Seven Laws of Noah

 

Seven Laws Laws of Noah Noah In Judaism, the the Seven Laws of Noah (H  (Hebrew: ebrew: ‫מצוות‬  ‫ע‬ ‫ש‬ Sheva   Mit   zvot  zvot B'nei Noach), Noach), otherwise referred to as ‫נח‬  ‫ ני‬, Sheva he   Noachian La the Noahide Laws[5]  or the Law s[7]  (from the Hebrew pronunciation pronunciation of  of  " Noah"), are a set of universal moral laws which, w hich, according according to the Talmud, were given by God as a covenant covenant wi w ith Noah and with the "sons of Noah"—th Noah humanity..[11] "—that at is, all of humanity The Seven Laws of Noah include prohibitions against worshipping idols, cursing God, murder, adultery and sexual immorality, theft, eating flesh torn from a living animal, as justice.[14] well as as the obligation obligation to establ establish ish courts of justice. According to m to modern odern Jewish law, non-Jews (gentiles) are not obligated obligate d to convert to Judaism, Judaism, but they are required required to observe the Seven Seven Laws of Noah N oah to be assured of a place plac e in the World to Come (Olam (Olam H a-Ba), a-Ba), the the final final reward  reward  of the [18] righteous.  The non-Jews that choose to follow the Seven the Seven Laws   of Noah Laws Noah are regarded as "Righteous "Righteous Gentiles" ha-Olam -Olam:: (Hebrew: (Heb rew: ‫העולם‬  ‫ומות‬ ‫חסידי‬, Chassiddei Umot ha [19] "Pious People of the World").

the unofficial symbol of The rainbow is the Noahidism, recalling the Genesis flood narrative in which a rainbow rainbow appears to Noah after the Flood, indicating that God  would  wo uld not not flood the Earth Earth and destroy all life again.

Thee Seven Laws Th The seven Noahide laws as traditionally enumerated enumerated in the Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin Sanhedrin   56a-b and [20] [21] Tosefta  Avod Tosefta ah Zarah 9:4, Zarah 9:4,  are the  Avodah the following: following:

1. Not to worship idol s.[22] to worship idols 2. Not to curse God. 3. Not to commit murder murder..[23] 4. No adultery or immorality.[24] Nott to commit adultery  or sexual immorality. 5. Not to steal steal..[25] 6. Not to eat flesh torn from from a livi living ng animal .[26] 7. To establish courts of justice. justice.[27] Adam   and subsequently to Noah Noah..[29] According to the Talmud, the seven laws were given first to Adam However, the Tannaitic and Amoraitic rabbinic sages (1st–6th centuries CE) disagreed on the exact number of Noahide laws that were originally given to Adam. [2][6][8]  Six of the seven laws were exegetically derived from passages in the Book of Genesis, Genesis,[31] with the seventh being the establishment of courts of [6][8]  justice.  just ice.   The earliest complete rabbinic version of the seven Noahide laws can be found in the [2][32][33] Tosefta:

 

Seven commandments were commanded of the sons of Noah:

1. concerning adjudication (dinim (dinim)) 2. concerning idolatry (avodah (avodah zarah) zarah) 3. concerning blasphemy (qilelat (qilelat ha-She ha-Shem m) 4. concerning sexual immorality (gilui (gilui arayo arayot  t ) 5. concerning blood-shed (shefikhut (shefikhut damim) damim) 6. concerning robbery (gezel  (gezel ) 7. concerning a limb torn from from a livi living ng animal ((ever ever min ha-hay )

Origins Biblical Bibli cal sources s ources According to the Genesis flood narrative, a deluge covered the whole world on account of violent corruption on the earth, killing every surface-dwelling creature except Noah, his wife, his sons, their wives, and the animals taken aboard the Ark. According to the biblical narrative, all modern humans are descendants of Noah, thus the name Noahide name Noahide Laws refers Laws refers to the laws that apply to all of humanity. [2] After the Flood, God sealed a covenant with Noah with the following admonitions as written in Genesis 9:4[34]

6:

Flesh of a living li ving ani animal: mal: "However, fflesh lesh with wi th its life-blood [in iit], t], you shall not eat." (9:4) Murder and courts: "Furthermore, I wil willl demand your b blood, lood, for [the taking of] your lives, I shall demand it [even] fr from om any wild wil d animal. From man too, I will demand of each person's brother the the blood of man. He who spil spills ls the blood of man, by man his blood shall be spi spilt; lt; for in the image of God He made man." (9:5–6)

Book of o f Jubilees Jubilees The Book of Jubilees, generally dated to the 1st century BCE, [2][35] may include a substantially different list of six commandments at verses 7:20–25: [2] (1) to observe righteousness; (2) to cover the shame of their flesh; (3) to bless their creator; (4) to honor their parents; (5) to love their neighbor; and (6) to guard against fornication, uncleanness, and all iniquity. iniquity.[36]

Modern scholar scho larship ship Rabbinical views For this reason you will find that the Noachian and the Mosaic laws, though differing in matters of detail, as we shall see, agree in the g general eneral matters which come from the giver. They both existed at the same time. While the Mosaic law existed in Israel, all the other nations had the Noachian law, and the difference was due to geographical diversity, Palestine (i.e. "Eretz Israel" being different from the other lands, and to national diversity, due to difference in ancestry. And there is no doubt that the other nations attained human happiness through the  Noachian law, law, since it is divine; though they could not reach the same degree of happiness as

 

that attained by Isr by Israel ael through through the Torah Torah.. The Rabbis say: "The pious men of the other nations have a share in the world to come". This shows that there may be two divine laws existing at the same time among different nations, and that each one leads those who live by it to attain human happiness; though there is a difference in the degree of happiness attainable by the two laws. This difference in the laws can not concern fundamental or derivative principles. Therefore the examination of the law itself is always of the same kind. But the examination relating to the messenger may undergo change. At all events the verification must be direct, though the verification of one religion may be different from that of another. The question whether a given divine law may change for the same people in the same land, we shall examine in the Third Book...  — Joseph Albo, Sefer HaIkkarim The  Encyclopedia The Encyclo pedia Talmudit  Talmudit , edited by rabbi Shlomo Yosef Zevin, states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer included in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides ( Mishneh  Mishneh Torah Torah,,  Hilkhot M'lakhi M'lakhim m  9:1) indicates that the seven commandments are also part of the Torah, and the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin (Sanhedrin 59a,  59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details. [8]  According to the  Encyclopedia  Encyclo pedia Talmudit , most medieval Jewish authorities considered that all the seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides ( Mishneh  Mishneh Torah Torah,,  Hilkhot M'lakhi M'lakhim m 9:1) considered the dietary law to have been given to Noah. [8] Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, published and spoke about the Seven Laws of Noah many times. According to Schneerson's view, based on a detailed reading of Maimonides'  Hilkhot   M'lakhim  M'l akhim,, the Talmud, and the Hebrew Bible, the seven laws originally given to Noah were given yet again, through Moses at Sinai, and it's exclusively through the giving of the Torah that the seven laws derive their current force.[37] What has changed with the giving of the Torah is that now, it is the duty of the Jewish people to bring the rest of the world to fulfill the Seven Laws of Noah. [38]

Academic and secular sec ular analysis According to Michael S. Kogan, professor of philosophy and religious studies at Montclair State University, the Seven Laws of Noah aren't explicitly mentioned in the Torah but were exegetically extrapolated   from the Book of Genesis by 2nd-century rabbis, [39]  which wrote them down in the extrapolated Tosefta..[39] Tosefta According to Adam J. Silverstein, professor of Middle Eastern studies and Islamic studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jewish theologians started to rethink the relevance and applicability of the Seven Laws of Noah during the Middle Ages, primarily due to the precarious living conditions of the Jewish people under the Medieval Christian kingdoms and the Islamic world (see Jewish–Christian relations and Jewish–Islamic relations), since both Christians and Muslims recognize the patriarch Abraham as the unifying figure of the Abrahamic tradition, alongside the monotheistic   conception of God.[40] Silverstein states that Jewish theology came to include concepts and frameworks that would permit certain types of non-Jews to be recognized as righteous and deserving of life in the Hereafter due to the "Noachide Law". He sees there being two "Torahs": one for Jews, the other for the gentile "Children of Noah". Whilst theoretically the Noachide Law should be universal, its prohibitions against blasphemy and idolatry mean that in practise it only really applied to non-idolatrous theists. Therefore Jews normally considered Christians and/or Muslims when discussing this concept.[40]

 

David Novak, professor of Jewish theology and ethics at the University of Toronto, presents a range of theories regarding the sources from which the Seven Laws of Noah originated, including the Hebrew Bible itself, Hittite laws, the Maccabean period, and the Roman period.[41]  Regarding the modern Noahide movement, he denounced it by stating that "If Jews are telling Gentiles what to do, it’s a form of imperialism". imperialism ". [42]

