corn hybrids are related to the commercial sources and maturity ratings. Molecular Breeding 7:1324.

Upadhyaya, H.D., Ortiz, R., Bramel, P.J., and Sube Singh. 2001c. Development of groundnut core collection from Asia region. Hundered years of post Mendelian genetics and plant breeding – retrospect and prospects, 6-9 November 2001, IARI, New Delhi Upadhyaya, H.D., Bramel, P.J., Ortiz, R. and Sube Singh. 2002a. Developing a mini core of peanut for utilization of genetic resources. Crop Science 42:2150–2156. Upadhyaya, H.D., Bramel, P.J., Ortiz, R. and Sube Singh. 2002b. Geographical patterns of diversity for morphological and agronomic traits in the groundnut germplasm collection. Euphytica 128:191204.

Sun, G., Bong, M., Nass, H., Martin, R. and Dong, Z. 2003. RAPD polymorphism in spring wheat cultivars and lines with different level of Fusarium resistance. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 106:1059-1067.

Upadhyaya, H.D. 2003. Geographical patterns of variation for morphological and agronomic characteristics in the chickpea germplasm collection. Euphytica 132:343352. Upadhayaya ,H.D., Ortiz, R., Bramel, P.J. and Sube Singh, 2003. Development of a groundnut core collection using taxonomical, geographical and morphological descriptors. Genetic Resources and Crop Evaluation 50:139148.

Thornsberry, J.M., Goodman, M.M., Doebley, J., Kresovitch, S., Neilsen, D. and Buckler, I.V. E.S. 2001. Dwarf 8 polymorphism associate with variation in flowering time. Nature Genetics 28:286-289. Turpenien, T., Tenhola, T., Manninen, O., Nevo, E. and Nissila, E. 2001. Microsatellite diversity associated with ecological factors in Hordeum spontaneum populations in Israel. Molecular Ecology 10:1577-1591. Upadhyaya, H.D. and Ortiz, R. 2001. A mini core subset for capturing diversity and promoting utilization of chickpea genetic resources. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 102: 1292–1298.

Upadhyaya, H.D. 2005. Variability for drought resistance related traits in the mini-core collection of peanut. Crop Science 45: 1432-1440. Upadhyaya, H.D., Gowda, C.L.L. , Pundir, R.P.S., Gopal Reddy, V., and Sube Singh. 2005a. Development of core subset of finger millet germplasm using geographic origin and data on 14 morpho-agronomic traits. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution (in press).

Upadhyaya, H.D., Bramel ,P.J. and Sube Singh. 2001a. Development of a chickpea core subset using geographic distribution and quantitative traits. Crop Science 41:206– 210. Upadhyaya, H.D., Nigam, S.N. and Sube Singh. 2001b. Evaluation of groundnut core 46

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Crouch, J.H., Buhariwalla, H.K. and Sube Singh. 2006a. Development of composite collection for mining germplasm possessing allelic variation for beneficial traits in chickpea. Plant genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization (in press). Upadhyaya, H.D., Gowda, C.L.L., Buhariwalla, H.K. and Crouch, J.H. 2006b. Efficient use of crop germplasm resources: identifying useful germplasm for crop improvement through core and mini-core collections and molecular marker approaches. Plant genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization (in press).

Upadhyaya, H.D., Mallikarjuna Swamy, B.P., Kenchana Goudar, P.V., Kullaiswamy, B.Y. and Sube Singh. 2005b. Identification of diverse groundnut germplasm through multienvironment evaluation of a core collection for Asia. Field Crops Research 93:293-299. Upadhyaya, H.D., Pundir, R.P.S., Gowda, C.L.L, Reddy,K.N. and Sube Singh. 2005c. Geographical patterns of diversity for qualitative and quantitative traits in the pigeonpea germplasm collection. Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization & Utilization 3(3): 331-352. Upadhyaya, H.D., Furman, B.J., Dwivedi, S.L., Udupa, S.M., Gowda, C.L.L., Baum, M.,

Table 1. Area under cultivation and productivity of the selected crops during last four decades1

Crop

1963-65

Wheat Rice (Paddy) Soybean Sorghum Chickpea Groundnut in shell Pigeonpea

213.2 123.5 25.3 47.3 11.7 16.9 2.8

Wheat Rice (Paddy) Soybean Sorghum Chickpea Groundnut in shell Pigeonpea

1196 2062 1172 970 577 853 632

1983-85 Area: m ha 230.4 143.8 51.7 47.7 9.8 18.4 3.5 Grain yield kg ha-1 2173 3201 1747 1466 682 1089 750

47

2003-05 213.1 151.2 88.8 43.8 10.6 25.0 4.5 2841 3976 2265 1328 780 1447 708

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Table 2. Institutions in India that donated a large number of germplasm to ICRISAT, 1973–2003. Institution

Sorg hum

Pearl millet

Chick pea

Pigeo npea

Groun dnut

Small millets

To t a l

AICSIP, Hyderabad

175

-

-

-

-

-

175

AICRPO, Hyderabad

-

-

-

-

529

-

529

ANGRAU, Hyderabad

115

-

-

3,035

1,366

285

4,801

ARS, Niphad, Maharashtra

-

-

345

-

-

-

345

GAU, Junagadh

-

66

-

-

1,167

-

1,233

GBPUAT, Pantnagar

-

155

96

-

-

-

251

HAU, Hisar

-

-

211

-

-

-

211

IARI, New Delhi

33

-

3,022

174

-

-

3,229

JNKVV, Jabalpur

-

164

127

479

-

-

770

MPKV, Rahuri

-

234

173

191

267

-

865

NBPGR, New Delhi

90

170

149

-

161

469

1,039

PAU, Ludhiana

-

106

1,029

-

496

-

1,631

RAU, Samastipur, Bihar

-

-

-

-

197

-

197

TNAU, Coimbatore

13

45

63

40

590

531

1,282

Rockefeller Foundation (India) 11,370

2,022

-

-

-

1,246

14,638

Total

2,962

5,215

3,919

4,773

2,531

31,196

11,796

Table 3. Germplasm holdings in the Rajendra S Paroda Genebank, ICRISAT, Patancheru, December 2004.

Crop Sorghum Pearl millet Chickpea Pigeonpea Groundnut Finger millet Foxtail millet Proso millet Little millet Kodo millet Barnyard millet Total

Active collection1 37,257 21,594 20,116 13,632 16,041 5,949 1,535 842 466 658 743 118, 883

Base collection 2 31,669 15,150 15,984 10,266 6,820 4,620 1,054 576 384 630 487 87,640

Accessions held in-trust 3 35,836 21,329 16,970 12,712 14,419 4,979 1,535 835 462 656 743 110,476

1. Active collection: germplasm seeds stored in medium-term storage facility and available for current utilization. 2. Base collection: germplasm seeds stored in long-term storage facility for utilization in posterity. 3. Accessions held in-trust: FAO designated germplasm freely available for use to the researchers. 48

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Table 4. Global distribution of germplasm samples to scientists, 1974 - 2005 Crop

1974-83

1984-1993

1994-2005

Total

Sorghum

58,627

158,762

31,382

248,771

Pearl millet

15,302

62,769

11,536

89,607

Chickpea

52,015

45,413

24,893

122,321

Pigeonpea

19,546

30,593

16,278

66,417

Groundnut

20,908

44,034

29,182

94,124

Small millets

20,067

17,352

15,449

52,868

Total

186,465

358,923

128,720

674,108

Table 5. Restoration of basic germplasm from ICRISAT genebank to different countries Number of accessions Country

Sorghum Pearl millet Chickpea

Botswana

362

Cameroon

1,827

Ethiopia

1,723

Kenya

838

Nigeria

1,436

1,436

Somalia

445

445

Groundnut Small millets Total 362

922

2,749 931

2,654 332

Sri Lanka India

Pigeonpea

1,170

71 14,637

7,189

7,488

5,988

71 6,060

3,460

Table 6. Core and mini -core collections of ICRISAT mandate crops. Crop

Number of accessions used

Number of traits involved

Number of accessions

Core Sorghum

22,473

20

2,247

Pearl millet

16,063

11

1,600

Chickpea

16,991

13

1,956

Pigeonpea

12,153

14

1,290

Groundnut

14,310

14

1,704

Finger millet

5,940

14

622

Foxtail millet

1,474

13

155

Asian core Groundnut

4,738

15

504

Mini-core Groundnut

1,704

31

184

Chickpea

1,956

22

211

Pigeonpea

1,290

16

146

Finger millet

622

14

65

Foxtail millet

155

13

49

44,822

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Table 7. Composite collections of seected crops Size of the composite collection (accessions)

Genetic markers used

Institutes collaborating with ICRISAT

Chickpea Sorghum Groundnut Pigeonpea Finger millet

3000 3000 1000 1000 1000

50 SSR markers 50 SSR markers 20 SSR markers 20 SSR markers 20 SSR markers

ICARDA, Syria CIRAD, FranceCAAS, China EMBRAPA, Brazil Only ICRISAT AICSMIP, India

No. of varieties

Crop

32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

30

19

7

6

1

1 Sorghum

Pearl millet

Chickpea

Pigeonpea

Groundnut

Barnyard millet

2

Finger millet

66 varieties released in 44 countries

Fig 1. Number of cultivars released worldwide from the basic germplasm supplied from ICRISAT genebank 1976-2003 12

10

Linkage Distance

8

6

4

2

0 Arica

Southeast Asia South Asia Americas

Europe

Mediterranean West Asia East asia

Fig 2. Dendogram of eight regions for the entire chickpea germplasm based on first three principal components. 50

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20 18 16 14

Linkage Distance

12 10 8 6 4

Caribbean

Central Asia

Southeast Asia

Eastern Africa

Southern Africa

Oceania

South Asia

Central Africa

Europe

West Africa

South America

East Asia

Middle East

0

North America

2

Fig 3. Dendogram of 14 regions in entire groundnut germplasm based on sores of first seven principal components. 40 35 30

Linkage Distance

25 20 15 10 5

ICCV 96029 Harigantars ICCV 2 ICC16644 ICC16641 ICC14648 Annigeri ICC14595 ICC10822 ICC8931 ICC10232 ICC2171 ICC16947 ICC12424 ICC11059 ICC10996 ICC10981 ICC8618 ICC2023 ICC11180 ICC11021 ICC11039 ICC11160 ICC10976 ICC11040 ICC10926 ICC2859 ICC10629 ICC1398 ICC6919 ICC8378 ICC1097

0

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

Fig 4. Dendogram based on first three principal components of 16 quantitative traits of 28 earlymaturing germplasm lines and four control cultivars capturing (74.3%) variation.

Cluster3

Cluster2

Cluster1

Fig 5. Dendogram of 21 early maturing groundnut landraces with three control varieties based on the first 10 principal components 51

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RICE BIODIVERSITY AND ITS UTILIZATION Subramanian, M1. and S.Tirumeni2

ABSTRACT Rice (Oryza sativa L.) the most essential food crop of the world, is popularly known as “Global Grain”. Unlike other crop plants, rice is endowed with enormous biodiversity, spread in many countries of the globe. The land races, indigenous cultivars, modern varieties, genetic stocks, breeding lines and wild species form the major components of the rice biodiversity found abundantly in South East Asia, Africa, Australia and Southern Central America. This germplasm with wide variability is the wealth of the country because of its valuable gene system. These genetic differences are very much useful to breed high yielding rice varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses and quality traits improvement. Therefore, exploration and conservation of these valuable rice genotypes had been initiated already during 60s with a view to investigate their origin, variability and to evaluate their relationship for utilization. The responsibility of collection, conservation and regeneration of those germplasm is vested with international and national research institutes and stations of all rice growing countries. In spite of countless problems and constraints, these efforts have already been in vogue to collect and conserve the variability found in the globe and to utilize them in rice improvement work.

ever-growing population of the world. This crop warrants resistance against abiotic and biotic stresses besides other quality characters to be improved. The components of agro biodiversity used in the development of new plant varieties or hybrids are called genetic material. Rice genetic resources comprising land races, modern and obsolete varieties, genetic stocks, breeding lines and wild races are the basis of food security. Currently, the land races and varieties under cultivation are declining. The wild species are threatened with extinction through changes in land use, extension of agriculture into marshal areas and deforestation. Besides, the future progress in the improvement of rice crop largely depends on exploration. In view of the above, the conservation of rice biodiversity is taken up with great care and importance in South East Asia, South Asia, Africa, Australia and South Central America. Collection and conservation are in progress in many places of the aforesaid regions and the details are discussed in this paper.

Introduction Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources. Agricultural biodiversity focuses a portion of the biodiversity that has undergone selection and modification over millennia by human civilization to better serve their needs. Genetic diversity, one of the components of biodiversity, refers to the variety of genetic information contained in all the individual plants, animals and microorganism. The plant diversity is not only distributed over the globe and India is also recognized as one of he 17 mega biodiversity areas of the world with enormous diversity in many flora and fauna. 1. Former Director of Research TNAU, Plot No.9, VOC Street, Chokkanathapuram, Madurai - 625 014, Tamil Nadu, India. 2.Associate Professor (Plant Breeding) AJANCOA & RI, Karaikal - 609 603. Rice, the world’s most important staple food crop needs continuous improvement to feed the

1. Former Director of Research TNAU, Plot No.9, VOC Street, Chokkanathapuram, Madurai - 625 014, Tamil Nadu, India. 2. Associate Professor (Plant Breeding) PAJANCOA & RI, Karaikal - 609 603.

52

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bamboos. Rice and its relatives are quite unrelated to other major cereal seeds and maize, wheat and sorghum (Watson, et al 1985). A comprehensive numerical taxonomy analysis of the grass family, which probably reflects evolutionary relationship, shows the association between rice and bamboos and the divergence of rice from other cereals.

Rice belongs to the family Poaceae (Gramineae) and the tribe Oryzeae. The tribe Oryzeae consists of 12 genera (Table 1) including the genus Oryza, with specific differences among their traits. Examples of potentially useful traits in genera related to Oryza are plants adapted to cold water (Zizania), salt water (Porteresia an eco type of Leersai oryzoides) and plants with unisexual spikelets (Zizania, Luziola zizanopsis).

The genus Oryza consists of species adapted to a broad range of habitats. Several species grow in shady forest and others in vast stands in deep water swamps. Wild rices can be found, for example, in the Himalayan foothills, Asian river deltas, tropical Caribbean islands, Amazon basin, and the inland swamp lands of southern and western Africa as well as in temporary pools of the arid savannas of the tropics. The wild species of Oryza are found almost exclusively within the boundaries of the tropics. Cultivated rice, however, is grown as far as 50° S in Argentina.

Most of the species in genera related to Oryza have not been studied in detail. However, two species in the genus Zizaniza are well - known in parts of America and Asian cuisine. Z.palustris L. is the wild rice of North America commonly served during the United State. Thanks giving Day meal and Z.latifolia is eaten as a vegetable, particularly in Chinese dishes. Table 1. Genera, number of species, chromosome number and spikelet structure in the tribe Oryzeae (Duistermaat 1987, Pyrah 1969, Second 1985) Genus

Chromosome number (2n)

Spikelet structure

Oryza

24,28

Bisexual

Leersia

24,48,60,96

Bisexual

Table 2. Chromosome number, genomic composition, and geographical distribution of Oryza species (Khush and Brar, 2001) Species

2n

Genome

O.sativa complex O.sativa L.

Distribution

24

AA

World Wide

O.nivara Sharma et 24 Shastry

AA

Tropical and Subtropical Asia

O.rufipogon Griff

24

AA

Tropical and Subtropical Asia, tropical Australia

Chikusichloa

24

Bisexual

Hygroryza

24

Bisexual

Porteresia

48

Bisexual

Zizania

30,34

Unisexual

Luziola

24

Unisexual

Zizaniopsis

24

Unisexual

Rhynchoryza

24

Bisexual

Maltebrunia

Unknown

Bisexual

O.breviligulata A. Chev, et Roehr.

24

AA

Africa

Prosphytochloa

Unknown

Bisexual

O.glaberrima Steud. 24

AA

West Africa

Potamophila

24

Unisexual and bisexual

O.longistaminata A. 24 Chev. et Roehr.

AA

Africa

O.meridionalis Ng 24

AA

Tropical Australia

The genus Oryza to which cultivated rice belongs, has 22 wild species and two cultivated species viz., O.sativa and O.glaberrima (Table 2). Oryza is closely related to the bamboos and some of the forest wild rices look like miniature

Rice is believed to have originated in the southeast and South Asia, which included North 53

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O.glumaepatula Steud

24

AA

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

and cultivated annual (O. saliva L) (Sharma and Sastri, 1965). Corresponding members of African rice are O.longistaminata Chav. and Roehr, O.barthi A Chev. and O.glaberrima. He also asserted that O.sativa L. could have evolved in a broad area extending over “the foothills of Himalayas in South Asia and Southwest China”. The Asian cultivated rices have formed three eco-geographic races (indica, japonica and javanica ) and three distinct cultural types in monsoon area (upland, lowland and deep water). Based on local needs and traditions, many such groups have been recognized. Chinese have traditionally recognized Hsien and Keng types. Indonesian has grouped them into Bulu, Gundil and Tjereh and Bengal rice varieties are grouped into Aus, Bow and Aman types. Based on isolation and selection, O.sativa was divided into two geographic races viz., O.sativa var indica and O.stiva var japonica (Kato et al 1930). The differentiation also involved morphological and serological characters as well as inter varietal fertility. The former is grown all over the tropics and latter confined to temperate and subtropical regions. One more geographical race javanica, has also been recognized originating in Indonesia which is somewhat intermediate between indica and japonica, resembling the former morphologically and the latter physiologically.

