.Smart.thinking.a.programme.for.Developing.thinking.skills.in.7.to.12.Year.olds

9780415487009-Wilson.indd i

12/10/08 5:45:35 PM

9780415487009-Wilson.indd ii

12/10/08 5:45:38 PM

A programme for developing thinking in 7 to 12 year olds Jeni Wilson & Lesley Wing Jan

9780415487009-Wilson.indd iii

12/10/08 5:45:38 PM

First published 2008 by Curriculum Corporation PO Box 177 Carlton South Vic 3050 Australia This version published 2009 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2009 Jeni Wilson and Lesley Wing Jan Typeset in Plantin and Franklin Gothic by Keyword Group Ltd Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wilson, Jeni. Smart thinking : a programme for developing thinking skills in 7 to 12 year olds / Jeni Wilson and Lesley Wing Jan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Thought and thinking—Study and teaching (Elementary) I. Wing Jan, Lesley. II. Title. LB1590.3.W548 2009 370.15'2—dc22 2008040046 ISBN 10: 0-415-48700-5 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978-0-415-48700-9 (pbk)

9780415487009-Wilson.indd iv

12/10/08 5:45:40 PM

Contents Introduction

1

Planning guide

6

CHAPTER 1

Laying the groundwork

School cultural issues Providing a classroom environment that supports the teaching of thinking

CHAPTER 2

Planning for thinking

8 12

15

Planning for the long, medium and short term

15

Planning at the whole-school, team, class and individual levels

17

SAMPLE SESSION

1

24

SAMPLE SESSION

2 Thinking about thinking and thinkers

Reading and thinking

27

Planning using thinking tools

31

Planning for assessment

32

CHAPTER 3

Questioning

33

Creative questions and creative thinking

36

Philosophical questions

36

Targeted and timely teacher questions

37

Helping pupils to ask effective questions

37

Self-questioning and self-talk

39

Teacher self-questioning

40

Smart

41

ideas

– Activities

Knowledge in action – Proformas

9780415487009-Wilson.indd v

8

47

12/10/08 5:45:40 PM

CHAPTER 4

Making connections

53

What does making connections involve?

53

Building independence

54

Planning to help pupils make connections

54

Inquiry units

55

SAMPLE SESSION Making ethical decisions

58

Making connections between aspects of learning

59

Smart

60

ideas

– Activities

Knowledge in action – Proformas

CHAPTER 5

Self-assessment

66

75

Teachers and self-assessment

75

Helping pupils to self-assess

77

Smart

81

ideas

– Activities

Knowledge in action – Proformas

CHAPTER 6

Goal setting

86

96

What does goal setting involve?

96

Helping pupils to set goals

97

Teachers and goal setting

104

Smart

106

ideas

– Activities

Knowledge in action – Proformas

Appendix –

Additional proformas for reflection and metacognition

110

117

Glossary

126

References and further reading

127

vi

9780415487009-Wilson.indd vi

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:45:41 PM

Dedication Since the first time we started to write together we have had five additions to our families. To my little one, Ethan, who continually challenges my ideas and has taught me a lot about thinking differently; and to my teenage son, Madi, for whom I wanted to change the title – but it wouldn’t get past the censors! Jeni. To my little, smart thinkers: Victoria, Olivia, Alexander, Jake and Georgia. Lesley.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd vii

12/10/08 5:45:42 PM

Acknowledgements We would like to duly acknowledge the unnamed authors who gave us inspiration and ideas that we have internalised and adapted, without being able to always identify the original source. For their contributions to the development of this book, we sincerely thank Kath Murdoch and Sally Godinho, as well as the many pupils with whom we have shared ideas, and the teachers with whom we have engaged in professional dialogue including Meagan Callander and Gay McSweeney (Braybrook Primary School), Kathy Winton, Lauren Barge, Kate Wynack and Lisa Challis (Sunshine Primary School), and Cheryl Adamson (Carey Grammar Junior School).

9780415487009-Wilson.indd viii

12/10/08 5:45:43 PM

Introduction Curriculum reform is focusing on ways to structure learning experiences so that pupils will be able to better manage themselves and their interpersonal relationships, to develop effective thinking skills, to form deeper understandings about how the world works and to be motivated to take personal and/or social action. We believe that deep thinking and independent learning are more likely to occur when effective learning and thinking strategies are explicitly discussed and employed by the teacher and pupils. Reflection and metacognition are key skills used in this process. Pupils who employ reflection and metacognition know how to approach learning, and are aware of, and able to evaluate and regulate their own thinking. These skills are transferable to a range of contexts and purposes, and benefit learners of all ages including pupils identified as ‘at risk’ or ‘gifted’ and teachers. The purpose of this book is to provide information and practical support for teachers as they work toward developing their pupils’ capacities to be reflective and metacognitive in a range of environments. The connection to other thinking skills, dispositions, understandings and learning is inevitable. Some of the areas for reflection covered in this book are: • abilities • actions • attitudes • behaviours • consequences • experiences • feelings • key ideas • new information • observations • outcomes/results • personal needs • perspectives • plans • predictions • prior knowledge • progress • questions • specific content • strategies • work habits.

Introduction

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 1

1

12/10/08 5:45:43 PM

Some aspects of metacognition discussed in this book are: • reviewing and clarify thinking and learning • focusing and deepening thinking and subsequent understandings • reasoning and critically analysing thoughts and information • understanding various aspects of feelings, thoughts and learning • monitoring changes in thinking • modifying thinking • exploring relationships and perspectives • making connections with learning.

Chapter 1 discusses a framework to support the teaching of thinking, focusing on issues of school culture, and the beliefs and understandings that underpin the teaching of thinking at a whole-school level. Chapter 2 looks at aspects of planning for the teaching of thinking in the short, medium and long terms, and at the school, team, class, and individual pupil levels. There are several key aspects of teaching and learning that we can focus on to develop reflection and metacognition in pupils: questioning, making connections, self-assessment and goal setting. Each of these elements is explored from a theoretical standpoint in Chapters 3–6, and complemented by a range of relevant activities that are discussed in the Smart ideas section of these chapters. These activities are followed by relevant and engaging pupil proformas in the Knowledge in action sections of these chapters. Additional proformas provided in the Appendix are suitable for multiple purposes and contexts that are more broadly related to reflection and metacognition. The Planning guide on pages 6–7 shows which activities are supported by proformas, and where these can be found throughout the book. Some of the proformas in this book are ready for use, while others will need some basic preparation. Proformas that fit into this second category are indicated by the symbol at left. There are also often a number of ways in which these proformas can be prepared and presented by teachers. For example, proformas that have been designed for use as cards to prompt thinking such as A2: Looking at my work (p 118) and A6: Reasoned judgements (p 122) can be used as worksheets or copied onto coloured paper, or cut out and laminated to be used as stimulus cards for small groups or the whole class. A number of these proformas can also be enlarged and used as classroom posters. While most of the proformas have been organised into their corresponding activity-based chapters, they often have many potential applications and outcomes. A number of these are listed below. • Pupils can randomly select a reflection starter or prompt, and other pupils in either a small-group or whole-class situation, use the selected prompt to list as many possible endings or responses as they can. Proformas that can be used for this idea include 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113) and 6.7: Reflect and react wheel (p 116).

2

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 2

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:45:48 PM

• In groups of two, pupils tell their partner the response to a reflection cue. The following proformas are suitable for this activity: 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Reflect and react wheel (p 116), A2: Looking at my work (p 118), A4: Lucky dip reflection cards (p 120), A5: Beginnings and endings (p 121) and A7: Picture cues (p 123). • Have small groups work together using the protocol that while one person reflects orally, everyone else listens – no interruptions. • Give pupils individual thinking time first, before allowing them to join with one, two or three others to reflect together. • Have pupils tell you their reflections as they leave the classroom at the end of a session or the day, like a ticket of leave. • Have pupils act out or mime some of their reflections. Some verbal reflection may be required if the message is unclear. • Give pupils choices about how to represent their reflections, for example: through drawing, constructing, writing, orally, or in a multimodal format such as a collage, poster or PowerPoint presentation. • Place enlarged cues in different parts of the room, for example: everyone who has chosen ‘I can ...’ goes to where the cue is situated and tells the others, who have also chosen this cue, their reflections. See proformas 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Reflect and react wheel (p 116), A4: Lucky dip reflection cards (p 120) and A8: Traffic light reflections (p 124). Responses can be recorded and compared. • To create reflections for the whole group to record, use cues such as those contained in 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), 6.7: Reflect and react wheel (p 116) and A5: Beginnings and endings (p 121). Pupils can be asked to select particular reflections to share with another group or the whole class at a later time. For example, they may be asked to choose a reflection that was completely different from theirs, is similar in meaning but said quite differently, surprised them, or that they think is worth sharing with everyone. • Make reflection books or keep a class journal which includes pupils’ responses to their thinking and learning. See, for example: proformas 4.6: Amazing thinking (p 71), 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (p 90), 5.6: Six hats for self-assessment (p 91), A2: Looking at my work (p 118) and A3: Pass the remote (p 119). • When pupils complete individual proformas such as 3.1: Questions and answers (p 47), 3.2: Predict, probe and ponder (p 48), 4.2: The five Ps (p 67), 5.7: The what, when and how about my thinking (p 92), 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (p 93), 6.3: My learning goals action plan (p 112), A1: Metacognition matters (p 117) and A6: Reasoned judgements (p 122), give them time to think, discuss their ideas with a partner and record them. Graphic organisers can be used to help pupils prepare for these more challenging reflections.

Introduction

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 3

3

12/10/08 5:45:51 PM

• Conduct quick reflections in a whole-class circle or smaller circles so that everyone has a turn. See proformas 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52), 4.4: Learning journey (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (p 86), 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113) and 6.7: Reflect and react wheel (p 116). A number of proformas in the Appendix such as proforma A7: Picture cues (p 123) can be enlarged and laminated as cards to be used for this purpose. Place picture cues in the middle of the circle and have pupils select one to use to begin their reflection.

Defining key terms We have attempted to define a number of the key terms used in this book, to ensure that their definitions are understood and properly differentiated, that teachers have a shared understanding of what they mean, and so that we can discuss these concepts confidently with our pupils. A number of the terms associated with the teaching of thinking are used with imprecision by teachers. The two central concepts in this book – reflection and metacognition – are regularly misused, or used interchangeably in educational conversation. While reflection is required for metacognition, the reverse does not apply. Refer to the glossary (p 126) for definitions of other key terms.

Reflection Reflection is a more general term than metacognition. It is much more than ‘one-off’ thinking during which the thinker casts their mind back to an event, situation, person or topic, or thinks about anything. In reflecting, the learner engages in active, persistent and careful consideration of ideas to seek a deeper understanding and a broader and more reasoned point of view. Dewey (1933), whose definition is often referred to, describes reflection as systematic and rigorous thinking used to resolve states of doubt, a question, or a perplexity. Put simply, reflection involves: • looking back • pulling apart ideas • addressing omissions and ambiguities • drawing conclusions • unravelling questions • considering alternate perspectives • making connections • reasoning and making judgements • and can lead to goal setting.

Metacognition Flavell (1976) divides metacognition into knowledge of ‘person variables’, ‘task variables’ and ‘strategy variables’. For example, when thinking about their learning or ability to do something, the metacognitive thinker might ask themselves: ‘What aspects relate to me, and to the task, and how might my selection of strategies assist or hinder my ability to complete the task?’

4

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 4

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:45:51 PM

Metacognition refers to individuals’ awareness, evaluation and regulation of their own thinking (Wilson, 2001). In this context: Awareness

relates to the pupils’ consideration of where they are in the learning/problem-solving process and what has and could be done in order to successfully complete the task

Evaluation

refers to judgements pupils make about their own thinking processes, capacities and limitations

Regulation

occurs when pupils draw upon their own knowledge and skills: for example, about themselves and their strategies, to direct their knowledge and thinking in pursuits such as planning, self-correcting and setting goals.

The thinker’s abilities, confidence, preferred ways of learning, values, dispositions and volition may facilitate or hinder metacognitive activity, or even provide its focus. For example, one pupil may evaluate their own performance as unsatisfactory, identify a need to change the way they are working and then go on to successfully complete the task. While another pupil in the same situation may lose confidence and motivation and give up.

Introduction

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 5

5

12/10/08 5:45:52 PM

Planning guide Overview of Smart ideas activities and Knowledge in action proformas Smart ideas activities

Knowledge in action proformas

CHAPTER 3 – QUESTIONING Question prompts (41)

5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (88), A2: Looking at my work (118), A4: Lucky dip reflection cards (120), A7: Picture cues (123)

Questions and answers (41)

3.1: Questions and answers (47)

Predict, probe and ponder (41)

3.2: Predict, probe and ponder (48)

The five whys (42)

3.3: The five whys (49), 3.4: What, where and who (50)

Q Matrix (42)

3.4: What, where and who (50), 3.5: Q Matrix (51)

Thinking hat questions (42)

3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (52)

Stop, think and question (43), Take your stance (44), Get into someone else’s head (44), Impossible questions (44), Small-group fishbowl (45), Questions for assessment (45), Think back (45), The answer is … What is the question? (46)

CHAPTER 4 – MAKING CONNECTIONS Linking ideas (60), The Reverse Key (60), Imagery and visualisation with musical accompaniment (60), Bundling and bunching (61), Lines of communication (61), Observation logs (61), Secret envelopes (62), More true than false, or more false than true? (62) Found out and made me think (63)

4.1: Found out and made me think (66)

The five Ps (63)

4.2: The five Ps (67)

Putting people in the picture (63)

4.3: Putting people in the picture (68), 4.9: Ethical decision-making perspectives (74)

Learning journey (64)

4.4: Learning journey (69), 4.5: Detective work (70), 4.6: Amazing thinking (71), A3: Pass the remote (130)

SMS (64)

4.7: SMS (72)

The right tool (64)

4.8: The right tool for the right job (73)

6

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 6

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:45:52 PM

Smart ideas activities

Knowledge in action proformas

CHAPTER 5 – SELF-ASSESSMENT Know and think, learn and think (KTLT) (81), POWW (Predictions, observations, wows and woes) (81), POWWER (Predictions, observations, wows, woes, evaluation and reflection) (82), I used to … but now I … (82)

5.1: I used to … but now I … cards (86), 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (93)

Thinking circles (82)

5.2: Thinking role cards (87)

Die reflection roll (82) Thinking prompts and questions (83)

5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (88)

Think, pair, share (83), Rapid reflection (83) Self-assessment medals (84)

5.4: Self-assessment medals (89), 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (90)

Plotting my progress (84)

5.5: Self-assessment data chart (90), 5.6: Six hats for self-assessment (91)

Here’s the proof (84)

5.7: The what, when and how about my thinking (92)

Ranking and rating (85)

5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (93), 5.9: Thinking about my thinking and learning (94)

Plotting my learning and thinking (85)

5.10: Plotting my learning and thinking (95)

CHAPTER 6 – GOAL SETTING 6.1: My learning goals (110), 6.2: Thinking about my goals (111), 6.3: My learning goals action plan (112) Head, heart and hands (106)

6.4: Head, heart and hands (113)

From here to there and how (107)

6.5: From here to there and how (114)

One step at a time (108)

6.6: One step at a time (115)

Reflect and react wheel (109)

6.7: Reflect and react wheel (116)

APPENDIX – ADDITIONAL PROFORMAS FOR REFLECTION AND METACOGNITION A1: Metacognition matters (117), A2: Looking at my work (118), A3: Pass the remote (119), A4: Lucky dip reflection cards (120), A5: Beginnings and endings (121), A6: Reasoned judgements (122), A7: Picture cues (123), A8: Traffic light reflections (124), A9: Plotting thinking (125)

Planning guide

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 7

7

12/10/08 5:45:56 PM

CHAPTER

1

Laying the groundwork If schools are to develop and implement effective teaching of how to think, within pupil-centred, constructivist classrooms, across and within all areas of the curriculum, it is advisable that teachers acknowledge, discuss and act upon four aspects relating to school culture: beliefs and understandings, teaching choices that promote reflective practice, a shared language, and assessment.

School cultural issues Beliefs and understandings It is important that all teaching practices are based on a pedagogy that supports effective teaching and learning. If teachers are not clear about the reasons for, and evidence that supports advocated teaching practices, quality programs may be compromised. One obstacle for implementing a curriculum that enhances pupils’ thinking is that teachers may underestimate the value of teaching thinking or may not believe that thinking can be taught and optimised. The argument of content versus process will no doubt be raised, but this is an unnecessary dichotomy. Covering both content and thinking in the classroom should not be seen as oppositional or competing for valuable time. We believe that reflection and metacognition should be integrated into the learning process, and frequently demonstrated, practised and recognised across teaching programs, not treated separately in some. When this happens learning is thorough and deep, rather than superficial, and transferable rather than context-specific. Where it is necessary to conduct explicit teaching sessions on a thinking type, skill, strategy or activity, it is recommended that the lessons focus on subject matter that is familiar to the pupils. Such a session structure should offer opportunities for the pupils to practise and apply the thinking, and reflect on what they have learnt, their thinking processes and conclusions. If we want pupils to employ metacognition and reflective, broad and deep thinking, it is important that teachers demonstrate and model it effectively in the classroom. An analogy might be useful here: no one would assume they could teach mathematics without a deep understanding of its elements and how these are related to each other, and a range of strategies to teach and assess it, yet few people could claim that they have such a grasp on the teaching of metacognition. Without these basics, a curriculum enriched with metacognitive experiences seems impossible.

Making teaching choices that promote reflective practice Developing appropriate curriculum and thoughtful classrooms means flexibility and responsiveness to pupils, shifting the focus onto them as lifelong learners and independent thinkers who are reflective, critical and creative. Teacher support and timely and thoughtful intervention and application are also important.

8

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 8

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:45:58 PM

When planning for reflective teaching and learning we need to make strategic choices about activities, grouping and assessment. Development of thinking may be inhibited within traditional classroom cultures and by tasks that require low levels of thinking and little or no metacognitive activity, such as recall or automatic response. While the knowledge demands of the tasks should fall within pupils’ capabilities, metacognition is unavoidable when tasks are appropriately challenging and engaging and require higher-order thinking or sustained problem solving. At the same time, such tasks are more likely to stimulate reflection and metacognition. Problem solving, decision making, collaborative group work, authentic assessment and higher-order thinking are integral to and should be integrated into the teaching and learning of thinking. Inquiry-based curriculum and problem solving are two approaches that reflect these elements. A curriculum that promotes thinking is more than a bunch of disjointed activities. In addition, no activity or practice – such as the use of graphic organisers – can, in itself, guarantee deep thinking or better understanding.

Reflective activities promote: action planning analysis and evaluation of learning decision making goal setting hypothesising, considering/generating alternatives linking experiences to past/current and predicted events making connections between ideas questioning and self-questioning reflection on pupils’/teachers’ thinking and learning self-assessment.

A shared language Teachers need to understand their own thinking, as well as thinking and learning in general, if they are to teach about and for thinking. They need a shared language for discussing, modelling, assessing and interacting with pupils about thinking in order to enhance it. When teachers are explicit about the teaching and learning of thinking, for example: citing purposes, skills, strategies etc, pupils are more likely to make connections between ideas and to independently apply these ideas, strategies and skills. Classroom conversations that include references to thinking processes are useful for increasing pupils’ control over their own learning, and for teacher assessment. Table 1.1 provides questions and cues to stimulate thinking and discussion about metacognitive awareness, evaluation and regulation. The use of such questions and cues could assist both teachers and pupils to monitor metacognition, and pupils might be encouraged to use them to reflect on their own metacognitive activity. For example: ‘I thought about what I did last time we had a problem like this and decided to draw a diagram to see if that would help’.The questions and cues are transferable across curriculum areas and could stimulate pupils’ metacognitive behaviour in a variety of other problem-solving and complex learning situations. It is hoped that teachers might use the questions and cues as a matter of course, and that pupils would eventually internalise this approach.

CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 9

9

12/10/08 5:46:01 PM

TABLE 1.1 Metacognitive functions, cues and questions

QUESTIONS

CUES

FUNCTION: Awareness What do I already know that would be useful?

I thought about what I already know that would be useful.

Have I had ever done a problem like this before?

I tried to remember if I had ever done a problem like this before.

What have I done at another time that could be helpful?

I thought about something I had done another time that had been helpful.

Do I know what to do?

I thought, ‘I know what to do’.

What sort of problem is this?

I thought, ‘I know this sort of problem’.

FUNCTION: Evaluation How am I going?

I thought about how I was going.

Is what I am doing working?

I thought about whether what I was doing was working.

I wonder if I should check my work?

I checked my work.

Is this right or wrong?

