Smoke Control Technology Dr. John H. Klote, PE
[email protected]
April 29, 2015
ICB Conference Austin, TX
Contents Introduction
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References
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Basics of Smoke Control Analysis of Systems
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Fire & Smoke Dampers
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Stairwell Pressurization
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Elevator Pressurization
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Zoned Smoke Control
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Atrium Smoke Control
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Commissioning & Periodic Testing
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Design Fires & Smoke Production
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Appendix A – Example Testing Matrix
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Copyright Materials
Smoke Control Technology Dr. John H. Klote, PE
This workshop is protected by U.S. and International copyright laws. Reproduction, distribution, display, and use of the educational activity without written permission of the presenter is prohibited.
[email protected] April 29, 2015
ICB Conference Austin, TX
© 2015 John H. Klote
Smoke is Major Killer
Sprinklers Not Total Answer
• Smoke Major Killer – about 70% of Fire Fatalities due to Smoke Inhalation
• Sprinklers Important for Life Safety – Not Total Answer • Sprinkler Failure Rate about 10% - Data of National Fire Incident Reporting System
• Berl, W.C., and B.M. Halpin. Human Fatalities from Unwanted Fires. Johns Hopkins APL, 1980. • Harland, W.A., and W.D. Woolley, W.D. Fire Fatality Study. BRE, Univ. Glasgow, 1979.
• Smoke Migrates Far From Fire Floor Threatens Life at Remote Locations • Smoke control provides significant protection from the threat of smoke.
• Koffel’s Study, 2005 • Hall’s Studies, 2006 & 2011
• Even in fully sprinklered buildings, smoke control provides protection from the threat of smoke
References
REFERENCES
• International Building Code (IBC), ICC 2015 • NFPA 5000 – Building Construction and Safety Code, NFPA 2015 • NFPA 92 – Standard for Smoke Control Systems, NFPA 2015. • A Guide to Smoke Control in the 2006 IBC, ICC, 2007. • Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering, ASHRAE 2012
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• New Edition Every 3 Years (2000, … 2009, 2012, 2015). • Used Throughout U.S. • Smoke Control – Section 909.
• New Edition Every 3 Years • IBC states that atrium smoke control systems (“exhaust method”) shall be designed in accordance with NFPA 92.
• New Edition Every 3 Years • Not Used Much in U.S. • Used in Mid-East • Smoke Control – Section 909.
• By Klote & Evans • For 2006 IBC • Many Provisions Unchanged • Provides Code Interpretations
• By Klote, Milke, Turnbull, Kashef & Ferreira • In this presentation, when a chapter or figure is referred to, it is in this handbook unless otherwise noted.
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Purposes of Smoke Control
BASICS OF SMOKE CONTROL
Smoke Control Systems • Pressurization Systems • Stairwell Pressurization • Elevator Pressurization • Zoned Smoke Control
• Atrium Systems • Smoke Exhaust • Smoke Venting (Gravity Venting) • Smoke Filling Note: The word “Atrium” used here to mean any large volume space.
• Maintain Tenable Environment for Evacuation or Relocation of Occupants (IBC 909.1) • Control & Reduce Smoke Movement Between Fire Area & Adjacent Spaces • Provide Conditions to Help Fire Service • Reduce Property Damage • Aid In Post-Fire Smoke Removal
Two Kinds of Systems • Conventional System: Goal is to keep smoke away from occupants during evacuation. • There is always some amount of smoke that comes into contact with occupants. • The intent is that smoke contact is slight. • Tenability System: Goal is to maintain a tenable environment during evacuation or relocation. • A tenable environment is one in which smoke and heat are limited such that exposure is not life threatening. • Systems are analyzed to provide confidence that a tenable environment is maintained.
Tenability Systems • Tenability Systems – Evaluate Threats to Life • • • •
Exposure to Toxic Gases Exposure to Heat Exposure to Thermal Radiation Reduced Visibility (indirect Threat – Prolonged Exposure & Falls)
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Physical Mechanisms of Smoke Control • • • • •
Compartmentation Dilution Pressurization Airflow Buoyancy
Compartmentation • Barriers w/ Fire Endurance – Long History • Barriers – Some Smoke Protection • Compartmentation Alone – Passive Smoke Protection • Compartmentation by itself can be evaluated by tenability analysis (see Chapter 19).