Judaism Talmud Talmud,, the Noahide laws apply to all of humanity. [2][8][28] In Judaism, the term B'nei According to the Talmud Hebrew:: ‫נח‬  ‫ ני‬, "Sons of Noah")[17] refers to all mankind. [8] The Talmud also states: "Righteous  Noach (  Noach  (Hebrew people of all nations have a share in the world to come". [43] Any non-Jew who lives according to these laws is regarded as one of the righteous among the gentiles. [28] According to the Talmud, the seven laws were given first to Adam  and subsequently to Noah.[1][2][8][28]  Six of the seven laws were exegetically Genesis,[1][6][8][28] with the seventh being the establishment of courts derived from passages in the Book of Genesis, of justice.[1][6][8][28] The Talmudic sages expanded the concept of universal morality within the Noahide laws and added several other laws beyond the seven listed in the Talmud and Tosefta which are attributed to different incest,, cruelty to animals, animals, pairing animals of rabbis,[1][2][6][8]  such as prohibitions against committing incest different species, grafting trees of different kinds, castration, emasculation, homosexuality, pederasty, and sorcery among sorcery Ulla,, going so far as to make a  among others,[1][2][6][8][28][44][45] with some of the sages, such as Ulla [1][2][6][46] list of 30 laws.  The Talmud expands the scope of the seven laws to cover about 100 of the 613 [47] mitzvot.. mitzvot

Punishment In practice, Jewish law makes it very difficult to apply the death penalty. [48] No record exists of a gentile having been put to death for violating the seven Noahide laws.[41]  Some of the categories of capital punishment recorded in the Talmud are recorded as having never been carried out. It is thought that the rabbis included discussion of them in anticipation of the coming Messianic Age.[48] Name  of God as death.[49]  According The Talmud lists the punishment for blaspheming the Ineffable Name  Sanhedrin 56a, for Noahides convicted of a capital crime, the only sanctioned method of execution is decapitation,[50]  considered one of the lightest capital punishments.[51]  Other sources state that the execution is to be by stoning if he has intercourse with a Jewish betrothed woman, or by strangulation if the Jewish woman has completed the marriage ceremonies, but had not yet consummated the marriage. In Jewish law, the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming the Ineffable Name (https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0324.htm#16) e.org/p/pt/pt0324.htm#16)). (Leviticus 24:16 (https://mechon-mamr ).[49] Some Talmudic rabbis held that only those offences for which a Jew would be executed, are forbidden to gentiles. [52]  The Talmudic rabbis discuss which offences and sub-offences are capital offences and which are merely forbidden. [53] Maimonides states that anyone who does not accept the seven laws is to be executed, as God compelled the world to follow these laws. [54]  However, for the other prohibitions such as the grafting of trees and [55]

bestiality he holds that the sons of Noah are not to be executed.   Maimonides adds a universalism lacking from earlier Jewish sources.[47]: 18 The Talmud differs from Maimonides in that it considers the seven laws enforceable by Jewish authorities on non-Jews living within a Jewish nation. [47]: 18

 

Nahmanides disagrees with Maimonides' reasoning. He limits the obligation of enforcing the seven laws to non-Jewish authorities, thus taking the matter out of Jewish hands. The Tosafot seems to agree with Nahmanides reasoning.[56]: 39 According to some opinions, punishment is the same whether the individual transgresses with knowledge of the law or is ignorant of the law.[57] Some authorities debate whether non-Jewish societies may decide to modify the Noachide laws of evidence (for example, by requiring more witnesses before punishment, or by permitting circumstantial evidence) if they consider that to be more just.[58] Whilst Jewish law requires two witnesses, Noachide law, as recorded by Rambam, Hilkhot Melakhim 9:14, can accept the testimony of a single eyewitness as sufficient for use of the death penalty. Whilst a confession of guilt is not admissible as evidence before a Jewish court, it is a matter of considerable dispute as to whether or not it constitutes sufficient grounds for conviction in Noachide courts.[59]

Subdivisions Various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided in categories. Maimonides', in his  Mis  Mishneh hneh Torah, included the grafting of trees. [55]  Like the Talmud, he abortion.[60][61]  David ben interpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion. Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, a commentator on Maimonides, expressed surprise that he left out castration and sorcery which were also listed in the Talmud.[62] The Talmudist Ulla said that here are 30 laws which the sons of Noah took upon themselves. However, he only lists three, namely the three that the gentiles follow: not to create a Ketubah between males, not to sell carrion  or human flesh  in the market and to respect the Torah. The rest of the laws are not listed. [63] Though the authorities seem to take it for granted that Ulla's thirty commandments included the original seven, an additional thirty laws are also possible from the reading. Two different lists of the 30 laws exist. Both lists include an additional twenty-three mitzvot which are subdivisions or extensions of the seven laws. One from the 16th-century work  Asarah Maamarot  Maamarot   by Rabbi Menahem Azariah da Fano and a second from the 10th century Samuel ben Hofni which was recently published from his Judeo-Arabic Geniza.[64][65] Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Chajes suggests Chajes suggests Menahem writings after having been found in the Cairo Geniza. Azariah of Fano enumerated commandments are not related to the first seven, nor based on Scripture, but instead were passed down by oral tradition. [66]

Ger toshav  (resident  (resident alien) During biblical times, a gentile living in the Land of Israel who did not want to convert to Judaism but accepted the Seven Laws of Noah as binding upon himself was granted the legal status of ger toshav Hebrew:: ‫תוש‬ ‫גר‬, ger alien").[6][67][68][69]  A ger (Hebrew ger:: "foreigner" "foreigner" or "alien" + toshav toshav:: "resident", lit. "resident " resident alien"). toshav is toshav  is therefore commonly deemed a "Righteous Gentile" (Hebrew: ‫העולם‬ ‫ומות‬ ‫חסיד‬, Chassi Chassid d Umot  Um ot  [4][6][9][15][16][17] ha-Olam:: "Pious People of the World"), ha-Olam  and is assured of a place in the World to Come [4][6][9][15][16][17] (Olam Ha-Ba) Ha-Ba). The rabbinic regulations regarding Jewish-gentile relations are modified in the case of a ger toshav. toshav.[16] The accepted halakhic opinion is that the ger toshav  toshav  must accept the seven Noahide laws in the presence of [69] three haberim haberim   (men of authority),   or, according to the rabbinic tradition, tradition, before a beth din  din  (Jewish [16] rabbinical court).  He will receive certain legal protection and privileges from the Jewish community, and there is an obligation to render him aid when in need. The restrictions on having a gentile do work for a Jew on the Shabbat are Shabbat are also greater when the gentile is a ger toshav. toshav.[16]

 

According to the Jewish philosopher and professor Menachem Kellner's study on Maimonidean texts (1991), a ger toshav could toshav could be a transitional stage on the way to becoming a "righteous alien" (Hebrew: ‫גר‬ ), i.e. a full convert to Judaism.[70] He conjectures that, according to Maimonides, only a ‫צדק‬, ger tzedek ), full ger tzedek  would  would be found during the Messianic era.[70] Furthermore, Kellner criticizes the assumption within Orthodox Judaism  Judaism  that there is an "ontological divide between Jews and Gentiles",[71]  which he Torah teaches, believes is contrary to what Maimonides thought and the Torah  teaches,[71] stating that "Gentiles as well as Jews are fully created in the image of God".[71]