I thought, ‘Is this right or wrong?’

I’m not feeling confident. Can I do this?

I thought, ‘I can’t do it’.

FUNCTION: Regulation What plan can I make to tackle this problem?

I made a plan to work it out.

What other approach can I use to solve the problem?

I thought about a different way to solve the problem.

What can I do next?

I thought about what I would do next.

How can I change my way of working so that I can get this done?

I changed the way I was working.

Assessment Some teachers may find the assessment of thinking and learning daunting because it is not readily observable and thus difficult to measure, especially through traditional tests. Yet traditional assessment measures do not meet the demands of progressive curriculum ends. Oral and performance activities, and work samples are useful for assessing thinking, and self-assessment is particularly advocated (See Chapter 5). One simple way that teachers can document their pupils’ learning and development is to record the ways they embody certain thinking behaviours. Table 1.2 provides example behaviours which could form the basis of such a document. This table may also be useful for pupil self-assessment purposes. It is also essential to recognise that, regardless of the focus of assessment, its content needs to be clear. In other words, it is impossible to assess anything unless the teacher understands what is being assessed. Understanding reflection and metacognition is therefore crucial.

10

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 10

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:02 PM

TABLE 1.2 Effective thinker profile

Behaviours Probes deeply into factors/thinking. Understands the need to select appropriate thinking skills and strategies to explain complex questions or issues. Consciously considers why particular views are held and significant. Monitors and organises thinking and changes in thinking. Considers different approaches to addressing and representing problems/thinking. Evaluates the impact of their own confidence and emotions on their thinking. Identifies what makes thinking easy or difficult. Evaluates strategies to assist their thinking. Makes connections between ideas, experiences and emotions. Recognises the impact of their own feelings on their own thinking and decision making, and tries to minimise possible biases and limitations. Seeks validity and accuracy, and is alert to errors and contradictions. Checks work regularly and as deemed necessary. Challenges assumptions, tests ideas and looks for evidence and examples. Carefully considers a range of factors and views before generalising. Makes a plan for learning. Poses questions to others and to themselves, and seeks answers. Looks for alternative viewpoints, ideas and solutions. Is self-aware. Uses evaluative capacities to improve their own thinking process and outcomes. Will persevere. Can be open-minded.

Pupils’ comments We need to synthesise all the ideas before getting closer to a conclusion. I realised I needed to find out more before I could make a judgement. I think I need to ask more questions about … I feel like I am just touching the surface of the issue. I had to change my strategy/attitude to get the job done. I had to think about the best way to approach the problem. I thought I understood, but what I have just read doesn’t make sense. I need to …

Teacher and pupil questions What do you/I already know that would be helpful? What sort of thinking would be helpful here? What conclusions can you/I draw from all these ideas? Is there another way to think about this? When you/I thought more about it you/I realised your/my plan wasn’t going to work. What do you/I need to do now? What are some other ideas? Can you/I find any evidence for your/my hypothesis?

CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 11

11

12/10/08 5:46:02 PM

Providing a classroom environment that supports the teaching of thinking The role of the pupil Pupil-centred classrooms require pupils to be active learners who are responsible for their actions and self-directed in their thinking. They are taught and expected to be aware of how they learn, to identify what helps and hinders their learning and to act in ways that facilitate it. They identify what they already know and can do and actively participate in learning experiences that will help them extend and deepen their skills and knowledge. Rather than being passive recipients of knowledge, they are expected to participate in learning experiences and actively construct their own meanings, refining and building on their existing knowledge (Piaget, 1970; von Glasersfeld, 1991). The process by which pupils make connections between their prior and new learning, thus constructing their own understandings is referred to as ‘constructive learning’ or ‘constructivism’. It both necessitates and enhances reflection and metacognition on the part of the learner, though the teacher’s role is still important.

The role of the teacher In pupil-centred classrooms, teachers believe that each pupil’s needs, abilities and interests must be considered when planning for the development of reflection and metacognition. Through opportunities to negotiate aspects of program content, delivery and assessment, pupils can develop independent learning habits and a greater knowledge of themselves as learners. The multiple roles and associated characteristics of teachers in the pupil-centred classroom are outlined in Table 1.3. TABLE 1.3 Teacher roles and characteristics

12

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 12

Assessor

Gauge prior knowledge and interest. Monitor groups and individual progress. Support self-assessment. Be able to reflect on their own practice and accept feedback about themselves.

Questioner and challenger

Provide an appropriate and timely level of challenge and specific feedback for each individual. Encourage questions from pupils and make time for them to seek answers.

Model and coach

Demonstrate the processes and strategies they wish to facilitate and make thinking ‘visible’. Make expectations and assessment requirements clear. Encourage risk taking. Show enthusiasm for reflective thinking strategies.

Strategic planner

Strategically implement approaches appropriate for the learning context and purposes. Understand each pupil’s needs, and use this information to make timely choices about tasks and grouping arrangements. Allow pupils time to practise strategies while learning about meaningful content.

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:03 PM

No matter what planning choices we make, to be of value, flexibility and responsiveness to pupils is important. Thoughtful classrooms have programs and an environment which cater for individual pupil’s needs, and gives them the opportunity to: • build on what they know and consider how they learn best • be supported as they learn and think • be actively involved in thinking about their learning and themselves as learners by providing opportunities for them to pose questions and build – not just find – answers • see the relevance and application of their learning to their needs – both within and beyond school • take responsibility for their learning and thinking • consider what a given task requires before starting • reconsider what is required as they progress through the task • identify what to focus on • make connections between key ideas and their prior learning • challenge themselves, others and ideas • question the relevance of data and ideas • evaluate their progress • make strategic decisions, for example: regarding resources and approaches, and modify them as needed • seek help when they need it • be active learners who are responsible and self-directed in their thinking • act in ways and participate in learning experiences that will help them extend and deepen their skills and knowledge • set their own goals, self-assess and be largely responsible for constructing their own learning • be aware of how they learn and what helps and hinders it • identify what they already know and can do. In pupil-centred classrooms, teachers value: • each pupil understanding their strengths and trusting their ability to monitor their own needs • higher-order thinking • deep understanding • pupil ownership of learning • differences among learners • cooperative group work and independent tasks • respectful relationships.

CHAPTER 1: Laying the groundwork

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 13

13

12/10/08 5:46:03 PM

Teachers also need to support pupils as they: • plan for their own learning by setting and monitoring goals • select, use and monitor appropriate strategies • identify their own thinking processes and what is required to complete a given task • draw upon their prior knowledge • make reasoned judgements • ask powerful questions of themselves, others and the world • generate creative solutions to problems • carefully observe their own thinking and actions • consider a range of perspectives • take risks in their thinking and learning • reflect on their thinking and learning. Teachers help pupils become more responsible for their thinking and learning by gradually decreasing control of most aspects of the classroom to include more opportunities for pupils’ negotiation, goal setting, and decision making, for example: with regard to what pupils are learning about, how they can present their work, and what and how they will be assessed.

14

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 14

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:03 PM

CHAPTER

2

Planning for thinking Systematic and purposeful planning is required for effective teaching programs which facilitate reflection and metacognition. This involves planning for the long, medium and short terms, and at the whole-school, teaching team, classroom, and individual pupil levels. Pupil-centred teaching and learning requires teachers to plan and teach programs that better cater for individual pupil’s needs – through the selection of appropriate teaching procedures, resources and strategies – and in order to facilitate pupil involvement in decisions about the learning content, process and environment.

Planning for the long, medium and short term Long-term planning For the long-term planning of teaching thinking we favour a menu or list of thinking skills, strategies, tools and activities from which purposeful selections can be made, over a prescriptive scope and sequence document. However, we acknowledge that some schools have found scope and sequence documents useful in facilitating teacher discussion and professional development, and providing a form of accountability that ensures thinking skills are taught. Through the use of specific thinking tools and/or explicit teaching procedures, pupils should develop enduring thinking skills that are transferable to a range of contexts and purposes. Menus such as that laid out in Table 2.1 provide teachers with the opportunity to choose thinking tools and teaching procedures based on what is appropriate for the content, context, purpose and the pupils themselves. These menus – which could draw on whole-school documents – might include statements of what it is the pupils are expected to know and be able to do at the end of the teaching cycle (which, in most cases, is a school year), and can inform planning in the short and medium terms. The menus need to be flexible enough to allow for changes in direction as a result of further teaching and learning experiences, and pupils’ interests, needs and abilities.

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 15

15

12/10/08 5:46:03 PM

TABLE 2.1 Menu of thinking skills, activities, structures and graphic organisers

THINKING SKILLS Thinking type: Analytical, Critical, Logical, Reasoning

Thinking type: Creative, Lateral

Thinking type: Reflective, Metacognitive, Evaluative

analysing clarifying ideas/ concepts classifying comparing and contrasting defining the key issue/problem* critiquing detecting bias/points of view/prejudices* drawing conclusions* evaluating/judging* inferring/interpreting justifying statements/points of view linking cause and effect ordering organising/ questioning information ranking/sequencing/ prioritising reasoning* summarising

adapting ideas challenging assumptions creating exploring options generating new ideas hypothesising identifying problems and possible solutions imagining inventing planning predicting* questioning suggesting alternative ideas/solutions synthesising*

action planning considering alternatives/ perspectives* decision making evaluating information and ideas connecting/ examining/ modifying/organising ideas generalising* goal setting hypothesising* identifying other points of view/ ethics* identifying patterns* posing questions* questioning ideas/ self/information recalling prior knowledge reflecting selecting appropriate strategies self-assessing self-questioning setting timelines

Activities and structures for promoting thinking 1

Graphic organisers to represent thinking 2

1–3–6 consensus 6–3–1 brainstorming bundling de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats & DATT tools* debate decision-making/die reflection/problemsolving/questioning/ self-assessment/ group-based activities discussion fishbowl goal setting interviews jigsaw journals/learning logs* logos and slogans* moral dilemma philosophy POWW Q Matrix ranking reflection prompts similes/metaphors/ analogies* simulations Socratic questioning SWOT The five whys Think, pair, share Thinker’s Keys

cartoon strip cause and effect map/wheel cluster web concept map consequence wheel continua cycle map data chart diamond ranking fishbone map flow chart KWL lotus diagram mind map PMI scales T-chart timeline tri-diagram Venn diagram Y-chart

* Generally applicable across categories. 1. Some performing and visual arts activities can be useful for pupils to express their thinking. 2. Many computer programs can be used to generate and use graphic organisers, such as Kidspiration® and Inspiration®.

Medium-term planning Medium-term planning needs to concentrate on the teaching and learning focuses for a term or for specific units of work including inquiry units. Often this information is documented in integrated and subject-specific unit or term planners. One way of documenting these opportunities for teaching reflection and metacognition when planning would be to highlight the teaching focuses from the unit or term planner, and then attach it to the menu described above that highlights the thinking skills that can be taught. See Figure 2.1.

16

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 16

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:07 PM

FIGURE 2.1

Short-term planning For planning in the shorter term, such as single lessons, teachers can employ plans that are most appropriate for the purposes and content of the session, but also outline the teaching strategies, activities and organisational procedures that best cater for individual and group needs, considering what the pupils already know, can do and are interested in. This process may involve direct input from pupils and will ideally draw on the longer-term menu of thinking skills.

Planning at the whole-school, team, class and individual levels Whole-school planning As discussed in Chapter 1, it is important that pupils are fully supported in their growth as effective thinkers and learners through the development of a whole-school culture of teaching for and about thinking. This may require the school community to identify and articulate the school’s beliefs about the teaching and learning of thinking and how it is facilitated across the school. Figure 2.2 provides an example of a section of a school’s statement of their beliefs about teaching how to think and how these impact on classroom practice. Such a statement may also include the skills, strategies and tools that facilitate this process. CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 17

17

12/10/08 5:46:08 PM

FIGURE 2.2

We believe that:

This means that we will:

Reflection and metacognition are central to effective learning.

Model reflection and metacognitive thinking. Make explicit the purposes and features of reflection and metacognition. Provide time for reflection and metacognition.

Teaching of thinking should be integrated into the regular classroom program.

Plan for thinking in all subjects. Identify the appropriate contexts for the teaching of thinking and the use of thinking strategies and tools. Include the assessment of thinking in assessment routines.

Team planning While it may be common practice for teachers to document their preferred teaching approaches and resources, it is also useful if they can develop their classroom programs together on a regular basis. This approach fosters professional dialogue, and the pooling of ideas, resources and skills that provide wider views of teaching and learning. Team planning can provide a powerful context for teacher learning, reflection, questioning, self-assessment and goal setting. Teachers can share the load by negotiating roles and responsibilities, for example: one teacher may contribute an appropriate activity to help pupils’ creative thinking, another may devise a set of questions related to the topic or text that require pupils to use higher levels of thinking and comprehension, while yet another might share a great activity that promotes reflection and metacognition. During team planning teachers can: • discuss the needs and interests of pupils • audit their programs to identify gaps in the teaching of and for thinking • think about ways for pupils to demonstrate their thinking and learning • identify authentic contexts for thinking and learning • share pupils’ work samples and discuss or assess the thinking involved • read, summarise and share key ideas about thinking and learning from curriculum documents and other sources.

Classroom planning Auditing classroom practice As part of the planning cycle teachers are required to identify what they do or need to do to optimise learning in their own classroom. A recommended starting point is to audit the current classroom practice. This involves teachers in identifying the elements that contribute to a classroom culture that optimises thinking, and examining their practices in light of these. The audit in Table 2.2 is designed to assist teachers in this process, and may also be useful for professional development purposes, peer-assessment or appraisal. 18

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 18

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:11 PM

Once teachers have audited their classroom practice, they are better able to plan and implement programs that foster reflection and metacognition. As they plan these programs they think about what it is they want the pupils to know and be able to do, and how they can best provide experiences that will facilitate their pupils’ learning and thinking. TABLE 2.2 Teacher audit for thoughtful classroom practice

The program consistently and effectively provides this.

I need help to plan and implement a program that provides this.

I need to find out more about this as I do not know what it entails.

Is the program providing appropriate challenges for each individual? Is time provided for pupils to think in depth about meaningful issues? Are pupils involved in negotiating learning and making the most of their own learning decisions? Are pupils involved in goal setting and self-assessment? Are sustained periods of time available for learning and reflection? Is there a culture of teacher modelling of the use of higher level questions, thinking and risk taking? Do pupils have opportunities to use their own questions to guide their learning? Are a range of opinions and types of thinking fostered within the classroom? Are collaborative classroom activities employed? Are pupils encouraged to reason, hypothesise, make connections between ideas and generate innovative solutions? Are thinking dispositions and processes fostered within the classroom culture? Does the teacher model the language of thinking? Is pupils’ thinking monitored and assessed in the program?

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 19

19

12/10/08 5:46:12 PM

Planning a unit of work As teachers plan a unit, it is helpful to think about the phases of planning (See Table 2.3) to ensure purposeful, sequential teaching and learning. Teachers can then identify opportunities to teach and have pupils apply thinking skills. While a range of thinking skills would be planned for, the examples in Table 2.3 focus on the use of reflective and metacognitive thinking for integrated inquiry or subject-specific stand-alone units. The second column contains an example of the sentence stems teachers may use as they think about planning. TABLE 2.3 Planning phases for a unit of work

Planning phase

Questions that identify the purpose of each phase

Implications for teaching practice

Opportunities and actions for reflective and metacognitive thinking

Determining the purpose and content of the session/unit*

What will the pupils learn about? Why am I doing this? For example: • I want the pupils to learn how to, or about … (skills and/or knowledge) • I am doing this so that …

Make explicit to the pupils the purpose of the session/unit. Make explicit to the pupils what they are expected to learn or do (skills and/or knowledge).

Pupils can: • make connections with previous learning (prior knowledge).

Determining the intended outcomes

What system/school outcomes or standards are the pupils working toward? What do I want the pupils to know/do/accomplish? For example: • At the end of this unit I want the pupils to be able to … • The pupils will be working toward the standard …

Make the criteria explicit to the pupils.

Pupils can: • make connections with the purpose of the session and the intended learning outcomes • set goals after considering the intended outcomes • ask questions to clarify the purpose and their role in the learning.

Determining the assessment criteria

How will I know the pupils have fulfilled the purpose? For example: • I will use an observation checklist and the results of peer and pupil selfassessment to monitor pupils’ progress.

Make pupils aware of the criteria or jointly create it. Provide opportunities for pupils to demonstrate what they have learnt.

Pupils can: • self-assess their progress and/or thinking • set goals for further learning • make connections with outcomes, criteria and their own learning and thinking.

Determining the teaching and learning routines, procedures and resources

How will I organise the teaching experiences to ensure they do this? For example: • I will use an inquiry approach to … • I think this will be the most effective way …

Negotiate some of the teaching and learning experiences with the pupils.

Pupils can: • ask questions to clarify what is to be done, to gain further information, and to clarify their ideas and thoughts • make connections • assess their progress and thinking.

*Data about what pupils know and want to find out could be used to inform this phase of planning.

20

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 20

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:13 PM

Table 2.4 describes the actions and questions both teacher and pupil might use during different phases of a unit of work. TABLE 2.4 Teacher and pupil questions and actions during a unit of work

INTRODUCTION What the teacher might do

Make explicit to the pupils the purpose of the unit. Through questioning and purposeful demonstrations, he/she helps the pupil make links between their prior and new learning and provides tasks/questions that assist the pupils to make these connections themselves. The learning criteria (either determined by the teacher or negotiated with the pupils) are made explicit.

Questions the teacher might ask the pupils

What would you like to be able to do/learn about? What do you already know about this? How do you feel about …? What do you expect to see/do/feel? What are your questions? Which goals could be worked toward? How is this like something you have done before?

What the pupils might do

Think about what they already know, feel and can do. Form questions to assist their learning. Predict what they might see/know/do as a result of the unit. Set goals for their learning (including thinking). Ask questions about the task or consider strategies that would be useful.

Questions the pupils might ask themselves

What do I know about this? What would I like to know? What can I already do? What would I like to be able to do? How do I feel? Why? What am I expected to learn? What are the learning criteria? Have I done anything like this before?

DURING What the teacher might do

Use specific teaching procedures to support the pupils as they are introduced to, practise and apply the taught skills, and develop knowledge and deeper understandings (to assist the pupils to develop as independent learners and thinkers). Provide opportunities for the pupils to use the new learning to extend and enhance their thinking and learning.

Questions the teacher might ask the pupils

What do you find easy/difficult? Do you have any questions? What would you like further help with? How can I now help you? What do you need to do? What does this connect with? How do you feel about it? Why is this important/useful?

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 21

21

12/10/08 5:46:13 PM

What the pupils might do

Think about what they are learning (knowledge, skills, values) and how they feel about it. Make links with prior knowledge. Pose questions to clarify information and their learning. Monitor their progress through self- and/or peer assessment.

Questions the pupils might ask themselves

How am I going? How do I feel about my learning/thinking etc? Why? What do I need to find out more about? What sort of thinking or thinking strategies could be useful? What do I need to do? What confuses/challenges/interests me? What does this remind me of? What can I do to help my learning/thinking? What can I do to help others? What can others do to help me?

CONCLUSION What the teacher might do

Plan activities to help the pupils reflect on what they have learnt. Review the criteria and make further plans for their learning. Reflect on the effectiveness of pupils’ input and the teacher’s own evaluation.

Questions the teacher might ask the pupils

What do you now know/are you able to do as a result of this? What helped/hindered your learning? What would you do differently next time? What did you find easy/difficult? What do you think of your progress? How have you/has your learning/thinking changed? Why? What are your plans and goals now? What would you like to improve? How would you describe yourself as a learner/thinker? What do you think of your work? What was challenging? What made you really think?

What the pupils might do

Think about what they now know, can do and feel/their thinking/and what helped and hindered their learning. Assess their progress against the criteria. Set goals. Make plans for further action.

Questions the pupils might ask themselves

How did I go? What did I do? What did I learn? What am I good at? What do I need help with? What did I do/feel when things were easy/difficult? What helped me to learn? What would I do differently next time? What do I need to do next? How will I do this? How will I help myself work toward this goal? How will I show that I have achieved the goal? What sort of thinking was useful/not useful?

22

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 22

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:13 PM

Planning a teaching session Effective teachers remain focused on what is important for each pupil to know and do and they constantly employ questioning and explicit demonstrations to deepen the pupils’ thinking and learning. Table 2.5 demonstrates what such a session structure might look like. While many different names may be used for each phase of a session, their purpose is to build on and enhance the pupils’ learning and thinking. See the Sample sessions on pages 24–8. TABLE 2.5 A general session structure

Introduction May be comprised of: Orientation in which the teacher explains the focus of the lesson and the intended outcomes based on what the pupils already know. This may include opportunities for questions from pupils and demonstrations of their learning and thinking. Demonstration in which the teacher explicitly teaches the new skills or content and helps the pupils make connections with previous learning. This may be with the whole class or small groups of pupils, and may include opportunities for teacher-modelled, shared or guided teaching and learning contexts. There would be opportunities for pupils to question and think about their learning.