• Compartmentation w/ Pressurization • Discussed Later
Dilution • Dilution of Fire Space – Not Recommended except for Atrium Tenability Systems • Dilution sometimes called • Smoke Purging* • Smoke Removal* • Smoke Extraction*
• Dilution Used for Atrium Smoke Filling • Dilution Useful for Post Fire Smoke Removal *These terms are not recommended. They imply a high level of performance that can be misleading.
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Airflow • Airflow can be used to control smoke flow in atria, corridors, tunnels, and doorways. • Equations for Different Applications (see Chapter 15 & 17) • Caution: Oxygen to Fire – Use with Great Care • Except for transportation tunnels, airflow is not used very much.
Buoyancy
Theory & Experimental Verification
• Buoyancy – Hot Smoke Rises • Used in Atria Smoke Control (Discussed Later)
• Scientific Method - a method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested. • Used in Science & Engineering
• Theory Based on Accepted Principles of Engineering • Experimental Verification – Full Scale Fire Tests
Some Fire Tests – Pressurization • • • •
Henry Grady Hotel Tests (1973) 30 Church Street Tests (1973) Plaza Hotel Tests (1989) NRCC Experimental Fire Tower Tests (Mid 1980s to Present) • Pressurized Stairwells, Pressurized Elevators, etc.
Note: The above tests are a few of the full scale fire tests that have been done that verify pressurization smoke control.
• In Atlanta, GA • Bldg. Scheduled for Demolition • Fires – Hotel Rooms (bed, chair, draperies, lamps & chest of drawers) • Verified Stair & Elevator Pressurization
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• In New York City • Bldg. Scheduled for Demolition • Fires – Office Materials • Verified Stair & Elevator Pressurization
• Geometrically Arranged Sticks • Reproducible Fire • Crib at Right Peak 470 Btu/s • Crib at Plaza Hotel - Peak 940 Btu/s
• In Washington DC • Building Scheduled for Demolition • Fires – Wood Cribs • Verified Zoned Smoke Control & Stair Pressurization
• Near Ottawa • 10 Story Tower Built for Fire Research • Fires – Mostly Gas Burners • Verified Zoned Stair & Elevator Pressurization, etc.
Atrium Fire Research • Austrian Society of Engineers - Scale Model Fire Tests of Theater Smoke Venting (1881) • Atrium Smoke Control – Full Size Fire Tests & Scale Model Fire Tests
ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMS
• United Kingdom (BRI) • Canada (NRCC) • Australia (BHP)
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Engineering Analysis • An engineering analysis is needed to determine that a smoke control system can
be balanced to work for the design fire or fires. • Methods of Analysis • • • •
Logical Reasoning Rules of Thumb Algebraic Equations Computer Programs
Engineering Analysis • Rational Analysis of Smoke Control Systems Required (IBC 909.4) • • • • • • •
Stack Effect Temperature of Fire Wind Effect HVAC Systems Climate Duration of Operation Smoke Control System Interaction
• Engineering Analysis – More than One Method
Stack Effect • Stack Effect – Upward Flow in Shafts • Cold Outdoors
• Reverse Stack Effect – Downward Flow in Shafts • Hot Outdoors
• Stack Effect is More Significant for Tall Buildings Note: For outdoor design temperatures, see Chapter 2
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• Stack Effect & Smoke Buoyancy – Forces Smoke into Shaft – Smoke Flows up Shaft – Smoke Flows into Floors above Neutral Plane
• Buoyancy – Some Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage
• When Smoke Buoyancy Dominates Stack Effect – Smoke into Shaft – Smoke Flow through Shaft – Smoke Flow to Upper Floors
• Buoyancy – Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage
• When Stack Effect Dominates Smoke Buoyancy – No Smoke into Shaft – No Smoke Flow through Shaft
• Buoyancy – Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage
• Airflow Down & Hot Smoke Flows UP • Where Does Smoke Flow? • Smoke Mix in Shaft? • No Simple Answers • Analyze with CFD
• Simple Stack Effect – One Shaft or Similar Shafts • Complex Stack Effect – Shafts at Different Temperatures – Shafts of Different Heights
• Analysis: Network Computer Model (CONTAM)
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Temperature of Fire • Buoyancy and Expansion of Design Fire – Not Adversely Effect System • Pressurization Systems • Buoyancy - Minimum Design Pressure Difference • Expansion – Need Paths to Outdoors
• Atrium Systems - Buoyancy and Expansion Addressed in Normal Design Methods • Design Fires Discussed Later
• Arrows – Wind Velocity • Wind Velocity Increases with Height
• Design – Consider Adverse Effects of Wind • Prevent Smoke Feedback into Air Intakes • Prevent Excessive Makeup Air Velocity in Atrium Smoke Control (Discuss Later) • Wind Data – Chapter 2
• Wind Profile Changes with Terrain • Airport Wind Data – Adjusted for Project Site
HVAC Systems
Climate
• Design Consider HVAC
• Consider Effects of Low Temperatures on:
• Transport of Fire & Smoke • All modes of System Status • Effects of Fire on HVAC Systems