Maimonides' view v iew and h his is criti critics cs During the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, the medieval Jewish philosopher and rabbi Maimonides (1135–1204) wrote in the halakhic legal code Mis code  Mishneh hneh Torah Torah that  that gentiles must perform exclusively the Seven Laws of Noah and refrain from studying the Torah or performing any Jewish commandment,, including resting on the Shabbat commandment Shabbat;;[72] however, Maimonides also states that if gentiles want to perform any Jewish commandment besides the Seven Laws of Noah according to the correct halakhic procedure, they are not prevented from doing so. [28][73] According to Maimonides, teaching non-Jews to follow the Seven Laws of Noah is incumbent on all Jews, a commandment in and of itself. [42] Nevertheless, the majority of rabbinic authorities over the centuries have rejected Maimonides' opinion, and the dominant halakhic consensus has always been that Jews are not required to spread the Noahide laws to non-Jews.[42] Maimonides held that gentiles may have a part in the World to Come (Olam (Olam Ha-Ba) Ha-Ba) just by observing the Moses.[1][17][28][74]   According to Seven Laws of Noah and accepting them as divinely revealed to Moses. Maimonides, such non-Jews achieve the status of Chassid Umot Ha-Olam  Ha-Olam   ("Pious People of the [17] World"),   and are different from those which solely keep the Noahide laws out of moral/ethical w rote in in Hilkhot M'lakhim M'lakhim:" :"[17] reasoning alone.[17] He wrote Anyone who accepts upon himself and carefully observes the Seven Commandments is of the Righteous of the Nations of the World and has a portion in the World to Come. This is as long as he accepts and performs them because (he truly believes that) it was the Holy One, Blessed Be He, Who commanded them in the Torah, and that it was through Moses our Teacher we were informed that the Sons of Noah had already been commanded to observe them. But if he observes them because he convinced himself, then he is not considered a Resident Convert and is not of the Righteous of the Nations of the World, but merely one of their wise.[75] Some later editions of the  Mis  Mishneh hneh Torah Torah differ  differ by one letter and read "Nor one of their wise men"; the latter reading is narrower. In either reading, Maimonides appears to exclude philosophical Noahides from being "Righteous Gentiles".[17]  According to him, a truly "Righteous Gentile" follows the seven laws because they are divinely revealed, and thus are followed out of obedience to God. [17][76][77] The 15th-century Sephardic Orthodox rabbi Yosef Caro, one of the early Acharonim and author of the Shulchan Aruch, Aruch, rejected Maimonides' denial of the access to the World to Come to the gentiles who obey the Noahide laws guided only by their reason as anti-rationalistic and unfounded, asserting that there isn't any justification to uphold such a view in the Talmud.[74] The 17th-century Sephardic philosopher Baruch Spinoza read Spinoza  read Maimonides as using "nor", and accused him of being narrow and particularistic. [74] Other Jewish philosophers influenced by Spinoza, such as Moses Mendelssohn and Hermann Cohen, also have formulated more inclusive and universal interpretations of the Seven Laws of Noah. [74][76]

 

Moses Mendelssohn, one of the leading exponents of the Jewish enlightenment ( Haskalah  Haskalah), ), strongly disagreed with Maimonides' opinion, and instead contended that gentiles which observe the Noahide laws out of ethical, moral, or philosophical reasoning, without believing in the Jewish monotheistic conception salvation..[78]  According to of God, retained the status of "Righteous Gentiles" and would still achieve salvation Steven Schwarzschild, Maimonides' position has its source in his adoption of Aristotle's skeptical attitude towards the ability of reason to arrive at moral truths, [79] and "many of the most outstanding spokesmen of Judaism themselves dissented sharply from" this position, which is "individual and certainly somewhat eccentric" in comparison to other Jewish thinkers. [80] A novel understanding of Maimonides' position in the 20th century, advanced by the Ashkenazi Orthodox rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, is that a non-Jew who follows the commandments due to philosophical conviction rather than revelation (what Maimonides calls "one of their wise men") also also merits  merits the World to Come; this would be in line with Maimonides' general approach that following philosophical wisdom advances a person more than following revelatory commands. [81]

Modern Noahide movement Menachem Mendel Schneerson encouraged his followers on many occasions to preach the Seven Laws of Noah,[9][42] devoting some of his addresses to the subtleties of this code. [37][38][82] Since the 1990s,[9][15] Orthodox Jewish rabbis from Israel, most notably those affiliated to Chabad-Lubavitch and religious Zionist  organizations,[9][15][83]  including The Temple Institute,[9][15][83]  have set up a modern Noahide movement.[9][15][83] These Noahide organizations, led by religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis, are aimed at non-Jews to proselytize  among them and commit them to follow the Noahide laws.[9][15][83] However, proselytize among these religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis that guide the modern Noahide movement, who are often Temple movement,[9][15][83] are accused of expounding a racist racist   and supremacist affiliated with the Third Temple movement, ideology which consists in the belief that the Jewish people are God's chosen nation and racially superior to non-Jews,[9][15][83] and mentor Noahides because they believe that the Messianic era will begin with the rebuilding of the Third Temple on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem to re-institute the Jewish priesthood along with the practice of ritual sacrifices, and the establishment of a Jewish theocracy in Israel, supported Kahane  was the keynote speaker at the First by communities of Noahides.[9][15][83]  In 1990, Meir Kahane  International Conference of the Descendants of Noah, the first Noahide gathering, in Fort Worth, Texas.[9][15][83]  After the assassination of Meir Kahane  that same year, The Temple Institute, which advocates to rebuild the Third Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, started to promote the Noahide laws as well.[9][83]

Public recognition In the 1980s, Menachem Mendel Schneerson urged his followers to actively engage in activities to inform non-Jews about the Noahide laws, which had not been done in previous generations. [42][84] The ChabadLubavitch movement has been one of the most active in Noahide outreach, believing that there is spiritual and societal value for non-Jews in at least simply acknowledging the Noahide laws. [9][15][42][84] In 1982, Chabad-Lubavitch had a reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in a U.S. Presidential proclamation:: the "Proclamation 4921",[85]  signed by the then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan. proclamation Reagan.[85]  The United States Congress, recalling House Joint Resolution 447 and in celebration of Schneerson's 80th birthday, proclaimed 4 April 1982, as a "National Day of Reflection." [85]

 

In 1989 and 1990, Chabad-Lubavitch had another reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in a U.S. Presidential proclamation: the "Proclamation 5956",[86]  signed by then-U.S. President George H. W. Bush..[86]  The United States Congress, Bush Congress, recalling House Joint Resolution 173 and in celebration of Schneerson's 87th birthday, proclaimed 16 April 1989, and 6 April 1990, as "Education Day, U.S.A.". [86] In January 2004, the spiritual leader of the Druze community in Israel, Sheikh Mowafak Tarif, met with a representative of Chabad-Lubavitch to sign a declaration calling on all non-Jews in Israel to observe the Noahide laws; the mayor of the Arab city of Shefa-'Amr (Shfaram) — where Muslim, Christian, and Druze communities communiti es live side-by-side – also signed the document.[87] In March 2016, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel, Yitzhak Yosef, declared during a sermon that Jewish law requires that only non-Jews who follow the Noahide laws are allowed to live in Israel:[88][89] "According to Jewish law, it’s forbidden for a non-Jew to live in the Land of Israel – unless he has accepted the seven Noahide laws, [...] If the non-Jew is unwilling to accept these laws, then we can send him to Saudi Arabia, Arabia, ... When there will be full, true redemption, we will do this." [88] Yosef further added: "nonJews shouldn’t live in the land of Israel. ... If our hand were firm, if we had the power to rule, then nonJews must not live in Israel. But, our hand is not firm. [...] Who, otherwise be the servants? Who will be our helpers? This is why we leave them in Israel." [90] Yosef’s sermon sparked outrage in Israel and was fiercely criticized by several human rights associations, NGOs NGOs   and members of the Knesset; Knesset;[88]  Jonathan Greenblatt, Anti-Defamation League's CEO and national director, and Carole Nuriel, Anti-Defamation League’s Israel Office acting director, director, issued a strong denunciation of Yosef’s Yosef’s sermon:[88][90]

The statement by Chief Rabbi Yosef is shocking and unacceptable. It is unconscionable that the Chief Rabbi, an official representative of the State of Israel, would express such intolerant and ignorant views about Israel’s non-Jewish population – including the millions of nonJewish citizens. As a spiritual leader, Rabbi Yosef should be using his influence to preach tolerance and compassion towards others, regardless of their faith, and not seek to exclude and demean a large segment of Israelis Israelis.. We call upon the Chief Rabbi to retract his statements and apologize for any offense caused by his comments.[90]

Contemporary status Historically, some rabbinic opinions consider non-Jews not only not obliged to adhere to all the remaining laws of the Torah, but actually forbidden from observing them. [91][92] Noahide law differs radically from Roman law for gentiles (Jus (Jus Gentium), Gentium ), if only because the latter was enforceable judicial policy. Rabbinic Judaism has never adjudicated any cases under the Noahide laws,[41] Jewish scholars disagree about whether the Noahide laws are a functional part of the  Halakha  Halakha   (Jewish law).[93] Some modern views hold that penalties are a detail of the Noahide Laws and that Noahides themselves must determine the details of their own laws for themselves. According to this school of thought – see N. Rakover, Law Rakover,  Law and the Noahide N oahidess  (1998); M. Dallen, The Rainbow Covenant   (2003) – the Noahide laws offer humankind a set of absolute values and a framework for righteousness and justice, while the detailed laws that are currently on the books of the world's states and nations are presumptively valid.

 

In recent years, the term "Noahide" has come to refer to non-Jews who strive to live in accord with the seven Noahide Laws; the terms "observant Noahide" or "Torah-centered Noahides" would be more precise but these are infrequently used. Support for the use of "Noahide" in this sense can be found with the Ritva, toshav.[16] who uses the term Son of Noah to Noah to refer to a gentile who keeps the seven laws, but is not a ger toshav.