South and Central America

O.officinalis complex 0..punctata Kotschy 24,48 BB,BBCC ex Steud.

Africa

O.minuta J.S. Presl. 48 ex C.B. Presl.

BBCC

0.officinalis Wall ex Watt

24

CC

Tropical and subtropical Asia tropical Australia

O.rhizomatis Vaughan

24

CC

Sri Lanka

O.eichingeri A. Peter

24

CC

South Asia and East Africa

O.latifolia Desv. America

48

CCDD

South and Central

O.alta Swallen

48

CCDD

South and Central America

O.grandiglumis (Doell) Prod.

48

CCDD

South and Central America

O.australiensis Domin.

24

EE

Tropical Australia

24

GG

South and Southeast Asia

O.meyeriana (Zoll. 24 et Mor. ex Steud.) Baill

GG

Southeast Asia

Philippines and Papua New Guinea

O.meyeriana complex O.granulata Nees et Arn. Ex Watt

O.ridleyi complex O.longiglumis Jansen

48

HHJJ

Irian Jaya (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea

O.ridleyi Hook F.

48

HHJJ

South Asia

24

FF

Genetic erosion In many areas, high yielding modern varieties were adopted by the farmers and the cultivation of land race varieties declined as high as 85100% (Saxena et al, 2003) which also resulted in the loss of genetic diversity and increased the genetic erosion. The wild species are threatened with extinction through changes in land race, changes in land use, extension of agriculture in the marginal areas, deforestation and natural disorders. They contributed for abundant habit fragmentation of destruction of wild as well as land races (OECD, 1996). Unless these losses are checked, genetic

Unclassified O.brachyantha A. Chev. et Roehr

O.schlechteri Pilger 48

HHKK

O.schweinfurthiana -

-

Africa Papua New Guinea -

Eastern zone of India. Therefore, a large number of indigenous varieties of cultivated rice and forms of wild speices are found prominent in these regions. The Asian cultivated rice (O.sativa L) has evolved from wild rices following the sequence of wild perennials (O.rufipogon Griff.), wild annual (O.nivara) 54

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collected. The Plant Introduction of IARI, New Delhi was converted as National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in 1976 and acted as a nodal agency for exploration collection, conservation, characterization, evaluation and documentation of germplasm. A large number of collections were made by Sharma and his team from 1968 to 1983, with the help of IARI (Sharma 1982). Those collections were known as Assam Rice Collection (ARC). The Raipur collections of 19,116, rice cultivars grown locally in Madhya Pradesh region were made from 1971 - 76. Additional collections of 1938 cultivars were made through a special drive for upland varieties in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. Collaborative explorations by NBPGR and State Agricultural Universities added 7000 cultivars during 1978 - 80. The Vigyan Parishad Kendra Agricultural Station at Almorah collected 1247 cultivars from hilly regions of Uttarpradesh. NBPGR and CRRI jointly explored Sikkim, South Bihar and parts of Orissa in 1985 and collected 447 local types. Exploration by NBPGR during 1983 - 89 led to further addition of 4862 cultivars to the National Germplasm Bank.

erosion will invariably increase and replacement of such biodiversity will cost more. This can be reduced by strategic and timely conservation action. Therefore, exploration and conservation of biodiversity are given importance. Germplasm collection The collecting activities are closely linked to conservation and use. Most samples in the collection are land race varieties of O.sativa. Farmers throughout Asia usually maintain the identity of each rice variety and help to identity different varieties for effective collection of germplasm. Using this method more than 2000 samples of O.sativa were collected during the second half of 1995 from Southern provinces of the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic (PDR). It is estimated that about 60% of these samples are unique varieties. IRRI received almost 700 samples of Oryza sativa and 84 samples of different wild species form the Lao PDR, Tanzania, Philippines and Costa Rica during 2000. More than 24,700 samples of cultivated rice and 2400 samples of wild rice were collected in 165 missions from 22 countries (Anon 2000). India, the primary centre of origin of cultivated rice (O.sativa) obviously conserves a very high genetic diversity of rice with its diverse eco geographic conditions. Collecting the variability observed in indigenous rice cultivars began in India around the turn of this century. The work received special attention following establishment of the attention following establishment of the Agricultural Research Station at Dacca (Eastern India) in 1961 and Paddy Breeding Station, Coimbatore (Southern India) in 1912. Setting up the Indian Council of Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR) at New Delhi in 1929 and the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) at Cuttack in 1946 further strengthened these efforts. The Jaipur Botanical survey explored south Orissa and adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh during 1955-60 and collected 1745 cultivars. During 1965 - 67, 900 traditional cultivars of Manipur in Eastern India were

ICAR and the 82 research stations established at various agroclimatic regions of the country collected more than 80,000 accessions of rice (Table 3). The International Rice gene bank (IRG) of IRRI Philippines represents the largest and most diverse collection of rice in any gene bank. The collection comprises about 2% of all germplasm samples conserved world wide donated from more than 110 countries. The collection currently holds 1,02,700 samples of Asia rice Oryza sativa (95%) and West African Rice O.glaberrima (15%). The accessions were mostly collected from land races varieties nurtured by farmers for generations, modern 55

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Wild rice collection in India In addition to spectacular variability in its traditional cultivars, India is also rich in wild rice, particularly O.nivara, O.rufipogan, O.officinalis and O.granulata. These species were collected by the pioneer research workers. Subsequently, S.V.S. Shastry and his coworkers at Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) made extensive collections of wild species of Oryza from Northern, Western, Central and Eastern India and assembled striking variability in O.nivara and 0.officinalis. Variability in Portersia coarctata has also been collected form coastal areas. Besides Indian Scientists, the foreign scientists like H. Kihara in early 1960’s, Watanabe in the late 1960s and 1970s, French Scientists in 1986 came to India and in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and IRRI undertook more intensive exploration all over the country and collected the wild species.

and obsolete rice varieties, some breeding lines and all the 22 wild species in the genus Oryza (8.5%). Table 3. Rice germplasm maintenance at major rice research stations in India Name of S.No station/ centre

Location(s)

No. of accessions maintained

1

National centre

CRRI, Cuttack

19718

2

Andhra Pradesh

DRR, Rajendranagar

1076

3

Assam

Titabar, Katimganj

4

Bihar

Pusa, Patna, Ranchi, Sabour and Hazaribagh

3000,150

800,1252

5

Gujarat

Nawagaon

30

6

Haryana

Karnal

960

7

Himachal Pradesh

Palampur

100

8

Jammu and Khudwani, R.S. Kashmir Pura

426

9

Karnataka

Mandya

1850

10

Kerala

Pattambi

600

11

Madhya Pradesh

I.G.K.V.V., Raipur

12

Maharastra Karjat

1119

13

Manipur

Wangbal

1038

14

Orissa

Bhubaneswar, Jeypore and Ranital (OUAT)

15

Punjab

Kapurthala (PAU)

1178

16

Rajasthan

Banswara, Kota

2370

17

Tamil Nadu Coimbatore

18

Uttar Pradesh

Almora (VPKAS), Pantnagar, Faizabad and Kanpur,

1577,1003 1098

19

West Bengal Chinsura and Kalimpong

1013,1037

20

NBPGR

2248, 2600, 2873

Cuttack, Shillong, Thrissur Total

Conservation Conservation is the management of resources to derive sustainable benefits and to meet the needs of future. It preserves the genetic resources for a longer time without loss of viability of frequent rejuvenation and to distribute the required accessions to needy countries with collaborative approach. The two major approaches conserve the rice for diversity are in situ conservation and ex situ conservation.

20758

552

2306

In situ conservation In situ conservation means the conservation of ecosystem and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties (UNEP 1995). It preserves the evolutionary processes of generating new germplasm under natural selection and the maintenance of important field

81018

56

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traditional varieties only if their cultivation does not penalize them. The seed stores generally carry only modern varieties and certified seed growers, a part of the Department of Agriculture system of seed procurement strategy, grow only modern varieties. Even under a scheme “Plant now Pay later scheme”, the farmers are given seeds at no cost, but upon harvest are expected to pay for them. The seeds given in the scheme are from the certified seed growers, and are always modern varieties and sometimes only the recommended varieties. Traditional varieties are not planted by certified seed growers and were not included in the scheme.

laboratories for crop biology and biogeography. It serves as a continuous source of germplasm for ex situ conservation, and also to conserve potentially useful alleles, protects specially adapted species. It allows to natural evolution to continue, preserve pest and disease resistant species which can coevolve with their parasites, serves several sectors at one place. (Crop breeding and forestry maintained with in the same protected area facilitate research on species in their natural habitats). On farm conservation It is also an in situ conservation of the rice genetic resources under continued cultivation and management of a diverse set of rice population by the farmers in the agro ecosystem where rice has evolved. It is a dynamic complex process of crop evolution involving origin, domestication, spread, diversification and evolution. Four components of farmer’s management of diversity are seed flows, variety selection, variety adaptation and seed selection and storage. There is general consensus that farmers are not conservationists in nature but are conservationists through use. Therefore, farmers have to be provided with the right technical and economical options, so that they would be benefited by sowing the varieties targeted for conservationists.

The varieties that were planted in irrigated plots were obviously less affected by the drought than the varieties planted on rainfed plots. Therefore, irrigation sustained the use of modern varieties, as farmers plant only modern varieties in irrigated plots (Morin et al 1998). Poor storage condition is a cause of genetic erosion. Therefore, a simple and cheap seed drying and storage device that farmers could use to store the seeds for several years need to be supplied. Changing land use patterns may have an influence on diversity. It was suggested that land fragmentation may permit farmers to grow landraces on one plot of land, and commercial varieties on others. Since the development of onfarm conservation approaches beyond current practices have hardly been started, and the mechanism poorly understood, need to increase awareness of the potential of onfarm conservation through dialogues, training and education at all levels was felt must. Interaction with farmers to enhance their understanding of the broader issues of plant genetic conservation would be one approach. It was further agreed that since on farm conservation is important for many groups, this is one area in which government; non-government organizations, the science community and

Nature and objectives of on farm conservations • Maintain and enhances allelic diversity • Access to and control over the diversity at the local level • Promotion of genetic diversity conservation a house hold security. The competition between traditional and modern varieties is increasing, and adaptation of modern high quality varieties affects the cultivation of traditional varieties. Besides, the higher market price for traditional varieties does not compensate their lower yield and longer duration. Therefore, farmers will cultivate the 57

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conserved IRRI stock.

farming groups should have a common interest.

* IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria) will preserve,rejuvenate and distribute cultivars of O.glaberrima and wild species of Africa.

Ex situ conservation Ex situ conservation refers to the conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat. It is now being practiced to some extent in almost all countries as a means to conserve crop species diversity for posterity. This strategy is particularly important for crop gene pools and can be derived by propagating and maintaining the plants in genetic resource centres, botanical gardens, tissue culture respositories or in seed gene bank (OECD, 1996).

* Institute de Recharche Scientistique et Technique out line - Mer FranceThe international network for rice germplasm conservation has the following components (ORSTOM) and West African Rice Development Association, Bouake, Ivory Coast (WARDA) plan to collaborate with IITA.The above centres shall exchange and carefully compare the accession lists to minimize the maintenance of obviously duplicate accessions. Now, the need of multilevel (National/ State/ Lesser entities) public and private collaboration in various conservation activities is felt.

Periodical regeneration and rejuvenation of collections kept in the short, medium and long term storages are either done in the field in suitable conditions or in special situations such as green houses, grow houses, screen houses etc. At IRRI about 500 rice accessions are grown every season in such a way as to characterize them and rejuvenate them. NBPGR now keeps its field collection numbering about 5000 in three centres in the field as well as in the store. A long-term seed store also caters to the needs of safer storage of collections immediately after field characterization and evaluation.

In vitro conservation This technology is used to ensure the survival of seed lots with low viability. Seeds may have low viability when they are sent to gene banks for long term conservation. Anther culture, embryo cultures and cold treatment of flower buds or panicles (at 9-1l°c for 14 days) induced more number of plantlets. Further, anther float culture or cell suspension culture were also utilized. Meanwhile culture of isolated pollen was also carried out to induce plantlets.

Conservation of wild species * The IRGC of IRRI shall preserve a complete set of genotypes. Other national and inter national centres help IRRI on rejuvenation. * IRRI shall preserve, rejuvenate and distribute Indica, Japonica cultivars of O.sativa and Oryza species except those from Africa.

The development of isozyme classification provides an unequivocal biological framework for the use and analysis of diversity patterns of germplasm based on other molecular markers. DNA markers (RFLP, AFLP, RAPD and SSR) are routinely used for the management and evaluation of crop germplasm collections (Westman and Kresovich, 1997). Molecular biology, by generating new technologies and methods of analysis that proved new approaches of supplement classical

* The National Institute of Agrobiological Resources in Tsukuba Japan shall preserve, rejuvenate and distribute Japonica varieties of East Asia. * The National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) of USA shall preserve the accessions from USA, South America and Mediterranean area. The USA also shall continue to store duplicate samples of 58

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methods of analysis, has contributed significantly to increased understanding of many aspects of plant biology. Promising areas of biotechnology that may serve plant genetic resources activities and research are shown in Table 4.

of their national collections are duplicated at IRRI. Nevertheless, the IRG has provided an important safety net for national conservation efforts. Maintenance of Germplasm The maintenance of germplasm bank is to conserve it in state in which it can be indefinitely propagated. Storage of seeds for long term in the case of orthodox species is done based on the Harrington “rules of thumb” which define the relative influence of temperature and seed moisture content on seed longevity or viability. The first rule says that for every reduction in seed moisture content, the longevity of seed viability is double. Similarly, second rule says that for reduction of every 10°f or 5.66 - 5.56°c temperature seed longevity is doubled.

Table 4. Biotechnological tools and their potential applications in plant genetic resources activities. Activities of Research

Helpful new technologies

Collection or acquisition

In vitro technology, recombinant DNA technology (gene / DNA library and cloned genes)

Characterization, Biosystematics, Genetic diversity, Identifying duplicates, Genetic stability

RFLP technology, protein / isozyme electrophoresis

Maintenance and preservation

In vitro technology, cryopreservation, recombinant DNA technology (gene / DNA library)

Dissemination and exchange

The main task of a germplasm bank is to conserve germplasm in a state in which it can be indefinitely propagated. The term ‘base collection’ is applied to collections stored under long-term conditions (-10 to -20°c at 4% moisture), whereas the term ‘active collection’ is used for collections stored under mediumterm collections (10°c at 4% moisture) and ‘working collection’ refers to breeders’ collections usually stored under short-term conditions (10 to 20°c at 4% moisture). For safety reasons, duplicates of the base collections should be conserved in other germplasm banks.

In vitro technology, recombinant DNA technology (disease indexing, gene / DNA library and cloned genes)

The International Rice Genebank (IRG) The long-term preservation of rice genetic resources is the principal aim of the IRG. Formerly known as the International Rice Germplasm Centre, the gene bank has operated since 1977, although genetic conservation activities started in the early 1960s, just after the Institute was founded. It meets all the approved or preferred international genebank standards adopted in 1994 by the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. For several countries, including Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Lao PDR and the Philippines, the germplam conserved in the IRG represents a more or less complete duplicate of their national collections. For other countries, such as India and the People’s Republic of China, only parts

At IRRI long term conservation of this strategically important germplasm collection has been achieved by exploiting the seed production environment in Los Banos to achieve maximum seed longevity in storage for all the diverse rice accessions (Kamaeswara Rao and Jackson, 1996). Utilization of Rice Germplasm The land races have an inherent genetic value because of their adaptation to different farming conditions and resistance to pests and diseases. Knowledge of these traits, their genetic and 59

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molecular control and stability under different conditions enhances the value of the conserved germplasm. The use of germplasm in crop improvement could be facilitated by systematic evaluation and documentation of the acquired data.

Donor Stress situation utilized Deegeowoogen Salt IR8 tolerance

Rice breeders of India have made effective use of the indigenous gene pools which provides resistance to pests or tolerance to eco-edaphic stresses. The drought resistant N22 was used in breeding Bala. TKM 6, which has multiple resistance to insects and disease, became a parent of Ratna, Saket 4, Parjat, CR 44-1, W 1256 and W 1263; the latter lines were widely used inside India as well as in Sri Lanka and Thailand. The tungro virus-resistant PTB 10 has been bred into improved varieties such as Aswini, Bharathi, Jyothi, Rohini, Sabari and Triveni. Similarly, PTB 18 possessing multiple resistance has been widely used in India. For tolerance to submergence by floodwaters, FR13 A is an outstanding source. Indian breeders were also developing saline-tolerant varieties from indigenous sources such as Pokkali, Getu and

Donor utilized

Drought / Upland

N22

Akashi, Bala, Kanchan, Kiran, Prasanna

TKM 6

Abha, Cauvery, CR 128-928, Kalinga 3, Madhu, Neela, Parijat, Poorva, Pusa 2-21, Pusa 33, RatnamRudra, Saket 4, Sankar, Sarasa, Tripti.