Application Pupils are supported while they practise, use or apply the new skills or knowledge to specific activities and within particular contexts, and develop competency. The teacher may provide individualised activities to extend or enhance certain pupil’s learning and thinking.

Conclusion Pupils reflect on what and how they have learnt. The teacher provides opportunities for the pupils to review the session in terms of both the process and product, assess their learning and thinking, share their work and reflections, and think about their future learning. Adapted from C Edwards-Groves (2003)

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 23

23

12/10/08 5:46:14 PM

SAMPLE SESSION

1

Reading and thinking

The following session outline describes a structure that can support pupils during a reading session while simultaneously helping them to develop as effective thinkers (and readers).

Before reading During this orientation phase the teacher explains the purpose of the session and the intended outcomes, for example: ‘We are going to read this text and think about some ways we can make sure we understand it’. The teacher helps the pupils develop their knowledge of the subject matter, the genre, reading strategies etc, by asking questions that draw on their previous knowledge. Pupils could also pose any questions that may have been stimulated by the discussion. Teacher questions, such as those exemplified in Table 2.6, can be used to promote, monitor and enhance pupils’ reflection and metacognition. Although the questions in the table have been divided into two categories, the distinction is somewhat artificial because when pupils think about their reading and the reading process they are necessarily using reflection and metacognition. TABLE 2.6 Questions to prompt thinking before reading

Focus on reading content and process What do you think this text might be about? Have you read another book by this author? What type of text do you think it might be? How might the text be structured? What does the blurb/cover/title/table of contents tell us about this text? How is the information set out (paragraph, subheadings etc.)?

Focus on thinking What do you already know about this topic? What do you expect to see/read in this book? What do you know about reading this sort of book? How do you feel about the issues in this book? Why? What sort of strategies could you use to remember this information for later? How does this information relate to your life and your thinking? What sort of thinking were you using when …?

24

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 24

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:14 PM

During reading This part of the session may be organised in several ways, depending on the teacher’s purposes. For example, the teacher may read to, or with a group of pupils or with individual pupils while others read independently. The smaller the group, the more closely the teacher can monitor, support and challenge each pupil’s knowledge of, and skills in reading and thinking. Table 2.7 lists the types of questions teachers may ask to help the pupils’ understanding of the reading content and process, and of themselves as readers and thinkers during this phase of the lesson. TABLE 2.7 Questions to prompt thinking during reading

Focus on reading content and process What is it about? Can you tell me what the text is about in just a few sentences? What is/are the main point(s)? Which words refer to the …? What function is this word/group of words performing? Can you show me a part of the text that you have a question about? What important information can you glean from this text? What might happen next? How is the information set out (paragraph, subheadings etc.)? What do you think this expression means? Can you show me a part of the text that confused you?

Focus on thinking How do these words (or pictures) make you feel? Can you show me a place in the text where your thinking changed? How did it change? Can you show me a place in the text where you found yourself making an inference? How did you work out what that word meant? What helped you to work it out? What were you thinking as you read this part? Why? What thinking strategies did you use? Were there any parts of the text that made you wonder or want to ask questions of the author? What was the trigger? Do you agree or disagree with that? Why? What was confusing/interesting about it? Do you have some new ideas or information?

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 25

25

12/10/08 5:46:14 PM

After reading The most important activity that can be completed by pupils after reading is one that helps them reflect on and respond to what they have read. Teachers can develop pupils’ proficiency as readers by engaging them in discussion that promotes their thinking about, responses to, and deep understanding of the text, and themselves as readers and thinkers. Table 2.8 lists questions that can be used to help pupils focus on these aspects. TABLE 2.8 Questions to prompt thinking after reading

Focus on reading content and process Why do you think the author wrote this text? What are the main ideas? What did you notice about the text? How was the text arranged? How do you know it is a factual explanation/procedure/report etc? What are the language features that tell you this? What do you think this author wants you to do/believe?’ What would the author have needed to know/do to write this? How would you evaluate your reading of the text?

Focus on thinking What did you think about as you read? What sort of thinking did you do? What did you do to help you read this? Which reading strategies did you use that were helpful? What do you think of yourself as a reader? Why? How would you describe yourself as a reader? Why? If you were reading this again what would you do differently? What do you think is the most important thing to remember about this text? Why?

26

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 26

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:14 PM

SAMPLE SESSION

2

Thinking about thinking and thinkers

The following session outlines a structure that can support pupils as they learn about thinking and thinkers.

Introduction During the orientation phase of the session the teacher explains the purpose(s) of the session. In this case it is to identify and examine the types of responses and thinking that occurs when people ask and respond to probing questions. During the demonstration phase of the lesson, the teacher uses one or more specific teaching procedures to support pupils as they learn. In this example, to focus the pupils’ attention on questioning and its role in thinking, the teacher models The five whys activity (See p 42). Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil Teacher Pupil

Why do we need to drink water during the day at school? To make sure that we don’t get thirsty. Why don’t you want to get thirsty? Because when we are thirsty we feel tired and can’t concentrate. Why do you need to concentrate? So that we can take part in the lessons. Why do you need to take part in the lessons? So that we can think properly. Why do you need to think properly? To make sure that we learn.

The teacher asks questions that help the pupils make connections with their previous learning, for example: ‘What do you know about questions?’, ‘What do you know about the use of these sorts of questions?’ and ‘What do you know about the different ways of thinking?’ The pupils are then asked to discuss what they noticed about the five responses, the thinking that was involved, and what the purpose might be for asking questions in this way.

Application During the application phase of the session the pupils are supported as they explore, practise and apply what they have learnt. Pupils divide up into groups of three. The first person is the questioner, the second the answerer, and the third the recorder. Pupils use The five whys activity to think about another simple and familiar question before they focus on a thinkingspecific question such as ‘Why is it important to think about thinking?’ At the conclusion of the activity each group debriefs and shares what they have discovered. Then all the groups are brought together to share their findings. The teacher makes a class list of the final responses and facilitates discussion about the thinking strategies that were employed by the questioner and answerer. To extend this lesson, teachers can reorient the pupils to the purpose of the next section of the lesson, demonstrate another thinking activity and then provide time for sharing information and findings. The pupils can practise the demonstrated procedure and debrief at the conclusion of this application phase.

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 27

27

12/10/08 5:46:15 PM

Conclusion During this final phase of the session the teacher supports the pupils as they reflect on their learning and progress. Working individually pupils can complete a task, such as the one below, which allows them to reflect on and record what they have learnt. Pupils can then share their reflections with the class. The teacher can facilitate the process by providing guiding questions such as: • • • • • • •

Why did we do this activity? What sort of thinking did you do? What did you notice about your thinking? What did you notice about your questions/questioning? What did you notice about the responses? How could this help you in the future? How could you use what you noticed/learnt?

Ask the pupils to share their reflections with the class and identify the sort of thinking they used, for example: creative, logical, reflective and metacognitive, and suggest some other contexts in which these types of thinking can be used. The teacher may need to assist pupils if they are not used to classifying their thinking in this way. See Table 2.9 for a list of thinking types, skills and dispositions.

Planning for individual pupils Through careful observation of individual pupils at work, and the collection of appropriate information from a range of sources (ie the pupil, their peers, parents and other colleagues), contexts, (ie formal, informal, group, individual, planned and incidental) and methods (including multi-modal, digital and electronic) teachers can build up a rich profile of pupils as thinkers and learners, and thus provide timely and appropriate learning opportunities for them. In order to do this teachers need to know how reflective and metacognitive thinkers think and behave (See Table 2.9), what helps and hinders this thinking, and how to examine and assess each pupil’s thinking capabilities and behaviours in light of this. Once teachers have become familiar with the different thinking types, skills and dispositions and how these apply to the individual pupils in their class they are in a better position to intervene and enable their pupils to become more effective learners. For example a teacher notices that a pupil is having trouble gaining meaning from a text. The teacher finds out that the pupil always uses the same strategy of sounding out and reading the words with no expectation that each sentence should make sense to them. Further questioning reveals that the pupil is not aware of the need to interact with the text and draw on a range of information sources such as the way sounds are represented in words, the grammatical structure of the text, and some background about its subject. Armed with this knowledge, the teacher is then able to help the pupil identify what good readers do, what to do when meaning is lost, and what they need to think about as they read. In this case the teacher is teaching about thinking skills to improve the reading comprehension of the pupil.

28

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 28

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:15 PM

Teachers can begin to cater for the abilities and needs of individual pupils by: recognising their thinking preferences providing open-ended activities that require different levels of thinking, and prompt and focus thinking modelling effective thinking teaching particular thinking skills, tools and strategies.

Table 2.9 lists the thinking skills and dispositions that we believe are loosely connected to the different types of thinking. Note that a number of the thinking skills, while only listed once, are not exclusive to particular types of thinking or contexts. A thinking process can involve many skills and overlap into different types of thinking. The biggest overlap is generally across the categories of reflection and metacognition, and skills associated with critical thinking. The overlapping thinking skills are marked with an asterisk. TABLE 2.9 Thinking types, skills and dispositions

Thinking types

Thinking skills

Thinking dispositions

analytical, critical, logical, reasoned

analysing clarifying ideas/concepts classifying comparing and contrasting defining the key issue or problem* critiquing detecting bias/points of view/prejudices* drawing conclusions* evaluating/judging* inferring/interpreting justifying statements or points of view linking cause and effect ordering organising information predicting questioning information ranking/sequencing/prioritising reasoning* summarising

precise, critical, strategic, systematic

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 29

29

12/10/08 5:46:15 PM

TABLE 2.9 (continued)

creative, lateral

adapting ideas challenging assumptions creating exploring options generating new ideas hypothesising identifying problems and possible solutions imagining inventing planning predicting* questioning suggesting alternative ideas/solutions synthesising*

adventurous, open-minded, curious

reflective, metacognitive, evaluative

considering alternatives* considering perspectives* decision making* evaluating information and ideas examining ideas forming questions generalising* goal setting hypothesising* identifying other points of view/ethics* identifying patterns* linking ideas* making plans of action modifying ideas organising ideas posing questions* questioning ideas and self recalling prior knowledge reflecting selecting appropriate strategies self-assessing self-questioning setting timelines

reflective, metacognitive

* These skills are generally applicable in all types of thinking.

30

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 30

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:16 PM

While learners may draw upon a range of thinking skills, they may also put these skills into action using different thinking dispositions. When approaching a challenging task, pupils might use an approach that has been successful for them in the past, for example: analysis and reasoning (skills). These skills are often associated with being precise, strategic and systematic (dispositions). However, the pupils that favour the skills of analysis and reasoning might recognise the need to be open-minded and curious (dispositions), and to explore options and generate new ideas which involve the use of a different (in this case creative) set of thinking skills. Pupils who possess a reflective disposition are at an advantage when they are required to use metacognition or reflective thinking, because they are likely to employ a range of skills and dispositions.

When teachers are planning for the development of reflection and metacognition in their pupils, they can better cater for differences in thinking and learning by: selecting worthwhile content that varies in its conceptual complexity – i.e. from the concrete to the abstract explicitly identifying the thinking type or skill that is to be focused on and which suits the purposes of the particular activity identifying the most appropriate and relevant contexts within which the specific thinking type or skill can be taught to and used by pupils selecting activities, tools and/or strategies that develop the thinking focus and that can be adapted to provide an appropriate level of challenge for all pupils (open-ended, challenging tasks are ideal for this) incorporating the use of digital and electronic technologies so that pupils’ thinking can be recorded, visualised and analysed in different ways, for example: photos of the pupils working that have been annotated by the pupils and/or teachers involving pupils in self-assessment, setting goals and making choices about the strategies they might employ to access, sort and reflect on content, and their own thinking.

Planning using thinking tools Thinking tools have a role in helping pupils focus, organise and represent their thinking in a range of forms including oral, written, artistic and dramatic. A number of thinking tools and graphic organisers can also be adapted and modified to suit a range of uses and pupils. To take the example of the Venn diagram, younger pupils can use actual hoops as the overlapping circles and concrete materials to sort according to their similarities and differences. Older pupils may use a proforma of a Venn diagram to document their understanding of a topic with their own illustrations. More advanced pupils might draw the Venn diagram themselves, add written data and construct generalisations from comparing this data.

CHAPTER 2: Planning for thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 31

31

12/10/08 5:46:17 PM

Similarly, because they each represent a different type of thinking, de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats can also be adapted to guide thinking or information about a topic or situation, and to facilitate problem solving, metacognition or evaluation. To gain the most from thinking tools, it is essential that pupils are taught how to use them. At the same time – especially if independent pupil selection of strategies is our aim – it is not much use if they know how to use them, but not when and why. It is also important to note that pupils’ use of graphic organisers, activities or proformas does not guarantee that quality thinking has taken place. Teacher input and guidance may be necessary to help the pupil gain the most from these tools. In putting thinking tools and strategies to use in the classroom, teachers need to ensure that: • there are multiple opportunities for each pupil to be actively involved • pupils are given the opportunity to reflect on content, their learning and thinking as a whole-class activity, particularly when they are employing new strategies or procedures for the first time • a range of novel, multimodal and interesting reflection activities are planned and presented that cater for all pupils’ interests, abilities and preferred learning styles.

Planning for assessment When teachers are planning for the assessment of thinking they can ensure that it is part of a purposeful and authentic learning cycle by: • integrating it into the classroom program • ensuring that teaching and learning activities are planned with the intended learning outcomes in mind so that they are aligned with assessment • forming assessment criteria against which the pupils’ progress in thinking can be monitored • selecting tasks that enable the pupils to demonstrate, in a variety of ways and over a period of time, their thinking skills, preferences and depth of thinking • collecting information ongoingly and using it to inform further planning and teaching for thinking • involving pupils in the assessment process • recognising and building on what pupils have accomplished.

32

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 32

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:18 PM

CHAPTER

3

Questioning The capacity to ask effective and strategic questions helps learners make connections between teaching and learning experiences to form a deeper understanding of content and themselves as learners. The outcomes of pupils’ reflective and metacognitive processes can be used for their self-assessment and constructing goals. This chapter focuses on the role of questioning in encouraging reflection and metacognition in pupils, and provides an overview of some question types which are also related to particular types of thinking. Questions include those that are posed by the teacher and that pupils are encouraged to ask of themselves, their teachers, each other and the world. Reflective questions set the learner on the path to discovering a broader and more reasoned point of view; finding alternative perspectives, illuminating omissions, addressing ambiguities and challenging assumptions. Metacognitive questions focus on the learner’s own awareness, evaluation and regulation of their thinking. Questioning comes about as a result of reflection and metacognition and leads to further reflection and metacognition. When pupils ask questions about the world and their place in it they have an intrinsic reason to learn. When pupils ask questions about their own thinking, they are in a powerful position to change the way they think and learn. Knowing what you know and what you don’t know is an important motivator to learn.

When reflecting, pupils use a range of questions to: clarify and make connections between information review and/or compare ideas and draw conclusions focus their thinking develop explanations and/or arguments think more deeply and improve their understandings consider a range of behaviours, actions and consequences understand other people’s perspectives and ideas, and the changes that either or both of these might undergo over time look back pull apart ideas draw conclusions reason and make judgements.

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 33

33

12/10/08 5:46:18 PM

When using metacognition, pupils ask questions of themselves that focus on: their own thinking processes, strategies, capacities, limitations, generalisations, assumptions, choices, decisions, actions and/or ideas thinking more deeply and improving their understandings what needs to be done to achieve the task, and how to approach it how to monitor and/or modify their own progress and thinking connections between and/or changes in ideas factors that might impact upon their own learning and thinking such as feelings where pupils are in the learning or problem-solving process what has been done and what might be done in particular learning/problem-solving contexts content-specific knowledge ongoing knowledge of mental processes in progress.

Lower- and higher-order questions both have an important role in developing thinking skills. For example, lower-order questions are often used as a starting point for establishing prior knowledge, basic facts and beliefs. The purpose of higher-order questions is to help pupils think more analytically and creatively, and to construct deeper understandings about the way the world works and their place in it. Questions can be open-ended when a range of ideas is sought, closed when particular answers are being checked, hypothetical when creativity is useful, etc. In addition rhetorical, strategic, provocative, and content-neutral questions all have their particular purposes. Regardless of the type of question that the teacher poses, they should always be powerful and strategic, in order to: • optimise and extend pupils’ thinking skills and perspectives • clarify and deepen understandings • help focus thinking (for example, what needs to be done, what has been learnt) • probe more deeply • create connections between ideas • enhance curiosity • provide challenges • review plans/actions • identify gaps in pupils’ learning • encourage reflection • reveal generalisations and assumptions • guide decision making • spark further questions and interest in seeking answers • focus on the thinking process as well as the subject material.

Some research suggests that teachers ask over 100 questions an hour. Given the amount of teaching time devoted to questioning and its importance in pupils’ learning and thinking, it is essential that some curriculum planning time is devoted to effective questioning strategies. Teachers can use questioning to help pupils identify what type of thinking and questions are required for the pupils’ intended purposes. While ‘thinner’ questions (closed) may 34

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 34

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:27 PM

be easier and quicker to answer and ask, the open-ended questions that require complex thinking are the ones that are more likely to enhance pupils’ emotional and intellectual engagement and create cause for reflection and metacognition. Table 3.1, which draws on Bloom’s taxonomy (1976), provides teachers with one framework for designing questions and tasks to elicit a range of thinking skills that extend beyond recall. TABLE 3.1 Bloom’s taxonomy for developing questions

Thinking processes

Teacher questions on thinking

Teacher questions on wildlife

Knowledge (remembering)

Recalling information

What do you know and believe?

Where could you find a monkey?

Comprehension (understanding)

Understanding of their knowledge

What sense can you make of the data we collected?

Why do you think bears aren’t generally found in cities?

Application (applying)

Using knowledge in a new situation or experience

How can you use the information you have gathered?

Can you think of another example of wildlife that is endangered because of changes in its habitat?

Analysis (analysing)

Identifying factors/ parts

What examples can you give of all the key points?

What factors contribute to reduced habitats for animals?

Synthesis (creating)

Putting together of information, generating new ideas

What generalisation(s) can you now make when reflecting on everything you learnt?

How could we avoid endangering wildlife?

Evaluation (evaluating)

Making judgements and offering opinions

Which opinions do you think are the most objective?

What is your opinion on relocating native wildlife?

De Bono’s Six Thinking Hats also provides a structure for thinking in different ways to promote effective questioning. When pupils respond to or pose questions that are related to each specific coloured hat they draw on a range of thinking skills, and gain a wide range of responses. Table 3.2 shows how de Bono’s coloured hats can be used for teacher’s and pupils’ questions about learning and thinking. See proforma 3.6: Questioning using the Six Thinking Hats (p 52). TABLE 3.2 Questions using de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats

Colour of hat

Mode of thinking

Pupil’s question about thinking and learning

Teacher question about healthy food choices

White

facts and figures

What new information did I learn?

What are some healthy food choices?

Red

emotions and feelings

How do I feel about my thinking?

How do you feel about eating healthily?

Black

negative and cautious thinking

What got in the way of effective thinking?

What are the disadvantages of eating too much unhealthy food?

Yellow

positive and optimistic thinking

What did I think through really well?

What are the advantages of eating healthily?

Green

creative thinking

What new ideas did I come up with?

How would you change people’s views about healthy food?

Blue

control and organisation of the thinking processes

How did I organise my ideas?

What do you think people need to believe in order to make healthy food choices?

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 35

35

12/10/08 5:46:28 PM

Creative questions and creative thinking Most of the questions teachers ask promote systematic- and/or analytical-type thinking. However, questions that facilitate creative thinking can generate a range of innovative and unexpected ideas. There are at least eight processes often identified with creative thinking – fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, curiosity, complexity, risk taking and imagination (See Dalton, 1985 and Gross et al, 2001). Reflective questions such as those posed in Table 3.3 can be posed to initiate creative thinking. When pupils reflect on their creative thinking they are necessarily using metacognition. TABLE 3.3 Creative questions

How could you change/extend this? What other perspectives are there to consider? What are all the different ways you could travel to school? What other layer could we add to …? How might …? What if …? Imagine that …

Elaboration Fluency Flexibility Complexity Originality Curiosity Imagination

Philosophical questions Philosophical questions are often used to encourage deeper-level reflective thinking, build pupils’ conceptual understandings and allow them to reflect on the process of applying this type of thinking. Golding’s (2002) framework for questioning, adapted in Table 3.4 requires the learner to clarify, reason, extend and deepen their thinking about ideas or concepts. Note that the categories in this table are not exclusive. TABLE 3.4 Questions to foster thinking about learning and thinking

36

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 36

Purpose of question

Example questions

To clarify

Why do you think that? When would this never happen? What worked well?