• During Building Fire • HVAC System Shut Down (Dates to 1930s) • HVAC Smoke Control Mode (Dates to 1970s)
• System • Property • Occupants
• Location of Inlets & Exhaust – Prevent Snow & Ice Blockage
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Duration of Operation • Smoke Control Systems – Capable of Operating for (IBC 2015, 909.4.7): • 20 Minutes, or • 1.5 Times Calculated Egress Time, • Whichever is Greater
Smoke Control System Interaction • Design Consider Interaction of Smoke Control Systems – All Design Scenarios • A pressurization system results in airflow throughout the building and to the outdoors. • Flow to the outside usually goes through building leakage. • One system may work by itself, but there may not be enough building leakage for all the systems to work together at the same time. • Systems need to be designed for interaction.
Dampers
FIRE & SMOKE DAMPERS
• Types of Dampers: • • • •
Balancing Control Fire (resist the passage of fire – UL555) Smoke (resist the passage of smoke – UL555S)
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Smoke Dampers
STAIRWELL PRESSURIZATION
Stairwell Pressurization • IBC 2015 (909.20.5): • Minimum Pressure Difference: 0.10 in. w.g. • Maximum Pressure Difference: 0.35 in. w.g.
• Acceptable Pressurization – Between Min & Max
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Stairwell Pressurization Systems • • • •
Single and Multiple Injection Compartmentation Vestibules System with Fire Floor Exhaust (With a Type of Zoned Smoke Control – Discussed Later)
• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.)
• For Tall Stairwells • Duct Distributes Air in Stairwell • Fan Locations: • • •
Top Bottom In Between
• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.) • Propeller Fan Flow Impacted by Wind – Use in Walls Needs Engineering Analysis
• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.)
• This system is not used much today. • Each compartment has one or more supply injection points. • Caution: This system is not good for total building evacuation.
• Can Use Multiple Fans
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Simple & Complicated Buildings • Simple Building • Not Excessively Tall • Floor Plan & Leakage Similar Floor to Floor
• Complicated Building • Floor Plan & Leakage Different Floor to Floor • Acceptable Pressurization - Challenging • CONTAM Analysis Often Needed
Stairwells & Open Doors
Stairwells & Open Doors
• Non-Compensating Systems
• ASHRAE Research Project RP-1203 (Klote 2003)
• Door Opens – Pressure Drops • Simple System – Air Supplied at “Constant” Flow Rate
• Compensating Systems • Door Opens – Pressure Adjusted • Not Required by IBC • Most are Complicated Systems
• Study of Impact Propped Open Stairwell Doors • Analytical Study (Computer Study) • No Experimental Verification
• Expected Result of RP-1203: • With stair door propped open on fire floor, smoke filled the stairwell. (Major Failure Mode)
• Incidental Finding of RP-1203: • With stair door closed on fire floor & other doors open, conditions in the stairwell were tenable. Further study is needed.
Pressure Compensating Systems • • • • •
Open Exterior Door System Outside Overpressure Relief System Building Barometric Damper System Bypass System Variable Air Volume (VAV) System
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Pressurized Elevators
ELEVATOR PRESSURIZATION
• Purpose of Elevator Shaft Pressurization • Prevent Smoke Migration through Hoistway • Protect Fire Service when Using Elevators
• Smoke Control for Elevator Evacuation • Not Discussed Here (see Chapter 12)
• Pressurization Range: 0.10 to 0.25 inches water
Pressurized Elevators • More Challenging than Pressurized Stairwells • Large Amounts of Pressurization Air • Building Leakage may not be Enough
• Computer Network Analysis (CONTAM) Recommended
Elevator Piston Effect • Piston Effect: Elevator car results in building flows. • Adverse Impacts - Considered For Elevator Pressurization Systems
Elevator Piston Effect • Results in Building Flows • Interact with Smoke Control Systems • Move Smoke in Building • Piston Effect Should be Considered
• • • • •
Results in Building Flows Theory Developed by Klote & Tamura Experiments done in US & Canada Concern – Single Car Shaft Equations in Smoke Control Handbook, Chapter 3
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Pressurized Elevators • Large Air Supply – Challenge for Basic System • Alternate Pressurized Elevator Systems • Exterior Vent (EV) System • Floor Exhaust (FE) System • Ground Floor Lobby (GFL) System
• Systems Illustrated with Example Building
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Elevator Pressurization – EV System • Vents in exterior walls increase building leakiness. • With vents, building leakage is high enough for successful pressurization. • The vents are usually closed, but they open when the pressurization system is activated. • The vents should be located to minimize adverse wind effects. • Vents may need fire dampers depending on code requirements.