T(N)1

CO 18

MR 118, Narshing, Vishnu

BR 4-10

Vytilla 2

Dasal

CO 43

SR26B

PVR1

Table 6. Germplasm utilized and varieties bred for resistance to pests and diseases Donor utilized

Pest

Varieties developed

Insect pests TKM6

CR 138-928, Madhu, Parijat, Radh, Ratna, Saket 4, Sayasree

ARC 6650

Pratibha, vajram

Stem Borer

Manoharsali Sonasali Brown plant hopper

PTB10

Bharti, Jyoti

Karivennel Pavizham PTB21

Daya, Neela, Pratap, Sarasa, Udaya

PTB33

Bharatidasan

Tadukan

Archana, Asha, Deepa, Himalayan, IR 579, Samridshi, Usha

CO 29

MR 118, Narsing Rasi, Vaigai, Vishnu

IR8

Asha, Bhagawathy, Govind, Hema, IGP1-37, Jaya, Jayanti, Kakatiya,

Disease

Birsadhan 201, C 7306, Cauvery, Himdhan, HM 95, Kanchi, Kusuma, Madhu, MR 118, Padma, Pennai, Parijat, Radhanagari 185-2, Rajendra, Ratnagiri 24, Rasi, Sarjoo 49, Sarjoo 50, Sarjoo 52, Sattari, Subhadra, Suma Suphala, Tella-Hamsa

Pusa 4-1, Thirupathisaram 1, TKM 9

Similarly the germplasm collections were

Varieties developed

CO 29

Pathara, ADT 31, ADT 33, ADT 34, Govind, Karuna, Manhar, MDU1, Narendral, Narendra2, Palman 579, Paramkudi 1, PR 103

Dasal. R 575, a local variety of H.P. state was used to breed Himdhan, which is adapted to altitudes above 1,000 meters (Table 5).

Table 5. Donors utilized and varieties bred for abiotic stress (Sharma et.al., 1988) Stress situation

Varieties developed

Blast

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Kheer, Polao and Chokuwa and soft rice, and rices used for preparation of flaked rice, puffed rice and bar boiled rice were also found (Ahmed et al., 2000 a,b). Over the decades, the germplasm collections at IRRI have been systematically characterized for a range of morphological and agronomic traits that facilitate conservation, as well as selection of suitable phenotypes by breeders (Table 7). Thousands of individual rice accessions have been evaluated for their resistance to or tolerance of a wide range of pests, diseases and abiotic stresses, such as brown plant hopper (BPH), rice blast and bacterial leaf blight (BLB) and adaptation to cold temperature or saline soils (Jackson et al., 1996).

Karjat 14-17, Lakshmi, Narandra 2, Rajarajan, Ratnagiri 1, Ratnagiri 68-1, Ratnagiri 78-1, Samalei, Samridhi, Usha, Vani, Vijaya CO 25 Bacterial leaf blight

Rice Tungro virus

TKM6

Bhagawathy, Rajarajan Govind, IR20, IR 36, Karjat 1, Radha, Ramakrishna

TKM6

Bharatidasan, CR 138-928, IR20, IR 50, Narendra 2, Pusa 2-21, Radha, Ratna, Saket 4

PTB2

Vikramarya

PTB10

Annapurna, Triveni

PTB18

CR 94, IR 36, Neela, Sarasa, Shakti

PTB21

ASD5

CR 57, CR 94, Daya, IR 36, Neela, Pratap, Sarasa, Shakti, Udaya CO 44

The Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Programme has made successful use of the following gene pools viz., Chinese semidwarfing source, vertical resistance to several diseases and insects, early maturity and photoperiod insensitivity, drought and resistance and recovery and tolerance to certain adverse soil factors. For instance, the recent IR varieties are highly resistant to bacterial leaf blight, the tungro virus, grassy stunt virus, biotypes 1 and 2 of the brown plant hopper, leafhopper and tolerance to one or more adverse soil factors. The genes for grassy stunt resistance were derived from the wild relative, Oryza nivara. Nearly all of the national centres have made profitable use of the semi dwarfing gene (sdi) contributed by Dee-geo-woo-gen and a varying number of the pest resistance genes derived for IRRI lines or IR varieties. Moreover, through local screening and selection, several national centres have incorporated additional resistance or tolerance genes from other sources into their improved varieties.

evaluated and screened for pests and diseases, used as donors and many varieties were bred in rice (Table 6). Assam Rice Collections (ARC) had many valuable genes for various pests and diseases (Sastry et al., 1971) tolerance to cold, drought (Hakkim and Sharma, 1974) flood, high protein (Srivastava and Nanda, 1977) amylase content and also for the genes for dwarf stature. Seetharaman et at (1974) found that whole assemblage of japonica characters such as their culm, shy tillering, short panicle etc., in ARC and they have pointed out that racial differentiation in O.sativa might have taken place in this region. Rao and Srinivasan (1978) found that ARC also have high field potential under low ‘P’ in the soil. The ARC have also possessed diversity for glutinous or waxy traits in rice. This is special class of rice for preparation of confectioneries (Pithus, Kurum), rice beer (Apong, Haj) as break fast food (Salpan) and industrial use. Besides, aromatic rices (Jolia) for the preparation of

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Table 7. Number of O.sativa accessions in the international Rice Genebank collection evaluated at IRRI for their reaction to insect pests and diseases (Jackson, 1997)

Stress

programme for various stress situations and hybrid rice development has been described by Siddiq (1991) Table (9). Under IRRI- genetic evaluation and utilization programme; Villegas (1991) has enlisted certain wild species used to enhance the value of agronomical traits in cultivars by way of transferring the insect resistant genes (Table 10).

O.sativa accessions Number Resistant (%)

Insects pests Brown plant 44335 15.4 hopper biotype Brown plant 10053 1.9 hopper biotype Brown plant 13021 1.8 hopper biotype Green leaf hopper 50137 2.8 Rice whorl 22949 3.0 White backed 52042 1.7 plant hopper Zigzag leaf 2756 10.1 hopper Rice leaf folder 8115 0.6 Yellow stem 15656 3.8 borer More than 1,80,000 rice accessions were screened at IRRI for soil related stresses and tolerant lines were identified (Table 8).

Table 9 . Distribution of useful gene among wild rice (Siddiq 1991) Character A) Biological stress Diseases Grassy stunt virus Rice Tungro virus

Bacterial leaf blight

No. tested

Brown Plant hopper (all three biotypes) Striped borer

Yellow borer

Gall midge

No. found Tolerant tolerant (%) (score 1-3)

Physical stress Salinity

Wet land rice Salinity Alkalinity Zinc deficiency Phosphorus deficiency Iron toxicity Peat soil Upland rice Al / Mn toxicity Iron deficiency Total

1,01,293 44,052 20,784 8,139

19,873 3,848 1,525 1,109

19.6 8.7 7.3 13.6

5,376 2,485

390 233

7.3 9.4

1,169 891 1,84,189

151 84 27,214

12.9 9 14.8

O.nivara O.grandiglumis O.latifolia O. malampuzhensis O.minuta O .officinalis O.longistaminata O .officinalis

Insects pests

Table 8. Summary of screening tests for adverse soil tolerance in rice 1969-1986 (Neue, 1994) Stress

Species

Drought

O.officinalis O.nivara O.minuta O .officinalis O.minuta O.eichengeri O.brachyantha O.ridleyii O.resseranti O.perieri O brachyantha O.coaractata O.eichengeri O.granulata Portersia caractata O.perennis

Physiological features High photosynthetic efficiently Under low light conditions Hybrid rice Cytoplasmic sterility

Floral characteristics

Utilization of wild species The use of wild rice species in breeding 62

O.granulata O.malampuzhensis

O.f.spontanea O.rufipogon O.nivara O .officinalis, O.perennis

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Table 10. Use of wild rice to transfer useful traits

conserved at IRRI and in other genebanks, the use of conserved germplasm for breeding is really rather limited. What has had real significance is the contributions to rice science through the many studies of land race varieties and wild species concerning their reaction to pests and diseases, the nature of biochemical pathways and molecular basis of resistance, which guide more strategically the utilization of germplasm accessions in rice breeding. Genebank management.

Species O.eichengeri

Useful traits Resistance to BPH Resistance to WBPH Resistance to GLH O.australiensis Resistance to BPH Tolerance to drought O.minuta Resistance to BPH Resistance to WBPH O.officinalis Resistance to BPH Resistance to WBPH O.punctata Resistance to BPH Resistance to GLH Resistance to Bacterial Leaf Streak Resistance to BLB O.latifola Increased biomass

In theory and in practice at many locations, the production or collecting of high viability seed lots of Oryza sativa and O.glaberrima is less a problem than is the case for many other crops. There are many potential causes of poor viability, especially under hot and humid tropical environments. Seed processing problems (particularly inadequate seed drying procedures) and delays in receiving accessions at national centres are two of the more likely causes.

The use of landraces and wild species in rice breeding had an enormous impact of rice productivity in many countries. For example, one accession of the wild species O.nivara (RGC 101508) was used to introduce resistance to grassy stunt virus into cultivated rice, which led to the release of IR 36. This variety also had 15 land races varieties in its pedigree (Plucknett et al 1987) and at one time, it was planted on more than 11 million ha, making it the world’s most widely cultivated cereal crop variety (Swaminathan, 1982). Now, hybrid between O.sativa and many wild species have been achieved through the use of various biotechnological tools (Khush et al., 1993). In Tamil Nadu CO 31 (O.perennis / GEB 24 (O.sativa)) and MDU 5 (O.glaberrima / Pokkali (O.sativa)) were the two rice varieties released by inter specific hybridization by utilizing the wild species of rice (Subramanian and Manual, 1998).

The single most important factor in the successful maintenance of rice seed stocks in genebanks is the control of seed moisture content. Accordingly, it is necessary to improve seed drying procedures and the capability of genebenks to approach this target. A moisture content of 6-8% is acceptable, however, for centers that can provide subzero storage conditions (typically - 10° c). Rice seed viability monitoring is the second most widespread concern. In collections held under poor storage conditions, it is necessary to monitor and regenerate accessions frequently, a heavy workload in addition to the risks inherent in frequent generation. Conclusion Many rice growing and consuming countries continued to explore rice biodiversity and conserve them ever. It is to be strengthened at regional level and mutually benefited with exchange of germplasm at international level.

The economic value of the rice germplasm collection for rice improvement has also been assessed. It is clear that over the past 15 years there has been a significant increase in the use of landraces in rice breeding. Nevertheless, relative to the large number of rice accessions

Conservation of germplasm, the important 63

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Research on seed technology is yet another attempt to study the quality, viability, dormancy and storability of rice seeds to raise healthy plants ever as germplasm.

and challenging task needs more attention and concentration. Though research institutes all over the world grow and regenerate the germplasm, in situ conservation of land races and indigenous rices through on farm cultivation in farmers field are effective, because it maintains more allelic diversity, very accessible and provides high security. It should be made as viable option to farmers and encouraged more intensively by supporting the farmers. Quality seed supply in affordable seed cost, procurement of seed at reasonable price, and providing simple effective seed storage facilities are very important needs for successful seed conservation of local races. The farmers should also be trained in seed production and conservation. They should be often discussed to solve the problems and constraints encountered in preserving seeds then and there. This is a novel way not only to conserve more gene pools and also to prohibit the genetic erosion of valuable germplasm.

Documentation on the details of biodiversity of the rice germplasm and their characteristics is the most useful approach for the researcher’s choice of useful germplasm to achieve their goal in rice improvement, besides it serves as a basic compendium for the plant science students and scientists. Policy on intellectual property right (IPR) should be well documented and implemented to protect the property right of the rice germplasm from every country and also to exchange genetic materials freely on mutual under standing to breed desirable rice plants by the rice growing countries in the world. REFERENCES Ahmed, T., Sharma, K.K. and Pathak, 2000 a. Export potential of bora rice of Assam (Abstract) 4 th Agricultural Sciences Congress, Jaipur. Ahmed, T., Sharma, K.K. and Pathak, 2000 b. Market potential of Jolia rice of Assam (Abstract) 4 th Agricultural Sciences Congress, Jaipur.

In situ conservation is also a method of conserving the wild species and related genera of the genus Oryza. These germplasm need specific location and environment to grow well and attain maturity to produce quality seeds. These regions need to be brought under the control of plant biodiversity authority to prevent the loss of the valuable species and genera and the seeds collected from them should be spared to needy countries freely on mutual understanding.

Anonymous, 2000. Rice genetic resources: Conservation, safe delivery and use. Bettencourt, E. and Konopka, J. 1990. Directory of Germplasm Collections. Cereals: Avena, Hordeum, Millets, Oryza, Secale, Sorghum, Triticum, IRRI program report for Rice 2000. pp. 102 - 108. 3.

Use of biotechnological tools such as in vitro techniques have to be further strengthened and practiced. Very large number of rice accessions are being maintained in many research institutions for very long time, their regeneration is very much essential to prevent the loss of viability. Growing all these germplasm every year for the aforesaid purposes is very difficult and expensive. Therefore biotechnological approach through anther culture, cell suspension culture, pollen culture etc., may ease the regeneration of large number of germplasm.

Chang, T.T. 1995. Rice: O.sativa, and O.glaberrima. Evolution of Crop Plants (eds.) Zea and Pseudocereals. Internation Board for Plant Genetic Resources. Rome. Chattarji S.M. Prasad, K.Mishra B.C and Rajamani, P. 1977. Identification of gall midge (Orseolia oyzae wood - Masan) resistant germplasm and their utilization in 64

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breeding J. Entomological Research; 1: 111 -113.

Chopraed.), Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Khush, G.S. and Brar, D.S., Zapata, F.J., Nelson, R. Nmecough, S. and Bottrell, D.G. 1993. Biotechnology for rice improvement. Proceedings of the Tenth Australian Plant Breeding Conference, April 18-23, 1993, Vo. Focused Plant Improvement: Towards Responsible and Sustainable Agriculture. Morin, S.R, Parm, J.L. Sebastian, L.S., Bellon, M.R., Calibo, M. and Jackson, M.T. 1998. Integrating indigenous technical knowledge and in situ conservation: Collaborative research in Cagayen valley, Philippines. Indigenous knowledge for conservation and management of biodiversity. Ceby city, Philippines, 4-6, March 1998.

Duistermatt, H. 1987. A revision of Oryza (Graminae) in Malaysia and Australia, Blumea, 32 :157 -193. Evenson R.E. and Gollin 1994. Genetic resources, international organizations, and rice varietal improvement. Centre Discussion paper 7123, Economic Growth Centre, Yale Univ. New Heven, CT. FAO. 1994. Gene bank standards, FAO, Rome. Glaszmann, J.C. 1987. Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties. Theor. Appl. Genet., 74 : 21-30. Hakkim, K.K. and Sharma, S.D. 1974. Localized distribution of certain characters of rice in North East India. Indian, J. Genet. Plant Breeding. 34 :16-21.

Neue, H.U. 1994. Variability in rice to chemical stresses of problem soils and their method of identification. In Rice and Problem Soils in South and Southern Asia. (Edited by D. Senadhira). IRRI, 115 - 144.

Jackson, M.T. 1997. Conservation of rice genetic resources. The role of the International rice gene bank at IRRI. Plant. Mol. Biol, 35 : 61-67. Jackson, M.T., Loresto, G.C., Appa Rao, S., Jones, M., Guimzarases, E.P. and Nga, N.Q. 1996. Rice Biodiversity in Trust. Chapter 20. SCRP / CGIAR. Cambridge University Press. Jackson M. 2001. Managing Genetic Resources and Biotechnology at IRRI’s

Plucknett, D.L., Smith, N.J.H., Williams, J.T. and Murthi Anishetty, N. 1987. Gene Banks and the Worlds Food. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Pyrah, G.L. 1969. Taxonomic and distributional studies in Leersia (Graminae). Iowa State J.Sci, 44 : 215 - 270. Rao, U.P .and Srinivasan, T.E. 1978. Evaluation of Assam Dwarfs-suitability under low P and N conditions. Madras. Agric. J. 65 : 626 - 62.

Rice Genbank, 1999. Managing Agricultural Biotechnology. Addressing Research Programme and Needs and Policy Implications (Ed. J.I. Cohen). pp 102 -109. Kameswara Rao, N. and Jackson, M.T. 1996. Effect of planting date and harvest tie on longevity of rice seeds. Seeds. Sci. Res. (inpress).

Saxena, S.K. Chandak, S.B., Ghosh, R, Sinha, N. Jain, and Anil, K., Gupta, 2003. Costs of conservation of agrobiodiversity in India. In : Efficient conservation of Crops Genetic Diversity. Theoretical Approaches and Emprical Studies Detlef Virchow (Ed.). Springer Verleg, Berlin. 137 - 174.

Kato, S., Kosaka, H. and Hara, S. 1930. On the affinity of rice varieties as shown by the fertility or rice plants. Centre Agricultural Institute Kyushu Imp. Univ 2: 241 - 276. Khush, G.S., Brar, D.S., 2001. Rice: In: Evolution and adaptation of crops. I. Cereals (V.L.

OEDC 1996. Saving Biological Diversity economic Incentives, France. OECD, 1999. 65

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in grain protein in some groups of rice varieties from the collection of North East India. Oryza, 14 : 45-46. Subramanian, M. and Manual, W.W. 1998. Varietal description of rice, Aduthurai, Platinum Jubliee Publication, pp. 1-80.

Handbook of Incentives Measures for Biodiversity. Design and Implementation. Second, G. 1985. Relation evolutives chezlegenere O. precessus der domestication des riz. Orstom etudes and theses: 1-189. Paris. Seetharaman R and Ghorai D. P. 1976. Occurrence of types with characters of glaberrima. In Assam Rice Colelction Curr. 50: 62-69.

Swaminathan, M.S. 1982. Beyond IR 36: Rice research strategies for the 80s. Paper presented at the International Centers; Week, World Bank, November 20.1982.

Seetharaman, R., Srivastava, D.P. and Ghorai, D.P. 1974. Preliminary studies in rice cultivars from North East India. Indian J. Genet. Plant Breeding., 34 : 3-149.

Washington, D.C. Tzvelev, N.N. 1989. The system of grasses (Poaceae) and their evolution. Bot. Rev., 55 :141 - 204. UNEP, 1992. Guidelines for country studies on Biological Diversity UNEP, Nairobi.