To reason

Can you give another explanation? Can you think of another perspective? How do you know?

To extend and deepen thinking

What are some of the possible consequences? What questions do you have now? How could you test out your hypothesis?

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:29 PM

Targeted and timely teacher questions The right teacher question, or the provision of teacher encouragement and support of pupil questions at the right time, can help the pupil to plan and reflect on their learning and thinking processes, foster focused and independent learning and deepen pupils’ understandings of themselves as learners and thinkers. Sample teacher questions that could be employed at the beginning, during and at the end of the session or unit, to stimulate reflection and metacognition are outlined in Table 3.5. See proforma 3.2: Predict, probe and ponder (p 48) for further examples of teacher questions for different stages of the session or unit. TABLE 3.5 Teacher questions at different stages of a session or unit

Beginning What do you need to do/know to get the task done? What different methods/strategies could be used? How is this task similar/connected with other tasks you have done? What are the goals you could work toward in this task? What challenges do you anticipate?

During What do you already know/have you already done that may be helpful? How did you do that? What were you thinking when you did that? How are you going? Do you need to change your strategy? What information/thinking do you still need to do? What conclusions can you make? Can you provide an example?

Conclusion What worked well? What goals have you achieved? How useful was your plan? What do you need to do now? What have you changed your mind about? Why did you choose that strategy? Could you explain the steps you took to complete the task? What would you do differently next time? Why?

Helping pupils to ask effective questions The teacher and the classroom environment impact enormously on pupils’ willingness and ability to ask questions, seek answers and reflect on their experience of the learning process. In order to foster the development of learning, thinking and questioning, teachers need to provide pupils with opportunities to question and self-question (and not just answer the teacher’s questions), be comfortable with risk taking as they learn to form and respond to many types of questions related to their thinking and learning, and use

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 37

37

12/10/08 5:46:29 PM

many types of self-questioning to help them understand the thinking processes and themselves as thinkers. There are a number of ways in which teachers can assist pupils to ask questions that promote reflection and metacognition. • Ask them what they want to know and make sure they have time to search for the answers. • Pose interesting, challenging and varied questions. • Take time to highlight the types of questions used and the thinking skills involved. • Don’t always answer the pupils’ questions – let them find out and share what they have learnt. • Make time for pupils’ questions and hypotheses throughout the lesson. • Put the spotlight on questions. Display questions around the room along with the answers that have been found by pupils. • Build on pupils’ questions and use these for reflective purposes during discussion. • Probe more deeply into pupils’ responses. • Design tasks and feedback that encourage pupils to pose further questions and to think more deeply. • Play games that develop and extend pupils’ knowledge and use of questions. For example, have pupils design quizzes or carry out the Die reflection roll activity on page 82 which requires them to compose question starters and answer each other’s questions. See also proformas 3.4: What, where and who? (p 50) and 3.5: Q Matrix (p 51). • Extend the waiting time before accepting a response to a question. Just waiting a further three seconds can result in more thoughtful and complex answers; an increase in the number of volunteers offering to answer; responses involving higher levels of thinking, including reflection and metacognition; and an increase in the number of pupil-initiated questions.

Teachers can also use guiding questions to help pupils focus their reflective and metacognitive processes and form their own questions to facilitate these processes. See Table 3.6. TABLE 3.6 Reflective and metacognitive questions

About reflective and metacognitive processes

About questions

About learning

What helped or changed your thinking?

What was a really hard question?

What did you learn about today?

Which question did you ask that could not be answered?

How do you feel about what you have learnt?

Which questions helped you focus?

Can you give an example of what you have learnt?

Which thinking strategy was useful/ not useful? What did you change your mind about? Why?

Which question are you confident of the answer(s) to?

Were you able to make any connections between your thinking in this task and in another task?

What sort of questions would be useful to ask?

Think back on what we have just done. What is the most interesting/ challenging/surprising part? Why?

38

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 38

Which question(s) do you need answered before you can complete the requirements of the task?

What can you now do that you couldn’t do before? Why is it important to learn about …? What have you learnt that surprises you? What would you like to learn about? Why?

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:29 PM

Self-questioning and self-talk To improve pupils’ thinking and learning through questioning, they must be involved in self-questioning and self-talk. Self-questioning leads pupils to reflect on their actions and their learning, and identify and act on those areas that they perceive as needing development. Table 3.7 gives examples of questions that pupils may ask themselves as they attempt a task. See also proforma 3.1: Questions and answers (p 47). TABLE 3.7 Self-questioning model

Stage

Purposes of task

Self-questions

Getting started

Understand the task. Define the requirements. Evaluate what is known.

What have I been asked to do? What does this task involve? What do I already know that will help me? What do I need to do? What will I need?

Planning the task and setting goals

Plan and form goals to ensure the task can be completed. Choose the appropriate action.

What do I need to do first? How long will this take? Which strategies could I use? Which goals would be appropriate?

Application of the plan

Act on the plan. Monitor progress toward completing the task.

Is my plan effective? Does it need adapting? How have my ideas changed? Am I working systematically toward the requirements? Do I have all the information I need? Have I understood the task? Have I understood the process?

Reflection

Regulate behaviour, thinking and plan.

What do I need to rethink? How would I do it differently next time? Did I use a systematic, creative, or reflective approach? Did I achieve my goals? Which strategies did I use? What did I learn to do? What should I do next?

Self-talk involves learners talking themselves through tasks. When used effectively, selftalk helps the pupil to identify and/or specify goals, make a plan involving manageable parts, focus on key ideas or processes, monitor their progress and regulate their thinking. Self-talk can involve self-questioning as the learner reflects on choices, goals and plans for further learning. While self-talk is usually an internalised process, when pupils verbalise their thinking, others can have access to the relationship between thinking and action, and monitor the process. Pupils can also benefit from teacher self-talk. By verbalising what strategies they selected to approach a learning task, how and why – as well as what they have learnt from an activity, and what they would do differently next time – teachers provide a specific structure for reflection and metacognition. Asking pupils to verbalise their thinking processes can raise questions for reflection and, in itself, constitutes metacognition.

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 39

39

12/10/08 5:46:30 PM

Table 3.8 provides questions that can be used to support pupils to develop as reflective and metacognitive thinkers and questioners. TABLE 3.8 Questions to develop reflective and metacognitive thinkers and questioners

Reflection

Metacognition

Teacher questions Which team skills did your group use? What did you like about the activity/excursion? What could have been done to make the activity more useful?

Why might we be learning this? How might you start this task? What do you need to think about to get the task completed? What are your questions? How has your thinking changed? What sort of thinking would be useful for this task? What goals do you need to set for your learning?

Pupil self-questions What did I contribute to the group? Which aspects of my/our group work need to be improved? What skills have I improved in this unit?

What do I already know about this topic? What do I want to find out? What questions do I have? How will I source the information? How have my ideas changed during this unit? What did I learn? What learning strategy worked best for me? How well did I meet my learning goals?

Teacher self-questioning When planning for a teaching session or unit, reflective teachers continually self-question to ensure they provide purposeful, inclusive and relevant teaching programs. For example, they might ask themselves: • What do I want the pupils to learn? Why? • What is the purpose of this activity? • How will I support the pupils’ learning? • Why would I do it that way? Is there another way? • If I were a pupil how would I feel about this session/activity/support/use of resources? • Am I providing an inclusive program?

At the conclusion of a teaching session or unit, teachers might assess their effectiveness by asking: • Was the purpose of this lesson/session/unit fulfilled? Why? How? • How did I help my pupils to learn? • What did I do well? Why? • What did I learn about my teaching, the pupils and their learning? • In which ways did I interact with each pupil? • Was my feedback appropriate? • What would I do differently next time? Why? • What do I need to improve? Why? How can I go about this? 40

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 40

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:30 PM

Smart ideas The following activities are designed to help pupils develop effective questioning and thinking skills. Teachers may need to adapt them for their pupils’ particular year level and/or needs.

Question prompts The question prompts provided below are designed for teachers and pupils to reflect on the various aspects of their learning and thinking. What did you do well? What could you have done differently? What were you thinking when you were doing the task? What do you need to improve? What have you got better at? What are your goals now? How has your thinking changed? What did you learn about? What did you learn to do? These prompts can be laminated and used in a number of different ways, such as lucky dip cards. They can be discussed in small groups and the reflections recorded if desired. See Smart ideas section in Chapter 5 (p 80), proforma 5.3: Thinking prompts and questions (p 88), and proformas in the Appendix such as A2: Looking at my work (p 118), A4: Lucky dip reflection cards (p 120) and A7: Picture cues (p 123).

Questions and answers This activity is designed to prompt pupils working independently to pose useful questions as they are getting started, while they are working, and when they are synthesising their work. For example, when getting started, pupils use the prompts ‘What do I already know?’, ‘What do I need to do first?’ and ‘How will I find the information?’ Space is provided for them to record their answers which can later be used to reflect on and assess their thinking and learning. See proforma 3.1 (p 47).

Predict, probe and ponder This activity can be used in a similar way to Questions and answers as it models different types of questions and provides a structure for developing reflective responses under the three ‘P’ headings. Pupils choose a question from each of the three sections (predict, probe and ponder) or write their own question for each section and then record their reflections. For example:

Predict

What do you think might happen? What questions would be good to ask?

Probe

Who might have a different idea about this? What is puzzling you and how could you clarify it?

Ponder

How would you sum up your ideas? Does everyone agree? If not, why not?

See proforma 3.2 (p 48), and proforma 4.2: The five Ps (p 67).

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 41

41

12/10/08 5:46:30 PM

The five whys This can be done in pairs, or threes with a silent observer. One person takes the role of the questioner and the other answers the questions. Each person needs to listen carefully to the other because the responses are used by the questioner to create a new ‘Why’ question. The responses can be recorded on proforma 3.3 (p 49). Debriefing this activity highlights the role of questions beginning with ‘Why’ and how these can be used to probe for further information and deepen thinking. For example:

Question

Why is it important to ask questions?

Response

To find out answers.

Question

Why is it important to find out answers?

Response

To learn new things.

Question

Why is it important to learn new things?

Response

So you can think about the world.

Question

Why is it important to think about the world?

Response

So you learn to get along with people and be happy.

Note that some pupils may find it hard to reach the fifth response, especially if the question is about something new to them. Nevertheless, it is interesting for others to hear all the responses that are offered. See also proforma 3.4: What, where and who (p 50).

Q Matrix The Q Matrix (Weiderhold, 1995) supports pupils to ask questions that they might not otherwise have thought of in relation to the topic being studied. Pupils can use their list of questions to guide their learning, or they can be used for class quizzes. The Q Matrix can be supported in the following ways: Put the keywords from the topic on the faces of two large dice. Throw the dice and use the results to list the questions on the Q Matrix. Put all the keywords onto flashcards. Make two different-coloured sets of matrices, one with ‘What’, ‘Where’, ‘Which’, ‘Who’, ‘Why’ and ‘How’ on them, and another set in a different colour with ‘Is’, ‘Did’, ‘Can’, ‘Would’, ‘Will’ and ‘Might’. Ask pupils to select a card from each set and brainstorm questions using these words as sentence starters. See proforma 3.5 (p 51). A simpler version of this activity is proforma 3.4: What, where and who? (p 50). Pupils use one of the question starters to generate their questions. ‘Is’, ‘Does’, ‘Did’, ‘Can’, ‘Will’, ‘Would’ and ‘Might’ are also listed on the sheet for pupils to create their own, more complex, questions.

42

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 42

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:31 PM

Thinking Hat questions The questions below, which are drawn from de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats (1992), focus on thinking. Teachers can use them to prompt whole-class discussion, or they can be used for small-group discussions or individual reflective journal entries. See proforma 3.6 (p 52). FIGURE 3.1

What got in the way of your thinking?

What new information did you learn?

WH

ITE HAT

BLA CK H AT

RED

What did you think through really well?

What new ideas did you come up with?

GR EEN HAT

How do you feel about your thinking?

YE

LLO W HAT

HAT

How did you organise your ideas?

BLU

E HAT

Stop, think and question This strategy can be used at any time, for any subject. Prior to the activity, make a stop sign, and a sign with a question mark on it. Hold up the stop sign and ask pupils to stop and think about their learning, without talking. Then hold up the question sign and asks the pupils to jot down any questions they have. The teacher may wish to provide guidelines for the pupils on the type and subject of the questions, for example: about the work being covered or how to complete the task requirements. The pupils’ questions can be used for a variety of purposes such as further investigation, reflective journal writing, self-assessment and group discussions. FIGURE 3.2

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 43

43

12/10/08 5:46:31 PM

Take your stance This is a group activity which can be used after reading/viewing material that advocates a particular stance or elicits a variety of opinions. It can also be used after observations or experiences that provide plenty of content for reflection. If there are two major positions, pupils divide into groups of three and choose to be A (one point of view), B (an opposing point of view) or C (observer). If there are three positions, pupils form groups of four with three views being represented and one pupil as an observer, etc. First the like positions (eg, all the As, and all the Bs) meet to discuss and prepare their arguments. At the same time, but away from the others, the Cs (or observers) meet to prepare questions that they might ask after they hear the arguments of Groups A and B. The original groups then reform. Groups A and B each have two to five minutes to argue their position while Group C formulates additional questions they would like answered by Groups A and B. After hearing the arguments and answers to the questions, Group C synthesises the arguments, and decides on a stance and how they will justify it. Note that friendship groups work least well for this activity.

Get into someone else’s head This activity helps pupils to understand how others might think and feel as well as encouraging them to look at issues/experiences from different perspectives. Ask pupils to try to imagine being in someone else’s head and to think about the questions or feelings this person might have about an issue or event. Guiding questions can also be provided to help the pupils focus on specific aspects. For example: What would you need to ask if you wanted to find out more about the views of minority groups living in a new community/country? When you read newspaper reports about political issues, who is not represented? What would you ask these people? If you were a new pupil to the school how would you feel? What would you ask new pupils to find out how they are settling in?

Impossible questions Give the pupils an opportunity to form questions that they think will be difficult to answer. These may relate to the unit of study, ways to seek or organise information or learning and thinking (as concepts, strategies or the pupils’ own experience of them). This activity is an excellent opportunity to: discuss ways of researching answers or questions discuss the purpose of questions identify and discuss the types and structure of questions that are more difficult to answer and some possible reasons for this find out what pupils are interested in base inquiry/research on pupils’ questions discuss and identify questions that do not add to meaningful knowledge or understanding.

44

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 44

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:35 PM

Small-group fishbowl Pupils work in small groups (two to four, plus one or more observer). One pupil is required to observe the others working. As the pupils attempt a short task (for example a simple maths problem) they ‘talk out loud’, making explicit the thinking processes they are using and why they have made certain decisions as they work. The observer takes notes about the decisions made. At the conclusion of the activity, the observer reports back to the small group and/or a larger group about their observations of how the learners went about the task. They can then ask questions of group members, for example: about their thinking processes. An adaptation of this is when the observer becomes the questioner who asks questions of the team members as they work. There are advantages and disadvantages in each method as it can be either disruptive or helpful.

Questions for assessment At the end of a unit of work, instead of asking pupils what they learnt, ask them to pose questions that they still have not found an answer to. These questions can be very revealing about the pupils’ depth of knowledge. Consider the different levels of thought and understanding demonstrated by the questions that were posed by pupils at the end of a study of energy: What types of energy are there? What sort of strategies can we use to conserve energy? Why do we have to consider nuclear energy? Why do some people spend a lot of money on solar energy devices and other people don’t? If pupils posed questions at the beginning of the unit, they can compare these with their later questions to make a judgement about their own learning. For example, ‘At the beginning of the unit I just wanted to know what energy was. Now I want to know what I can do to conserve it’.

Think back This is a good activity to use at the beginning of a lesson/unit to gauge pupils’ prior knowledge or, at the end of a unit, to find out what they have learnt. A sticker, on which information related to the current unit of work is written (for example, the names of different mammals), is placed on each pupil’s back. The pupils have to question their peers to work out what is written on the sticker. They are only allowed to ask questions that require ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers. To encourage interaction between pupils, they can only ask each pupil one question. A similar game is ‘Celebrity heads’ in which three pupils each have a headband with information as above. They are required to ask the rest of the class questions that will help them work out what is written on their headband.

CHAPTER 3: Questioning

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 45

45

12/10/08 5:46:35 PM

The answer is … What is the question? Each pupil or group of pupils is given a slip of paper with a word, number or phrase on it. They are not to show this ‘answer’ to anyone who is not in their group. Pupils come up with as many questions as they can that relate to their answer, so that when they read them out to the class, the other pupils will guess it. You might like to ban some types of questions, for example: ‘What rhymes with …?’, ‘What has four letters?’ and ‘What starts with …?’ The pupils questions should demonstrate their understanding of the concept. Pupils get a great feeling of success when others guess their ‘answer’. This is a good evaluation activity at the end of a lesson/unit where different groups are given different ‘answers’ related to the topic. Example ‘answers’ could include relationships, critical thinking, plastic, 64 or invertebrates. See Figure 3.3. FIGURE 3.3

64

What is 8 s uared? What is the sum of 56 and 8? If you doubled the number of pupils in the class, how many would there be?

What is 100 – 36?

46

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 46

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:35 PM

3•1 Questions and answers Name:

Class:

Date:

Use the example questions to help guide your work. Keep a record of your answers in the space provided. When you have finished, look back on the questions posed and the answers you have found. You can also use this for self-assessment.

Getting started Sample questions What do I already know? What do I need to do to complete the task? What do I need to do first? How will I find the information?

Answers

My question:

As you go Sample questions What strategies could I use? What do I need to do now? How will I record and organise the information? How will I present the information?

Answers

My question:

Pulling it together Sample questions How would I do it differently next time? Did I use a systematic approach? Did I use creative thinking? Was I reflective? Did I achieve my goals/answer the questions?

Answers

My question:

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 47

Knowledge in action – Questioning

47

12/10/08 5:46:36 PM

3•2 Predict, probe and ponder Name:

Class:

Date:

Choose a question from each of the three sections or write your own in the space provided. Write your responses next to the questions.

Predict Question prompts What do you think you will see, hear and feel? What do you think might happen? What if …? What questions would be good to ask?

My responses

Add your own question here:

Probe Question prompts Who might have a different idea about this? Are there alternatives? What do you now know for sure? How do you know? What is puzzling you and how could you clarify it?

My responses

Add your own question here:

Ponder Question prompts Does everyone agree? If not, why not? What question still needs answering? How would you sum up your ideas/findings? What generalisation could you make?

My responses

Add your own question here:

48

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 48

Knowledge in action – Questioning

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:46:38 PM

3•3 The five whys Name:

Class:

Date:

Write the answers to each question in the boxes below.

Starting question:

1

2

3

4

5

What do you notice about the answers?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 49

Knowledge in action – Questioning

49

12/10/08 5:46:40 PM

3•4 What, where and who? Name:

Class:

Date:

Use one of the question starters to create some questions about your topic. If you wish, you can also use the words in the box at the bottom of the page to help.

What?

Where/When?

Which?

Who?

Why?

How?

Is …

Does …

Did …

Will …

Would …

Might …

50

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 50

Knowledge in action – Questioning

Can …

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:46:43 PM

3•5 Q Matrix Name:

Class:

Date:

Write your questions about the topic on the grid.

What is?

Where/When is?

Which is?

Who is?

Why is?

How is?

What did?

Where/When did?

Which did?

Who did?

Why did?

How did?

What can?

Where/When can?

Which can?

Who can?

Why can?

How can?

What would?

Where/When would?

Which would?

Who would?

Why would?

How would?

What will?

Where/When will?

Which will?

Who will?

Why will?

How will?

What might?

Where/When might?

Which might?

Who might?

Why might?

How might?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 51

Knowledge in action – Questioning

51

12/10/08 5:46:45 PM

3•6 Questioningg using the Six Thinkin Hats

Name:

Class:

Date:

Use the following prompts to reflect on what you have done.

What new information did I learn?

What got in the way of effective thinking?

How do I feel about my thinking?

What new ideas did I come up with?

What did I think through really well?

How did I organise my ideas?