Early Christianity In the history of Christianity, the Apostolic Decree recorded in Acts 15 is commonly seen as a parallel to the Seven Laws of Noah, and [2][94][95]

thus be a commonality commonality rather than a differential.  However, modern scholars dispute the connection between Acts 15 and the seven Noahide laws.[95] The Apostolic Decree is still observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and includes some food restrictions..[96] restrictions The Jewish Encyclopedia article Encyclopedia article on Paul of Tarsus states: According to Acts 13 (https://bible.oremus.org/?pass (https://bible.oremus.org/?passag ag e=Acts%2013&version=nrsv), 14 (https://bible.oremu s.org/?passage=Acts%2014&version=nrsv), 17 (http s://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2017&version=n rsv), 18 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%201 8&version=nrsv) [...], Paul began working along the traditional Jewish line of proselytizing in the various synagogues where the proselytes of the gate [e.g., Exodus 20:9 (https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.ht (https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.ht m#9)] and the Jews met; and only because he failed to win the Jews to his views, encountering strong opposition and persecution from them, did he turn to the gentile world after he had agreed at a council with the apostles at Jerusalem to admit the gentiles into the Church only as proselytes of the gate, that is, after their acceptance of the Noachian laws (Acts 15:1–31 (http s://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015:1–31&versi

James the Just, whose judgment  wass adopted in the Apostolic Decree  wa Decree of Acts 15:20 (https://bible.oremu (https://bible.oremus.or s.or g/?passage=Acts%2015:20&version =nrsv): "but we should write to them [gentiles] to abstain only from things polluted by idols and from fornication and from whatever has been strangled and from blood." (NRSV)

[97]

on=nrsv))". on=nrsv) )". The article on the New Testament states: For great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities in Jerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into the Church, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, it was agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws—namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry, fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal—should be demanded of the heathen desirous of entering the Church.[98]

 

The 18th-century rabbi Jacob Emden hypothesized that Jesus, and Paul after him, intended to convert the gentiles to the Seven Laws of Noah while calling on the Jews to keep the full Law of Moses.[91]

See also Judaism portal 

Code of Hammurabi H ammurabi Ethical monotheism

Natural llaw Natural aw Proselytization and counter-proselytization

Forbidden relationships in Judaism God-fearers Interfaith Inter faith dialo dialogue gue Jewish Christ C hristians ians Jewish outreach Judaism and environmentalism Judaizers List of ancient legal codes

of Jews Relations between Judaism and Christianity Relations between Judaism and Islam Righteous among the Nations Ritual Decalogue Shituf Subbotniks Ten C Commandments ommandments

References "Noahide de Laws" (htt (https:// ps://www.britannica.com/ www.britannica.com/topic/Noahide-Laws) topic/Noahide-Laws).. Encyclopædia 1. "Noahi Britannica.. Edinburgh Britannica Edinburgh:: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 14 Inc. 14 January 2008. Archived (htt (https:// ps://we we  from b.archive.org/web/20160121153759/https: b.archive.org/ web/20160121153759/https://www. //www.britannica.com/t britannica.com/topic/Noahi opic/Noahide-Laws) de-Laws) from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2020. "Noahide Laws, also called Talmudic designation  designation for seven biblical laws given to Adam Adam and  and Noachian Laws, a Jewish Talmudic to Noah Noah before  before the revelation to Moses on Moses on Mt. Sinai and Sinai and consequently binding on all mankind. Beginning with Genesis Genesis  2:16 2:16,, the Babyloni Babylonian an Talmud Talmud listed li sted the first six commandments commandments as prohibitions against idolatry i dolatry,, blasphemy, murder, murder, adultery, and robbery and the positive command to establish courts of justice (with (wi th all that this implies). impli es). After the Flood a Flood a seventh commandment, commandm ent, given to Noah, forbade the eating of flesh cut from a living livi ng animal (Genesis 9:4). Though the number of laws was w as later increased to 30 with the addition of prohibitions against castration, sorcery, sorcery, and other practices, the "seven laws," law s," with wi th minor variations, retained origi nal status as authoritative commandments and as proper the source of other laws. As their basicoriginal statutes safeguarding monotheism and monotheism  and guaranteeing ethical conduct in society framework ework for alien residents in residents in Jewish territor territoryy. socie ty,, these laws provided a legal fram Maimonides thus Maimonides  thus regarded anyone who observed these laws as a s one "assured of a portion in the world the  world to come." come." " 2. Vana, Liliane Lili ane (May 2013). Trigano, Shmuel (ed.). "Les lois noaẖides: Une Un e mini mini-T -Torah orah présinaïtique pour pou r l'humani l'humanité té et pour Israël" (https:/ (https://doi.org/10. /doi.org/10.3917%2Fparde.052.0211) 3917%2Fparde.052.0211) [The  [The Noahid Laws: A Pre-Sinaitic Mini-T Mi ni-Torah orah for Humanity and for Israel]. Pardés: Études et  culture juives (in juives (in French). Paris Paris:: Éditions in P Press. ress. 52 (2): 211–236. doi::10.3917/parde. doi 10.3917/parde.052.0211 052.0211 (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/10.3917%2Fparde. doi.org/10.3917%2Fparde.052.0211) 052.0211).. eISSN eISSN  2271ISBN  978-2-84835-260-2 978-2-84835-260-2.. ISSN ISSN  0295-5652 1880 (https (https:// ://www.worldcat.org/issn/2271www.worldcat.org/issn/2271-1880) 1880).. ISBN (https:// (htt ps://www.worldcat.org/ www.worldcat.org/issn/0295-5652) issn/0295-5652) –  – via Cairn.info Cairn.info..

 

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18. [4][6][8][9][15][16][17] 19. [4][6][9][15][16][17] 20. [4][8][12][13] 21. [1][4][6][8][9] 22. [1][4][6][8][9] 23. [1][4][6][8][9] 24. [1][4][6][8][9] 25. [1][4][6][8][9] 26. [1][4][6][8][9] 27. [1][4][6][8][9] "Jewish sh Concepts: The Seven Noachi Noachide de Laws" (htt (https:// ps://www.jewi www.jewishvirtualli shvirtuallibrary brary.org/ .org/the-sev the-sev 28. "Jewi Vi rtual Library . American–Israeli Cooperative C ooperative Enterprise (AICE). en-noachide-laws).. Jewish Virtual en-noachide-laws) 2021 [2017]. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20170210052305/ht web.archive.org/web/20170210052305/https:/ tps://www.jewishvi /www.jewishvirtu rtu  from tthe he original origin al on 10 February F ebruary 2017. Retrieved allibrary.org/the-seven-noachide-laws) from allibrary.org/the-seven-noachide-laws) 17 October 2021. "Except for the seventh law, all are negative negati ve commands, and the last itself is usually usual ly interpret i nterpreted ed as commanding the enforcement of the others. others. They are derived exegeticallyy from divine demands addressed to Adam and Noah, the progenitors of all exegeticall mankind, and are thus regarded as universal. Noachides Noachide s may also freely choose to practice certain other Jewish commandm commandments ents and  and Maimonides Maimonides held  held that Noachi Noachides des must not only accept these seven laws on their own ow n merit, but must must also accept them as divinely divinel y revealed. [...] Even though the Talmud Talmud and  and Maimonides stipul stipulate ate that a non-Jew who violated the Noachide laws was liable l iable to capital punishmen punishmentt, contemporary contemporary authorities have expressed the view that this is only onl y the maximal punishment. According to this view, there is a difference between Noachide law la w and halakhah. According to halakhah, when a Jew was liable lia ble for capital punishment it was a mandatory punishment, provided that all conditions condi tions had been met, whereas in Noachide Noachi de law death is the maximal punishment, puni shment, to be enforced only in i n exceptional cases. In view of the strict monotheism of Islam, Muslims were considered as Noachides whereas Noachides whereas the status of Christians was w as a matter of debate. debate. Since the late Middle Ages, Ages, however, Christiani Christianity ty too has come to be regarded as Noachide, N oachide, on the ground that Trinitarianism Trinitarianism is  is not forbidden to non-Jews." 29. [1][2][8][28] Rabbinical cal authorities disputed di sputed whether there were only one or several commandments 30. Rabbini given to Adam: see Sanhedrin 56a/b (http: (http://www.halakhah.com //www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_56.htm /sanhedrin/sanhedrin_56.htm l)  l) Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20171106145103/htt web.archive.org/web/20171106145103/http:// p://www.halakhah.com/sanhedr www.halakhah.com/sanhedr  6 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine Machin e in/sanhedrin_56.html) 6 in/sanhedrin_56.html) 31. [1][6][8][28][30] 32. "T "Tosefta osefta Avodah Zarah 9:4" (https:// (https://www.sefaria.org. www.sefaria.org.il/T il/Tosefta_Avodah_Zarah.9. osefta_Avodah_Zarah.9.4?lang=bi& 4?lang=bi&  with=all&lang2=en)  with=all &lang2=en).. 33. Rambo, Lewis Ray; R ay; Farhadian, Charles E., E ., eds. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/ books.google.com/books?id=UEzgA books?id=UEzgAgAAQBAJ&q=T gAAQBAJ&q=Tosefta+ osefta+Avodah+Zar Avodah+Zar ah+noah&pg=PA591).. Oxfor ah+noah&pg=PA591) Oxford d Uni University versity Press Press.. p. 591. ISBN ISBN  978-0-19-533852-2 978-0-19-533852-2 –  – via Google Books. Books. 34. Genesis 9:4–6 (https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0109.htm#4) Jubilees (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/ books.google.com/books?id=Pbooks?id=P35. VanderKam, James C. (2001). The Book of Jubilees  Sheffield:: vUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17).. Guides to the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Sheffield vUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17) Sheffield Academic Press. Press. pp. 17–21. ISBN ISBN  1-85075-767-4 1-85075-767-4 –  – via Google Books. Books. 36. Berman, Saul (2007). "Noachide "Noachi de Laws:In Jewish Law". Law" . ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Edi tion, Volume Volume 15 Ja–Kas. Ja–Kas . Thomson Gale. p. 286.