Sharma, S.D. 1982. Collection and evaluation of rice germplasm form North East India. IBPGR Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, 50 : 62 - 69.

UNEP, 1995. Global Diversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Villegas, V.N. 1991. Rice germplasm collecting, preservation in USA. Proc. of the third international workshop. International Rice Research Institute, Manila. Philippines, 10-12, March 1991. p.120.

Sharma, S.D. and Shastry, S.V.S. 1965. Taxonomic studies in the genus Oryza O.rufipogon Griff. Sensustricks and O.nivara Sharma et Shastry nom. Nov. Indian Genet., 25 :157 - 165. Sharma, S.D., Krishnanusti, A. and S.R. Dhua 1988. Genetic diversity in rice and its utilization in India. Plant Genetic Resources (Indian Perspectives) pp 108 -120.

Watson, L., Cliford, H.T. and Dallwitz., M.J. 1985. The classification of Poaceae: Subfamilies and supertribes. Aust. J. Bot., 33 : 433 - 484.

Shastry, S.V.S., Sharma, S.D., John, V.T. and Krishnaiah, 1971. New sources of resistance to pests and disease in the Assame Rice collections. Intern. Rice Comm. Newsletter, 22 :1-16.

Westman, A.L .and Kresorich, S. 1997. Use of molecular marker techniques for description of Plant Genetic variation. In : Biotechnology and Plant Genetic Resources. Conservation and use; edited by J.A. Callow, B.R. Ford - Lloyd and H.J. Newbury. Walling Ford.

Siddiq, E.A. 1991. Genes and rice improvement. Oryza, 28 :1-17. Srivastava, D.P. and Nanda, B.B. 1977. variation

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GENETIC DIVERSITY OF ROBUSTA - ARABICA HYBRIDS OF COFFEE AND UTILIZATION IN BREEDING Santa Ram, A1., D. Ganesh, N. Sandhyarani, S.R. Mythrasree, C. Murugan, R.K. Sabir, K.P. Dinesh, A. Manoharan, M.K. Mishra and Jayarama

ABSTRACT Coffee is an important commodity of international trade and India is one of the important exporting countries. Leaf rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix is a devastating disease of coffee. Coffea arabica is susceptible to this disease. Through selection over years, a number of resistant selections were developed. Sln.5A, Sln.5B, Sln6 and Sln.8 were tested against susceptible check Sln.3 in three locations. All the new resistant selections showed a high degree of resistance ranging from 81.25 to 95.0 per cent. In the check Sln.3 an average of 92.0 per cent plants were susceptible. Preliminary observations on RAPD markers in Sln.6 and Sln.8 indicated distinctions between resistant and susceptible plants in these selections. A general description of the genetic architecture, diversity, inheritance of rust resistance, quality and possible use of RAPD markers in selecting resistant plants in advanced generations is presented.

Arabica coffee is the perennial nature of the crop plant and quick adaptation of the rust fungus to the resistance offered by the host. Added to these, is the autogamous reproductive behaviour of C. arabica, which tends to fix the traits and reduce the variability in adaptive genotypes or land races. Another important point is the tetraploidy of C. arabica versus the diploidy of all other species of Coffea preventing ready flow of genes between other species and Arabica. Thus, improving Arabica coffee with the specific objective of rust resistance without compromising on yield and quality is a task of considerable dimensions.

Introduction Coffee is an internationally important commodity in trade volume and money value. It is not an exaggeration to state that the economies of most of the coffee producing developing countries depend on the earnings from this crop (Marshal, 1985). Leaf rust is a devastating disease of great economic significance on this crop (Kushalappa and Eskes, 1989). This disease is caused by the Basidiomycete fungus Hemileia vastatrix B. et Br. Of the two commercially important species of Coffea, C. arabica L. (Arabica) is more susceptible than C.canephora Pierre ex Froehner (Robusta). Incidentally, Arabica is the species, which produces quality coffee with fine aroma and taste attributes. C. arabica is also the species susceptible to pests and diseases. Leaf rust disease has wiped out Arabica in Sri Lanka and Indonesia where only Robusta is grown now. The susceptibility of Arabica is possibly due to the narrow genetic base of the commercial populations which are known to have been derived from very few plants (Smith, 1985). Another possible reason for the susceptibility of

Resistance to leaf rust in Arabica coffee is known to be conditioned by 9 genes symbolised SH1 – SH9 (Rodrigues et al., 1975; Eskes, 1989). Old cultivars of C. arabica such as Bourbon and Typica are highly susceptible to this devastating disease. Four genes of resistance viz. SH1, SH2, SH4 and SH5 were identified in the cultivated/wild gene pool of C. arabica (Rodrigues et al., 1975,2000). However, the resistance of coffee plants carrying these genes in different combinations

1. Division of Botany, Central Coffee Research Institute, Coffee Research Station 577117, Chikmagalur District, Karnataka, India

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characters were recorded from a sample of 10 plants of each of the selections Sln.5A, Sln.5B, Sln.6 and Sln.8. Sln.3 (S.795) was included as control. Summary of observations is presented in table 1.

was defeated by the virulent races of the rust fungus (Rodrigues et al., 1975; Eskes, 1989). Current coffee breeding programmes utilize the resistance genes resident in some spontaneous interspecific hybrids. Thus, the early Indian coffee selections are known to carry the SH3 resistance gene putatively derived from C. liberica (Rodrigues et al., 1975). Hibrido de Timor (HDT) spotted in an Arabica field in Timor (Bettencourt, 1973) is the extensively used source of rust resistance genes. This is commercially exploited in our country as Selection-8 (Sln.8). HDT manifests resistance to all known races of the rust fungus and was shown to be SH6, SH7, SH8, SH9 in genotype (Bettencourt et al., 1992). Resistance of the commercially exploited hybrids of HDT ancestry was, at least, partially defeated by the new races of the rust fungus while HDT has been maintaining its high resistance (Rodrigues et al., 1993; Sreenivasan et al., 1994). This situation prompts that breeders should generate or identify alternative sources of resistance to this important disease. In the coffeebreeding programme of India, certain unique Robusta – Arabica hybrids carrying a high degree of resistance to leaf rust were created. Sln.5A and Sln.5B were derived by crossing Devamachy, a natural Arabica – Robusta hybrid with S.881 (Rume Sudan Arabica) and S.333 (a natural hybrid of Arabica and Liberica from Doobla, India) respectively. Sln.6 (Robarbica) is an artificial hybrid developed by crossing Robusta (S.274) and Arabica (Kents) and backcrossing the hybrid to Kents. However, the allelic composition of these hybrids is not yet elucidated. This led to gaps in the knowledge of behaviour of genes and resulted in a set back in understanding the stability of resistance in these important sources of resistance. Present study attempted a comparison of the manifested diversity of these interspecific hybrids in a bid to assess their utility as sources of resistance genes.

Incidence of leaf rust was recorded from all individuals of three populations of each of these selections in three different locations and summary of observations is presented in table2. Beverage quality of the samples of all selections was assessed by the quality lab at Coffee Board Head Office, Bangalore. Results of three consecutive tests are presented in Table 3. RAPD markers were generated from the DNA of resistant and susceptible plants of Sln.6 and Sln.8 by the method described earlier (Ram and Sreenath, 1999, Williams et al., 1990). Results and Discussion The Genetic System of Coffea arabica A brief consideration of hereditary dynamics of Arabica coffee is important to explain the observed durable resistance in the genus Coffea and propose a model breeding strategy for imparting durable resistance to C. arabica without compromising on quality. Arabica is the lone tetraploid in the genus and has many biological distinctions apart from its chromosome number. This species was considered a segmental allotetraploid on the basis of its diploid cytological behaviour with occasional quadrivalent formation at meiosis (Carvalho, 1952; Grassias and Kammacher, 1975). Most of the allopolyploid species manifest variations that are illustrative of the processes of natural selection (Darlington, 1946) and C. arabica is an example. An important point to be noted is that the evolutionary processes which led to the isolated populations of Coffea (with their morphological peculiarities) from a possible common ancestor were unable to proceed as far as creating biological species showing absolute isolation or a marked chromosomal restructuring. Thus, the diploid groups that are

Materials and Methods Observations on various morphological 68

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should be understood by superimposing it on this basic genetic system that is responsible for the observed inconsistencies.

mostly homosequential in chromosome structure form a vast genetic continuum (Kammacher, 1977). The wild populations of Coffea adapted balanced heterotic breeding as the basic strategy of evolution that facilitates relatively easy lateral transfer of genes across sympatric populations even as the so-called species maintain their relative identities (Stebbins, 1971). The singular major distinction of C. arabica is its tetraploidy, even while it carries a considerable degree of genetic homology with several diploids. The large genetic variability of this species in its center of origin and diversity and its ability to assimilate the genes of several diploid species indicate that it could be a compilospecies (Ram, 2004). This has tremendous implications for breeding and potential materials that can be used in exploiting this feature of Arabica are already available for breeding purposes (Ram et al., 2004). In this context, the observed resistance of Arabicoid descendants from interspecific hybrids can be effectively exploited to evolve gene pyramids (Ram, 2001). Another important point is that an allotetraploid is a permanent hybrid whose recessive gene mutations cannot segregate when it is self-fertilized. The self-sterility system of its parents need not necessarily work in the allopolyploid species rendering it effectively endogamous. The only possible mode of enlarging its variation is by secondary segregation of ancestral differences (Darlington, 1946; Dawson, 1962) or induced mutations. The large diversity of C. arabica in the land of its origin (Lashermes et al., 1995,1996; Anthony et al., 2001) is not exactly reflective of this situation and renders credibility to the possibility of its being a compilospecies. Dual modes of inheritance in the tetraploid Arabicoid interspecific hybrids (Lashermes et al., 2000; Teixeira-Cabral et al., 2004) and gene conversion in diploid interspecific hybrids (Ky et al., 2000) were reported and can lead to inconsistencies in realizing expected results in resistance breeding programmes. The heredity and durability of disease resistance

Genetic Diversity and Inheritance in Robusta – Arabica Hybrids Four selections of the present study were all derived from the natural or artificial hybridization of the commercially important species C. arabica and C. canephora. These are morphologically very similar to C. arabica and are distinct from each other (Table 1). These distinctions indicate that the genetic architecture of each of these selections is unique even though they are derived from similar parents. Distinctions in leaf shape, size and petiole length appear to have been a contribution of the ancestral Arabica parent. Morphological homogeneity of each of these selections is a result of continuous selection for characteristic features. Relative uniformity of plants in each of the selections is a reflection of this. Selection for young leaf colour, angle of insertion of primary branches, fruit colour, and frequency of A-grade beans contribute largely to this morphological and genetic homogeneity of the selections. Heredity of Leaf Rust Resistance All these selections also manifest a high degree of resistance to the leaf rust disease ranging from 81.25 to 95.00 percent of the population being resistant (Table 2). In the plots of Sln.3 (S.795), the control variety, a high frequency of plants averaging 92.00 percent were observed to be susceptible. An important point to be considered is that these commercial populations are derived from selected plants and hence segregations do not necessarily reflect genetic laws. However, the observed ratios in Robusta – Arabica hybrids approach 15:1 of resistant and susceptible plants respectively, indicating that two pairs of genes are involved in conditioning resistance of these materials. In Sln.3 (S.795) also a similar ratio is observed 69

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In the progeny shown in checkerboard 1, normal homozygotes (AA) carrying a pair of Arabica chromosomes form 1/16 of the progeny (~6%). Structural homozygotes A/RA/R, R/A-R/A and the substitution line RR breed true for the character of interest (such as disease or pest resistance) and comprise a proportion of 3/16 of the progeny (~18%). Structural heterozygotes carrying a Robusta chromosome or an Arabica chromosome and the structurally aberrant Arabica chromosomes carrying a segment of Robusta chromosome or the structurally aberrant Robusta chromosome carrying a segment of Arabica chromosome form the entire remaining progeny of 12/16 (~ 76%). Structural heterozygosity maintains the manifested characters of these plants by suppressing chromosomal recombination in a large frequency of spore mother cells. In essence, this leads us to realize about 94% of the progeny manifesting the character of interest, leading to an apparent fixation of heterosis (Brewbaker, 1964). This situation is described as balanced polymorphism or functional homozygosity of a heterozygote. Dynamic reproductive selection processes (selective fitness of structural heterozygotes, genetic drift etc.) lead to a stabilized population over three to four generations. This is the existing situation in all the Robusta – Arabica hybrid selections of the present study. If natural selection does not favour structural heterozygotes, the population tends to revert to pure Arabica type and substitution types with a few structural homozygotes. Among them, only the latter two categories manifest the trait of interest, as often observed in the case of rust resistance in advanced generations of Arabica coffee hybrids. Sixth and seventh generation Sln.3 populations represent this situation. This explains the importance of a genomic imprint in the context of evolutionary fitness. This cytogenetic model explains the process of introgression of genes from diploid species into

with susceptible plants in higher frequency. This pattern is in conformity with tetrasomic heredity as elucidated in other studies (Ram, 1995, Lashermes et al., 2000; Teixeira-Cabral et al., 2004). Plants in the commercial populations are third generation descendants from the parents in the case of Sln.5A and Sln.5B. It is the third generation from second backcross in the case of Sln.6 and second generation in the case of Sln.8. Sln.3 (S.795) included as control is the sixth and seventh generation. Rust resistance genes of Sln.5A, Sln.5B and Sln.8 are derived from C. canephora while that of Sln.3 is derived from C. liberica (Rodrigues et al., 1975; Eskes, 1989; Sreenivasan et al., 1993,1994). From the observed resistance patterns of various selections it is evident that the resistance genes are gradually getting eliminated with advancing generations, a possible manifestation of negative natural selection (Sreenivasan et al., 1994). Thus, imposing artificial selection for leaf rust resistance in the seed plots and isolating them can maintain resistance of a high order for a long time in the commercial populations. Complementary action of the vertical and horizontal resistance genes in these selections was elucidated (Ram, 2006) and can be superimposed on the cytogenetics of interspecific hybrids to explain the longevity of rust resistance of Robusta – Arabica hybrids. A simplified picture of the dynamics of cytogenetic phenomena involved in gene transfer is as follows. The genotype of an Arabicoid derived from interspecific hybridization of Robusta and Arabica and stabilized through backcrossing to Arabica is shown in the figure 1. This genotype is derived from the homologous recombination between the chromosomes of Arabica and Robusta. Hereditary dynamics of this chromosomal genotype is shown in the checkerboard 1. 70

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C. arabica and holds good for the genes conditioning VR as well as HR as introgression of these two types of genes can be parallel.

quality character come to expression, as they exist in the genetic set-up. Arabica, on the other hand, is a tetraploid (carrying four sets of chromosomes) in which several other mechanisms of gene expression are likely to be operational. One such mechanism is “homology dependent or repeat induced gene silencing” in which, the expression of a character is driven from a single gene when more than two copies of the gene conditioning that character are present in the same genome (Jorgensen, 1995). In Arabica, apparently the genes introgressed from other species and influencing quality appear to be unable to find expression as not only the quality of Sln.3 carrying the genes of C. liberica but also the quality of Sln.5A, Sln.5B, Sln.6 and Sln.8 carrying the genes of C. canephora is appreciated well in the various cup tests. In these cases, it is possible that co-suppression is operating to prevent the expression of genes coming from the diploid species.

Transmission of Quality Traits There is a belief that coffee quality is compromised in interspecific hybrids. Quality of coffee is assessed on the basis of bean size and organoleptic quality of beverage. Bean sizes above 6.6mm (A- or AA-grade) are considered important in trade and achieving higher frequency of this grade in the produce is an important breeding objective (Walyaro, 1983,1997). However, beverage quality was known not to be dependent on the bean size (Roche, 1995). Thus, bean grades assumed importance because uniform size gives uniform roasting that is important to realize good beverage quality (Ram, 2003). Fair Average Quality (FAQ) that is generally accepted in international markets is realized in the four Robusta – Arabica hybrid selections. From the data in table 3, the quality of various selections derived from diverse parents combining the genes of C. arabica, C. canephora and C. liberica appears not to be differing significantly. This manifestation has powerful implications for breeding to improve the quality of beverage in Arabica as Robusta and Liberica produce a very inferior beverage (Charrier and Berthaud, 1988; Barre et al., 1998). Thus, C. liberica genes introgressed into the Arabica variety Sln.3 (S.795) are confined to the resistance factors (SH genes) and all others appear to have been eliminated or neutralized in the course of evolution of this selection. Similarly, Sln.5A, Sln.5B, Sln.6 and Sln.8 that incorporate the genes of C. canephora are also not expressing them in the context of quality.