52

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 52

Knowledge in action – Questioning

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:46:48 PM

CHAPTER

4

Making connections The process by which pupils make connections and thus build their own understandings is referred to as ‘constructive learning’ or ‘constructivism’. It is a process that both necessitates and enhances reflection and metacognition. While teachers can provide explicit teaching techniques, rich experiences, modelling and feedback to pupils about their learning, if they are to achieve a deep understanding, pupils must make the connections themselves between their prior and new learning.

When reflecting and thinking metacognitively, pupils make connections between: prior, current and future learning – actions, behaviours and consequences their own ideas, experiences, perspectives, and the feelings/ideas of others (including assumptions) thinking strategies, feelings and outcomes/results strategies to assist in undertaking tasks what needs to be done and their own abilities.

What does making connections involve? It may be stating the obvious, but the more complex the thinking and the task, the more time is needed for pupils to think and make connections. We need to make time for pupils to: • build on their existing knowledge • construct, refine and deepen their understandings • extend their thinking • pursue their own learning pathways.

Table 4.1 suggests some general classroom ideas for helping pupils make connections with their learning. While these examples focus on developing and extending pupils’ reflection and metacognition, many have multiple purposes. Further activities that facilitate pupils making connections are provided later in this chapter, and in the Appendix.

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 53

53

12/10/08 5:46:50 PM

TABLE 4.1 Ideas for helping pupils make connections in the classroom

Teaching purposes

Ways of helping pupils make connections

To build on existing knowledge

Use KWL, brainstorming, graphic organisers, metaphors

To construct and refine their own meanings

Use reflection tasks, journal writing, observation logs, group discussions/tasks

To extend thinking

Ask challenging questions Use graphic organisers

To deepen understandings

Provide rich, direct experiences Use pupil self-assessment strategies

To pursue their own learning pathways

Use electives, negotiated learning, contracts Set up independent learning centres

Building independence To support pupils in making connections between their learning we need to provide meaningful, coherent and purposeful programs that have obvious application to their lives within and beyond school. Much of what we do in schools must seem disjointed and irrelevant to pupils. They often do not know what they are going to learn about. They are told when to start and finish, and how to present their work. Most pupils are relatively compliant given the circumstances. On the other hand, it is not surprising that some become rebellious. It is a common complaint among teachers that often their pupils do not remember strategies and information that have been taught to them, or that they do not apply them in other contexts. While we may expect pupils to be independent learners, many school structures get in the way. In some settings, we teach our pupils not to ask questions or make connections as they know that the teacher will do a lot of this work for them.

Planning to help pupils make connections Providing opportunities for pupils to make connections has to be an ongoing priority. At the commencement of a lesson or unit of work, pupils can be asked to demonstrate what they already know about its focus. During the course of the lesson or unit of work, teachers can highlight the thinking strategies and skills they employ. Where teachers are explicit, this demonstrates to pupils the connections between strategy selection and purpose. As pupils have more experience with selecting ways to learn and process information they will begin to make useful decisions about their own learning and thinking. After a range of experiences, pupils will be able to make connections between their initial ideas and experiences, and their current learning. With guidance they can identify how and why their ideas have changed.

54

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 54

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:56 PM

Inquiry units Table 4.2 provides ideas for questions and activities to support pupils to make connections during different stages of an inquiry unit of work. The skills that pupils typically use at each stage are also listed in the table. The activities chosen should match the teaching and learning purposes of each stage. Many activities can be completed at different stages of a unit for different purposes. When used effectively, these can help pupils make connections between various aspects of their learning such as ideas, strategies, information, observations, perspectives, other types of thinking, and their own capacities and feelings. TABLE 4.2 Making connections across a unit of work

Questions to promote making connections

Activities that help pupils make connections*

TUNING IN (making connections between what is known, pupils’ questions and the unit) Skills: defining the key issue or problem; identifying prior knowledge and questions; identifying information needs; hypothesising and predicting; setting goals and timelines What do you know about …? What are you interested in? What questions do you have about …? What goals do you need to set? What do you believe? Who might feel differently about the topic?

bring in artefacts and relate to known aspects of the unit bundling concept attainment games data charts graphic organisers keywords, feelings and images labelling and organising predictions and hypotheses questions and statements quizzes simulations songs, stories, artwork: What does it remind you of? Think, pair, share

FINDING OUT (making connections between what is known, and ways to find out new information and have pupils answer their own questions) Skills: identifying resource needs; searching for and locating key ideas; detecting bias, points of view and prejudices; making connections between prior knowledge and new information What would you like to learn about? Why? What is your plan for finding this out? How can you find out the answers to your questions? Who could help you? What do you need to do first/next? What sources would be useful to get a broad picture of this issue?

books, slides, maps, charts case studies computer games, CD-ROMs excursions such as exhibitions guest speakers such as storytellers incursions, for example: puppet shows interviews and surveys observation walks simulation games/activities videos

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 55

55

12/10/08 5:46:56 PM

TABLE 4.2 (continued)

Questions to promote making connections

Activities that help pupils make connections*

SORTING OUT (making connections between what is known, new information and thinking strategies) Skills: ordering, classifying, analysing and synthesising new information; considering alternatives and perspectives; evaluating information and ideas, suggesting consequences What have you learnt? How will you organise/record/present this information? What will you do first/next? Do you have all the information you need? What connections can you make between new and prior knowledge? How have your ideas changed? What strategies might be useful for helping you make sense of the information? What do other people think about your ideas?

English 1-3-6 decision making blogs de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats/PMI debates flow charts labelling and classifying listing, for example: rules mock interviews ranking story maps SWOT wikis writing reports, arguments, recounts, persuasive texts, explanations, reflections, information narratives, poetry Performing and visual arts collage, murals construction, puppet- and model-making dioramas mobiles multimedia visual representation painting or drawing photo montages (using ICT) simulation games sorting, explaining and labelling photos structured/unstructured role-plays/mimes Mathematics computer-constructed representations data charts graphs timelines

GOING FURTHER (extending and refining their understandings by pursuing their own pathways) Skills: representing information in a variety of ways; reporting on the information learnt; summarising What would you like to learn more about? Why? How is this linked to the topic/ understandings/concepts? How will you do this? What will you do first/next? What resources do you need to do this? Who/what can help you? What are your questions now?

56

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 56

contracts further data gathering, for example: designing questionnaires independent investigations Q Matrix surveys, interviews

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:57 PM

TABLE 4.2 (continued)

Questions to promote making connections

Activities that help pupils make connections*

REFLECTION (making connections between understandings and the learning and thinking processes) Skills: self-assessing their learning and thinking; reflecting on their knowledge and linking to previous knowledge What is the most significant/interesting/important thing you have learnt? Why? Why do you think we studied this topic? What helped/hindered your learning? What would you like to learn more about? Why? How could you do this? What would you do differently next time? Why? How would you do this differently next time? Why? What are you still not sure about? What do you want to find out more about? What questions do you have now? What made the most difference to you? Why?

cartoons and comic strips Did you know? charts fascinating facts graphic organisers, for example: future wheels, concept mapping, mind mapping images for different perspectives learning logs and journals motto, slogan, logo ranking exercises sentence starters sheet similes and metaphors song or rap thinking dice true and false activities What have I learnt? reflections written and physical continuums

TAKING ACTION (Making connections between learning and thinking, and possible actions) Skills: setting goals; making decisions What have you learnt that you can use in your everyday life? How can you use this knowledge/skill(s)? What are your plans now? How can you apply this knowledge/skill in your everyday life? What does your learning mean to you? How do you feel about the way you have worked?

de Bono’s Action Shoes expo, advertising, designing future gazing individual goal setting, action plans, contracts letter writing pamphlets, posters, displays, magazine, letters petitions, lobbying Putting you in the picture safety lists, instructions, manual, tips and traps special days webpage/DVD

* Many of the activities completed at the Tuning in stage can be repeated and the results compared at the Reflection stage.

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 57

57

12/10/08 5:46:57 PM

SAMPLE SESSION

Making ethical decisions

Distribute the ethical dilemma below, or prepare an alternative. The dilemma should be authentic, known and preferably raised by the pupils.

Dalton’s dilemma Adapted from Markkula Centre for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University.

Dalton wants to make friends but is finding it hard to settle into his new school. Even after a term he doesn’t enjoy going to school because he thinks he is not at all popular. Dalton’s teachers say he has made friends but he isn’t happy until a boy named Will, who he knows from kindergarten, transfers from another school. Dalton then tells his parents that his new, old friend has been wagging school and smoking down the street with a teacher’s son. His parents tell him they don’t want him hanging out with Will and that he is not welcome at their house, but Dalton has already invited him over to play. What should Dalton do? 1 Tell pupils that the activity uses a procedure for working through an ethical dilemma so that they can make a decision about a possible action. 2 Give a copy of the dilemma to each small group (three to six pupils). One person reads the dilemma out loud and then the group members think and talk about responses to the questions below. A time limit for discussion could be given.

• • • • • • •

What is the problem? Is it personal, interpersonal, legal, social or institutional? Could it adversely affect a person(s), relationships and/or the community? Who is affected, most to least? What are the facts? What is not known? What are some options? What are the possible positive and negative effects of each option?

3 One group member is nominated to list the options. Then the group orders these options according to the effect – from the most to the least beneficial. 4 The group then reflects on and discusses the following questions:

• •

Will everyone’s rights and dignity be respected under the preferred option(s)?

•

How would you feel if you had to make this decision?

Will the preferred option encourage pupils to participate more fully in family/community life?

5 The group seeks other perspectives that may need to be considered before making a final decision and lists a number of these. Proforma 4.9: Ethical decision-making perspectives (p 74) has a list of possible viewpoints which can be copied onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminated for small-group or whole-class use. 6 Drawing upon their own perspectives, each pupil makes a brief summative statement explaining their decision and the reasoning behind it.

58

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 58

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:57 PM

Making connections between aspects of learning Well-chosen activities can help pupils make connections between the aspects listed in Table 4.3 in various combinations, for example: prior knowledge and new information; behaviours and consequences; the pupil’s own feelings and the perspectives of others. TABLE 4.3 Making connections

actions behaviours completion of requirements consequences content to be covered experiences feelings key ideas new information observations outcomes/results own abilities (self-assessment) perspectives predictions prior knowledge questions reflections strategies thinking strategies

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 59

59

12/10/08 5:46:58 PM

Smart ideas The following activities are designed to help pupils develop effective skills in making connections. Teachers may need to adapt these to suit the needs of their pupils.

Linking ideas This is a great activity for exploring an idea in more depth and building on the ideas of others. Pupils sit or stand in one large circle or many small circles. One person starts by saying ‘ … is not just about … it is also about …’ For example: ‘Drug abuse is not just about what’s illegal, it’s also about addiction’. The next person then builds on this idea, for example: ‘Drug abuse is not just about addiction, it’s also about exploitation’, etc. The results could be recorded and used for creating a rap! This strategy could be employed at the beginning or end of a unit/lesson depending on your purpose, for example: to assess or access prior knowledge and make links to the topic, or to help pupils make connections between ideas and to assess their new knowledge.

The Reverse Key The Reverse Key (Ryan, 1990) can be a challenging and novel way to gather prior knowledge about a topic and invites creative thinking. It requires the thinker to identify aspects that are not likely or possible to occur and the possible effects if they did, for example: ‘What would you never find in the ocean?’ or ‘What wouldn’t you expect a resilient learner to do?’ For other Thinker’s Keys, particularly useful in encouraging creative thinking, see Ryan (1990).

Imagery and visualisation, with musical accompaniment Use music to stimulate pupils’ thinking and engage them in a topic. Depending on the desired effect, pupils can be asked to close their eyes and imagine a scenario or situation, think about how they would feel, and make connections between what they know and what they need to know and do. For example, when studying issues related to migration, refugees or the war, the teacher might ask the pupils to do the following: ‘Imagine you are on a ship escaping the war, you have left most of your family at home and you are starting your new life …’ Pupils can then discuss their feelings and thoughts, and write and/or draw about them, responding to questions such as, ‘What are your fears, hopes and aspirations?’

60

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 60

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:46:58 PM

Bundling and bunching Ask individual pupils to list ideas – preferably in the form of keywords – that relate to a topic or idea on large strips of paper. In small groups, have pupils put similar words together into bunches, and label the bunches. The whole class can then pool all the labelled bunches. Connections can also be made between different groups’ bunches, for example how one group’s bunches might lead to another group’s. FIGURE 4.1

water Tanks

recycling paper

habitats rainforest

Lines of communication Pupils stand in two lines facing each other. Each pupil takes turns to tell their partner what they know about the unit about to be studied. After each person has had their turn, one line moves forward so that each pupil has a new partner. The person at the front of the line has to go to the end. Again the pupils tell their partner what they know, this time adding how this is similar or different to the last partner’s ideas. The movement and discussions can be repeated as many times as desired. At the end of the activity, pupils can be asked to show what they now believe about the topic, demonstrating connections between their prior knowledge and the ideas discussed with their partners. This could be synthesised in a short piece of writing or reflected in a graphic organiser.

Observation logs These are similar to journal reflections except they are primarily stimulated by observation. Pupils can log their observations about the behaviour of animals, phases of the moon, shadows, team behaviours etc. The teacher can provide cues that will help the pupil to reflect on what they have noticed and make connections with what they already know, and what they would like to find out, for example: ‘What did you see and what does that mean?’, ‘What happened and what does it make you wonder?’, ‘How do you feel about your observations?’

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 61

61

12/10/08 5:47:00 PM

Secret envelopes At the beginning of a session or unit of work, ask pupils to write or draw a definition or explanation of the key concepts and vocabulary that relates to it. For example, at the commencement of a session/unit of work on environmental issues, the pupils could define the following words: environment, resources, relationships, cooperation. Place the definitions in envelopes that have been labelled with the pupils’ names and put them away. At the conclusion of the session/unit ask the pupils to redo the same activity then give them back their original envelopes. Have them compare their responses and explain how and why they have changed.

More true than false, or more false than true?* 1 Prior to the activity, create statements that invite careful consideration, for example: addressing what has been learnt and making connections to this and the opinions and thoughts of others. See example statements below. 2 Organise the pupils into teams. 3 Pupils read each statement out loud and take turns to state their opinion and give an example or reason for it. 4 They discuss the statements and decide whether they should go into pile A, B or C: A = More true than false B = More false than true C = Cannot agree. As an extension, pupils could be asked to rank the statements, for example: using pile A, they rank them again according to which is most to least true, then, using pile B, they rank them according to which is most to least false. Example statements Some places should be protected from human development. Technological change benefits people around the world. Everyone can impact positively on their world if they try. People should stand up for what they believe in even if it’s against the law. It is sometimes okay to use power against others. Indigenous cultures should have the right to have their own laws. Equal access to power and resources will never be possible. People should stand up for the rights of others, even if it places them in danger. The costs related to environmentally sustainable practices are too high. *Kath Murdoch (2006).

62

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 62

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:01 PM

Found out and made me think This is an ideal activity to use after an excursion, guest speaker or exposure to a written, visual, auditory or multimedia stimulus. Provide the pupils with prompts that require them to draw on their senses – what they saw, heard, felt – and their thoughts, reactions and feelings about the experience. Proforma 4.1 (p 66) provides prompts and reflective cues, for example: ‘I saw …’, ‘I wondered …’ etc. Pupils use the prompts and/or proforma to reflect on what they have learnt and think. Other categories can be added such as, ‘What might they do now?’ Pupils can discuss their reflections with each other.

The five Ps Pupils use The five Ps – predict, ponder, probe, pause and pose – to guide them as they make predictions and form questions before starting an investigation. After they have completed their research they reflect on what they produced or learnt about or how to do, and what sort of thinking they employed, and pose further questions. Each of these Ps can be done at different times throughout the session or unit, or all at the end. Make time for pupils to compare and discuss their reflections to help them make further connections. See proforma 4.2 (p 67). Predict

What might you find out?

Ponder

What are your questions?

Probe

How will you find out?

Pause

What did you produce/learn about? What did you learn to do? What sort of thinking did you do?

Pose

What questions have you answered? What new questions do you have?

Putting people in the picture Pupils use the questions provided on proforma 4.3 (p 68) for example: ‘Who is involved?’, ‘How is each person affected?’ to consider various perspectives and feelings that are associated with an issue. Ethical decisions are most appropriate for this task (See p 58). Pupils then draw a picture or use a graphic organiser to show the possible consequences of their decision(s). See also proforma 4.9: Ethical decision-making perspectives (p 74).

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 63

63

12/10/08 5:47:01 PM

Learning journey Provide pupils with sentence starters, reflective questions or prompts to help them make the connections between their thinking, strategy choice, feelings and the completion of the task using proformas 4.4 (p 69), 4.5: Detective work (p 70), 4.6: Amazing thinking (p 71) or 4.7: SMS (p 72), or generic reflection proformas such as A3: Pass the remote (p 119).

SMS This activity consists of the following three stages: Summarise More views

Pupils list key points related to their existing beliefs or knowledge about a topic.

Synthesise

Pupils revisit their own ideas and understandings, make connections with those of others, and reflect on what has contributed to their final synthesis.

Pupils consider other perspectives that might be sought from their peers, guest speakers or through book- or internet-based research. They could use a graphic organiser to represent these ideas.

See proforma 4.7 (p 72).

The right tool This assessment task is designed to evaluate the pupils’ ability to select the graphic organiser which is most suited to a specified purpose. Use proforma 4.8: The right tool for the right job (p 73) to assess their understandings of when to use the different tools. Display the chart from Table 4.4 for pupils to learn about the purpose of particular graphic organisers, or create your own with pupils.

64

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 64

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:01 PM

TABLE 4.4 Why and how to use graphic organisers

GRAPHIC ORGANISER

HOW

WHY

Cluster web

Brainstorm ideas about the topic. Place the ones that are similar together in groups.

To recall and organise information into groups. Useful for identifying prior knowledge and content learnt.

Concept map

Brainstorm and group similar ideas together. Label groups and make connections between the groups with labelled arrows.

To identify and show relationships between key ideas. This is more complex than a cluster web.

Venn diagram

Show factors or characteristics of the topic/idea etc in one circle, and factors or characteristics of the others in the other circles. Any common factors are shown in the middle space where the circles intersect.

To compare and contrast information and make connections between it.

Cause and effect wheel

Start with an action in the middle circle. Link by arrows to the possible effects and further consequences. Each effect can lead to multiple effects and go in different directions.

To explore the range of possible positive and negative consequences of an action.

Data chart

Use the grid headings to summarise key ideas. When completed, the information can be used to make connections between big ideas and/or sources.

To summarise information succinctly according to selected criteria/headings. To make connections between information.

Note: All of these graphic organisers could be used early in a learning sequence to show prior knowledge and later to show changes in thinking and ideas. The comparison can be used for self-assessment purposes.

CHAPTER 4: Making connections

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 65

65

12/10/08 5:47:01 PM

4•1 Found out and made me think Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about what you have found out, and about your thinking. Use the ideas in the borders to help you reflect.

Found out

saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas, saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas,

saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas, saw, heard,

saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas, saw, heard, saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas, saw, heard, smelt, felt, learnt, facts, new ideas, saw, heard,

Made me think

thought of, thought about, wondered, questioned, made connections, it was like …

thought of, thought about, questioned, made connections,

thought of, thought about, questioned, made connections, thought of, thought about, wondered, questioned, made connections, it was like …, thought of, thought about,

66

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 66

Knowledge in action – Making connections

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:02 PM

4•2 The five Ps Name:

Class:

Date:

Use the questions to help think about your research. Complete the first three Ps before you start. Complete the fourth and fifth Ps at the end of the task.

Before Predict What might you find out?

Ponder What are your questions?

Probe How will you find out?

After Pause What did you produce/learn about? What did you learn to do? What sort of thinking did you do? Pose What questions have you answered? What new questions do you have?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 67

Knowledge in action – Making connections

67

12/10/08 5:47:05 PM

4•3 Putting people in the picture Name:

Class:

Date:

Answer each question in the frame. Draw a picture next to it.

Who is involved?

How is each person affected?

What are some possible decisions?

Draw a picture showing the possible consequences of your decision.

Choose a decision that is reasonable for all people.

68

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 68

Knowledge in action – Making connections

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:07 PM

4•4 Learning journey Name:

Class:

Date:

Finish the sentences along the path to reflect on your learning journey. Use the ideas inside the rocks to help you.

rst s en I fi

tarted

…

I wanted to …

Wh

I tried …

I did …

Then I …

I thought …

After a w

hile …

I could …

It w a

s… I wasn’t … I felt …

Now I

…

What would you pack in your suitcase next time to help you finish your journey? For example, enthusiasm, persistence, imagination.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 69

Knowledge in action – Making connections

69

12/10/08 5:47:10 PM

4.5 Detective

work

Name:

Class:

Date:

You have collected lots of facts and information. Your teacher has asked you to write a report showing some connections between ideas. Use some of the following subheadings to write your report:

OFFICIAL REPORT Introduction (connections between your previous and new ideas)

What I have found out? (connections between your ideas and those of others)

How do you know about this? (connections between your ideas and the world)

What conclusion c a n b e made? (finish your report with a summary and recommendations)

Signed

70

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 70

Knowledge in action – Making connections

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:12 PM

4•6 Amazing thinking Name:

Class:

Date:

Answer the questions to think more about what you did, what you learnt and what you plan to do.