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Elevator Pressurization – FE System • The exhaust shaft has a fan (not shown) located in the mechanical penthouse, and the dampers are closed on all floors when the system is not operating. • On system activation, the dampers open on the floors to be exhausted, and the exhaust fan is activated.
Elevator Pressurization – FE System • The FE system deals with the building envelope issue by reducing the amount of supply air used. • A relatively small amount of air is supplied to the elevator shafts and the stairwells. • The fire floor is exhausted such that acceptable pressurization is maintained on the fire floor where it is needed. • It is common to also exhaust one or two floors above and below the fire floor.
Elevator Pressurization – GFL System • Enclosed elevator lobby on the ground floor reduces the tendency of open exterior doors to cause high pressure differences across the elevator shaft at the ground floor. • The GFL system often has a vent between the enclosed lobby and the building, with the intent of preventing excessive pressure differences across the lobby doors. • The lobby doors are the doors between the enclosed lobby and the building.
Elevator Pressurization – GFL System • The floor leakage can have a significant impact on the performance of a GFL system.
Buildings with Corridors • Discussion has been for Open Plan Offices • What about Interior Partitions? • Interior Partitions add to flow resistance from elevators to outdoors. • The Floor Exhaust (FE) and the Exterior Vent (EV) systems can be adapted for buildings with corridors.
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ZONED SMOKE CONTROL
Zoned Smoke Control • A building is divided into a number of zones, each separated from the others by barriers. • The zone with the fire is the smoke zone. • Surrounding zones border on the smoke zone. • Passive smoke protection or pressurization is used to limit the extent of smoke spread beyond the smoke zone. • It is beyond the capability of smoke control to maintain tenable conditions in the smoke zone, and it is intended that occupants evacuate the smoke zone as soon as possible.
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Most General Concept of Zoned Smoke Control • Smoke Zone • • • •
Fan Powered Exhaust, Smoke Vents to Outside, Smoke Shafts, or Smoke Shafts & Makeup Air Shafts
• Surrounding Zones • Fan Powered Pressurization • Outside Air Vents • Rely on Compartmentation
• Fire floor & floors directly above and below are exhausted. • Other floors rely on passive protection. • Fire floor exhaust can be used for challenging stairwell pressurization systems.
Atrium Systems
ATRIUM SMOKE CONTROL
• Mechanical Smoke Exhaust • Common in US & Elsewhere
• Natural Smoke Venting • Common in Britain, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong & Australia • Sustainable – Eliminates Fans
• Atrium Smoke Filling • Useful for Very Large Atria • Sustainable – Eliminates Fans & All Other Smoke Control Equipment
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Definitions • Large-Volume Space: An uncompartmented space, generally two or more stories in height. (atrium, sports arena, etc.) • In this talk, “atrium” is used to mean any large-volume space. • Communicating Space: A space within a building that has an open pathway to a largevolume space such that smoke from a fire in either the communicating space or the largevolume space can move from one to another without restriction. (NFPA 92)
Definitions – Continued • Separated Spaces: Spaces within a building that are isolated from largevolume spaces by smoke barriers. (NFPA 92) • Note: NFPA 92 defines a smoke barrier as one that is designed to work with a smoke control system.