Another genetic mechanism that can possibly cause the observed quality in selections is “gene conversion”. In the interspecific hybrids generated by crossing closely related species, the reproductive process eliminates most of the non-homologous chromosomes received from the male parent and only those carrying the maximum homology with those of the female parent are retained in the first backcross progeny. This gets further reduced with each advancing cycle of reproduction of the backcross progeny and within three cycles only a few blocks of genes of the introgressed species will remain in the genome. This retention of genes is usually because they are favourably selected in each reproductive cycle. Such conscious selection was practiced in our country with reference to the rust resistance genes. The selection for genes conditioning quality of coffee was also evidently very successful as reflected in the data of Table 3 even though it was not intended. How does this

It is possible that some of the genes of C. canephora and C. librica that contribute to quality are suppressed in their expression in C. arabica genomic background. As Robusta and Liberica are diploid species (carrying only two sets of chromosomes and thereby two sets of genes) the alternative states of good versus bad 71

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producing good beverage quality. These markers have a diagnostic utility in identifying plants possessing these traits at an early developmental stage like nursery for the establishment of seed gardens and constitute the initial approach to a marker assisted selection programme.

happen? Available evidence indicates that inheritance of genes in Arabica does not always conform to the simple Mendelian order. Thus, for the characters native to C. arabica Mendelian inheritance was recorded (Krug and Carvalho, 1951). Conversion of genes was reported in the interspecific hybrids of Coffea (Ky et al., 2000). Considering the basic interspecific hybrid nature of C. arabica and the dual modes of inheritance for single loci observed in the tetraploid interspecific hybrids of C. arabica x C. canephora, it is plausible to infer that natural selection favours the genes of C. arabica conditioning the various traits of quality (which are well conserved in all the above hybrids) (Narasimhaswamy, 1960, 1971; Ganesh et al., 2002) through conversion of diploid genes. Thus, natural selection played a key role in the quality improvement of Indian coffee selections. This inference gains support from reports on the beverage quality of Icatu hybrids of Brazil (Fazuoli et al., 1977; Petracco, 2000), Hibrido de Timor and derived lines such as Catimor, Sarchimor and Colombia (Bertrand et al., 2003) and a recently developed hybrid of Catimor x (Congensis x Robusta) (Srinivasan et al., 2004) as all of them are reported to possess good beverage quality.

Foregoing discussion provides a deep insight into the genetic and cytogenetic phenomena underlying the evolution of Robusta – Arabica hybrids of coffee. The insight gained is of great practical utility in identifying the particular generation that can be exploited commercially. The four selections of Robusta – Arabica hybrids are derived from diverse parents but possess similar quality. They also manifest high resistance to leaf rust. The diversity of parents implies that these traits are conferred by a different complex of genes in each of the selections. Thus, a combination of these selections yields produce of relatively uniform quality and forms a resistance gene pyramid that stands highly resistant to the leaf rust disease for a very long time. These insights also help in identifying the mother plants that can be excellent seed bearers that maintain the resistance genes without compromising productivity and quality. This analysis also provides a clear understanding of the direction and method of selection and backcrossing to be undertaken when loss of resistance is experienced in advanced generations. Thus, a new strategy combining the cytogenetic results and molecular markers is expected to result in greater efficiency of the coffee breeding programme. This study also revealed that Indian Robusta – Arabica hybrids could be potential sources of new rust resistance genes.

RAPD Markers in Advanced Generations It is hypothesized that in advanced generations all characters and the genes conferring them are well stabilized and hence, unique markers found to be associated with a complex of characters breed true. Preliminary results obtained from the amplification experiments on the DNA of Sln.8 and Sln.6 (Figs. 2 and 3) indicate distinctions between resistant and susceptible plants in these selections. These observations appear to confirm the hypothesis. Some of the unique RAPD fragments inherited from specific parent were also identified in Sln.6 (Fig. 4). Further work in this aspect is expected to lead to the identification of additional unique markers in the resistant plants

REFERENCES Anthony, F., Bertrand, B., Quiros, O., Wilches, A., Lashermes, P., Berthaud, J., Charrier, A. 2001. Genetic diversity of wild coffee (Coffea arabica L.) using molecular 72

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markers. Euphytica. 118: 53-65.

Eskes, A.B. 1989. Resistance. In: Kushalappa AC, Eskes AB, editors. Coffee Rust: Epidemiology, Resistance and Management. Boca Raton (Florida, USA): CRC Press. p.171-292.

Barre, P., Akaffou, S., Louarn, J., Charrier, A., Hamon, S., Noirot, M. 1998. Inheritance of caffeine and heteroside in an interspecific cross between a cultivated coffee species Coffea liberica var. dewevrei and a wild species caffeine free C. pseudoz anguebariae. Theor. Appl. Genet. 96: 306-311.

Fazuoli, L.C., Carvalh, A., Monaco, L.C., Teixeira, A.A. 1977. Qualidade de bebida do café Icatu. Bragantia. 36: 165-172. Ganesh, D., Ram, A.S., Prakash, N.S., Ahmed, J., Mishra, M.K., Jagadeesan, M., Reddy, A.G.S., Srinivasan, C.S. 2002. Evaluation of Coffea liberica x Coffea eugenioides and its progenies for yield, leaf rust tolerance and quality. In: Sreedharan K, Vinod Kumar PK, Jayarama, Chulaki, BM, editors. Proceedings of PLACROSYM XV, 10-13, December 2002. Mysore (India): Indian Society for Plantation Crops. p. 72-77.

Bertrand, B., Guyot, B., Anthony, F., Lashermes, P. 2003. Impact of the Coffea canephora gene introgression on beverage quality of C. arabica. Theor. Appl. Genet. 107: 387394. Bettencourt, A.J. 1973. Consideracoes gerais sobre o Hibrido de Timor. Circular # 23. Sao Paulo (Brazil): Instituto Agronomico de Campinas. 20 p. Bettencourt, A.J., Lopes, J., Palma, S. 1992. Factores geneticos que condicionam a resistencia as racas de Hemileia vastatrix Berk. et Br. dos clones tipo dos grupos 1, 2 e 3 de derivados de Hibrido de Timor. Broteria Genetica. XIII (LXXX): 185-194.

Grassias, M., Kammacher, P. 1975. Observations sur la conjugaison chromosomique de Coffea arabica L. Café Cacao The 19: 177-190. Jorgensen, R.A. 1995. Cosuppression, Flower color patterns and Metastable gene expression states. Science 268: 686-691.

Brewbaker, J.L. 1964. Agricultural Genetics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (USA): Prentice-Hall. 156 p. Carvalho, A. 1952. Taxonomia de Coffea arabica L., caracters morfologicos dos haploides. Bragantia 12: 201-212.

Kammacher, P. 1977. Utilisation des ressources genetiques du genre Coffea pour l’amelioration des cafeiers cultives. In: Proceedings of VIII International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee. 28 November – 3 December 1977. Abidjan (Ivory Coast). Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p. 335-358. Krug, C.A, Carvalho, A. 1951. The Genetics of Coffea. Adv. Genet. 4: 128-158.

Charrier, A., Berthaud J. 1988. Principles and Methods in Coffee Plant Breeding: Coffea canephora Pierre. In: Clarke RJ, Macrae R, editors. Coffee (Vol.IV) Agronomy. London (UK) and New York (USA): Elsevier Applied Science. p.167-197. Darlington CD. 1946. The Evolution of Genetic Systems. London (UK): Cambridge University Press. 151 p.

Kushalappa, A.C., Eskes, A.B. 1989. Coffee Rust: Epidemiology, Resistance and Management. Boca Raton (Florida, USA), CRC Press. 345 p.

Dawson, G.W.P. 1962. An Introduction to the Cytogenetics of Polyploids. Oxford (UK): Blackwell Scientific. 95 p.

Ky CL, Barre, P., Lorieux, M., Trouslot, P., Akaffou, S., Luarn, J., Charrier, A., Hamon, S., Noirot, M. 2000. Interspecific genetic 73

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Colloquim on Coffee, 9 –14 April 1995. Kyoto City (Japan): Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p.548556.

linkage map, segregation distortion and genetic conversion in coffee (Coffea sp.). Theor. Appl. Genet. 101: 669-676. Lashermes, P., Combes, M.C., Trouslot, P., Charrier, A. 1996. Genetic diversity for RAPD markers between cultivated and wild accessions of Coffea arabica. Euphytica. 87: 59-64.

Ram, A.S. 2001. Breeding for rust resistance in coffee: The gene pyramid model. J. Plantn. Crops. 29: 10-15. Ram, A.S. 2003. Coffee primary processing in Kenya and Tanzania. Indian Coffee 67: (9):9-11.

Lashermes, P., Paczek, V., Trouslot, P., Combes, M.C., Couturon,E., Charrier, A. 2000. Single locus inheritance in the allotetraploid Coffea arabica L. and interspecific hybrid C. arabica x C. canephora. J. Heredity. 91: 81-85.

Ram, A.S. 2004. Coffea arabica L- A Compilospecies: Implications for Breeding. In: Proceedings of XX International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee. Bangalore (India): 10-14 October 2004. Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. (Electronic Publication). Ram, A.S. 2006. Genetic basis of rust resistance in Arabica coffee. (in preparation).

Lashermes, P., Combes, M.C., Cros, J., Trouslot, P., Anthony, F., Charrier, A.1995. Origin and genetic diversity of Coffea arabica L. based on DNA molecular markers. In : Proceedings of XVI International Scientific Colloquim on Coffee, 9 – 14 April 1995. Kyoto City (Japan): Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p.528-536. Marshall, C.F. 1985. World Coffee Trade. In: Clifford MN, Willson KC, editors. Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage Westport (Connecticut, USA): Avi Publishing Co. Inc. p.251-283.

Ram, A.S, Ganesh, D., Srinivasan, C.S., Reddy, A.G.S. 2004. Ligenioides – A source of new genes for Arabica coffee breeding. J. Plantn. Crops. 32 (Suppl.): 5-11. Ram, A.S, Sreenath, H.L. 1999. A method for the isolation and amplification of coffee DNA with random octamer and decamer primers. J. Plantn. Crops. 27:125-130.

Narasimhaswamy, R.L. 1960. Arabica selection S.795: Its origin and performance – A study. Indian Coffee 24:197-204.

Roche, D. 1995. Coffee genetics and quality. In : Proceedings of XVI International Scientific Colloquim on Coffee, 9 –14 April 1995. Kyoto City (Japan): Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p.584588. Rodrigues, J.r. C.J., Bettencourt, A.J., Rijo, L. 1975. Races of the pathogen and resistance to coffee rust. Annu. Rev. Phyto pathology 13: 49-70.

Narasimhaswamy, R.L. 1971. S.795 Arabica and Quality. Indian Coffee 35: 371-372. Petracco, M. 2000. Organoleptic properties of espresso coffee as influenced by coffee botanical variety. In: Sera T, Soccol, CR, Pandey A, Roussos S, editors. Coffee Biotechnology and Quality. Dordrecht (The Netherlands). Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 347-353. Ram ,A.S. 1995. New dimensions in understanding inheritance of coffee rust resistance: A Mendelian perspective. In : Proceedings of XVI International Scientific

Rodrigues, Jr. C,.J., Varzea, V.M.P., Godinho, I.L., Palma, S., Rato, R.C. 1993. New physiologic races of Hemileia vastatrix. In: Proceedings of XV International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee, 74

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du Café. (Electronic Publication).

Montpellier (France). Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p. 318321.

Stebbins, G.L. 1971. Processes of Organic Evolution (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs (New Jersey, USA): Prentice-Hall, 193 p.

Rodrigues, Jr. C.J., Varzea ,V., Silva, M.C., Guerra-Guimares, L., Rocheta, M., Marques, D.V. 2000. Recent advances on coffee leaf rust. In: Prakash NS, Raghuramulu Y, Devasia J, editors. Proceedings of International Symposium on Coffee. Central Coffee Research Institute. p. 179-193.

Teixeira-Cabral, T.A, Sakiyama, N.S., Zambolim, L., Pereira, A.A., Schuster, I. 2004. Single locus inheritance and partial linkage map of Coffea arabica L. Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology 4: 416-421. Walyaro, D.J. 1983. Considerations in breeding for improved yield and quality in arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.). Ph.D. Thesis. Wageningen (The Netherlands): Agricultural University of Wageningen. 119 p.

Smith, R.F. 1985. A history of coffee. In: Clifford MN, Willson KC, editors. Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage. Westport (Connecticut, USA): Avi Publishing Co. Inc. p. 1-12. Sreenivasan, M.S., Ram, A.S., Prakash, N.S. 1993. Tetraploid interspecific hybrids in coffee breeding in India. In: Proceedings of XV International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee. Montpellier (France) 6-11 June 1993. Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p. 226-233. Sreenivasan, M.S., Ram, A.S., Prakash, N.S. 1994. Search for new sources of resistance to coffee leaf rust. Report on the International Collaborative Project “Pathology and Improvement of Coffee (Coffea arabica) for the Main Diseases”, Central Coffee Research Institute (India). 24 p.

Walyaro, D.J. 1997. Breeding for disease and pest resistance and improved quality in coffee. In: Proceedings of XVII International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee. Nairobi (Kenya). 20-25 July 1997. Association Scientifique Internationale du Café. p.391-404. Williams, J.G.K., Kubelik, A.R., Livak, K.J., Rafalski, J.A., Tingey, S.V. 1990. DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 6531-6535.

Srinivasan, C.S., Kumar, A., Amaravenmathy, V.S., Ram, A.S. 2004. Robusta like coffee plants with arabica like coffee quality. Myth or possibility. In: Proceedings of XX International Scientific Colloquium on Coffee. Bangalore (India). 10-14 October 2004. Association Scientifique Internationale

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Table 1. Dinstinctive Characters of Robusta-Arabica Hybrids of Coffee

Character Angle of Branch insertion Leaf shape

Sln. 5A Sln. 5B Semi-erect to Horizontal to drooping drooping

Leaf apex Leaf length Leaf width Young leaf colour Petiole length Stipule shape

Linear Lanceolate Acuminate 110-180mm 55-75mm Green

Broad Lanceolate Acuminate 126-190mm 63-85mm Light Bronze

7-10mm Traingular

5-8mm Ovate

Fruit colour

Red

Fruit ripening Yield (kg/ha) A-grade beans (%)

260 days 1020 30.00

Sln. 6 Semi-erect

Broad Lanceolate Acuminate 125-220mm 67-79mm Light Bronze

7-13mm Triangular Deltate Orange Red - Orange Red Red Red 240 days 240 days 1100 960 65.00 69.00

Sln. 8 Sln. 3 (S.795) Horizontal to Semi-erect drooping Broad Lanceolate Acuminate 150-200mm 68-90mm Bronze

Lanceolate Acuminate 135-200mm 62-78mm Bronze

7-10mm Triangular

7-12mm Triangular

Deep Red

Orange Red

240 days 900 60.00

240 days 975 75.00

Table 2. Rust Resistance Patterns in Robusta – Arabica Hybrids

Selection Sln.5A Sln.5B Sln.6 Sln.8 Sln.3 (S.795)

Resistant (%) 81.25 87.50 90.00 95.00 8.00

Susceptible (%) 18.75 12.50 10.00 5.00 92.00

Table 3. Quality of Robusta – Arabica Hybrids

Selections Sln.3 (S.795) Sln.5A Sln.5B Sln.6 Sln.8

1999 FAQ — FAQ + FAQ-FAQ+ Good

Years of Quality Testing 2000 2001 FAQ Sl.Below FAQ-FAQ FAQ+-Good FAQ+ as Special Coffee + FAQ-FAQ FAQ+-Good FAQ FAQ+ FAQ-Good Sl.Below FAQ

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Checkerboard 1.Segregation of Chromosome genotype in Robusta–Arabica Hybrids

A A/R R/A R

A AA A/R-A R/A-A RA

1 2 3 4

A/R A-A/R A/R-A/R R/A-A/R R-A/R

5

R/A A-R/A A/R-R/A R/A-R/A R-R/A

R AR A/R-R R/A-R RR

6 7 8 9 M

Fig.2. RAPD profiles of Hibrido de Timor (Sln.8) A (Resistant) and R (Susceptible) types generated by the primers OPF-15 (5’ CCAGTACTCC 3’) and OPF-04 (5’ GGTGATCAGG 3’). Lanes 1& 2: HDT – A (OPF-15) Lanes 3 & 4: HDT – R (OPF-15) Lanes 6 & 7: HDT – R (OPF-04) Lanes 8 & 9: HDT – A (OPF-04) Lane 5 : PCR products of HDT (Open pollinated plant) (OPF-15) Lane M - Marker Hind III-Eco R1 double digested Lambda DNA

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EVALUATION AND UTILIZATION OF BIODIVERSITY IN CASSAVA (MANIHOT ESCULENTA CRANTZ) Santha V. Pillai1, R.R. Nair, M.S. Palaniswami, C.S. Ravindran, S.N. Moorthy, V. Ravi and S. Sree Lekha

ABSTRACT Collection, evaluation and utilization of the biodiversity available in the crop is the basic requirement in any plant breeding program. As such, more than 1600 accessions of Cassava, consisting of both indigenous and exotic accessions, were assembled at Central Tuber crops Research Institute, Trivandrum. These accessions were evaluated for economic characters like tuber yield and quality parameters like starch content, cooking quality, cyanogen content, keeping quality and tolerance to Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), white fly, drought etc and genetic stocks were identified for each character. Some of the promising accessions, combining high yield, good quality and tolerance were evaluated in replicated trials and the selections are undergoing on-farm trials in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. CMD tolerant accessions are being utilized in the hybridization program. They were also evaluated for unconventional characters like leaf yield and also quality of starch. Cassava leaf is increasingly being used in cattle feed, pet animal feed and also silviculture. The quality of starch namely, Amylose content, Amylopectin and AP/Am ratio which determine the suitability of starch for specific industrial use, was analysed. The germplasm was also screened for morphological characters, biochemical markers (Isozyme) as well as molecular markers (DNA-RAPD) in tune with international standards for identification of varieties and isolation of duplicates. This information, along with that on economic characters and passport data were utilized to arrive at a core collection of cassava germplasm. At present, the land races of cassava are being analysed for microsatellite markers to study the molecular variability and diversity available in the population and also for DNA fingerprinting of farmer’s varieties. Microsatellite markers are also being utilized to identify varieties resistant to CMD and white fly. Details are presented in the paper.

breeding etc. The Central Tuber Crops Research Institure, Trivandrum was established in 1963 and it is the main centre for tuber crops research.Research on cassava is going on in a few Universties as well including TNAU, Coimbatore.