What was important when you first started?

What goals did you set?

Did you achieve these? What were your questions and predictions?

What helped you learn?

How did you organise your ideas?

What sort of thinking did you do?

What is the most amazing thing you learnt about or to do? What would you do differently next time? How will you use what you have learnt?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 71

Knowledge in action – Making connections

71

12/10/08 5:47:15 PM

4•7 SMS Name:

Class:

Date:

Use this sheet to reflect on your views. Seek and record some other people’s views. Pull all the views together.

Summarise What is your view? List the key points.

More views Talk to others. Seek opinions that are different from yours. Consider using a graphic organiser to represent these clearly.

Synthesise Show your understanding of the key ideas and reflect on your thinking. What contributed to your final synthesis?

72

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 72

Knowledge in action – Making connections

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:17 PM

4•8 The right tool for the right job Name:

Class:

Date:

Select a tool to match the purpose in the first column. Tick a box in the second column. Draw your selection in the third column.

What tools would you choose if you wanted to:

Possible tools

Show cause and effect

• • • •

consequence wheel chain tri-diagram other

Show connections between ideas

• • • •

Y-chart concept map scales other

Compare similarities and differences

• • • •

Venn diagram T-chart bridge other

Group ideas together

• • • •

spider diagram cluster web fishbone other

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 73

Draw your selection

Knowledge in action – Making connections

73

12/10/08 5:47:19 PM

decision-making 4•9 Ethical perspectives Copy onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminate for small-group or whole-class use.

74

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 74

activist

marketer

actor

medical doctor

architect

parent

artist

police officer

athlete

politician

child

reporter

crime victim

scientist

designer

social worker

disabled citizen

leader of another country

elderly citizen

spy

environmentalist

teacher

lawyer

university pupil

someone who lived last century

someone who will live next century

Knowledge in action – Making connections

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:21 PM

CHAPTER

5

Self-assessment Reflection and metacognition are important processes involved in self-assessment. When pupils are required to set their learning goals, self-assessment precedes and usually follows goal setting. Self-assessment involves thinking about, questioning and making connections between prior and new learning as well as analysing learning progress during and after an experience. Self-assessment allows the pupils to become actively involved in their learning, come to know more about themselves, their learning and thinking and puts them in a better position to set goals to further enhance their learning and thinking. Pupils come to understand that making mistakes, being incorrect or not meeting criteria are part of the learning process and that these can be addressed through purposeful actions.

Self-assessment promotes reflection and metacognition by prompting pupils to consider: their thinking and learning strategies, thinking capacity, choices, actions, decisions and ideas what they did or thought in relation to what was required how they approached the task/experience and the appropriateness of the action how they modified their ideas/thinking/learning the impact or effectiveness of their modification of ideas connections they made between ideas the relationship between their own and the ideas of others factors that might or have impacted upon their learning/thinking assumptions they have made and gaps in their knowledge/thinking their feelings/emotions and the impact of these on their thinking and learning.

Pupil self-assessment enables teachers to plan programs that provide contexts for the use and development of a range of thinking processes, strategies and tools, and gives them a better picture of the individual pupil’s development and perception of their own learning/ learning styles.

Teachers and self-assessment In order to foster reflection and metacognition in their pupils, teachers must be involved in their own self-assessment. Looking at their teaching skills and knowledge, teachers may examine what makes good teachers and teaching, their own professional development and how their teaching programs reflect their expertise. Focusing on their thinking, teachers may consider their preferred thinking style, process or disposition and how these impact CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 75

75

12/10/08 5:47:24 PM

on their teaching and learning. Teachers can use this information to set personal goals and adjust their teaching practices. Teachers also need to assess themselves in relation to their attention to teaching and facilitating pupil self-assessment and pupil self-assessment of thinking, specifically: • how their teaching, classroom programs and routines facilitate pupil self-assessment and thinking • how the culture of thinking is developed within the classroom and how this is affected by their thinking and learning • what enhances or hinders thoughtful classroom practice and their own teaching and learning • the quality of their interactions with the children and how these are affected by their own thinking and learning • their own professional learning and how this affects their teaching and classroom practices.

Some example questions are outlined in Table 5.1. TABLE 5.1 Self-assessing teaching for thinking and pupil self-assessment

Usually

Sometimes

Never

If applicable, note down how this is done

Do I allow time for pupils to self-assess? Do I allow time for pupils to self-assess their thinking? Do I provide support as pupils self-assess? Do I provide support as pupils self-assess their thinking? Do I provide a variety of tools/procedures for pupil self-assessment? Do I provide a variety of tools/procedures for pupil self-assessment of their thinking? Do I promote the language of self-assessment? Do I promote the language of thinking? Do I provide personalised feedback on the pupils’ self-assessment? Do I provide personalised feedback on the self-assessment of their thinking? Do I use questioning to promote pupil self-assessment? Do I use questioning to promote pupil self-assessment of thinking? Do I demonstrate how I self-assess my teaching? Do I demonstrate how I think and what I think about my thinking? Do I provide opportunities for pupils to demonstrate their learning? Do I provide opportunities for pupils to demonstrate how they think and the results of their thinking? 76

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 76

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:29 PM

Teachers can use professional learning opportunities to assess their thinking, learning, teaching skills and knowledge in the light of the new skill or information, considering responses to the questions below: • What did I learn? • What was useful about what I have just learnt? • How would this complement my classroom practice? • How and when can I use what I have learnt in my daily teaching? • What did I like/dislike about it? • What could I do differently next time now that I have learnt…? • What did this new information connect with? • What questions does this raise? • What helped me learn? • How did I feel during this activity? • Which thinking skills did I use? • What type of thinking did I do? • What would I do/think differently next time?

Helping pupils to self-assess To ensure the success of pupil self-assessment, teachers need to: • incorporate it into classroom programs • provide feedback and demonstrations, strategies and information about the different types of thinkers • guide pupils in developing and drawing on their knowledge about their own thinking style(s) and the processes, tools and strategies at their disposal.

Oral or written teacher feedback should help pupils to focus on what they can do in relation to their overall learning goals or objectives and should emphasise their achievements and how they can improve. The feedback may consist of general questions about the individual pupil’s learning or thinking, or context-specific feedback and questions as described. See Table 5.2.

CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 77

77

12/10/08 5:47:30 PM

TABLE 5.2 Teacher questions and feedback to guide pupil self-assessment

Generic questions to guide self-assessment

Feedback and guiding questions to facilitate self-assessment in different contexts

What did you do well? What are the reasons for this? What could you do better? How could you do this? What did you enjoy about your learning? Why? What would you like me to know about your learning? What would you like me to notice about your work? Why? How do you feel about your learning? Why? What sort of thinking did you use to help you with this? What was the most important thing you learned? How do you feel when things get hard? What is your greatest improvement/achievement? What helped you achieve this?

Your written explanation was very clear and easy to understand. What did you do to make this so good? I found it hard to read your diagrams because I did not know what they were about. What could you do next time to make sure everyone will understand them? You worked well with your group when you were preparing for the presentation. You took turns and listened carefully to others. What were you proud of as a team worker? I noticed you used a T-chart for the first time. I am sure you have learnt/done something else new. What new thing can you do/do you know now? You appeared enthusiastic and interested as you were doing the work. How did you feel? Why? You thought creatively to solve the paper-shortage problem. Did you use any other type of thinking as you worked?

Teachers can help pupils self-assess their learning and thinking by providing opportunities for them to think about and identify their specific skills, interests, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, values, strengths, areas for improvement, preferred learning style(s) and thinking process, and the factors that enhance or hinder their learning. Self-assessment can be built into the session/unit by asking the pupils to think and pose questions at different stages to investigate the questions such as those in Table 5.3. TABLE 5.3 Teacher questions to prompt pupil self-assessment of specific aspects of learning and thinking

Self-assessment of learning mathematics

Self-assessment of thinking

What helps you to learn mathematics? What hinders you in learning mathematics? What are you good at in mathematics? What do you find difficult in mathematics? Why? How can you help yourself to be better at mathematics? How can teachers help you to learn mathematics? How do you feel about mathematics? Why? What makes a good mathematician? If you had to describe what a good mathematician does, what would you say? What do you think are good things to develop as a mathematician? Why are some people better at mathematics than others?

What helps you to think? What hinders your thinking? How would you describe your thinking? How would you describe yourself as a thinker? What do you find difficult when thinking? Why? What do you find difficult when thinking about a problem? Why? How can you help yourself to be a better thinker? How can I help you with your thinking? How do you feel about thinking? Why? What makes a good thinker? What do you think are good skills to develop as a thinker?

78

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 78

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:30 PM

The teacher can facilitate discussion about what has been learnt and the thinking processes involved, for example by: • using pairs, small-group and whole-class activities • using guiding questions or discussion prompts • varying the approaches, so that pupils maintain their interest in the discussion, for example: by using activities such as Die reflection roll (p 82); Think, pair, share (p 83) and proforma 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113) • modelling self-assessment strategies, for example: by providing many examples of questions, thinking prompts, graphic organisers and activities such as those described in this chapter and throughout the book.

Teachers need to involve pupils in identifying appropriate outcomes, and be clear about what is required for the pupils to meet them by making criteria explicit, discussing ways outcomes/learnings may be demonstrated, and recording them on class charts for future reference. Before commencing a specific teaching session, tell the pupils what you want to teach them and the reasons for this. (You may decide to display the outcomes, requirements etc on a chart as a visual prompt for the pupils.) During the session, describe and discuss what proficient use of the skill/knowledge will look like and why it is important. At the conclusion of the session, revise and discuss what has been learnt, how well and the reasons for this. Teachers can also encourage different ways of collecting, sharing or recording selfassessment information, for example: • Use oral, written, physical and pictorial presentations (proformas are often a good starting point). • Allow pupils to choose some of the assessment procedures. • Provide opportunities for pupils to conduct peer observations and provide constructive feedback. • Provide prompts such as checklists, continuums or rating scales to assist in focusing the peer- and subsequent self-assessment. • Schedule conferences during which the pupils’ progress is discussed. These can be pupil/teacher or pupil/teacher/parent. • Provide the pupils with a list of the skills (or jointly compile the list) and ask them to keep their own records of progress. • Use pupil portfolios in which pupils place significant pieces of their work, based on teacher-listed criteria, teacher- and pupil-negotiated criteria, or the individual pupil’s own reasons. • Use learning logs, self-assessment journals or ‘thoughts and discoveries’ booklets in which pupils record reflections of their learning, thoughts, feelings, progress and plans for action. They can use these at regular times throughout a week or as appropriate depending on the teacher’s and pupils’ purposes. • Give specific, regular and positive feedback about pupils’ reflections, in an oral and/or written form (See Table 5.2).

Teachers can use guiding questions to help the pupils focus on specific aspects of their learning and thinking – such as their achievements, their feelings, how they faced problems and worked to overcome these – and set goals for future learning (See Table 5.3). These questions can be context-specific: for example at specific times during a session (See Table 5.4), and to help each pupil self-assess their personal and interpersonal actions (See Table 5.5). CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 79

79

12/10/08 5:47:30 PM

TABLE 5.4 Questions for self-assessment at different stages

Before

During

Conclusion

What they already know, think and feel. What they predict they might learn, think or feel. What they want to learn, know about and do. The sort of thinking they are using. What they find easy or hard. How they feel. What they would like help with. Their progress in terms of their thinking, feelings, knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The factors that helped or hindered this progress. Their plans for further learning.

TABLE 5.5 Teacher questions to prompt pupil self-assessment of personal and interpersonal actions

80

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 80

Learning to work in groups

Thoughts and feelings during group work

What is one great thing you did in the group today? What did you contribute to the group? What is something positive that you could say about how you worked in the group? What did you do or say to make someone else feel part of the group? How did you help someone else today? What went well? What was hard? What could you do next time when something gets hard?

How did you feel as you worked in the group? Why? What did you think as you worked in the group? How did you feel when things went well? What did you think when things went well? What did you say to yourself when things were easy or went well? How did you feel when things were difficult? What did you think when things were difficult? What did you say to yourself when things were difficult/challenging? What will you do next time when you think/feel like this?

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:31 PM

Smart ideas The following activities are designed to help pupils develop effective self-assessment skills. Teachers may need to adapt these to suit the needs of their pupils.

Know and think, learn and think (KTLT) Pupils write or draw what they know and can do and what they think about the upcoming experience. After the session they list or draw what they have learnt and what they now think about their learning. See Table 5.6. TABLE 5.6 Results of a Know and think, learn and think (KTLT) activity

BEFORE

AFTER

I know … that good food keeps us healthy. that there are many services that help us keep healthy.

I learned … there are many aspects of health. that personal actions and choices affect our health.

I can … do some exercise every day.

I can … plan and prepare a well-balanced meal. understand why smoking is harmful.

I think … I will enjoy learning about being healthy. I wonder why junk food is bad for us.

I think … I worked really well during this unit of work because I want to be healthy.

POWW (Predictions, observations, wows and woes) Each pupil folds a piece of paper into four even sections. In the first column they predict what they think they might discover/find/learn before the experience. In the second column, they record what they noticed about how they felt, what they thought and learnt, and what they now know they can do during or after the experience. In the third and fourth columns they list the positive things about their thinking and learning, and what they would like to improve. The woes can be used for goal setting. See proformas 5.1: I used to… but now I … cards (p 86) and 5.8: Self–assessing my learning and thinking (p 93). TABLE 5.7 Results of a POWW activity

Predictions

Observations

Wows

Woes

I will learn about endangered animals. I will learn how to take notes.

I felt angry that some animals’ habitats are disappearing. I learnt that changes to an animal’s habitat can affect its survival. I noticed that animals have special features that help them survive. I can use keywords to help me when I take notes.

I did a good job linking actions and effects. I am good at asking questions. I am good at answering some questions.

I find it hard to use the grid references on maps. I need help with organising my information.

CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 81

81

12/10/08 5:47:31 PM

POWWER (Predictions, observations, wows, woes, evaluation and reflection) In this adaptation or extension of the previous activity the fifth (evaluation) column encourages the pupil to consider the information in the other columns and forms an on-balance evaluation of their progress. In the sixth (reflection) column, the pupils record their reflections which can be used for self-assessment and goal setting. See proformas 5.1: I used to… but now I … cards (p 86) and 5.8: Self–assessing my learning and thinking (p 93).

I used to … but now I … This activity helps pupils identify the changes in their learning (thinking, feelings, actions and knowledge) and serves as a prompt for reflecting on the reasons for these changes. The pupils think about the above aspects and start a sentence with ‘I used to …’ and then add what they previously knew, felt, thought or did. They then state what has changed using the prompt, ‘but now I …’ For example: I used to wonder why animals were endangered but now I know that there are many reasons.

I used to only think about what I have done, but now I think about how I do things and how I can improve.

Knowledge Thinking

I used to feel embarrassed when I had to share my work but now I feel proud and confident.

Feeling

I used to have trouble using a map but now I know how to use the grid references to help me locate places.

Actions

The pupils can do the activity orally or in written form in a small-group situation using the cards in proforma 5.1: I used to … but now I … (p 86). Make multiple copies of the cards, jumble them and distribute a pile face down to each group. Each group member takes it in turns to pick a card from the pile and make a statement to the group that relates to the aspect on the card. See also proforma 5.8: Self–assessing my learning and thinking (p 93).

Thinking circles This activity, adapted from Daniels (1994), is conducted in a similar manner to literature discussion circles. Groups of pupils, up to a maximum of six, meet to think about and discuss their thinking and learning after a particular learning experience. Each group member assumes a specific role, to ensure the group thinks about, discusses and assesses a number of aspects of their thinking and learning. See proforma 5.2: Thinking role cards (p 87). As each role focuses on thinking, any combination of roles works well. The teacher can select the roles and the combination of roles according to the teaching purposes and needs of the pupils.

Die reflection roll Prior to this activity, questions or sentence starters (See examples in Table 5.8) that serve as prompts for reflective thinking are written on each face of a large blank die. At the conclusion of a learning experience, the children sit in a circle and take turns to throw it. They respond according to the request on the face of the die and in relation to their learning. If required, the teacher can create topic- or context-specific sentence starters and questions, for example: ‘What do you think about the current water restrictions?’

82

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 82

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:32 PM

TABLE 5.8 Questions or sentence starters for the die reflection roll

Questions

Sentence starters

What have you learnt? What helped you to learn? How did you make sure that you learnt this? How do you feel about your work? What would you do differently next time? What are you proud of? Why?

I would learn better if … I learn best when … I think I am good at … I am worried/puzzled/surprised about … I know how to … I wonder …

FIGURE 5.1

What sort of thinking did you do?

Do yo que u have s wha tions a any t we bou ha t don ve jus e? t

ed help ? t a Wh learn to you

What was good about the thinking you did?

Wha tn que ew ide s a com tions, s, me or you nts do hav e?

u ll yo o i w t t Wha t time x r e u do n rove yo p im king? thin

Thinking prompts and questions Sentence starters and questions designed to facilitate pupils’ thinking about their thinking and learning are written on strips of cardboard (ideally laminated for repeated use) and stored in a box. Pupils randomly select one of the strips to use to help them think about their learning and form an appropriate oral or written response. See proforma 5.3 (p 88).

Think, pair, share Provide the pupils with a question, topic or prompt that will focus on thinkers and thinking, for example: ‘What sort of thinking helped you/could help you with this problem/situation?’ Each pupil thinks about the question before sharing their response with a partner. This is a useful activity to use prior to written reflections, or to help pupils develop a shared understanding of the language of thinking and talking about thinking.

Rapid reflection This activity helps to develop fluency of ideas, resulting from reflective thinking, within a short timeframe (for example, three minutes). It is most effective when pupils do it frequently. Reflections can be written in an exercise book designated for this purpose and labelled ‘the thinking book’, ‘thoughts and discoveries book’, ‘learning log’ or ‘reflection book’.

CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 83

83

12/10/08 5:47:32 PM

The pupils write on a topic that relates to their learning (either provided by the teacher or selected from a topic list compiled by the pupils). The topic can be generic or related to a particular subject, part of a lesson or time of day, etc. For example: •

My thoughts about school/maths/English/my behaviour/my thinking/how I learn.

•

If I could change how I learn, this is what I would like to do …

•

What I would like people to notice about me/my work/what I can do/my behaviour.

•

What I would like my teacher to notice about my thinking.

•

How I have changed this week/this term/since the beginning of the year/since last year.

•

These are the feelings I have when I come to school/work in groups/learn something new/ find the work hard or easy/solve a problem.

•

What I know about myself as a learner/thinker.

•

This is what I can do to help me think/learn better.

Without any discussion, the pupils write exactly what comes into their heads – without regard for writing conventions, as the aim is to help them identify what they are thinking. The jottings can be shared with others or kept as a personal reflection. In the oral version of this activity, pupils take turns to talk about their learning and thinking within a short timeframe (for example, one minute per pupil).

Self-assessment medals This activity works well as part of goal setting for self-assessment. The pupils reflect on goals they have made and evaluate their progress toward these using pre-determined criteria or by considering personal factors such as learning style, ability, effort, etc. If they achieved their goal they can award themselves a gold medal. If they achieved most of the goal they have earned a silver medal. Achieving part of the goal earns them a bronze medal. In an oral activity or role-play, actual replicas of medals can be awarded. Alternatively, pupils can use proforma 5.4 (p 89) and colour their medals in with a yellow, lead or brown pencil for the gold, silver and bronze medals respectively. See also proforma 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (p 90).

Plotting my progress The teacher can ask guiding questions or provide prompts that facilitate pupil self-assessment. For further information, see the activity Thinking prompts and questions on page 83. Alternatively, the pupils record their progress, thoughts and feelings before, during and at the conclusion of a teaching and learning cycle using, for example: proformas 5.5: Self-assessment data chart (p 90) or 5.6: Six hats for self-assessment (p 91).