 

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Learn Torah With 1994–1995 Tor Torah ah  Annual: A Col Collection lection of the the Y Year's ear's Best Tor Torah ah  (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/ books.google.com/books?id=8pxv3Np books?id=8pxv3Np OLdEC&q=maimonides+seven+laws+differ+from+the+ OLdEC&q=maimonides+seven+laws+differ+fr om+the++talmud&pg=P +talmud&pg=PA18) A18).. Torah Aura Productions. p. 18. ISBN ISBN  978-1-881283-13-3 978-1-881283-13-3 –  – via Google Books. Books. 48. "Jewi "Jewishvirtualli shvirtuallibrary brary.org" .org" (https: (https://www. //www.jewi jewishvirtualli shvirtuallibrary brary.org/ .org/jsource/judaica/ejud_ jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_00 0002_00 (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150402123158/ht web.archive.org/web/20150402123158/http:/ tp://www.jewis /www.jewis 04_0_03929.html).. 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"Sanhedrin" n" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/pdf/ halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedri nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) n.pdf) (PDF).  (PDF). Halakhah.com 56a. 50. "Sanhedri Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/San pdf/nezikin/San hedrin.pdf) (PDF) hedrin.pdf)  (PDF) from the original o on n 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. 51. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Torah, Judges, Laws of Sanhedrin, Sanhedri n, chapter 14, law 4 52. "Sanhedri "Sanhedrin" n" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/pdf/ halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedri nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) n.pdf) (PDF).  (PDF). Halakhah.com 56b. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/San pdf/nezikin/San  (PDF) from the original o on n 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. hedrin.pdf) (PDF) hedrin.pdf) 53. "Sanhedri "Sanhedrin" n" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/pdf/ halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedri nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) n.pdf) (PDF).  (PDF). Hal Halakhah.com akhah.com 57a-b. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/San pdf/nezikin/San  (PDF) from the original o on n 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. hedrin.pdf) (PDF) hedrin.pdf) 54. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Ki Kings ngs and their wars: w ars: 8.13" (http:/ (http://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/rst/ rst/kingsa kingsa ndwars.pdf) (PDF). ndwars.pdf) Hal akhah.com.Archived  (PDF). Halakhah.com. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsandwars.pdf)  (PDF) from the the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. 55. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Ki Kings ngs and their wars: w ars: 10:8" (http:/ (http://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/rst/ rst/kingsa kingsa  (PDF). Halakhah.com. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ ndwars.pdf) (PDF). ndwars.pdf) Hal akhah.com.Archived http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsandwars.pdf)  (PDF) from the the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. 56. Schiffman, Lawrence H.; Wolowelsky, Wol owelsky, Joel B., B ., eds. (2007). War and Peace in the Jewish Tradition  (htt Tradition (https:// ps://books.google.com/books books.google.com/books?id=L4YpnaFxUrYC&pg=PA39) ?id=L4YpnaFxUrYC&pg=PA39).. KT KTAV AV Publishing Publishi ng House, Inc. ISBN ISBN  978-0-88125-945-2 978-0-88125-945-2 –  – via Google Books. Books. 57. Babylonian Babyl onian Talmud, Makkot 9a, commentary of Rashi 58. Law and the Noahides Noahi des (https:/ (https://www.daat. /www.daat.ac.il/daat/vl/noahides/noahides01.pdf) ac.il/daat/vl/noahides/noahides01.pdf),, pp. 73–76 59. Contemporary Halakhic Problems, Vol II, Part II, II, Chapter XVII Capital Punishment in the Noachide Code III. Rules of Evidence in the Noachide Code Contemporary halakhic problems, by J. David Blei B leich, ch, 1977-2005 60. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Ki Kings ngs and their wars: w ars: 9:6" (http:/ (http://halakhah.com/r /halakhah.com/rst/kingsan st/kingsan dwars.pdf) (PDF). dwars.pdf)  (PDF). Hal Halakhah.com. akhah.com.Archived Archived (https (https:// ://web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053607/ht he original on 21 February 2015. tp://halakhah.com/rst/kingsandwars.pdf)  (PDF) from tthe Retrieved 25 February 2015. 61. "Sanhedri "Sanhedrin" n" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/pdf/ halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedri nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) n.pdf) (PDF).  (PDF). Halakhah.com 57b. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/San pdf/nezikin/San  (PDF) from the original o on n 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. hedrin.pdf) (PDF) hedrin.pdf) 62. Sanhedrin 56b. 63. Chullin Chullin 92a,  92a, and see Rashi. 64. Mossad HaRav Kook edi Kook edition tion of the Gaon's commentary to Genesis. 65. "The Thirty Mitzvot of the Bnei Noach" (http:// (http://www.noachide.org.uk/ www.noachide.org.uk/html/30_comm html/30_commandments. andments. html).. noachi html) noachide.org.uk. de.org.uk.Archived Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20141123212311/ht web.archive.org/web/20141123212311/http:/ tp://www.n /www.n  from tthe he original origin al on 23 November 2014. oachide.org.uk/html/30_comm oachide.org.uk/ht ml/30_commandments. andments.html) html) from Retrieved 15 November 2014. 66. Kol Hidushei Maharitz Chayess I, Chayess I, end Ch. 10

 

Bromiley, ley, Geoffrey W W.. (1986). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia. Vol. Vol. 3 (Fully (Full y 67. Bromi Revised ed.). ed .). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Michigan: Eerdmans Eerdmans.. p. 1010. ISBN ISBN  0-8028-3783-2 0-8028-3783-2.. "In rabbinic literature l iterature the the ger toshab was toshab was a Gentile who observed the Noachian Noachi an commandments commandments but was not considered consid ered a convert to Judaism because he did d id not agree to circumcision. ci rcumcision. [...] [...] some scholars have made the mistake of calling the ger toshab a toshab a "proselyte" or "semiproselyte." But the ger toshab was toshab was really reall y a resident alien in i n Israel. Some scholars have claimed that the term "those "those who fear God" God" ( yir   yir  ei Elohim/ Elohim/Shamayim Shamayim)) was used in rabbinic literature to denote Gentiles Gentiles who were we re on the fringe of the synagogue. They were not converts to Judaism, although they were attracted attracted to the Jewish Jewi sh religion reli gion and observed part of the law." ᾿  ᾿ 