Introduction Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a popular tuber crop grown in the tropical belt of Asia, Africa and South America. In India, it is mostly grown in the Southern region, especially, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh. In Kerala, it is grown as a subsidiary food crop, whereas in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, it forms the raw material for starch and sago industry. Research on cassava started in Kerala about 50 years ago, under the University, by introduction of varieties from other cassava growing areas and improving them by intercrossing, mutation breeding, polyploidy

India can boast of the highest productivity in the world; 26t/ha, against the global average of 10 t/ha. This high yield in India is mostly a contribution of Tamil Nadu, where improved varieties developed at research centres are grown under irrigated conditions. Still, development of improved varieties, suited to different needs, at different times is a major

1. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum 695017

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information, along with that on genetic stocks and geographical representation, was used to identify a tentative core collection of the germplasm.

item of research. Germplasm is the raw material for the purpose. The Central Tuber Crops Research Institute is maintaining more than 1600 accessions of cassava collected from different countries. Over the years, a number of improved varieties, suited for both edible purpose as well as for stach extraction were developed. The varieties H-226 and H-165 developed at the Institute occupy sizeable area in the starch factory areas. At present the germplasm is also evaluated for non-conventional characters and for varying purposes and more sophisticated tools are employed for evaluation and utilization of germplasm. Some of the items of work going on at CTCRI, Trivandrum in this direction are presented in the paper.

Results and Discussion Seventy five out of the 1300 accessions, screened for the incidence of CMD were found to the symptom free. The symptom free accessions (75) were evaluated for yield and quality and subjected to genetic analysis. Phenotypic coefficient of variation was the highest for weight of shoot (69.74), followed by cyanogen content (66.74) and tuber yield per plant (54.85) (Table 1). Weight of shoot per plant was found to have the highest correlation with yield (0.80), followed by number of tubers per plant (0.60).

Materials and Methods The germplasm collection of cassava, numbering about 1600, available at the Institute formed the material for the study. They were screened for presence or absence of Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) symptom and a subset of about 75 symptom free accessions were evaluated for yield, quality and other special characters. The accessions showing any of the yield / quality component in high level were selected as genetic stocks for that character, for further use in the breeding program. The best promising accessions were evaluated on replicated trial for 3 consecutive years and selected ones are undergoing on-farm trials both in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Genetic stocks for yield, starch and low cyanogen were identified for use in recombination breeding [Table 2]. Tuber yield above 2.55 kg/plant, starch above 30% and cyanogen below 20 ppm were kept as yardsticks. Six promising lines identified from the subset were evaluated in replicated plot trial. Two of the selected accessions are undergoing on-farm trials in 6 districts of Kerala and the performance is good. Some of the selections are undergoing on-farm trial in Tamil Nadu. These selections were found to be better suited to the hilly regions of the state. Sixty three CMD free accessions were screened for drought tolerance under rain fed condition in upland. Four months drought period existed during the season.

The subset was screened for special characters like tolerance to drought , white fly, keeping quality etc and the best performers were identified. The subset was also screened for nonconventional characters like leaf yield and quality of starch.

Nineteen accessions showed very high drought tolerance based on one or other criteria namely, high Leaf Area Index (LAI), high tuber yield or high starch content (Table 3). Now cassava cultivation is spreading to dry areas as well, especially in Andhra Pradesh and there is a need for drought tolerant varieties. At present H-165, a short duration variety, which escape drought, is cultivated in these areas.

The germplasm, was also characterized based on different markers namely, morphological, biochemical (Isozyme) and molecular (DNARAPD), to identify and isolate duplicates and eliminate them from the field in due course. This 79

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About 90 accessions were found to be duplicate.

Twenty one CMD free accessions were evaluated for the incidence of white fly. Two accessions were found to have very low incidence (Table 4). CMD is a serious disease in cassava and it is spread through white fly. Varieties having resistance to white fly infestation may be able to evade CMD and hence this approach. About 50 CMD free accessions were evaluated for keeping quality of tuber. Tubers were cut into 2 pieces and kept under net. Two accessions could be kept up to 5 days without black spot. Fast perishability is a very big limitation in cassava and we had observed that variability for this character exists. But the number of varieties with keeping quality is very low.

DNA/RAPD analysis was also used for DNA fingerprinting of released varieties as well as that of elite breeding lines. This is very important to safe guard the Plant Breeders’ Right as well as the Farmers’ Right in the new IPR (Intellectual Property Right) regime. The data on genetic stocks, duplicates and geographical representation were utilized to arrive at a core collection of the germplasm consisting of 15% of the accessions (Table 6). Identification of a smaller subset, representing the variability is essential when the number of collection become very large (Santha and Nair, 2002). Researches are going on to use more powerful molecular markers like SSR and ISSR to screen the varieties for resistance to CMD and white fly,and also to study the variability and diversity available in the local collection.

Six CMD free accessions with branching character were screened for leaf yield. Accession no E-34 gave the highest leaf yield of 1.68 kg per plant. Cassava leaf is found to be suited for pet animal feed, in addition to cattle feed and is in great demand (Metha Wanapat, 2002). And hence, this work was initiated to create a database.

REFERENCES Metha Wanapat. 2002. The role of cassava hay as animal feed. Paper presented in Seventh Asian Cassava Research Workshop, October 28-November 1, 2002. CIAT, Bangkok. P.21. Ocampo, C., Angel, F., Jimenez, A., Jaramillo, G., Hershey, C., Granados, E., Iglesias, C. 1995. DNA fingerprinting to confirm possible genetic duplicates in cassava germplasm .Paper presented in the Second International Scientific Meeting of the Cassava Biotechnology Network held at Bogor, Indonesia: August 22-26, 1994, CIAT, Cali, Columbia. P.145-151.

Twelve accessions were screened for quality of starch namely Amylose content, Amylopectin content and Ap/Am ratio. The accession no E108 gave the highest Amylose content of 30 %, and accession no E-109 showed the highest Ap/ Am ratio of 4 (Table 5). The proportion of these components of starch determines the suitability of starch for specific purposes. Satrch with high Amylose content is best suited for textiles whereas that with high Ap/Am ratio is best suited for fish feed, by virtue of its binding property. The germplasm was also characterized based on morphological markers as well as biochemical (Iszoyme) and molecular markers (DNA / RAPD). This information was used to identify duplicate accessions in the germplasm as per international standards (Ocampo et al. 1995).

Santha, V., Pillai Nair, R. R. 2002. Germplasm management in cassava with special emphasis on core collection Paper presented in the National Vegetable Conference held at Bangalore, Nov. 1014, 2002. 80

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Table 1. Variability and correlation of 10 characters

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Characters

Mean

PCV%

Tuber yield /plant (kg) No of Tubers One Tuber (kg) Length of Tuber Girth of Tuber Starch percent Cyanogen (ppm) Height of plant (cm) No of branches Weight of shoot (kg)

1.8 4.8 0.3 25.7 15.6 28.7 42.4 110.1 5.7 2.7

54.8 45.9 49.4 35.1 19.0 18.8 66.8 28.5 37.3 69.7

Correlation with yield 1.00 0.60** 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.03 (-) 0.01 0.08 0.22 0.80**

** Significance at 1% level of probability

Table2 . List of elite genotypes selected

Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Acc.no E 393 E 329 E 88 E 111 E 480 E 127 E 135

Desirable characters Y (2.66), S (31) , C(34) Y (1.80) , S (29), C (10) Y(1.15), S (35), C (33) Y (1.75), S (34) , C(40) Y (2.60), S(33), C(15) Y(2.25), S(35),C(42) Y (2.66), S(36) ,C(5.4)

Y-Yield/plant(kg),S–Starch percent,C-Cynogen content ppm

Table 3. Accessions having tolerance to drought, based on LAI, Tuber Yield and Starch content

High LAI (>7.20) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

E -165 E -282 E-328 I -192 I -82

High Tuber yield (>7.0 kg/plant) E-272 E-273 E-274 E-354 I-82

81

High starch content (>25%) E-33 E-39 E-430 E-440 E-459 E-500 E-534 I-82 I-120

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Table 4. White fly incidence in CMD symptom free accessions

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Variety E-144 E-152 E-97 E138 I-775 E-347 E-39 E-96 E-301 E-142

Nymph 8 5 32 68 61 22 24 13 42 35

pupae 0 0 27 3 7 17 0 6 3 0

Female 0 1 2 3 6 3 1 0 0 3

Male 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Whitefly 8 6 61 74 75 42 25 19 45 38

Table 5. Starch quality in promising accessions

Sl.No

Genotype

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

I-101 I-102 I-103 I-104 I-105 I-107 I-108 I-109 I-110 I-111 I-112 I-113

Starch Extractability 30.1 32.2 18.4 19.8 29.7 24.5 27.4 31.8 26.2 24.9 24.4 21.0

Amylose (%) Amylopectin(%) 23.7 23.1 27.9 26.9 26.0 28.1 30.0 19.7 22.3 29.8 26.5 27.0

76.3 76.9 72.1 73.1 74.0 71.9 70.0 80.3 77.7 70.2 73.4 73.0

AP/Am Ratio 3.21 3.30 2.80 2.70 2.80 2.50 2.30 4.07 3.40 2.30 2.76 2.70

Table 6. Tentative core collection

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Criteria High yield (>5kg/plant ) High starch(>33%) Low cyanogens(450ppm) CMD Symptoms free Released varieties Local popular varieties Geographic representatives Wild relatives Total 82

No. of accessions 30 25 25 40 75 15 20 2 8 240

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Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

AGRO - MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND EVALUATION OF RICE GERMPLASM FOR MAJOR BIOTIC STRESS TOLERANCE Subba Rao, L.V., T. Ram, N. Shobha Rani, V. Ravindra Babu, I. C. Pasalu, C. S. Reddy, A. S Rama Prasad, B. C Viraktmath and S. V. Subbaiah

ABSTRACT One thousand and fifty six rice accessions were characterized for 21 agro-morphological characters at directorate of rice research and also screened for major biotic stresses at 20 hot-spot locations across the country. Agro-morphological characterization of 1056 accessions revealed that 54 percent of them showed very good early plant vigour, 41 percent exhibited intermediate vigour while 4.5 percent accessions were found to exhibit poor plant vigour. The study revealed that 57 percent accessions exhibited green basal leaf sheath colour, 18 percent possessed purple colour and 12 percent showed light purple colour while another 12 percent accessions exhibited purple lines. 57 percent of accessions recorded high number of effective tillers per plant (upto15), 29 percent accessions showed effective tillers upto10, while the remaining 14 percent of accessions exhibited less than 10 effective tillers. Days to 50 percent flowering ranged from 74 days to 112 days and based on the flowering duration total germplasm accessions can be grouped into early (9 percent), mid early (45 percent),medium(34 percent) and late(12 percent). Seed weight of 100 grains ranged from a minimum of 1.00 g to a maximum of 3.48 g. Less than 2 g of 100-grain weight was recorded by 5.7 per cent of accessions, while 86 per cent of the accessions showed 2-3 g and the remaining 8 per cent accessions recorded more than 3 g. Single plant yield of less than 15 g was recorded by 35 per cent of accessions Almost 50 per cent of accessions registered a single plant yield of 20-25 g. Of the 1056 accessions screened, 14.7 per cent germplasm showed tolerance / resistance for major biotic stresses, which includes blast (2 per cent), BLB (1.4 per cent), RTD (1.0 per cent), plant hoppers (3.3 per cent), GM (2.9 per cent) and stem borer (4.1 per cent). Some of the promising accessions with resistance / tolerance to major biotic stresses are IC 115330 and IC 115481 for BPH; IC 113990, IC 113999, IC 114322 and IC 115924 for gall midge; IC 115957 for stem borer; I.C 14335 and I.C 114507 to leaf blast and bacterial blight ; I.C 114653 and IC 114787 to bacterial blight and tungro. Promising germplasm with more than 25 g of single plant yield coupled with resistance to BPH are IC 114419 and IC 114430; IC 115905 and IC 114847 to GM; IC 114725 to blast and to BLB IC 114335 and IC 115738. The present results indicated that ample genetic variability exists for improving the yield potential as well as resistance to major diseases and insect pests in modern high yielding varieties.

Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030

83

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

CHARACTERIZATION OF COTTON (GOSSYPIUM HIRSUTUM L.) GENOTYPES AND EVALUATION OF GENETIC DIVERGENCE Preetha, S1. and T.S.Raveendran2

ABSTRACT An investigation was taken up to compare the genetic variability of 150 cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) genotypes after grouping them visually into three different growth habits. The evaluation led to the grouping of accessions into 67 robust, 66 semicompact and 17 compact genotypes. The genotypes in the above three groups came under 13, 20 and 5 clusters respectively, when Mahalanobis D2 technique was applied. The grouping of genotypes supported that the visual evaluation was in good agreement with the character evaluation of robust and compact types but not in the case of the intermediate semicompact types. Relatively higher contribution towards genetic divergence was noticed from quality characters, leaf area index and earliness characters.

Introduction Cotton, known as “the King of fibres”, continues to be the predominant fibre in the Indian textile scene, despite stiff competition from the man-made synthetic fibres. It assumes a place of pride in Indian economy, as cotton production, processing and trade in cotton goods provide employment to about 60 million people in our country. Further, the export of raw cotton, yarn, textile, garments, cotton seed cake, oil and other byproducts earn valuable foreign exchange. In India, cotton is grown in three agro climatic zones - northern zone where cotton is raised entirely under irrigation, central and south zones where it is predominantly a rainfed crop. Under rainfed cultivation a compact plant type with short internodes, low leaf area and high harvest index is preferred to get the best yield besides withstanding the drought in different phases of crop growth. However, under irrigated conditions, the crop attains a luxuriant growth with large leaves, open plant type, big bolls and longer duration. A specific plant type has acclimatized in a particular tract and is able to interact well with the weather parameters and perform well in respect of yield. The studies on suitability of particular ideotype to a particular environment have not been taken up by breeders 1. 2.

either in tetraploid or diploid species. Such studies will be useful to pinpoint and fix the most efficient genotype for a particular location. Further the characterization of the robust, semicompact and compact genotypes in terms of crop growth, physiological efficiency, agronomic characters and quality parameters will be useful not only to increase the yield level in this important fibre crop but also helps to classify and select the most desirable ones for each of the target environments. Therefore, the present study was attempted to define the robust and compact plant types and a group intermediate between them using the agronomic, physiological and yield parameters for attaining the highest biological efficiency and fibre yield. Material and Methods One fifty genetic accessions of Gossypium hirsutum were raised in an experimental layout in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with two replications during kharif 2002-03. The genotypes were sown in six meter long ridges spaced 75 cm apart and with an interplant distance of 30cm so as to accommodate 20 plants in each row. Five randomly selected plants were tag-labelled for recording

Ph.D. scholar, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore Director, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

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on their stature, branching habit, leaf size, internode length and grouped into three distinct morphological groups viz. robust, semicompact and compact. In order to characterize the three groups in terms of agronomic, physiological and yield traits a grade index was formulated for the three plant types which would be highly useful to visualize robust, semicompact and compact types. For each of the characters, low, intermediate and high range was fixed based on the expression (minimum and maximum values) and they were assigned with scores 1, 2 and 3. Then the grade index was calculated as follows: grade1 x number of accessions in grade 1 (A1) + grade2 x number of accessions in grade 2 (A2) + grade3 x number of accessions in grade 3 (A3) Grade index = Total number of accessions (A1 + A2 + A3) The grade indexes for different characters are presented in the Table 1. Based on this, the robust plant types can be characterized as tall, with longer petioles, more number of sympodia, longer fruiting branches, late flowering, more number of bolls and high yield. They also had high lint index, high span length and medium bundle strength. Moreover, it occupies more ground area with more number of leaves and consequently high total leaf area but relatively low specific leaf area, specific leaf weight, canopy temperature and transpiration rate.

observations. Average of data recorded on each character from these five plants represented the mean of that replication. For determining the physiological traits fourth leaf from the top was used. For analyzing the biochemical constituents youngest, fully unfold, disease free leaves were collected from the sample plants and pooled to form the composite sample. Sampling was done at flowering stage. Observations were recorded on morphological, yield and quality traits viz.,plant height (PH), number of sympodia per plant (NOS), number of monopodia per plant (NOM), length of sympodia (LOS), number of flower bearing nodes in sympodia (NFBN), days to first flowering (DFF), internode length (IL), petiole length (PL), number of flowers per plant (NOF), number of bolls per plant (NOB), boll weight (BW), number of locules (NOL), number of seeds per locule (NOSL),days to first boll bursting (DFBB), days to fifty percent boll bursting (DFFBB), seed cotton yield (SCY), seed index (SI), lint Index (LI), ginning outturn (GOT), 2.5 per cent span length (2.5%SL),bundle strength (BS),uniformity ratio (UR),micronaire (MIC),elongation per cent (EL). Apart from this physiological parameters namely leaf area per plant (LA), specific leaf area (SLA),specific leaf weight (SLW),photosynthetically active radiations (PAR),canopy temperature (CT),diffusive resistance (DR) and transpiration rate (TR),root length (RL) and biochemical traits like chlorophyll content (CC),soluble protein (SP),total phenols (TP),nitrate reductase activity (NRA) were also recorded. By visual evaluation the accessions were grouped into robust, semicompact and compact plant types. Based on all the above characters robust, semicompact and compact plant types were characterized and they were analysed for their genetic divergence.