• Plume Entrains Air • Mass Flow Increases with Height • Temperature Drops with Height • Temperature Drop Impacts: • •
Smoke Detection Design Fires
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Smoke Exhaust for Fire in Atrium • Smoke Exhaust through a Plenum with a Suspended Ceiling Not Recommended: – Exhaust Flow through Plenum Can Lift Ceiling Tiles out of Frames – Possible Adverse Impact on System Performance – Ceiling Repair May Be Needed After Periodic Testing
Fire Locations
Common Methods of Analysis
• Fire in Atrium (Large-Volume Space) • Axisymmetric Plume • Common Design Fire • Fire in Communicating Space – Sprinklered • Balcony Spill Plume • Common Design Fire • Fire in Communicating Space – Unsprinklered
• Algebraic Equations
• Not Common
• Fire in Separated Space • Not Part of Atrium Smoke Control
Governing Equations
• Steady & Unsteady Smoke Exhaust • AtriumCalc – Excel Application from ASHRAE (Uses NFPA 92 Equations)
• CFD Modeling • Divide Space into Cells (20,000 to 200,000) & Solve Governing Equations for Each Cell • Very Powerful Analytical Tool • Hours or Days of Computer Time • Often Used for Tenability Systems
Example: Momentum – X Direction
• The governing equations are: • • • •
Conservation of Mass Conservation of Momentum Conservation of Energy Conservation of Species (optional)
• These are non-linear partial differential equations.
• The governing equations are solved by numerical routines not a spreadsheet (like Excel).
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CFD Examples • Example in 3 Story Atrium • Two Examples: • Shielded Fire in 2nd Floor Conference Room (20% PU foam) • Shielded Fire in 1st Floor Toy Store (80% PU foam)
• Smoke Exhaust Sized for Fire in Atrium Space • (not balcony spill plumes)
• Purpose of Examples - Show CFD & Balcony Spill Plumes
Spill Plume from 2nd Floor • Simulated by Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) • Fire in Conference Room • Shielded Fire (500 kW Peak) • Fuel: 80% Cellulosic Material & 20% PU Foam • Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)
Spill Plume from Second Floor Conference Room
Spill Plume from 1st Floor • • • •
Simulated by FDS Fire in Toy Store Shielded Fire (1000 kW Peak) Fuel: 20% Cellulosic Material & 80% PU Foam • Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)
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Spill Plume from First Floor Toy Store
Spill Plume from First Floor Toy Store • Smoke Exhaust Sized for: • Fire in Atrium • Not Toy Store Fire
• Simulation of System Failure • Design should be modified for the toy store fire. • This demonstrates the importance of balcony spill plumes.
Atrium Issues • • • • •
Smoke Layer Depth Makeup Air Velocity Wind Impact Plugholing Smoke Stratification
Atrium Smoke Control – Minimum Smoke Layer Depth • Minimum Smoke Layer Depth: 20% of Floor-to-Ceiling Height • Unless Analysis Shows Otherwise • Full Scale Data • Scale Modeling • CFD Modeling
The minimum makeup air velocity is 200 fpm at locations where it could contact the plume.
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Makeup Air
Makeup Air
• Makeup Air:
• Fan Powered
• Natural (Thru Openings) or • Fan-Powered
• 200 fpm Limitation at the Plume (NFPA 92) • Prevent Plume Disruption • Confirmed by NRCC Canada Research • Hadjisophocleous & Zhou 2008
• Usually 85% to 95% of Exhaust Mass Flow
• Natural thru Openings • Open Doors, Vents, etc. • Concern About Wind • Complex Paths • Can be analyzed by a network flow program (CONTAM) • For information about CONTAM, see Chapter 14
Wind
Plugholing
• Design to Minimize Potential Wind Impact
• Plugholing is pulling lower layer air into the exhaust. • If the exhaust flow is relatively low, there will be no plugholing. • The approach to prevent plugholing is to keep the exhaust flow low enough. • Analysis
• Velocity Limit 200 fpm • Smoke Feedback into Makeup Air
• Makeup Air Openings Facing Different Directions – Velocity can Exceed 200 fpm • Evaluate by Wind Analysis (CFD or Wind Tunnel Tests) • Eliminate Problem with • Openings Facing One Direction • Fan Powered Makeup Air
• Equations – Design to Eliminate Plugholing • CFD Modeling
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Stratification • Stratification can prevent smoke from reaching ceiling mounted smoke detectors. • Solution: Beam Smoke Detectors Below Hot Air Layer
Smoke Venting • If areas Av & Ai are large enough, smoke can be vented to maintain the desired smoke layer for the design fire. • CFD Suggested for Analysis of Smoke Venting • Wind • Tenability
• Not in the IBC – May Need Approval
Smoke Filling • Conventional System • Evacuation time must be less than filling time. • Use Smoke Filling Equations (Discussed Later)
• Tenability System • Tenable environment must be maintained. • CFD analysis is recommended. • Evacuation time can be more than filling time.