68. Bleich, J. David (1995). David (1995). Contemporary Halakhic Problems (https://books.google.com/books? Problems (https://books.google.com/books? House (Yeshiva Yeshiva id=IOqQrPlc9ggC&pg=PA161).. Vol. 4. New York City: KTAV Publishing House ( id=IOqQrPlc9ggC&pg=PA161) University Press). Press). p. 161. ISBN ISBN  0-88125-474-6 0-88125-474-6 –  – via Google Books. Books. ""Rashi Rashi,, Yevamot  48b,  48b, maintains that a resident alien (ger (ger toshav ) is obliged obli ged to observe Shabbat . The ger toshav , in accepting the Seven Commandm C ommandments ents of the Sons of Noah, has renounced idolatry idol atry and [...] [...] thereby acquires a status similar to that of Abraham Abraham.. [...] Indeed, Rabbenu Nissim, Nissim, Avodah  Zarah 67b,  Zarah  67b, declares that the status on an unimmer uni mmersed sed convert is inferior i nferior to that of a ger  toshav  because  because the former's acceptance of the the "yoke of the commandments" commandments" is intended i ntended to be binding bindi ng only upon subsequent immersion. Moreover, Moreover, the institution of ger toshav  as  as a formal form al halakhic hal akhic construct has lapsed with wi th the destruction of the Temple." Temple." 69. Jacobs, Joseph; Joseph; Hirsch, Emil G. (1906). G. (1906). "Proselyte: Semi-Converts" (http://jewishencyclope (http://jewishencycloped d Encyclope dia.. Kopelman Foundation. Foundation. ia.com/articles/12391-proselyte#anchor4).. Jewish Encyclopedia ia.com/articles/12391-proselyte#anchor4) Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20120531104704/ht web.archive.org/web/20120531104704/http:/ tp://jewishen /jewishencyclopedia.com/art cyclopedia.com/articl icl he original origi nal on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2020. "In es/12391-proselyte) from tthe es/12391-proselyte) from order to find a precedent the rabbis went w ent so far as to assume that proselytes proselytes of  of this order  were recognized in Biblical law, law, applying to them the term term "toshab" ("sojourner ("soj ourner," ," "aborigine," "aborig ine," referring to the Canaanites Canaanites;; see Maimonides' explanati explanation on in "Yad, " Yad,"" Issure Biah, xiv. 7; see Grätz, Grät z, l.c. p. 15), in connection with w ith "ger" (see Ex. xxv. xxv. 47, where the better reading would woul d be "we-toshab"). Another name name for one of this class cl ass was "proselyte " proselyte of the gate" ("ger ha-sha'ar," ha-sha'ar," that is, one under Jewish Jewi sh civil civi l jurisdiction; j urisdiction; comp. Deut. v. 14, xiv. xiv. 21, referring referring to the stranger  who had legal claims clai ms upon the generosity and protection protection of his Jewish neighbors). In order order to be recognized as one of these the neophyte had publicly publ icly to assume, before before three "ḥaberim," or men of authority, authority, the solemn obligation obli gation not to worship idols, i dols, an obligation obli gation  which involved invol ved the recognition of the the seven Noachian injunctions as binding bindi ng ('Ab. Zarah 64b; "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7). ... ... The more rigorous seem to have been inclined i nclined to insist upon such converts observing the entire Law, with wi th the exception of the reservations and modifications expli citly explicitly made theirhad behalf. The more lenient were. The ready to media" accord them twas hem full equality equali ty with Jews as soon asinthey solemnly forsworn idolatry idolatry. "via taken by those that regarded public adherence ad herence to the seven Noachian Noachi an precepts as the indispensable indi spensable prerequisite p rerequisite (Gerim iii.; ii i.; 'Ab. Zarah 64b; Yer. Yer. Yeb. 8d; Grätz, Grätz, l.c. pp. 19–20). The outward sign si gn of this adherence to Judaism Judai sm was the observance of the Sabbath (Grätz, l.c. pp. 20 et seq.; but comp. Ker. 8b)."

 