A compact plant type can be characterized by short plant with intermediate petiole length, less number of sympodias, short fruiting branches, early flowering, low number of bolls and low seed cotton yield. Compact genotypes had superior fiber quality like high bundle strength, high lint index, medium span length

Results and Disscussion The genotypes were visually evaluated based 85

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

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intermediate range for most of the characters. The distribution of genotypes under the different levels of expression indicated that in general, robust genotypes can serve as donors for earliness, leaf area, soluble protein and nitrate reductase activity while compact genotypes can be considered for improving bundle strength, photosynthetically active radiations, and nitrate reductase activity.

and seed index. Compact types occupy less ground area with low total leaf area but they had relatively high specific leaf area, high leaf temperature and low transpiration rate. Compact genotypes had high leaf soluble proteins and chlorophyll contents. The semicompact types were intermediate for all the characters. The percentage of genotypes of each group under different range for different characters was calculated. In robust group, high frequency of genotypes were in the minimum range of expression for the characters number of flower bearing nodes, days to first boll bursting, days to fifty per cent boll bursting, specific leaf area, canopy temperature, diffusive resistance, chlorophyll ‘a’ and oil content. For the characters petiole length, internode length, number of sympodia, length of sympodia, number of bolls, seed cotton yield, ginning outturn, 2.5 per cent span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire, bundle strength, elongation length, root length, photosynthetically active radiations, transpiration rate, phenol content, high frequency of genotypes fell in the intermediate range. More than fifty per cent of the robust genotypes had high total leaf area, soluble proteins and nitrate reductase activity.

The genetic divergence in the genotypes was estimated by subjecting them to distance analysis, using Mahalanobis D2 statistics. A groupwise analysis of genetic divergence indicated that the sixty seven robust genotypes could be grouped into 13 clusters. It was observed that cluster I was the largest including 54 genotypes followed by cluster XIII comprising of two genotypes. All the other clusters had only one genotype. In a similar way, the 66 semicompact genotypes came under twenty clusters. Cluster I comprised the maximum number of 14 genotypes followed by cluster II (13 genotypes) cluster III (11 genotypes), cluster VII (4 genotypes), cluster IX and XII (3 genotypes), cluster XIII, XV and XX (2 genotypes). All the other clusters had only one genotype. The 17 compact genotypes which were subjected to diversity analysis using 12 characters after stepwise elimination of less important characters were grouped into five clusters. Cluster I comprised the maximum number of nine genotypes followed by cluster II (5 genotypes). Cluster III, IV and V had only one genotype each. The above grouping supported that visual evaluation was in good agreement with the character evaluation in respect of robust and compact types as most of the genotypes came under a single cluster. However, the agreement in respect of semicompact types was not as much as in the other two groups because for some characters it is towards robust type and for others it is towards compact type and so further detailed study is needed. The clustering pattern of the

Compact group had majority of genotypes under low expression for the characters plant height, internode length, number of flower bearing nodes, number of bolls, seed cotton yield, specific leaf weight, diffusive resistance and chlorophyll ‘a’. All the accessions had registered low range for length of sympodia. Intermediate range was predominant for the character petiole length, number of sympodia, boll weight, lint index, ginning outturn, 2.5 per cent span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire, elongation percentage, canopy temperature and phenol content. High frequency of plants fell under the high range for bundle strength and nitrate reductase activity. Semicompact genotypes fell under the 86

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

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a good effort to hybridize the genotype 920 with genotypes of cluster XIII to get better segregants showing good performance for yield components, earliness and fibre quality. Cluster IX (Empire-16 WR) also can be involved in hybridization programme to improve the seed cotton yield. In semicompact group, the lowest inter cluster distance recorded was between clusters IV and XI and highest distance was recorded between clusters XIII and XIV followed by clusters XIII and XVI and cluster VI and XVIII(table 4). Cluster XIII (Stoneville and Acala-1577-D) recorded the highest mean value for specific leaf area (table 5). Cluster XIV (47-2) showed high expression for plant height, number of sympodia and number of bolls. These results indicate that Stoneville and Acale-1577-D can be crossed with 47-2 to get desirable recombinants. Further cluster XVI (Nectariless) which had recorded second highest distance with cluster XIII showed desirable expression for quality traits viz. uniformity ratio, micronaire value and elongation percentage. Thus, to combine high physiological efficiency and good fibre quality characters, cluster XIII and cluster XVI can be used in crossing programme while, cluster VIII (Buri147) will serve as a good source for yield improvement. To produce hybrids with wide genetic base and with pronounced hybrid vigour this genotype can be crossed with any other highly divergent cluster having desirable genotypes.

genotypes from various geographical regions into different clusters was random indicating the absence of parallelism between genetic grouping and diversity. Earlier studies of Kowsalya and Raveendran (1996) and Gururajan and Manickam (2002) also indicated more are less similar observations. This may be due to frequent exchange of breeding material between the breeders and common objectives of selection in different locations. Murthy and Arunachalam (1966) also suggested that the forces of genetic drift and natural selection under diverse environmental conditions within a country cause considerable diversity than geographic isolation. So, selection of parents for hybridization programmes should be based on genetic rather than the geographical diversity. However, a comparison between the two methods of parental selection based on geographical and genetic diversity, and study of segregating progenies of the hybrids synthesized within each group will give a better result on further use of parents. Inter cluster distances were greater than intra cluster distances, revealing considerable amount of genetic diversity among genotypes studied. Use of genetically distant genotypes as parents to get most promising hybrids or segregants have been suggested by Kowsalya and Raveendran (1996), Manimaran and Raveendran (2001) and Gururajan and Manickam (2002). In case of robust genotypes (Table 2) the minimum inter cluster distance was recorded between the genotypes S-1622 and 560 whereas highest distance was noticed between cluster II(Able - 51(P)) and cluster XIII (Gregg and 5143) followed by cluster XII (920) and cluster XIII. Cluster XIII recorded highest mean value for the characters ginning outturn, specific leaf area, micronaire and elongation percentage (Table 3). Cluster II showed low mean values for all the characters. Cluster XII recorded high mean values for number of bolls, specific leaf weight and 2.5 per cent span length. It would be

The compact genotypes (table 6) registered highest inter cluster divergence between cluster II (Kapland, BP-52NC-62, Stardel, Brazos and Deltapine) and cluster III (72/1). Cluster II showed high expression for bundle strength whereas cluster III registered high sympodial number and specific leaf weight (table 7). The cluster IV (199F) recording high mean values for seed cotton yield, number of bolls, length of sympodia, plant height, internode and petiole 87

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REFERENCES Amudha, K., Raveendran, T.S, Krishnadoss, D. 1997. Genetic diversity in coloured linted cotton varieties.Madras Agric. J.,84:334337

length showed high divergence with cluster II. So 199F can be hybridized with the genotypes of cluster II to improve the seed cotton yield. The data pertaining to robust and semicompact genotypes (table 8) have also shown that quality characters were found to be good indices for selection of genotypes in the present study. As the yield and yield components failed to exhibit high degree of influence on genetic divergence, care should be taken to identify segregants for good yield performance from the limited variability available in the material under study. Similar reports have been given by Amudha et al. (1997).

Gururajan, K.N., Manickam, S. 2002. Genetic divergence in Egyptian cotton (Gossypium barbadenseL.).J. Indian Soc. Cotton Improv., 27: 77-83. Kowsalya, R., Raveendran, T.S. 1996. Genetic variability and D2 analysis in upland cotton. Crop Res. 12: 36-42. Manimaran, R., Raveendran, T.S. 2001. Relationship between genetic diversity and heterosis in cotton. Crop Res. 22 : 72-77. Murthy, B.R, Arunachalam, V. 1966. The nature of genetic divergence in relation to breeding systemin crop plants. IndianJ.Genet., 26(A):188-198

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Table1. Grade index for the three plant types

Characters Plant height Petiole length Internode length Number of sympodia Length of sympodium Number of flowering bearing nodes Days to first flowering Days to first boll bursting Number of bolls Boll weight Seed cotton yield Seed index Lint index Ginning outturn 2.5% Span length Uniformity ratio Micronaire Bundle strength Elongation percentage Total leaf area Specific leaf area Specific leaf weight Leaf area index Root length Canopy temperature Photosynthetically active radiations Transpiration rate Diffusive resistance Phenol content Soluble proteins Chlorophyll ‘a’ Chlorophyll ‘b’ Nitrate reductase activity Oil content

Grade index for plant type Robust

Semi compact

Compact

2.37 2.16 1.87 2.24 2.43 1.31 1.97 2.34 2.07 1.94 2.04 1.42 2.25 2.39 2.10 2.27 2.25 1.85 2.00 2.36 2.70 1.72 2.36 1.78 1.91 2.30 2.10 1.20 2.10 2.20 1.40 2.40 2.20 1.60

1.91 1.82 1.50 1.97 1.55 1.29 2.20 2.30 1.79 2.09 1.79 1.94 1.65 2.24 1.94 2.33 2.03 1.83 1.95 1.88 2.70 1.67 1.88 1.62 2.20 2.60 1.80 1.20 2.40 2.00 1.90 1.90 2.10 1.80

1.47 1.88 1.35 1.65 1.00 1.24 2.12 2.12 1.47 1.88 1.47 1.94 2.24 2.35 1.88 2.29 2.12 2.59 2.00 1.59 2.41 1.41 1.59 1.79 2.24 2.50 2.30 1.30 2.10 2.80 1.80 2.30 2.30 1.90

89

90

XIII

XII

XI

X

IX

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

III

Clusters I I 9.09 (82.68) II

II 10.01 (100.11) 0.00 (0.00)

III 10.01 (100.28) 11.35 (128.91) 0.00 (0.00)

IV 10.00 (99.91) 11.09 (122.97) 10.24 (104.83) 0.00 (0.00)

V 10.20 (104.03) 10.93 (119.39) 10.53 (110.79) 8.19 (67.05) 0.00 (0.00)

VI 10.16 (103.17) 11.81 (139.58) 12.16 (147.75) 9.39 (88.26) 9.51 (90.35) 0.00 (0.00)

VII 10.66 (113.67) 13.07 (170.86) 10.76 (115.76) 9.93 (98.54) 11.14 (124.04) 9.91 (98.20) 0.00 (0.00)

VIII 10.44 (109.09) 12.08 (146.04) 9.42 (88.71) 11.85 (140.46) 11.00 (121.04) 11.58 (134.01) 11.81 (139.46) 0.00 (0.00)

IX 10.23 (104.60) 9.91 (98.29) 9.62 (92.53) 11.22 (125.83) 12.16 (147.87) 12.75 (162.59) 11.60 (134.64) 12.21 (149.17) 0.00 (0.00)

X 10.01 (100.26) 10.78 (116.27) 9.53 (90.83) 10.97 (120.37) 12.29 (150.94) 12.12 (146.86) 11.54 (133.18) 10.99 (120.73) 9.22 (85.04) 0.00 (0.00)

Table 2. Inter and intra cluster distances (D) (D2 values in brackets) in robust genotypes

XI 10.11 (102.21) 10.33 (106.65) 11.42 (130.42) 11.79 (139.05) 12.65 (160.08) 11.47 (131.56) 12.04 (144.93) 11.24 (126.23) 10.64 (113.23) 8.68 (75.36) 0.00 (0.00)

XII 11.17 (124.80) 11.93 (142.24) 9.65 (93.18) 10.70 (114.40) 8.27 (68.43) 11.92 (142.07) 12.06 (145.54) 10.24 (104.89) 12.37 (152.90) 12.84 (164.77) 13.44 (180.60) 0.00 (0.00)

XIII 12.34 (152.20) 14.43 (208.23) 11.71 (137.02) 11.26 (126.85) 13.18 (173.73) 12.15 (147.70) 9.94 (98.72) 12.79 (163.58) 12.79 (163.48) 11.03 (121.76) 12.45 (155.08) 13.96 (194.98) 0.00 (0.00)

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

120.75

136.30

141.95

121.07

124.82

102.50

126.92

98.59

120.85

130.84

116.56

111.48

89.38

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

XIII

PH (cm)

91

4.44

3.78

4.59

6.45

5.03

6.27

5.28

4.70

5.50

6.05

4.50

5.08

5.20

IL (cm)

NOS

16.92

21.50

16.50

12.59 10.09

8.67

10.45 16.00

12.54 13.17

10.78 21.00

12.65 14.50

12.14 19.50

12.25 19.33

9.50

11.55 19.50

11.22 19.50

9.35

11.28 18.78

PL (cm)

35.34

41.34

32.33

33.67

52.34

33.00

41.50

30.92

37.83

43.50

39.50

38.17

40.44

1.50

1.42

1.50

2.58

1.00

1.00

1.83

2.00

1.00

1.33

2.42

2.50

1.52

LOS NFB (cm) N

58.50

62.00

55.50

58.50

60.50

64.50

53.50

62.00

61.00

61.00

60.00

59.50

58.66

DFF

12.50

18.00

13.84

13.50

17.33

9.84

15.67

10.34

12.83

12.50

15.33

11.00

14.58

NOB

167.00

125.50

131.50

165.00

140.00

140.00

130.50

137.00

137.50

140.00

141.50

136.50

141.43

DFBB

172.00

130.00

138.00

169.00

149.00

149.50

137.00

142.00

143.00

149.50

149.50

141.50

147.21

3.81

2.90

3.60

2.84

3.13

3.37

3.32

5.00

4.75

4.21

2.59

4.96

3.73

DFFBB BW (g)

48.43

51.02

48.37

38.32

55.73

32.57

44.52

53.26

47.50

53.96

38.79

48.64

51.98

7.24

8.77

6.94

7.05

7.57

8.55

8.15

7.04

8.99

8.61

8.17

8.95

7.98

SI SCY (g/ plant)

5.50

5.18

5.24

4.07

3.58

5.54

5.06

4.15

5.36

5.15

5.30

5.15

4.68

LI

43.14

32.86

38.62

35.64

37.58

39.36

38.34

37.40

38.39

36.23

39.37

36.49

37.03

GOT (%)

8.50

10.6

9.09

7.48

8.92

8.92

8.32

10.0

8.90

7.89

8.30

8.21

9.06

136.02

106.55

120.30

135.85

111.72

116.26

124.00

93.53

108.60

133.33

121.74

123.27

114.71

1.28

2.47

1.94

1.76

4.25

1.47

4.50

3.50

2.72

2.15

2.09

3.41

3.34

SLW LA LAI (mg/cm²) (cm²/g)

Table 3. Mean values of 13 clusters for different characters in robust genotypes

30.85

18.10

27.00

15.95

20.75

16.45

30.40

31.70

26.45

33.60

37.05

22.70

24.87

RL (cm)

23.30

31.40

23.40

25.00

25.70

27.90

25.20

24.30

30.10

27.20

27.10

26.51

26.21

2.5% SL

49.00 4.90

43.00 3.60

52.00 3.70

50.00 3.60

47.00 2.80

46.00 4.00

48.00 4.70

47.00 4.70

46.00 4.10

47.00 4.10

43.00 3.20

47.00 2.80

18.00

21.70

19.80

19.80

19.10

23.00

19.10

17.70

20.00

17.70

20.20

18.80

19.85

MIC BS (g/tex)

47.78 3.79

UR

8.20

4.51

7.00

7.30

7.70

5.00

7.40

5.10

4.70

6.10

6.20

5.40

6.00

EL

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

(42.53) 8.75 (76.49)

(50.05) 8.16 (66.61) 0.00 (0.00)

(55.35) 7.62 (58.09) 0.00 (0.00)

8.33 (69.34) 6.45 (41.62)

6.35

(40.28)

92

XI

X

IX

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

III

II

7.44

(54.43)

7.07

(50.20)

7.09

(81.51)

(63.78) 8.07 (65.17)

(93.87) 8.04 (64.60) 0.00 (0.00)

(99.40) 7.42 (55.10) 6.57 (43.19)

(100.99) 0.00 (0.00)

9.69

(136.06)

11.66

(0.00)

0.00

7.99

(81.84)

9.05

(89.53)

9.46

(55.38)

(43.45)

9.97

(107.00) 10.05

(83.92)

6.59

7.44

(57.92)

7.61

(35.36)

5.95

(57.74)

7.60

(51.95)

7.21

(56.47)

7.51

XI

(94.18)

10.34

(84.30)

9.18

(70.27)

8.38

(101.38)

10.07

(53.71)

7.33

(93.37)

9.66

X

(49.10)

9.16

(90.99)

9.54

(59.39)

7.71

(86.44)

9.30

(70.54)

8.40

(61.25)

7.83

IX

(0.00)

9.70

(116.46)

10.79

(77.64)

8.81

(101.40)

10.07

(101.46)

10.07

(60.63)

7.79

VIII

7.01

(102.44)

10.12

(76.66)

8.76

(71.69)

8.47

(110.37)

10.51

(69.70)

8.35

VII

0.00

6.52

(51.83)

7.20

(81.64)

9.04

(57.57)

7.59

(63.21)

9.03

(79.47)

7.38

(43.74)

7.95

VI

8.91

V

6.61

IV

I

III

II

I

Clusters

Table 4. Inter and intra cluster distances (D) (D2 values in brackets) in semi compact genotype

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

93

XX

XIX

XVIII

XVII

XVI

XV

XIV

XIII

XII

XI

X

IX

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

III

II

Clusters I

XII 9.37 (87.83) 9.34 (87.24) 10.71 (114.64) 8.75 (76.59) 10.70 (114.54) 10.44 (108.97) 11.51 (132.55) 8.30 (68.92) 8.06 (64.90) 7.73 (59.80) 8.58 (73.65) 6.67 (44.44)

Table 4. contd... XIII 10.32 (106.51) 7.62 (58.10) 8.98 (80.62) 8.93 (79.70) 7.44 (55.33) 9.87 (97.36) 11.06 (122.39) 11.67 (136.13) 9.99 (99.76) 9.16 (83.85) 8.98 (80.62) 11.12 (123.58) 5.99 (35.88)