• Tenability System Recommended • Alternate to Most Codes – May Need Approval
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COMMISSIONING & PERIODIC TESTING
Commissioning & Periodic Testing • To have confidence that life safety systems including smoke control will work as intended, they need to have commissioning, acceptance testing and periodic testing. • Life safety systems are different from most other systems (HVAC, pluming, electrical power, etc.).
Commissioning • Definition: Commissioning is the process for verifying and documenting that the performance of facilities, systems and assemblies meets defined objectives and criteria.
• In Normal Operation: Life Safety Problems Not Apparent • In an Emergency: Too Late to Fix Problems
Commissioning Process
Special Inspections
• Commissioning Process: From Start to End of Project • ASHRAE Guideline 1.5 (2012) The Commissioning Process for Smoke Control Systems • Performance Verified with Respect to Design • AHJ Uses Special Inspections to Verify Code Compliance • For a simple project, AHJ may waive requirement for special inspection.
• International Building Code (IBC) has requirements for the special inspection and the qualifications of the special inspector. • Special Inspection – Not Always Required • Special Inspection – Considered Part of Commissioning • Rest of this Discussion - Focuses on Special Inspections
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Test Documentation • Project Plan (Done Before Testing): • • • •
Outline Description of Testing State of Construction Needed for Tests Sample Data Sheets
• Test Report (Done After Testing): • Summary of Test Results • Compilation of All Inspection Reports & Any NonCompliance Issues • Collection of Testing and Inspection Logs • Data Sheets for All of Inspected Components • Signatures of Special Inspection Team Members
Two Phases of Special Inspection • Inspection Phase: To determine that the specified system components have been installed, and that the installation of these components is according to the manufacturer’s instructions. • Testing Phase: To establish that the system achieves the accepted performance criteria. • Inspection and testing usually are done in many stages.
Firefighter’s Smoke Control Station (FSCS) • An FSCS is a system for use by the fire service that provides graphical monitoring and manual overriding capability over smoke control systems and equipment. • Typically an FSCS is designed and built specifically for each building. • The FSCS is also called the Firefighter's Smoke Control Panel and the Firefighter's Control Panel.
End-to-End Verification • End-to-end verification: a self-testing method that provides positive confirmation that the desired result has been achieved when a controlled device has been activated, such as during smoke control, testing, or manual override operations (NFPA 92). • Lights on FSCP – Based on End-to-End Verification (Airflow, Damper Position, etc.)
Inspection & Equipment Functional Testing • • • • • •
Smoke Barriers Fans Dampers Operable Doors and Windows Verification of Self-Test Feature Firefighter’s Smoke Control Station (FSCS)
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Sequence of Operations Testing • The sequence of operations is the documented sequence of component actions that are programmed to happen in the response to a given change of state event. • Purpose: To verify that the automatic functions of the smoke control system operate as designed. • A testing matrix (also called an activation schedule in some standards) is often created to facilitate the process, and a testing matrix needs to include all of the components to be tested. See Appendix A for a larger copy of this slide.
System Performance Testing • Testing and Balancing before Formal Acceptance Testing • Systems Tested: • • • •
Zoned Smoke Control Pressurized Stairwells Pressurized Elevators Atrium Smoke Control
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Chemical Smoke • Methods: •
•
Push Gauge against Door (take care to only disengage latch, see Figure) Push Gauge against Push-Bar (not shown)
• Method should be approved by AHJ.
• Chemical smoke from smoke bombs is very different from real smoke. • Visibility is very different. • Buoyancy is very different.
• Zoned Smoke Control: Because they are subjective and tend to give occupants a false sense of security, smoke bomb tests are not recommended. • Atrium Demonstration Testing: Because of lack of buoyancy, smoke bomb tests are not recommended. • Other Use for Smoke Bombs: Leakage Test
DESIGN FIRES & SMOKE PRODUCTION
Design Fires
Stages of Fire Development
• Design Fire for Smoke Control System
• • • •
• Based on Rational Analysis by Design Engineer & Approved by Fire Code Official (IBC 909.9) More Information – See Chapter 5
Ignition Growth Flashover Fully Developed (sometimes called post flashover) • Decay (fuel burns out or fire is suppressed) Note: Not all fires go through all of these stages.