Kellner ner,, Menachem (1991). Menachem (1991). Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish people (https://books.g people (https://books.g 70. Kell Phil osophy.. oogle.com/books?id=HBWiRKhun4oC&pg=PA44).. SUNY Series in Jewish Philosophy oogle.com/books?id=HBWiRKhun4oC&pg=PA44) Albany, New Yor Yorkk: SUNY Press. Press. p. 44. ISBN ISBN  0-7914-0691-1 0-7914-0691-1 –  – via Google Books. Books. "against my reading of Maimonides is strengthened by the fact that Maimonides himself says that the ger toshav  is  is accepted only during the time that the the Jubilee is i s practiced. The Jubilee year is no longer practiced in i n this dispensation [.. [...]. .]. Second, it is entirely enti rely reasonable to assume that Maimonides thought that the the messianic conversion of the Gentile Gentiless would be a process that occurred in stages and that some or all Gentiles would woul d go through the status status of ger toshav  on their way wa y to the status of full full convert, ger tzedek . But this question aside, there are substantial reasons why it is very unlikely unli kely that Maimonides foresaw a messiani messianicc era in  which Gent Gentiles iles would woul d become only semi-converts (ger toshav  andequal not full (ger  (ger  tzedek the ). Put ). simply, semi-converts are not separate from the Jews) but to converts them; their status is in every way w ay inferior and subordinate to that of the Jews. They are separate and unequal." un equal." 71. Kell Kellner ner,, Menachem (Spring Menachem (Spring 2016). "Orthodoxy and "The Gentile Problem" " (https:// (https://www.jewi www.jewi Institute e for Jewish Ideas and Ideals Ideals.. shideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem).. Institut shideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem) Marc D. Angel. Angel. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20200801013545/ht web.archive.org/web/20200801013545/https:/ tps://www.jewishi /www.jewishid d eas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem) from eas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem) the original  from the origi nal on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020. 72. Maimonides, Moses (2012). Moses (2012). "Hi "Hilkhot lkhot M'lakhi M'lakhim m (Laws of K Kings ings and Wars) Wars)"" (https:// (https://www.sefari www.sefari Torah ah.. Translated by a.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Kings_and_Wars.10?lang=bi).. Mishneh Tor a.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Kings_and_Wars.10?lang=bi) Brauner, Reuven. Sefaria Sefaria.. p. 10:9. Retrieved 10 August 2020. 73. Maimonides, Moses (2012). Moses (2012). "Hi "Hilkhot lkhot M'lakhi M'lakhim m (Laws of K Kings ings and Wars) Wars)"" (https:// (https://www.sefari www.sefari a.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Kings_and_Wars.10?lang=bi).. Mishneh Tor a.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Kings_and_Wars.10?lang=bi) Torah ah.. Translated by Brauner, Reuven. Sefaria Sefaria.. p. 10:10. Retrieved 10 August 2020. 74. Lemler, David (December 2011). Grieu, Étienne (ed.). "Noachisme et philosophie: Destin d'un thème talmudique de Maïm Maïmonide onide à Cohen en passant par Spinoza" Spi noza" (https:/ (https://doi.org/10. /doi.org/10.3 3 917%2Faphi.744.0629).. Archives de Philosophie: 917%2Faphi.744.0629) Philosophi e: Recherches et documentation documentation (in  (in French). Paris: Centre Sèvres. 74 (4): 629–646. doi doi::10.3917/aphi.744.0629 (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/1 doi.org/1 eISSN  1769-681X (htt (https:// ps://www.worldcat.org/ www.worldcat.org/issn/1769-681X) issn/1769-681X).. 0.3917%2Faphi.744.0629).. eISSN 0.3917%2Faphi.744.0629) ISSN  0003-9632 (https:// ISSN (https://www.worldcat.org/ www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9632) issn/0003-9632) –  – via Cairn.info Cairn.info.. 75. Brauner, Reuven (2012). "TRANSLATIO "TRANSLATION N OF THE FINAL CHAPTER OF THE RAMBAM'S  (PDF). Halakhah.com. MISHNEH TORAH" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/rs halakhah.com/rst/kingsandwars.pdf) t/kingsandwars.pdf) (PDF). Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20141111015524/ht web.archive.org/web/20141111015524/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/rst/ rst/kingsandwa kingsandwa rs.pdf) (PDF) rs.pdf) o n 11 November 2014. Retrieved 26 May 2014.  (PDF) from the original on 76. Rudavsky, R udavsky, T. T. M. (2009). (2009 ). Maimonides Maimonides  (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/ books.google.com/books?id=8OISKHHuU books?id=8OISKHHuUIkC& IkC& q=nor+of+%27the+ q=nor+of +%27the+pious+among+the+ pious+among+the+gentiles%2C%27+nor+of+t gentiles%2C%27+nor+of+their+wise+men&pg=PA17 heir+wise+men&pg=PA17 Sons. pp. 178–179. ISBN ISBN  978-1-4443-1802-9 978-1-4443-1802-9.. Retrieved 26 May 2014 – 9). 9). John Wiley & Sons. via Google Books. Books. 77. Halbertal, Hal bertal, Moshe (2013). Maimonides: Life and Thought   (https://books.google.com/books?id =UY2GAAAAQBAJ&q=Maimonides+laws+of+kings+wise+men&pg=PA253). =UY2GAAAAQBAJ&q=Maimonides+laws+of+kings+wise+men&pg=PA253). Princeton ISBN  978-1-4008-4847-8 978-1-4008-4847-8.. Retrieved 26 May 2014 – via Google University Press. Press. p. 253. ISBN Books.. Books 78. Kogan, Michael S. (2008). "Three Jewish Theologians of Christianity" (https://books.google. Theol ogy of  com/books?id=aE8SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77).. Opening the Covenant: A Jewish Theology com/books?id=aE8SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77) Christianity . New Yor Yorkk City: Ci ty: Oxfor Oxford d Uni University versity Press Press.. pp. 77–80. doi::10.1093/acprof doi 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195112597.003. :oso/9780195112597.003.0003 0003 (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aos %3Aos ISBN  978-0-19-511259-7 978-0-19-511259-7.. S2CID S2CID  170858477 (htt (https:// ps://api. api. o%2F9780195112597.003.0003).. 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S. (July 1962). "Do Noachite Have to Believe in Revelation? 79. Schwarzschild, Steven S. (July (Continued)". Jewish (Continued)".  Jewish Quarterly Review . Philadelphia Philadelphia:: University of Pennsylvania Press. Press. 53 (1): 44–45. doi doi::10.2307/1453421 (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F1453421) doi.org/10.2307%2F1453421).. JSTOR JSTOR  1453421 (ht philosophical osophical reason which compelled tps://www.jstor.org/stable/1453421).. "the basic phil tps://www.jstor.org/stable/1453421) Maimonides to take this restrictive position toward the Noachides Noachi des was the fact that he had learned from his teacher Aristotle and was ready also al so for religious religiou s reasons to believe that ethics are not a purely rational rational,, philosophic philosophi c or scientific discipline. discipl ine. Only the barest outline of general ethical principl pri nciples es can be defined by logical methods. The substance of the the matter matter  which resides in its details can be obtained obtained only through positive statutes, statutes, traditions, or divine commands, none of which whi ch are produced by conscious, rational processes" 80. Schwarzschild, Steven S. (July S. (July 1962). "Do Noachite Have to Believe in Revelation? (Continued)". Jewish (Continued)".  Jewish Quarterly Review . Philadelphia Philadelphia:: University of Pennsylvania Press. Press. 53 (1): 46–47. doi doi::10.2307/1453421 (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F1453421) doi.org/10.2307%2F1453421).. JSTOR JSTOR  1453421 (ht tps://www.jstor.org/stable/1453421).. tps://www.jstor.org/stable/1453421) 81. Iggerot HaReiyah 1:89, HaReiyah 1:89, quoted in Law and the Noahides Noahi des (https:/ (https://www.daat. /www.daat.ac.il/daat/vl/noahi ac.il/daat/vl/noahi des/noahides01.pdf),, p.35 des/noahides01.pdf) 82. Schneerson, Menachem Mendel (1987). Mendel (1987). Likkut Likkutei ei Sichot  [Collected  [Collected Talks] Talks] (in Yiddish). Vol. 35. Brooklyn Brooklyn:: Kehot Publication Society. Society. p. 97. ISBN ISBN  978-0-8266-5781-7 978-0-8266-5781-7.. 83. Ilany, Ofri (12 September 2018). "The Messianic Zionist Religion Religi on Whose Believers Wors Worship hip Judaism (But C Can't an't Practice P ractice It)" (htt (https:// ps://www.haaretz. www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-t com/jewish/.premium-the-messianic-zio he-messianic-zio nist-religion-that-wants-to-recruit-7-billion-members-1.6455144).. Haaretz nist-religion-that-wants-to-recruit-7-billion-members-1.6455144) Haaretz.. Tel A Aviv viv.. Archived (https://archive.today/20200209223631/https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-the-messi  from tthe he original origi nal on anic-zionist-religion-that-wants-to-recruit-7-billion-members-1.6455144) from anic-zionist-religion-that-wants-to-recruit-7-billion-members-1.6455144) 9 February 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2020. 84. Strauss, Ilana E. (26 January 2016). "The Gentiles Who Act Like Jews: Who are these nonJews practicing Orthodox Orthodox Judaism?" (htt (https:// ps://www.tabletmag. www.tabletmag.com/sect com/sections/beli ions/belief/ar ef/articles/theticles/thegentiles-who-act-like-jews).. Tablet Magazine. gentiles-who-act-like-jews) Magazine. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/201810 web.archive.org/web/201810 26025031/https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/196588/the-gentiles-who-act-li  from tthe he original origina l on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2020. ke-jews) from ke-jews) 85. Woolley Wooll ey,, John; Peters, Gerhard (3 April 1982). "Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States: 1981–1989 – Proclamation 4921—National Day of Reflection" (htt (https:// ps://www.presiden www.presiden cy.ucsb.edu/ cy.ucsb.edu/documents/ documents/proclamation-4921-national-day-reflection) proclamation-4921-national-day-reflection).. The American Presidency Project . University of California, Cali fornia, Santa Barbara. Barbara. Retrieved 9 November 2020. 86. Woolley Wooll ey,, John; Peters, Gerhard (14 April 1989). "George Bush, 41st President of the United States: 1989–1993 – Proclamation 5956—Education 59 56—Education D Day ay,, U.S.A., 1989 and 1990" (htt (https:// ps://w w  ww.presidency  ww.presidency.ucsb.edu/ .ucsb.edu/documents/ American Presidedocuments/proclamation-5956-education-day-usaPresidency ncy Project .proclamation-5956-education-day-usa-1989-and-199 University of California, Cali fornia, Santa Barbara. Barbara1989-and-199 . Retrieved 0). 0). The American 9 November 2020. 87. "Druze Religious Reli gious Leader commits to Noachide "Seven Laws" " (ht (https:/ tps://www.israelnationalne /www.israelnationalne Sheva. Beit El. El. 18 January 2004. Retrieved  ws.com/News/News.aspx/56379).. Arutz Sheva.  ws.com/News/News.aspx/56379) 1 November 2020. 88. Sharon, Jeremy (28 March 2016). 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Jonathan; Nuriel, Carole C arole (28 March 2016). "ADL: Israeli Chief Rabbi Statement 90. Greenblatt, Jonathan; Against Non-Jews Living Li ving in Israel iiss Shocking and U Unacceptable" nacceptable" (https://www.adl.or (https://www.adl.org/new g/new s/press-releases/adl-israeli-chief-rabbi-statement-against-non-jews-living-in-israel-is-shocki ng).. Adl.org ng)  Adl.org.. New York City: Anti-Defamation League. League. Archived (htt (http:// p://webarchive.loc.gov/all/ webarchive.loc.gov/all/ 20170314123513/https://www.adl.or 20170314123513/https: //www.adl.org/news/pressg/news/press-releases/adl-israeli releases/adl-israeli-chief-rabbi-stat -chief-rabbi-statementementagainst-non-jews-living-in-israel-is-shocking)  from tthe he original origi nal on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2020. 91. Eisenstein, Judah D.; D.; Hirsch, Emil G. (1906). G. (1906). "Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah" (htt (http:// p://jewi jewishencyclopedia.com/art shencyclopedia.com/article icles/6585-gent s/6585-gentilile#anchor21) e#anchor21).. Jewish Foundation. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/201201180245 web.archive.org/web/201201180245 Encyclopedia.. Kopelman Foundation. Encyclopedia  from the origi nal on 18 January 56/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6585-gentile) from 56/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6585-gentile) the original 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2020. 92. "Sanhedri "Sanhedrin" n" (htt (http:// p://halakhah.com/pdf/ halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedri nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) n.pdf) (PDF).  (PDF). Hal Halakhah.com akhah.com 59a-b. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/ht web.archive.org/web/20150221053238/http:/ tp://halakhah.com/ /halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/San pdf/nezikin/San  (PDF) from the original o on n 21 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015. hedrin.pdf) (PDF) hedrin.pdf) 93. Bleich, J. David (1997). David (1997). "Tikkun Olam: Jewish Obligations Obligati ons to Non-Jewish Society" (https:/ (https://bo /bo oks.google.com/books?id=6by4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61).. In Shatz, David; Waxman, Chaim I.; oks.google.com/books?id=6by4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61) Diament, Nathan J. (eds.). Tikkun Olam: Social Responsibility in Jewish Thought and Law . Northvale, NJ: NJ: Jason Aronson Inc. Aronson Inc. pp. 61–102. ISBN ISBN  978-0-765-75951-1 978-0-765-75951-1 –  – via Google Books.. Books 94. Bockmuehl, Markus (January 1995). "The Noachide Commandments and New Testament Ethics: with Special Reference to Acts 15 and Pauline Halakhah". Revue Biblique. Biblique. Leuven Leuven:: Peeters Publishers. Publishers. 102 (1): 72–101. ISSN ISSN  0035-0907 (https:// (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0035www.worldcat.org/issn/0035-0 0 907).. JSTOR 907) JSTOR  44076024 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/44076024). (https://www.jstor.org/stable/44076024). 95. Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1998). A. (1998). The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Intr Introduction oduction and Commentar C ommentary  y . The Anchor Yale Yale B Bible ible Commentaries Commentaries.. Vol. 31. New Haven, Connecticut: Connecticut: Yale University Press. Press. p. Chapter V. ISBN ISBN  9780300139822 9780300139822.. 96. Karl Josef von Hefele's Hefele's commentary on canon II of Gangra (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/n (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20161220220146/htt web.archive.org/web/20161220220146/http:// p://www.cc www.cc pnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html)  Archived (htt pnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html)  20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine notes: Machine notes: el.org/ccel/schaff/npnf el.org/ccel/schaf f/npnf214.viii 214.viii.v .v.iv. .iv.ii.html) ii.html) 20 "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was w as still in force. With the Greeks Greeks,, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamon Balsamon also,  also, the wel well-known l-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Middl e Ages, in his comment commentary ary on the sixty-third Aposto Apostolic lic Canon Canon,, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the the Latin Church, however how ever,, thought on this subject about the year 400, is i s shown by St. Augustine in Augustine  in hi hiss work Contra Faustum, Faustum, where he states that the Apostles had given g iven this command to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish Jewi sh and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was w as only observed by few. But stil still,l, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731) Third  (731) forbade tthe he eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one wil w illl pretend that the disciplinary discipli nary enactmentss of any council, even though it enactment i t be one of the undisputed Ecumenical Synods, Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held hel d by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete o bsolete for centuries in the West West is  is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only onl y temporary temporary utility utili ty and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."