Here’s the proof This activity provides the pupils with explicit criteria against which to assess their thinking and learning, as well as ensuring they provide evidence of their progress. Specific criteria that are teacher-determined or jointly selected by the teacher and pupils are listed. Each pupil indicates how well they met each criterion and provides an example of a specific action or context to justify it. This can be done orally using the ‘Pass the criterion’ strategy. Pupils sit in a circle and pass around a card with numbered criteria listed on it. The teacher says ‘Stop’ and calls a number and the pupil with the card states how well they have met the criterion and provides an example to prove it. The procedure is then repeated. Alternatively, if the pupils are working independently, proforma 5.7: The what, when and how about my thinking (p 92) can be used.

84

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 84

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:32 PM

Ranking and rating Provide the pupils with criteria against which they can assess their learning and thinking. They rank or rate their performance using either a physical or written continuum to plot their degree of effectiveness (low–high), a scale to indicate degree of frequency (sometimes, always, not yet), or symbols to indicate their degree of satisfaction (happy, sad, puzzled, etc). Alternatively, use proforma 5.8: Self-assessing my learning and thinking (p 93) or 5.9: Thinking about my thinking and learning (p 94) to guide pupil self-assessment.

Plotting my learning and thinking Provide each pupil with proforma 5.10 (p 95) on which to record their progress for each criterion, and add when they have demonstrated this (See Figure 5.2). The pupils can share, compare and discuss their completed proformas. FIGURE 5.2

I answered questions

I did this really well all the time.

I did this well most of the time.

I need help to do this better.

I formed questions

I considered other people’s opinions and comments

I tried to make connections between what I already knew and what I learnt

I thought about how I could do things better

I like answering uestions, especially if I have time to think before I answer. I asked uestions when I was interested in what we were talking about.

I used POWW to help me.

I didn’t do this well because I didn’t listen all the time.

I need help with my selfassessment.

I didn’t do this at all.

CHAPTER 5: Self-assessment

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 85

85

12/10/08 5:47:33 PM

5•1 ‘I used to … but now I …’ cards

Copy onto coloured paper, laminate and cut into cards for small-group or whole-class use.

I used to …

I used to …

Think

Feel

but now I …

but now I …

I used to … I used to …

Want to know how to … Find it hard to …

but now I …

86

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 86

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

Wonder but now I …

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:33 PM

5•2 Thinking role cards Make multiple copies of each of these cards for pupils’ use.

Learning locator

Discussion director

Your role is to find out what each member has learnt or can do and to find out how they did it.

Your role is to ensure the discussion stays on track and that each question and response is about thinking.

Thinking prober

Learning helper

Your role is to find out what each group member could do/has done better to help their learning and thinking.

Your role is to find out what helps/helped each member to learn and think.

Improvement investigator

Problem prober

Your role is to find out what each group member would like to improve and why, and to find out how they think they can do this.

Your role is to find out what each group member finds/found hard to do and why, and how they can make their learning easier next time.

Thought extender

Goal checker

Your role is to ask a question of each group member that will help them focus on their thinking.

Your role is to find out what each group member has set for their next learning/thinking goal.

Decision detector

Link leader

Your role is to find out what each group member decided is the most important thing they need to do next to improve their learning and thinking.

Your role is to find out the connections each member has made as a result of the session.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 87

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

87

12/10/08 5:47:35 PM

g prompts 5•3 Thinkin que and

stions

Enlarge these pages, copy onto coloured paper, laminate and cut the strips for small-group or whole-class use.

Prompts It was easy to …

I don’t like to …

It was hard to …

I can improve my learning by …

I have learnt …

I need to work on …

I learn best when …

I feel … because …

I am still confused about …

I am proud of …

I need help with …

I like to …

I am good at … because …

I prefer to …

The most important thing I have learnt …

Next time I do this I will …

Questions What have you learnt?

What did you do well? How do you know this?

What helps you to learn? Why?

What do you need to improve? How will you do this?

What did you do well?

What do you need to do to help you learn?

What are you good at?

If you were the teacher what would you have done differently?

What are you proud of ? Why?

What do you think of your work? Why?

What still puzzles you ?

What would you do differently next time?

How do you feel now ? Why?

How do you know that you are learning?

Who helps you to learn? How?

What questions do you have about what we have done?

88

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 88

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:38 PM

5•4 Self-assessment medals Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your goals. Colour the medal – gold, silver or bronze – to show how you think you went toward achieving each goal. You can use a yellow pencil for a gold medal, a lead pencil for a silver medal, and a brown pencil for a bronze medal.

These were my goals:

1

2

3

I think I deserve a

I think I deserve a

I think I deserve a

______________ medal

______________ medal

______________ medal

because

because

because

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 89

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

89

12/10/08 5:47:40 PM

5•5 Self-assessment data chart Name:

Class:

Date:

90

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 90

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

At the conclusion of the session/unit

During the session/unit

Before the session/unit

Questions

What do I know?

What can I do?

How do I feel?

What connections have I made?

How have I changed?

What will I do now?

Add your comments to the blank squares.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:42 PM

5•6 Six hats for self-assessment Name:

Class:

Date:

Before the session/unit, read the questions in the shaded section and write your thoughts in the last column. At the end of the session/unit, do the same for the questions in the unshaded sections.

Guiding questions White hat

My thoughts

What do I already know? What can I already do? What do I now know? What can I now do?

Black hat

What do I need help with?

What do I now need help with?

Red hat

How do I feel? What do I like/not like? How do I now feel? What do I now like/not like?

Green hat

What could I do to improve my thinking/learning?

Yellow hat

What can I do well?

What can I now do well? What did I like?

Blue hat

How have I changed? What will I do next? What sort of thinking do I need to do?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 91

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

91

12/10/08 5:47:44 PM

how 5•7 The what,y when and g about m thinkin

Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about each statement. Add your comments for each.

Evidence I can do this If I want to be aware of (when, where) my thinking and use my thinking to help me learn, I need to think about:

How well I did this

What I already know. What I am/was learning. Something I had done another time that had been helpful. How I was going. Whether what I was doing was working. The things I could do or couldn’t do. Different ways to do something. Making a plan to help me do something. What I need to do next. How to change my plans if things weren’t working. What I would like you to know:

92

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 92

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:47 PM

my 5•8 Self-assessing learning and thinking Name:

Class:

Date:

This is the most important thing that I have learnt. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This is the most important thing that I can now do. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This is how I feel. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How I rate myself as a learner: I completed the work.

Low

High

I was organised.

Low

High

I thought about how I could learn better.

Low

High

I paused and thought before I answered questions.

Low

High

I listened carefully to others before I made a comment.

Low

High

I made decisions.

Low

High

I thought about what I was doing and worked out what I needed to do next.

Low

High

I set goals.

Low

High

How I rate myself as a thinker:

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 93

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

93

12/10/08 5:47:51 PM

5•9 Thinking about my thinking and learning

Name:

Class:

Date:

Read each statement. Colour the face that shows how you do this.

Always

Sometimes

Not yet

I think before I do or say things.

I think about how I can help myself to learn.

I think about different ways of doing things.

I listen to other people’s ideas.

Complete the following sentence starters I am really good at …

I would like to improve …

94

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 94

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:47:53 PM

5•10 Plotting my learning and thinking

Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about what you have just done, and about your learning. Plot your performance on this bar graph.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 95

I didn’t do this at all.

I need help to do this better.

I did this well most of the time.

I did this really well all the time.

I answered questions.

I formed questions.

I considered other people’s opinions and comments.

I tried to make connections between what I already knew and what I learnt.

I thought about how I could do things better.

Add an example of when you did these things.

Knowledge in action – Self-assessment

95

12/10/08 5:47:55 PM

CHAPTER

6

Goal setting Reflection and metacognition involve learners in goal setting, and often arise out of selfassessment. After reflecting on their knowledge and thinking processes, goal setting can be used to help the pupil set directions and challenges, and plan ways of achieving them. In turn, as pupils work toward their goals, they may also reflect on their progress, and make judgements about whether the goals are still appropriate and useful. Goal setting helps pupils and teachers to reflect on teaching and learning, evaluate achievements and areas for further growth; and identify and celebrate progress and achievements. The goals may focus on any number of academic, social, physical and emotional dimensions. To ensure we maintain pupils’ interest in, and enhance their ability to, think reflectively and metacognitively when goal setting, we need to provide many ways for them to think about their thinking and to form goals for many aspects of their learning – across the curriculum and within or beyond the school setting such as schoolyard behaviour and family routines.

What does goal setting involve? In order to set their goals, pupils need to identify:

specific actions required, time needed and indicators of success their own needs and abilities their learning priorities in relation to program expectations what helps and hinders their learning, learning styles and abilities their progress in relation to their prior and current learning, and their strengths and weaknesses a plan of action to achieve their goals, and to understand that the plan may need to be modified.

Goal setting can take place on a number of levels. At the whole-class level, the teacher and pupils negotiate the behaviours, skills and/or attitudes the class

needs to work toward. Within small groups, and with or without teacher guidance, group members can identify what the group needs to know, do or be like (their behaviours and dispositions) and then negotiate how each member can work toward achieving them. At the individual level pupils, with the assistance of their teacher, reflect on their learning and identify areas for further improvement and growth, and map out how this can be achieved. Goal setting can be conducted at any time within the classroom program, for example: classroom rules and related goals may be negotiated at the beginning of the year, as might

96

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 96

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:47:57 PM

individual pupil’s yearly goal setting. Some goal setting may be conducted at the beginning of each new term after reflecting on the previous term’s work. Depending on its purpose, goal setting may take place weekly or regularly within specific subjects, for example: some pupils might set goals for a particular session, and if achieved, choose new ones for the next session. Regardless of the level or timeframe, goals should be reviewed frequently.

Helping pupils to set goals Often the pupils can identify their learning goals but express them too broadly, for example: ‘I want to improve my reading’, or ‘I want to get better at working with other people’. By applying reflective and metacognitive tools, teachers can assist pupils to unpack their goals into their discrete aspects and practically plan how to achieve them, for example: by identifying the specific behaviours, knowledge and attitudes that they may have to improve, and providing examples of what progress in these areas might look like. When teachers make explicit what good behaviours and work look like it is easier for pupils to identify their strengths and what they need to improve, and to form goals and decide on the steps required toward achieving them. Teachers can facilitate this through their everyday classroom work and by creating – perhaps together with pupils – charts or criteria lists that record expected skills, knowledge or behaviours (See Figures 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3). In this way it is easy for pupils to see that goal setting and self-assessment are inextricably linked. Examples of teacher- or pupil-annotated work and self-assessment can also be used to help pupils develop appropriate learning goals by seeing what good work looks like and identifying the aspects of their work that need improvement. FIGURE 6.1

We think good spellers: Try to spell new words – Have a go! Say the word slowly. Listen to the sounds in the word. Match sounds to letters. Check if the word looks right. Think about the meaning of the word. Use the spellchecker or the dictionary to check their spelling. Use gimmicks and memory aids to help them remember how to spell the word. Care about spelling. Know that even good spellers can’t spell every word.

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 97

97

12/10/08 5:48:02 PM

FIGURE 6.2

We think good thinkers: Listen carefully to others. Think about what has been said. Build on others’ ideas. Make comments about other people’s ideas as well as their own. Ask thoughtful uestions. Consider other points of view or opinions. Weigh up ideas. Build on other people’s comments to create new ideas. Suggest or try different options. Plan how to get their work done.

FIGURE 6.3

When we reflect we: Think about what has happened. (Alexander) Think about what we know and what we want to know. (Yadviga) Think about what we have learnt. (Jake) Ask uestions so we understand what has happened. (Tan) Try and connect what we have learnt with what we knew before. (Olivia) Think about how much we have learnt and what helped us learn. (Victoria) Work out what we need to do. (Xian)

Honest and positive oral or written feedback given by the teacher or informed peers can help pupils identify their strengths and areas of improvement, and guide them toward appropriate goal setting (See Figures 6.4 and 6.5). It is a powerful way of leading pupils to think about themselves as learners and thinkers and the learning product and process.

98

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 98

Smart Thinking

12/10/08 5:48:02 PM

FIGURE 6.4 You are a great listener because you look at people while they talk and add thoughtful comments when they have finished.

FIGURE 6.5

You have shown great connections between what you have learnt and what you knew before.

Can you now think about what helped you make the connections? Can you now think about what you still need to know and do?

I am going to be a better listener. I am going to wait until someone finishes talking before I start talking.

Now I need to think about what and who helped me link what I already knew with what I have learnt. I also need to think about what I want to do next. I can think about my goals.

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 99

99

12/10/08 5:48:03 PM

Criteria and/or analytical rubrics can help pupils choose appropriate goals by breaking complex tasks into elements against which the pupils’ work can be assessed. This in turn helps the pupils to know what makes good work and which aspects they are good at, or need to work on (See Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4). TABLE 6.1 Goal setting for team skills

This is what good team workers do:

I am good at this

I need to improve this

Talk politely to people.

This is what I plan to do next I want to look at people when they are talking and ask questions or make comments when they have finished talking.

Listen to other people. Consider other people’s ideas. Share work and ideas. Take turns. Help others. Encourage others. Work to meet the group’s goals.

TABLE 6.2 Goal setting for reflective thinking

This is what I need to do to become a good reflective thinker: Think about what I know and can do. Think about what I need to learn. Think about how I learn best. Think about what helps my learning.

I can do this

I need to improve this

This is what I plan to do next Ask people to help me work out how I can improve my learning. List three things I want to improve so that I learn better. Make a timeline to check when I have improved on these things.

Make plans to improve my learning. Work out how and when I can improve my learning. Think about how I think. Select an effective strategy to help me think better.

100

Smart Thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 100

12/10/08 5:48:05 PM

TABLE 6.3 Inquiry-learning analytical rubric for teachers

A full licence inquirer

Planning for the inquiry

Conducting the inquiry

Representing findings from the inquiry

Identified all important information needs.

Worked independently to gather and sort important information.

Presented all the important information in an appropriate format so that others could understand it.

Formed highly effective questions to help find the information. Identified a variety of sources of information.

Used a variety of methods to efficiently record the key information.

Provided, in own words, examples of its importance.

Developed an effective plan of action to help complete the inquiry.

A plate inquirer

Identified some important information needs. Formed some effective questions to help find the information. Identified some relevant sources of information.

Sometimes worked independently to gather and sort some important information. Used some effective methods to record some of the key information.

Developed a simple plan of action to help complete the inquiry.

plate An inquirer

Needed lots of help to identify some information needs. Didn’t form effective questions to help find information. Identified very few sources of useful information. Didn’t develop a plan of action to help complete the inquiry.

Showed a deep understanding of the information.

Presented some of the important information in an appropriate format so that others could understand most of it. Showed a sound understanding of most of the information. Provided some examples of its importance.

Had difficulty gathering and sorting some of the important information. Used some ineffective methods to record information.

Didn’t present the important information in a format so that others could understand it. Showed minimal understanding of the information. Didn’t provide examples of its importance.

Action required:

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 101

101

12/10/08 5:48:06 PM

TABLE 6.4 Inquiry-learning analytical rubric for pupils

I am a full licence inquirer

Planning for the inquiry

Conducting the inquiry

Representing findings from the inquiry

I worked out what I needed to find out.

I always worked independently to gather and sort important information.

I presented all of the important information so that others could understand it.

I formed great questions to help me find the information.

I recorded all my key information effectively.

I made a really good plan to help me with my inquiry.

I am a plate inquirer

I worked out some of what I needed to find out. I formed some good questions to help find the information. I developed a simple plan of action to help complete the inquiry.

I am an inquirer

plate

I was able to put the information in my own words. Sometimes I worked independently to gather and sort some important information.

I presented some of the important information so that others could understand most of it.

I recorded some of the information effectively.

I understood most of the information. I was able to put most of the information in my own words.

I required lots of help to identify what I needed to find out.

I had difficulty gathering and sorting some of the important information.

I needed lots of help to form questions to find the information.

I needed lots of help to record information.

I needed lots of help to develop a plan of action to complete the inquiry.

I easily understood all of the information.

I had trouble presenting the important information so that others could understand it. I had trouble understanding the information. I didn’t put much of the information in my own words.

What I am now going to do as a result of this:

When using class checklists, criteria-based assessment such as rubrics, or other standardised procedures against which pupils are assessed, it is important that each pupil’s learning progress is acknowledged and that learning goals are achievable. This may involve the pupil in looking at the criteria (for example in the above rubric), identifying areas for improvement and setting goals related to these. It is useful to have a list of skills to which pupils can refer when they are identifying their goals. These can relate to a particular content area, or to thinking as a whole. The list of thinking skills in Table 6.5 is extensive but not complete and is provided as a prompt for pupils during goal setting and self-assessment. It is also useful for teachers as they plan for teaching how to think. It is not intended that all of these thinking skills be included in a classroom program.

102

Smart Thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 102

12/10/08 5:48:06 PM

TABLE 6.5 A–Z of thinking skills

A Action planning Adapting ideas Analysing

C Challenging assumptions Clarifying ideas/concepts Classifying Comparing and contrasting Connecting ideas Considering alternatives Considering perspectives Creating Critiquing

D Decision making Defining the key issue or problem Detecting bias/points of view/prejudices Drawing conclusions

E Evaluating information and ideas Evaluating/judging Examining ideas Exploring options

F Forming questions

G Generalising Generating new ideas

H Hypothesising

I

Imagining Inferring/interpreting Inventing

J Justifying statements/points of view

L Linking causes and effects

M Modifying ideas

O Ordering Organising ideas Organising information

P Planning Posing questions Predicting

Q Questioning ideas/information

R Ranking/sequencing/prioritising Reasoning Recalling prior knowledge Reflecting

S Selecting appropriate strategies Self-assessing Self-questioning Suggesting alternative ideas/solutions Summarising Synthesising

Identifying other points of view/ethics Identifying patterns Identifying problems and possible solutions

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 103

103

12/10/08 5:48:06 PM

Areas for improvement that the pupil selects will depend on their needs, abilities, interests and opportunities. Teacher input and guidance is required to ensure their appropriateness. For example, a pupil might look at a rubric such as Table 6.4 (See p 102) and identify that they would like to improve their skills in gathering and sorting information. It is then incumbent on the teacher to help the pupil ask themselves questions such as: • What are the skills and processes involved in gathering and sorting information? What does good work look like? How will I find out? • What are the aspects of this that I am good at? What are the aspects that I need to improve? • How can I improve? What will I do? Who/what will help me? When can I do this? How will I know that I have improved?

Figure 6.6 and proformas 6.1: My learning goals (p 110), 6.2: Thinking about my goals (p 111) and 6.3: My learning goals action plan (p 112) can be used to help pupils with this process. FIGURE 6.6 Example of goal setting

Name:

Class:

Date:

My Goal: To be better at gathering and sorting information. This is what I am going to do: • Write guiding uestions that will help me find the appropriate information. • Use a variety of sources to find the information. • Use a data chart to record the information as I find it. • When I take notes, record keywords instead of copying everything I read. • Think about information on the data chart and write a summary in my own words.

When I want to meet my goal: By the end of this unit of work.

Teachers and goal setting Goal setting is not just for pupils. Teachers set long-term goals when they outline their yearly program, medium-term goal in term or unit planning, and short-term goals in weekly and daily programs. Individual lessons reflect medium- or long-term goals. Whether it takes place on a formal or informal level, effective teachers regularly reflect on their teaching, identifying their strengths and areas for improvement. Teachers can consider their own knowledge, skills, attitudes and feelings, as well as the perceptions of their pupils. According to Edwards-Groves (2003, p 92), ‘Purposeful reflection helps teachers to: • • • • • • •

104

think through actions and classroom routines re-examine the appropriateness of the lesson talk, text and task evaluate classroom interactive practices evaluate student learning connect theory and practice examine their own teaching expertise change practice.’

Smart Thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 104

12/10/08 5:48:07 PM

Teachers may take advantage of professional development or training sessions, and professional review or appraisal programs to reflect on what they have heard, seen, done, felt and/or learnt during the session, and these occasions can be used as triggers to reflect more broadly on their teaching practices. Teachers may ask themselves: • What have I connected with as a result of the session? • What would I like to implement or alter in my classroom as a result of this session? • What will I need to do or know to do this? • Which aspect(s) of my teaching would I like to monitor and seek feedback on? • How will I know if I have been successful?

A number of proformas in this book, such as 6.4: Head, heart and hands (p 113), are useful reflective prompts for teachers as well as pupils. Figures 6.7 and 6.8 provide more formal frameworks for reflecting on goal setting in a professional review or appraisal setting. FIGURE 6.7 Part of a teacher goal-setting document

Specific strengths

Specific teaching and learning goals

How I will do this?

Timeline

Outcomes or achievement indicators

Have established positive relationships with the pupils.

To improve my teaching for thinking so that pupils develop deep levels of thinking.

Learn how to use strategies that promote questioning and reflection Visit Jake’s Year 3 class and watch him teach.