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Growth Time, tg • • • • •
Growth Times: NFPA 92 Slow: tg = 600 s Medium: tg = 300 s Fast: tg = 150 s Ultra Fast: tg = 75 s
Note: NFPA 72 has different values
Flashover • Flashover – “Fast” Change: • From: Apparent Steady Fire at Limited Location • To: Room Totally on Fire
• Flashover takes from about 20 seconds to 2 minutes. • Cause - Objects Ignited by Radiation from Hot Fire Gases
Flashover Video • Christmas Tree Fire • Living Room Fire Available from NIST
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Christmas Tree Fire
Living Room Fire
Measurement of HRR • Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter (Developed in 1980s) • Heat Released in Fire is Constant (~ 6%) • (13.1 MJ per kg of Oxygen)
• Concept: • Burn Object & Collect All Gases • Measure Temperature, Flow, Oxygen • Calculate HRR
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HRR of Objects • Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter: • Measured HRR of Many Objects (see Chapter 5)
• A few HRRs are discussed below.
HRR of Automobiles • American Iron and Steel Institute (Cohn 1973) • Burning Car did not Spread to Adjacent Cars
• CTICM in France (Joyeux 1997) • Burning Car Spread to Adjacent Car
• BRE in the UK (Shipp et al. 2006, BRE 2010) • Fires Generally Larger than Other Tests
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Sprinklered Fires • Unshielded Fires • No Obstructions Blocking Sprinkler Spray • Sprinkler Activation Time – Calculated by Some Zone Fire Models (But Not in Atrium)
• Shielded Fires • Obstruction Blocking Sprinkler Spray • Evaluated by Fire Tests
• Sprinkler Action Causes Smoke Mixing • 1 story Spaces – Smoke Fills Space • Atrium – Usually “Smoke Free” Lower Layer
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Unshielded Fire with Sprinkler Operation • Growth Stage up to Sprinkler Activation • Fire Test Data • Idealized Growth Curve
• Activation Calculated by Zone Fire Model (CFAST) • After Sprinkler Activation – Decay Stage
Shielded Fires • Shielded fires are important for balcony spill plume applications. • Sprinkler activation models and zone fire models (CFAST, etc.) are not appropriate for predicting the sprinkler activation time with shielded fires. • Research at NIST and NRC Canada provide useful information.
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Smoke Production • Successfully Sprinklered Fires (Expected) • Normally Small Smoke Production • Sometimes High Smoke Production
• Unsuccessfully Sprinklered Fires (Unusual) • High HRR • High Smoke Production
The Misconception of Smoke • • • •
Smoke - Often Visually Black & Deadly Most People Don’t Know This. Today, People Don’t See Much Smoke EPA Air Pollution Regulations: • Practically No Smoke from Factories, Fire Research Laboratories, Fire Fighting Schools, Movie Studios, etc.
• TV & Movies: • Flames - Exciting Footage • Almost No Smoke
• Fire Laboratories - Almost No Smoke • EPA Regulations & Burning Under Hoods
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Smoke Production Videos • Unusual Videos – Show Smoke • Clothing Store Fire (BHP Lab) • Toy Store Fire (BHP Lab) • Mobile Shelving Fire (NRC Canada)
Clothing Store Fire
Toy Store Fire • Test at BHP Laboratory, Melbourne, Australia (Bennetts, et al. 1997) • 16 ft Ceiling • Stuffed Animals on Steel Shelves • 4 Normal (Standard) Response Sprinklers • Activation at 3 minutes • Successful Sprinkler Operation • High Smoke Production
Toy Store Fire
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Mobile Shelving Fire • Test at NRC Canada (Lougheed, Mawhinney and O’Neill 1994) • Storage Design – Major Building in Canada
• • • • •
Paper in Cardboard Boxes 12 Quick (Fast) Response Sprinklers Sprinklers Not in Conformance w/ Code Sprinkler Failure High Smoke Production
Mobile Shelving Fire
Mobile Shelving Fire • If Fire in Mobile Storage of Actual Building: • • • •
Fire Spread Throughout Basement Smoke Spread Throughout Building Likely Multiple Deaths (Smoke Inhalation) Loss of Valuable Historical Material
• NRC Canada – Hired Sprinkler Expert & Developed Alternate Design • Successful Tests of Alternate Design
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Questions? Dr. John H. Klote PE
[email protected]
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Appendix A – Example Testing Matrix
A1
A2