XIV 8.86 (78.55) 10.80 (116.56) 10.91 (118.99) 9.59 (91.88) 11.53 (132.94) 10.34 (106.98) 10.87 (118.26) 6.23 (38.78) 8.78 (77.05) 10.12 (102.41) 9.62 (92.53) 8.42 (70.86) 12.52 (156.70) 0.00 (0.00)

XV 9.18 (84.33) 10.23 (104.65) 8.89 (78.99) 8.71 (75.92) 10.08 (101.55) 7.64 (58.40) 7.36 (54.10) 10.66 (113.67) 9.93 (98.70) 11.40 (129.96) 9.80 (96.06) 11.68 (136.31) 10.44 (108.95) 11.54 (133.22) 6.24 (38.89)

XVI 7.97 (63.47) 11.13 (123.78) 9.72 (94.47) 9.58 (91.72) 11.06 (122.22) 9.01 (81.26) 8.78 (77.10) 8.10 (65.69) 9.75 (95.12) 11.61 (134.85) 9.59 (91.92) 10.57 (111.77) 12.46 (155.14) 8.38 (70.19) 10.33 (106.68) 0.00 (0.00)

XVII 8.95 (80.13) 10.29 (105.87) 10.89 (118.68) 8.95 (80.15) 11.36 (129.08) 10.25 (105.08) 10.97 (120.39) 6.33 (40.12) 7.94 (63.12) 9.28 (86.14) 9.27 (85.86) 7.10 (50.48) 11.97 (143.32) 6.26 (39.17) 11.31 (127.82) 9.43 (88.85) 0.00 (0.00)

XVIII 9.74 (94.78) 8.81 (77.70) 10.71 (114.62) 9.29 (86.29) 10.24 (104.92) 10.86 (117.95) 11.99 (143.87) 9.00 (81.03) 8.26 (68.23) 6.41 (41.10) 8.90 (79.18) 7.36 (54.24) 10.78 (116.15) 8.96 (80.27) 12.04 (145.01) 11.20 (125.51) 8.51 (72.39) 0.00 (0.00)

XIX 8.32 (69.18) 9.42 (88.65) 8.13 (66.02) 8.11 (65.81) 8.94 (80.01) 7.94 (63.07) 8.37 (70.00) 9.93 (98.55) 9.54 (91.03) 10.47 (109.57) 8.47 (71.67) 10.68 (114.03) 10.22 (104.45) 10.51 (110.49) 8.64 (74.60) 9.27 (86.02) 10.51 (110.37) 11.08 (122.86) 0.00 (0.00)

XX 7.88 (62.05) 9.83 (96.63) 9.50 (90.22) 8.45 (71.45) 10.39 (108.05) 8.67 (75.14) 9.28 (86.06) 7.59 (57.61) 7.83 (61.29) 10.02 (100.36) 8.76 (76.80) 9.54 (91.07) 11.06 (122.39) 8.81 (77.61) 9.59 (92.01) 8.93 (79.69) 8.74 (76.36) 9.83 (96.70) 10.33 (106.63) 0.00 (0.00)

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

94

118.75

151.42

111.54

121.09

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XX

4.89

122.92

124.10

XV

XVI

5.55

160.52

XIV

4.40

3.50

4.58

8.10

5.15

3.54

4.97

63.83

3.67

3.82

5.87

XIII

97.42

107.86

IX

X

5.59

95.61

126.51

VIII

3.74

XII

102.15

VII

4.50

77.40

104.43

VI

4.21

5.17

4.38

XI

101.04

101.73

IV

V

104.20

III

4.52

4.52

103.22

98.84

I

II

IL (cm)

PH (cm)

11.59

8.92

9.67

12.00

11.42

11.92

11.92

8.54

11.05

8.75

8.97

11.39

9.67

10.74

11.27

11.26

11.15

9.84

10.28

10.97

PL (cm)

15.67

23.92

19.00

16.38

21.83

18.29

24.83

11.83

17.35

14.09

16.25

13.39

14.25

18.37

13.00

15.00

14.17

16.75

15.00

17.89

NOS

24.17

27.08

29.00

26.08

28.00

26.50

22.00

24.83

30.56

28.00

25.00

26.20

27.34

26.15

24.59

29.50

25.00

28.73

25.34

27.48

LOS (cm)

1.33

1.00

1.33

2.00

1.00

1.87

1.00

1.54

2.00

1.33

1.50

2.25

2.17

1.46

1.42

1.83

1.33

1.66

1.37

1.43

NFB N

148.88

167.00

68.50 16.50 166.50

68.50 15.09 130.50

68.50 12.00 134.50

65.50 14.00 161.00

69.00 17.67 140.00

68.75 13.84 154.50

69.00 18.67 150.50

68.00 10.54 136.00

67.63 13.56 153.88

66.00 10.17 156.00

68.00 13.00 141.50

67.17 17.50 134.50

69.00 17.34 140.50

64.38 9.65

63.50 7.17

62.50 15.67 130.00

69.00 11.33 164.50

66.08 11.51 137.17

67.42 12.36 136.42

140.50

167.00

139.00

166.50

149.00

160.75

156.00

143.50

160.50

159.00

149.00

140.67

143.50

156.88

170.00

137.00

169.00

142.83

142.96

144.20

2.49

4.73

2.27

4.26

3.43

2.64

2.92

4.20

4.21

4.29

3.41

2.31

3.95

3.56

3.09

3.49

3.96

4.15

3.56

3.90

NOB DFBB DFFBB BW (g)

66.03 12.86 137.63

DFF

40.76 9.24

71.39 8.14

27.18 9.27

60.38 8.56

59.95 8.15

36.78 8.67

52.12 7.70

42.92 6.81

56.86 7.96

43.70 6.89

44.04 9.70

39.97 7.87

67.08 9.62

32.65 7.81

22.72 8.44

54.71 9.62

45.04 8.46

47.43 8.03

43.25 8.62

45.48 7.70

SI SCY (g/ plant)

5.02

4.36

5.09

5.43

4.97

3.93

3.65

3.92

4.52

3.95

4.65

4.07

5.07

4.24

4.96

4.66

5.68

4.55

4.65

4.60

LI

36.00

35.97

34.80

37.03

37.15

31.10

34.06

35.11

36.13

40.99

33.05

33.69

33.96

35.69

37.53

39.43

40.16

37.04

35.92

37.08

9.05 122.07

8.30 121.57

8.81 113.57

9.44 103.52

9.03 122.67

10.59104.77

10.6695.27

6.84 155.17

9.93 101.66

12.6192.11

7.85 122.72

9.96 115.93

8.86 109.87

9.35 112.61

8.93 111.48

8.03 122.75

7.39 128.69

8.38 121.53

8.05 127.64

2.98

2.29

3.86

4.47

3.46

1.47

4.48

1.41

4.26

2.92

3.27

3.11

3.90

2.00

2.30

1.68

2.76

1.89

2.35

2.85

LA LAI (cm²/g)

8.76 116.58

GOT SLW (%) (mg/ cm²)

23.95

13.60

18.50

29.25

21.35

19.68

30.10

20.80

23.88

26.85

26.70

25.58

32.75

24.65

27.75

33.00

31.65

23.38

24.08

24.33

RL (cm)

Table 5. Mean values of 20 clusters for different characters in semi compact genotypes

28.30

26.10

29.20

25.60

24.70

25.55

26.60

26.75

26.30

26.80

30.00

26.97

25.10

23.60

24.90

26.80

26.00

24.41

27.12

25.37

2.5% SL

45.00 3.40

47.00 3.80

44.00 3.80

46.00 3.20

51.00 4.60

47.50 3.40

45.00 3.51

47.50 3.40

47.75 3.90

47.00 4.60

46.00 3.80

46.67 3.33

47.00 3.00

50.50 3.83

48.00 4.20

47.00 4.30

49.00 3.91

48.83 4.24

47.28 4.10

21.00

19.90

20.30

19.20

20.00

23.55

18.60

18.65

20.05

19.10

21.10

21.60

18.80

20.20

18.20

18.51

19.20

18.53

20.51

19.51

MIC BS (g/tex)

49.23 3.90

UR

6.70

6.90

5.10

5.90

7.60

5.55

7.00

5.25

5.08

6.30

5.10

5.27

6.40

6.83

7.10

6.00

6.20

6.23

4.93

6.55

EL

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

5.77 (33.33)

I

95

V

IV

III

II

I

Clusters

5.91 (34.95)

8.41 (70.70)

II

0.00 (0.00)

33.39 (111.03)

7.49 (56.07)

III

0.00 (0.00)

6.73 (45.30)

9.63 (92.67)

6.49 (42.16)

IV

0.00 (0.00)

8.93 (79.67)

7.91 (62.60)

9.88 (97.65)

7.84 (61.45)

V

Table 6. Intra and Inter cluster distances (D) (D2 values in brackets) in compact genotypes

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

3.95 4.89 3.49 8.08 4.31

87.14

87.30

85.57

97.50

83.15

I

II

III

IV

V

Cluster

IL (cm)

PH (cm)

Character LOS (cm)

20.83 17.83

96

11.58 12.00 14.83

11.91 15.00 20.49

9.21

11.34 12.61 19.50

10.56 14.71 18.64

PL NOS (cm)

7.66

15.66

11.16

10.37

11.15

NOB

21.29

68.53

32.16

30.83

40.67

SCY (g/ plant)

7.71

8.04

9.05

9.00

7.61

117.03

129.20

110.29

120.85

137.38

SLW SLA (mg/ (cm²/g) cm²)

0.87

3.05

3.01

1.59

2.46

LAI

28.20

24.90

25.30

25.38

25.46

2.5% SL

Table 7. Mean values of five clusters for different characters in compact genotypes

19.50

18.40

16.90

21.36

19.19

BS(g/ tex)

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006 Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

Table 8. Percentage contribution of different characters to total genetic divergence in robust, semicompact and compact genotypes

Contribution (percent)

Character

Robust

Semicompact

Compact

-

0.09

1.47

Days to first boll bursting

1.04

2.08

-

Days to fifty percent boll bursting

0.09

1.96

Seed cotton yield

0.14

0.70

2.21

Bundle strength

17.37

5.83

72.79

Micronaire

22.57

3.08

-

Uniformity ratio

22.52

2.33

-

Elongation length

28.99

44.76

-

Leaf area index

7.28

38.69

18.38

Specific leaf area

-

-

4.41

Specific leaf weight

-

-

0.74

100

100

100

Plant height

Total

97

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

INTERFAMILY VARIATION AND FAMILY SELECTION IN INTERVARIETAL CROSSES IN SUGARCANE UNDER EXCESS WATER STRESS CONDITION Govindaraj, P

ABSTRACT In sugarcane breeding programmes two methods of selection viz., family selection and individual progeny selection are followed. Family selection even though laborious gives much dividend compared to individual selection. Excess water stress is one of major limiting factor of productivity in North Central Zone. Even though targeted breeding programes have not been initiated so far, sugarcane breeders have always look for clones with water logging tolerance as an ancillary character in addition to cane yield, sucrose content in juice, red rot resistance and tolerant to top borer in the regular breeding programme. The main effect of excess water stress is not only yield but also sugar recovery due to accumulations of low sucrose in juice at harvest. In order to study the family variation under excess water stress conditions, two hundred progenies developed from 8 families of sugarcane intervarietal crosses were planted clonally in single row plot of 6m and were evaluated for their performance to 4 quality parameters recorded in 8th and 11th months and 3 yield contributing traits. High variation was observed among the families for all the characters. Family mean values for CCS % at 11th month ranged from 11.52 (UP 22 X Co 775) to 10.30 (CoSe 92423 X CoS 510) with overall mean value of 11.09 and two families exceeded this mean value. Sucrose % in juice at 8th month ranged from 12.33 (CoS 88216 X Co 87272) to 14.89 (CoG 93076 X Co 93009) with overall family mean value of 14.22. For single cane weight, the range was from 1.41kg (UP 22 X Co 775) to 0.82 kg (CoS 932 X BO 91) with the family mean value of 1.11 kg. Range for each characters also varied among the families. While the range for the family CoG 93076 X Co 93009 was the highest (13.30 to 7.05), the family CoS 88216 X Co 87272 had the narrow range (11.74 to 10.37) for sucrose % at 11th month. For single cane weight, the highest range was recorded by UP 22 X Co 775 (2.30 – 0.70 kg) and the lowest range was observed with CoS 90269 X CoS 510 (1.15 – 0.75 kg). Variance estimate also differed among the crosses. The highest variance component for sucrose was exhibited by CoG 93076 X Co 93009 (24.35) and the lowest variance was recorded by Co 1158 X CoJ 64 (7.92). Results clearly indicated that variation was observed for both quality and yield traits among the families. The families with the highest variance resulted in the progenies with maximum per se values for CCS % at 11th month and single cane weight the important quality and yield contributing trait respectively. Hence it is concluded that in the early generation of selection family selection followed by individual selection will improve the efficiency of selection and such families with wider variation should be repeated as proven crosses. Interfamily differences for economic traits and the importance of family selection is discussed.

Introduction Modern sugarcane varieties are the complex hybrids involving different species of Saccharum. A wide range of variability among seedlings ranging from wild cane (Saccharum spontaneum) to noble cane (S. officinarum) is observed among the intervarietal progenies. The

frequency of seedlings having desirable agronomical traits depend upon the parental combination used, genetic control of the trait and selection efficiency. Very limited studies on inheritance of agronomically important traits have been made in sugarcane due to its complex genetic architecture and non-

Senior Scientist (Plant Breeding), Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore – 7 98

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

1158, CoS 932, UP 22, CoG 93076, CoS 92423, CoS 88216, CoS 90269 and seven pollen parents viz., CoJ 64, BO 91, Co 775, Co 93009, Co 62198, Co 87272 and CoS 510 among them UP 22, CoS 92423, BO 91 and Co 87272 were tolerant to water logging. Crosses were effected in the lantern method and fluff were sown to raise segregating progenies. Two hundred progenies developed from these 8 families of sugarcane intervarietal crosses were planted clonally in single row plot of 6m and were evaluated. Data on juice brix% and sucrose% were estimated at 8th and 11th month and CCS % and Purity % were worked out. CCS % = (1.022 x Sucrose %) – (0.292 x Brix %); Purity % = Sucrose % x 100/ Brix %

fulfillment of certain assumption or design. Sugarcane breeders worldwide differ in their opinion on selection in the early segregating generation ie individual performance or family per se. In the individual selection the assumption of gene x environmental variance is considered as negligible hence the genotype selected in the first generation is fixed in the later clonal generations. However another school of thought argues that in the absence of any statistical procedure adapted, the families with high mean performance is selected and further individual selection is within the selected families only. In addition, the families with high mean performance is repeated (proven crosses) to produce larger families to recover more elite segregants.

Three important yield-contributing traits viz., single cane weight (SCW), cane length (CL) and cane girth (CG) were recorded in all the progenies and mean, variance and range were estimated.

Increasing population, improved standard of living and demand for sugar necessitated to expand the cultivation to the sub optimal areas like water logging. In North central zone of India, the main constraints are the early drought and late water logging. Water logging is mainly due to excess rain during Aug-Sep and poor drainage in many parts of Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and certain pockets of Orissa. Under severe waterlogging, growth of the crop is reduced and sugar recovery also affected. Since it is very difficult to manage waterlogging stress through either agronomical or physiological manipulations, development of water logging tolerant varieties is the most appropriate solution and incorporation of water logging tolerance is an integral part of varietal development for these areas. Hence, it is essential to breed varieties suitable to waterlogging condition and the breeders should know appropriate breeding procedures to be adapted for this purpose. In the present study variability for economic traits and their relationship to selection efficiency is discussed.

Results and discussion Genetic potential of sugarcane families to produce superior seedlings (elite genotypes) can be estimated through several methods which include factors for superior performance (FSP) by Arceneaux et al. (1986), the probability of exceeding target value (PROB) (Milligan and Legendre, 1991) and a univariate cross prediction method (Chang and Milligan, 1992). The factors for superior performance (FSP) method is easy to use, but a FSP value can only be obtained after the original seedlings have been carried through all stages of selections. The univariate cross prediction method described by Chang and Milligan (1992) requires extensive data collection. Sugarcane breeder needs a method, which is very simple to estimate but reliable and repeatable. Simple estimate of co efficient of variation, mean and range can also bring out required information to understand the genetic potential of the segregating families.

Materials and method Eight different parental combinations were constituted with seven pistil parents viz., Co 99

Second National Plant Breeding Congress 2006

Plant Breeding in Post Genomics Era

The selection percentage is a measure of the overall merit of the cross, which represents all the aspects of desirability considered in these stages and the weight given to each component character by the selector (Walker, 1963). A high selection percentage indicates that the population had a high mean and/or variance for some or all desirable characters. Tai and Miller (1989) reported that selection rate between early stages of selection was highly correlated. A progeny test with small number of individuals is routinely used to estimate the selection rate or the evaluation of proven crosses in sugarcane breeding programmes in Australia (Hogarth, 1987). The progeny assessment trials also have been routinely used to identify the best families and select superior clones from these families (Cox et al. 2000). Stalk height and stalk weight were strongly correlated with cane yield both in dry and wet zone and can be considered as ideal trait for selection in these stress conditions (Bissessur et al., 2001 and Brown et al., 1968). Under water and salt stress conditions, stalk diameter has the highest heritability and is the most reliable character for selection (Bakshi Ram et al., 2001). Hence all these three easily measurable traits were recorded as yield contributing traits (Malavia and Ramani, 1992) in the progenies. In the present study, variance estimate differed among the crosses for yield and quality characters (Table 1). The highest variance component for sucrose at 11th month was exhibited by CoG 93076 X Co 93009 (24.35) and the lowest variance was recorded by Co 1158 X CoJ 64 (7.92) and the same trend was observed for CCS %. Many families recorded lower variance (