End of term

Pupils will: • offer more detailed and complex responses • ask more questions • use language associated with reflection. I will: • use a range of questioning techniques and types • use strategies that cater for a range of abilities and interests.

Improve my questioning skills. – Plan questions that require higher level thinking and responses from the pupils (i.e. analysis, synthesis, evaluation).

FIGURE 6.8 A teacher goal-setting document

This is where I am now (my strengths and areas for improvement):

This is where I want to be (what I want to know or do):

This is what I need to do (my action plan):

This is how I will know I have achieved my goal/s (indicators of success):

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 105

105

12/10/08 5:48:08 PM

Smart ideas The following activities are designed to help pupils develop effective goal-setting skills. Teachers may need to adapt these to suit the requirements of their pupils.

Head, heart and hands This activity helps pupils to think about their thinking and learning (head), identify what they feel about their thinking and learning (heart), and plan their actions to set goal(s) (hands). See Figure 6.9. Ask the pupils to touch their head and think about aspects of their learning such as strengths and areas of improvement, then get them to touch their chest and think about how they feel about their learning, themselves as learners, what is required of them etc. Finally get them to hold up their hands and think about what they need to do to improve their learning, how and when. This can be done as an individual oral or written activity. See proforma 6.4 (p 113). FIGURE 6.9

What do you think as a result of this?

How do you feel as a result of this?

106

I think that it is important to consider how actions can affect other people.

I feel proud and happy that I was able predict what might happen when people acted in certain ways.

What will you do as a result of this?

I will make sure I think about what I am about to say and consider other people’s feelings.

Smart Thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 106

12/10/08 5:48:09 PM

From here to there and how Ask the pupils to draw two large circles side by side on a large sheet of paper. On the first circle they are to write what they want to be able to know or do. On the second circle they write or draw what they need to do to get there. See proforma 6.5 (p 114). See also Figures 6.10 and 6.11. FIGURE 6.10

I want to be able to spell better.

This is what I will have to do: Say the word slowly. Listen to the sounds in the word. Think about the different ways I can represent each sound. Write the word and see if it looks right . Think of ways to remember the spelling of the word.

FIGURE 6.11

I want to be better at goal setting.

This is what I will have to do: Think about what I have learnt. Think about what I want to improve. Think about the steps involved in improving this. Think about who or what can help me. Plan a timeline. Think about how I will know I have achieved my goal.

Alternatively, pupils can write in the first circle what they now know and can do within a specific subject or context and, in the second, what they want to be able to do. They can then draw linkages between the circles showing how they can achieve this (See Figure 6.12).

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 107

107

12/10/08 5:48:10 PM

FIGURE 6.12

This is what I know: We can think about what we have learnt and can do.

This is how I will get there:

We can work out what helps us learn.

Make sure I understand what the problem is about.

We can improve our learning and thinking.

Think of all the different ways I can go about working out the problem.

This is what I can do: Think creatively. Ask good questions.

Think about what might happen if I choose a particular way of solving the problem.

This is what I want to be able to learn how to do: Think better when I have to solve a problem.

Answer questions well.

One step at a time This activity helps pupils to break a large or long-term goal into smaller parts or short-term goals. Ask the pupils to draw a ladder. The teacher or pupil can designate the number of rungs. On the top rung they write the goal that they would like to work toward. Starting from the bottom rung of the ladder and working up, pupils write an action they will need to take toward achieving the goal. See proforma 6.6 (p 115). Alternatively, pupils can draw a series of footprints leading toward the goal and add an action to each one (See Figure 6.13).

My goal:

FIGURE 6.13

Think about what I am reading as I read. Make sure I know what it is about.

Think about how I feel as a result of reading and why.

Think about why the author would have written the book/text.

108

To be better at responding to literature by thinking about my feelings about the book and connections I have made with what I have read.

Think about the connections I can make between what I have read and: • my life • other people • other texts • the world.

Smart Thinking

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 108

12/10/08 5:48:11 PM

Reflect and react wheel This graphic organiser, which consists of four concentric circles, is designed to help pupils think about a particular issue and identify actions, effects or results of behaviours they acknowledge as important for their learning. In the centre circle there is a question related to learning. Pupils reflect on and respond to this question and write or draw two actions, effects or thoughts related to the inner circle. In the third circle the pupils record two further responses (actions, results or effects) for each of their responses in the second circle, arriving at a total of four responses. In the fourth circle they record two further responses (actions, results or effects) for each of their responses in the third circle, for a total of eight responses. Usually these last eight responses are the long-term effects or ‘big picture’ reactions related to the topic in the centre circle. See proforma 6.7 (p 116) and Figure 6.14. FIGURE 6.14

my

s. idea

Ic

.

I have that now ro u p . i ll k d th e g pe he l

are

ns

I fi n e g is h a rou ny w o po n ti r k I a m m e. The gro u wor p will fi n is k on ti m e h t h e .

os

ew

th

I can o

ffer

e to h

lp

so

the get y. l l i kl pw The grou ne quic do

Pe op l goo e will th dg ro u in k I a m a pm em be r.

th in g . ure I do so m

th e of

ed

ke s

on

ma

me

a

n

ome

.

Ic

t ha et s ur o in ake od I can m dt cte ex pe ll we . d o w it h can lp at I r e h e o w wh I w ill k n o n e e d m I and what

How can I improve how I work in a group?

ork

I will kno w help my that I h grou p a ave t activity h as he nd th ried t lped at t o me he lea I will rn. be a ble und to as ers k q tan d

Iw

sh

The group c an to help u use som k better. r o s w co m e plet e of m d th eo tan s r ur y ide de n wo as u rk. il l o n ’t d w I I n e h w I wil ns l be ts io thing. ab le ue me to so e to group dis ribut t cus n sio co an

rk wo

CHAPTER 6: Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 109

109

12/10/08 5:48:12 PM

6•1 My learning goals Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your learning. Write down your goals and how you will achieve them.

Goal 1 Date started:

Date finished:

These are the steps I will take to reach my goal

This is when I will do each step

1 2 3 4

Goal 1 Date started:

Date finished:

These are the steps I will take to reach my goal

This is when I will do each step

1 2 3 4

Goal 1 Date started:

Date finished:

These are the steps I will take to reach my goal

This is when I will do each step

1 2 3 4

110

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 110

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:13 PM

6•2 Thinking about my goals Name:

Class:

Date:

Complete each part of this table.

These are my goals

This is how I will achieve my goals

This is how I will know I have achieved my goals

1

2

3

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 111

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

111

12/10/08 5:48:15 PM

6•3 My learning goals action plan Name:

Class:

Date:

Date

What I can do now

What I want to do next

When I did it

How I feel about this

Use this throughout the term or unit of work to think about your learning, and to plan for your future learning. Shade the face that relates to you.

112

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 112

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:16 PM

6•4 Head, heart and hands Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your thinking, learning, a topic or experience, and add comments about your thoughts, feelings and actions.

What do I think about this?

How do I feel about this?

What will I do?

What will I do?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 113

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

113

12/10/08 5:48:20 PM

6•5 From here to there and how Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your learning. Complete the tasks in order.

114

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 114

will get there.

This is how I

to know and do. and can do now.

1

3

This is what I want This is what I know

2

Make sure you fill them in in the order written on the shapes.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:22 PM

6•6 One step at a time Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your learning. Write your goal on the top rung of the ladder. Start at 1 and write the steps required to reach the goal.

4

My Goal

3

2

1

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 115

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

115

12/10/08 5:48:23 PM

6•7 Reflect and react wheel Name:

Class:

Date:

Write a question about your learning in the middle circle. In the next circle write or draw two actions, effects or thoughts related to the centre circle (two responses in total). In the next circle record two further responses (actions, results or effects) for each of the previous two responses (four responses in total). Repeat the above process for the outer circle (eight responses in total).

My question

116

Knowledge in action – Goal setting

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 116

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:25 PM

A1 Metacognition matters Name:

Cues to help you think about what you were thinking

Class:

Date:

Your reflections

Awareness I thought about what I already knew. I tried to remember if I had ever done a problem like this before. I thought about something I had done another time that had been helpful. I thought about what I had to do.

Evaluation I thought about how I was going. I checked my work. I thought ‘Is this right or wrong?’ I thought ‘I can’ or ‘I can’t do it’.

Regulation I made a plan to work it out. I thought about a different way to solve the problem. I thought about what I would do next. I changed the way I was working.

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 117

Appendix

117

12/10/08 5:48:27 PM

A2 Looking at my work Copy onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminate for small-group or whole-class use.

Look

Look

Look

at my learning

ahead

at my thinking

I know …

I plan to …

I think …

I learnt …

I want to …

I wonder …

I liked …

I could …

My question is …

I can …

I’d like to …

I remember …

It was hard …

I need to …

I choose …

Adapted from Little Marks Cards Set, Jeni Wilson (2005)

118

Appendix

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 118

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:29 PM

A3 Pass the remote Use the remote prompts to reflect.

Rewind

What would you like to rewind to have another think about?

Record

What is worth recording so you will remember it?

Change channels

What could you do differently?

Stop

What sort of thinking is not useful?

Fast forward

What do you need to think of next?

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 119

Appendix

119

12/10/08 5:48:32 PM

A4 Lucky dip reflection cards Copy onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminate for small-group or whole-class use.

120

I can …

Now I …

My goal …

One day …

I felt …

I thought …

I am pleased …

I wonder …

I noticed …

I wish I had …

I believe …

I am unsure …

I am certain …

I now know …

Appendix

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 120

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:34 PM

A5 Beginnings and endings Copy onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminate for small-group or whole-class use. Pupils pick one beginning (one colour) and one ending (another colour) to construct their reflection.

Beginnings

Endings

I changed …

… A consequence is …

I got better …

… This is important because …

The most memorable …

… I can explain …

The least important …

… I’d rate …

I learnt …

… It’s a bit like …

I noticed …

… I predict …

I am proud …

… This applies to …

I liked …

… I can use this …

I was pleased …

… I might …

I understand …

… I know because …

I know …

… This is how …

I believe …

… compared to …

It was …

… Another viewpoint is …

The hardest part …

… because …

My challenge …

… It surprised me …

I’m not sure about …

… I now …

I didn’t expect …

… I think …

The most important …

… I wonder …

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 121

Appendix

121

12/10/08 5:48:37 PM

A6 Reasoned judgements Name:

Class:

Date:

Use the questions in the left column to prompt your reflections. Record your reflections in the spaces on the right.

Look back What did you do? What could you improve?

Questions What questions have you answered? What questions do you still have?

Pull it apart What factors contributed to your learning? What challenged you?

Make connections What did you learn to do better? What sort of thinking helped you?

Make judgements My progress was …

122

Appendix

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 122

I feel …

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:39 PM

A7 Picture cues Copy onto coloured paper, cut into cards and laminate for small-group or whole-class use.

It helped …

I saw …

I did … I heard …

It was hard … I felt …

I think …

I can …

Adapted from Q Cards, Jeni Wilson (2005) © J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 123

Appendix

123

12/10/08 5:48:43 PM

A8 Traffic light reflections Name:

Class:

Date:

Think about your learning and add your thoughts.

What might you …?

STOP

What might you …?

THINK MORE ABOUT

What might you …?

START Adapted from Art Costa (2006)

124

Appendix

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 124

© J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

12/10/08 5:48:47 PM

A9 Plotting thinking Name:

Class:

Date:

This proforma can be used to rate your performance over four different learning sessions. Using different coloured pencils for each session, place a dot where you would rate your performance and join up all the dots. When you have done this four times, look at the pattern and work out your goals. Record the details of each session in the table below.

Date

Session

Colour used

Making connections

4 3

1 4

3

2

1

1 1

2

3

4

Asking questions

Goal setting

2

2 3 4 Self-assessing © J. Wilson & L. Wing Jan 2009, Smart Thinking, Routledge.

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 125

Appendix

125

12/10/08 5:48:48 PM

Glossary Higher-order thinking involves skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, reflection and applying knowledge to a new situation. While it is beyond lower-order thinking skills such as recall and basic comprehension, they often form part of it. Bloom’s taxonomy is often referred to in relation to higher-order thinking. Deep thinking refers to the set of behaviours thinkers use to enhance their learning so that they move beyond the literal and knowledge-building domains toward a deep understanding. Deep understanding has occurred when pupils can explain how they arrived at their understanding and give examples or evidence to support it; can apply their learning to other contexts; are able to assess their own capacities and ‘blind spots’; make valid connections between complex or abstract ideas; and provide detailed answers to probing questions. Reflective thinking is the kind of thinking that results in reflection as it is defined in the Introduction. While teachers often use the term ‘reflective thinking’ to refer to reflecting on the thinking process, the term for this is in fact ‘metacognition’. Teaching activities are individual tasks or sequential and focused experiences that teachers plan and provide to assist pupils’ learning. The terms ‘teaching procedures’ and ‘teaching tools’ are often used in similar ways. Thinking dispositions refers to the tendency toward, or pattern of, cognitive actions expressed by behaviour, for example: the tendency to approach thinking systematically, or with curiosity and an open mind. The term is sometimes used to explain the gap between ability and achievement. Even if the thinker has the thinking skills needed for a particular task or context, certain dispositions may be required to complete the task. Thinking dispositions are context-specific and not personality traits. Thinking processes refers to a set or series of cognitive and affective skills and behaviours that pupils use. Thinking skills refers to the specific mental/cognitive actions that are taken in order to think effectively, for example: hypothesising, inferring and reasoning. Thinking strategies refers to when pupils select particular approaches, tools or skills for a particular learning activity or make a strategic plan for action. When pupils make a plan to think in a particular way they are using metacognition. Thinking tools describes the aids thinkers may use to encourage, facilitate, organise or represent their thinking. These may include proformas, graphic organisers, routines and ICT capabilities.

126

Glossary

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 126

12/10/08 5:48:50 PM

References and further reading Baird, J 1998, ‘A view of quality in teaching’, in International Handbook of Science Education, ed B J Fraser and K Tobin, Dordrecht, Netherlands. Black, P; Harrison, C; Lee, C; Marshall, B & William, D 2003, Assessment for Learning: Putting it into Practice, Open University Press, Maidenhead, U.K. Bloom, B S & Krathwohl, D R 1956, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners (Handbook I: Cognitive Domain) Longmans Green, New York. Bransford, J (ed) for National Research Council 1999, How People Learn, National Academy Press, Washington DC. Brown, G & Wragg, E 1993, Questioning, Routledge, London. Cam, P 1995, Thinking Together: Philosophical inquiry for the classroom, PETA, Marrickville, NSW. Costa, A 2006, paper presented at Hawker Brownlow Conference in Melbourne. Costa, A 1992, The School as a Home for the Mind, Hawker Brownlow Education, Moorabbin, Victoria. Cotton, K 1991, Close-Up #11: Teaching Thinking Skills, School Improvement Research Series, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/6/cu11.html. Cowley, S 2004, Getting the Buggers to Think, Continuum, London. Dalton, J 1985, Adventures in Thinking, Nelson, South Melbourne. Dalton, J & Boyd, J 1992, I Teach, Eleanor Curtain, Malvern, Victoria. Daniels, H 1994, Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom, Stenhouse, York, Maine. de Bono, E 1992, Six Thinking Hats for Schools, Hawker Brownlow Education, Moorabbin, Victoria. de Bono, E 1992, Teach Your Child How to Think, Viking, New York. de Bono, E 1985, Six Thinking Hats, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Dennison in Ward, C & Daley, J 1993, Learning to Learn: Strategies for accelerating learning and boosting performance, Switched On Publications, Rochedale South, Queensland. Edwards-Groves, C 2003, On Task: Focused literacy learning, PETA, Newtown, NSW. Fisher, R 1990, Teaching Children to Think, Stanley Thornes, UK. Flavell, J 1976, ‘Metacognitive aspects of problem solving’ in The Nature of Intelligence, ed L Resnick, Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey. Fogarty, R 1997, Brain Compatible Classrooms, Skylight Training and Publishing, Arlington Heights, Illinois. Frangheim, E 2002, Reflections on Classroom Thinking Strategies, Rodin Educational Publishing, Loganholme. Gardner, H 1991, The Unschooled Mind: How children think and how schools should teach, Basic Books, New York. Godhino, S & Wilson, J 2004, Little Books of Big Ideas: How to succeed with questioning, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. Golding, C 2002, Connecting Concepts: Thinking activities for students, ACER, Camberwell, Victoria. Gross, M; Macleod, B; Drummond, D & Merrick, C 2001, Gifted Students in Primary Schools: Differentiating the curriculum, Gerric Publications, University of New South Wales. Harris, P; Turbill, J; Fitzsimmons, P & McKenzie, B 2001, Reading in the Primary School Years, Social Science Press, Tuggerah, NSW. Harvey, S & Goudvis, A 2000, Strategies that Work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding, Stenhouse, York, Maine. Jensen, E 1998, Super Teaching, Focus Education, Flagstaff Hill, South Australia. Markkula Centre for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University 2007, A Framework for Thinking Ethically, http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/framework.html. References and further reading

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 127

127

12/10/08 5:48:51 PM

Marzano, R J; Pickering, D J & Pollock, J E 2001, Classroom Instruction that Works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, Virginia. McGrath, H & Francey, S 1991, Different Kids, Same Classroom, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne. Ministry of Education 1989, Learning to Learn: Investigating effective learning strategies, Victoria. Murdoch, K & Wilson, J 2004, Learning Links: Strategic teaching for the learner-centred classroom, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. O’Brien, K & White, D 2001, The Thinking Platform, KD Publications, Marayong, NSW. Piaget, J 1970, Genetic Epistemology, Columbia University Press, New York. Pintrich, P R 2002, ‘The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching and assessing’, in Theory into Practice, vol 41, no 4, pp 219–226. Pohl, M 2002, Infusing Thinking into the Middle Years, Hawker Brownlow Education, Cheltenham. Pohl, M 2000, Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn, Hawker Brownlow Education, Cheltenham. Pohl, M 1997, Teaching Thinking Skills in the Primary Years, Hawker Brownlow Education, Moorabbin. Ritchhart, R 2002, Intellectual Character: What it is, why it matters, and how to get it, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Ryan, Tony 1990, Thinker’s Keys for Kids, South Coast Education Region, Queensland. Ryan, Tony, Tony Ryan’s Thinker’s Keys, http://www.thinkerskeys.com/cms/files/PDF’s/Thinkers_Keys_all.pdf Tishman, S; Perkins, D & Jay, E 1995, The Thinking Classroom: Learning and teaching in a culture of thinking, Allyn and Bacon, Boston. von Glasersfeld, E 1991, Introduction in Radical Constructivism in Mathematics Education, ed E von Glasersfeld, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Wiederhold, C with Kagan, S 1995, Cooperative Learning and Higher Order Thinking: The Q matrix, Kagan Cooperative Learning, San Juan Capistrano, California. Wiggins, G & McTighe, J 1998, Understanding by Design, ASCD, Alexandria, Virginia. Wilks, S 1995, Critical and Creative Thinking: Strategies for classroom inquiry, Heinemann, Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Wilson, J 2005, ‘How do you assess thinking?’, in EQ Australia, Issue Two, Winter, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. Wilson, J 2005, Little Marks Card Set, Matters of Marketing, Diamond Creek, Victoria. Wilson, J 2005, Q Cards, Matters of Marketing, Diamond Creek, Victoria. Wilson, J & Murdoch, K 2008, Learning for Themselves: Pathways to independence in the classroom, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. Wilson, J & Murdoch, K 2006, Little Books of Big Ideas: How to succeed with thinking, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. Wilson, J & Wing Jan, L 2003, Focus on Inquiry: A practical approach to integrated curriculum planning, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton South, Victoria. Wilson, J & Wing Jan, L 1998, Self Assessment for Students: Proformas and guidelines, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, Malvern, Victoria. Wilson, J & Wing Jan, L 1993, Thinking for Themselves, Eleanor Curtain Publishing, Malvern, Victoria. Woodward, H & Munns, G 2005, Digging Beneath the Surface: Toward deeper dimensions of student self-assessment, paper presented at the international conference on Enhancing Teaching and Learning through Assessment in Hong Kong. Woodward, H & Munns, G 2003, Insiders’ Voices: Self-assessment and student engagements, paper presented at New Zealand Association for Research in Education (NZARE) and Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Joint Conference, Auckland, 2003, and European Research Association, Bergin, 2004. Wragg, E C & Brown, G 2001, Questioning in the Primary School, Routlege Falmer, London. Wragg, E C & Brown, G 2001, Questioning in the Secondary School, Routlege Falmer, London.

128

References and further reading

9780415487009-Wilson.indd 128

12/10/08 5:48:51 PM