 

97. Kohler, Kaufmann (1906). Kaufmann (1906). "Saul of T Tarsus: arsus: His Missionary Missi onary Tr Travels" avels" (htt (http:// p://jew jewishencyclopedi ishencyclopedi Encycloped ia.. Kopelman a.com/articles/13232-saul-of-t a.com/ articles/13232-saul-of-tarsus#anchor10) arsus#anchor10).. Jewish Encyclopedia Foundation.. Archived (https Foundation (https:// ://web.archive.org/web/20120218134014/ht web.archive.org/web/20120218134014/http:/ tp://jewi /jewishencyclope shencyclope  from tthe he original origi nal on 18 February 2012. Retrieved dia.com/articles/13232-saul-of-tarsus) from dia.com/articles/13232-saul-of-tarsus) 9 November 2020. 98. Kohler, Kaufmann (1906). Kaufmann (1906). "New Testament estament:: Spirit of Jewish Jewi sh Proselytism in C Christianity" hristianity" (htt p://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11498-new-testament#anchor19).. Jewish p://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11498-new-testament#anchor19) Foundation. Archived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/201201062145 web.archive.org/web/201201062145 Encyclopedia.. Kopelman Foundation. Encyclopedia  from the origi nal on 6 58/http:// 58/htt p://jewi jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11498-new-test shencyclopedia.com/articles/11498-new-testament) ament) from the original January 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2020.

Further reading Adler, Elchanan (Fall 2002). "The Sabbath S abbath Obser Observing ving Gentile: Hal Halakhic, akhic, Hashkafic, and Liturgical Perspectives" (https://traditiononli (https://traditiononline.org/ ne.org/the-sabbaththe-sabbath-observing-gentile-halakhi observing-gentile-halakhic-h c-h ashkafic-and-liturgical-perspectives/). Tradition: Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought . Rabbinical Council of Am America. erica. 36 (3): 14–45. JSTOR 23262836 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl e/23262836). Retrieved 7 November 2020. Berlin, Berli n, Meyer; Zevin, Shlomo Yosef, eds. (1992) (1992) [1969]. "BEN NOAH" (htt (https:// ps://books.google. books.google. com/books?id=lkLnwuXpbl4C&pg=PA360). Encyclopedi Encyclopedia a Talmudica: A Digest of Halachic Literature and Jewish Law from the the Tannaitic Period to the Present Time, Alphabetically  Alphabeticall y   Arranged . Vol. IV. IV. Jerusalem: Yad Harav Herzog (Emet) (Emet).. pp. 360–380. ISBN 0873067142 – via Google Books. Bleich, Blei ch, J. David (1988). "Judaism and Natural La Law" w" (https:/ (https://books.google.com /books.google.com/books?id=bJ /books?id=bJ MnC8LQMu8C&pg=PA5). MnC8LQMu8C&pg=P A5). In Hecht, Neils Nei ls S. S . (ed.). (ed.). Jewish  Jewish Law Annual . Vol. 7. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Oxf ordshire: Routledge. pp. 5–42. ISBN 978371860480 9783718604807 7 – via Google Books. Bleich, Blei ch, J. David (1997). "Tikkun Olam: JJewi ewish sh Obligations to Non-Jewish N on-Jewish Soci Society" ety" (htt (https:// ps://bo bo oks.google.com/books?id=6by4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). oks.google.com/ books?id=6by4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). In S Shatz, hatz, David; Waxman, Chai Chaim m I.; Diament, Nathan J. (eds.). Tikkun Olam: Social Responsibility in Jewish Thought and Law . Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc. pp. 61–102. ISBN 978-0-765-75951-1 – via Google Books. van Houten, Christiana Christia na (2009) [1991]. The Alien in i n Israelite Law: A Study of the Changing Legal Status S tatus of Str Strangers angers in Ancient Israel  (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/books books.google.com/books?id=NR ?id=NRgmWnZ2 gmWnZ2 MqsC). The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Bibl e/Old T Testament estament Studies. V Vol. ol. 107. Sheffield: Sheffield : Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-317-9 – via Google Books. Kiel, Yishai (2015). "Noahide Law and the Inclusiveness of Sexual Ethics: Between Roman Palestine and Sasanian Babylonia" (https://books.google.com/books?id=9pc0CwAAQBAJ& pg=PA59). In Porat, Benjamin (ed.). Jewish (ed.). Jewish Law Annual . Vol. 21. Abingdon, Abingd on, Oxfordshire: Routledge. pp. 59–109. ISBN 978-0-415-74269-6 – via Google Books. Lichtenstein, Aaron (1986) [1981]. The Seven Laws of Noah (2nd Noah (2nd ed.). New York City: Rabbi Jacob Joseph School Press. ISBN 9781602803671. Novak, David Davi d (2011) [1983]. The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism: Judai sm: An Hi Historical storical and  Constructive Study of the Noahide Laws Law s. Littman Library of Jewish Civilizati Civi lization. on. Toronto: Toronto: Liverpool Universi University ty Press. doi doi:10.2307/j.ct :10.2307/j.ctv1rmj9w v1rmj9w (htt (https:// ps://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ct doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1rmj9w). v1rmj9w). ISBN 9781786949820. Rakover, Nahum (1998). Law and the Noahides: Law as a Universal Value. Value. Jerusalem: Library of Jewish Jew ish Law. OCLC 41386366 4138636 6 (https:/ (https://www.worldcat.or /www.worldcat.org/oclc/41386366). g/oclc/41386366). Solomon, Norman N orman (1991). (1991). Judaism  Judaism and World Religion Religi on  (htt (https:// ps://books.google.com/ books.google.com/books?id= books?id= M-auCwAAQBAJ). Library of Philosophy and Religion. New York City: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-12069-7 doi:10.1007/978-1-34912069-7 (https (https:// ://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-12069-7). 349-12069-7). ISB ISBN N 9780-312-06863-9 – via Google Books.

 

Wasserman, Mira Beth (2019). Crane, Jonathan K.; Fi Fillller er,, Emily (eds.). "Noahide Law, Animal Ethics, and T Talmudic almudic N Narrative". arrative". Journal  Journal of Jewish Ethics. Ethics. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvani a: Penn State University Press. 5 (1): 40–67. doi:10.5325/jjewiethi.5.1. doi:10.5325/jjewi ethi.5.1.0040 0040 (htt ps://doi.org/10.5325%2Fjjewi ps:// doi.org/10.5325%2Fjjewiethi.5.1. ethi.5.1.0040). 0040). eISS eISSN N 2334-1785 (https:// (https://www.worldcat.org/ www.worldcat.org/iss iss n/2334-1785). ISSN 2334-1777 (https:// (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2334www.worldcat.org/issn/2334-1777). 1777). LCCN 2014201591 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2014201591). (https://lccn.loc.gov/2014201591). OCLC 1082217204 1 082217204 (https://www.worl (https://www.worl dcat.org/oclc/1082217204). dcat.or g/oclc/1082217204). S2CID 201391432 (https:// (https://api.semanticscholar api.semanticscholar.org/ .org/CorpusID:20 CorpusID:20 1391432). Zevin, Shlomo Shl omo Yosef Yosef,, ed. (1979). " "Ger T Toshav", oshav", Section 1". Encyclopedia Talmudit  (in  (in Hebrew) (4th ed.). Jerusalem: Yad Harav Herzog (Emet). Zuesse, Evan M. (2006). "Tolerance "Tolerance iin n Judaism: Medieval and Modern Sources". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.; Green, Wil Williliam am Scott (eds.). Encyclopae Encyclopaedia dia of   Judaism.. Vol. IV.  Judaism IV. Leiden: Brill Bril l Publ Publishers. ishers. pp. 2688–2713. doi:10.1163/18729029_EJ_COM_0187 (https:// (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1872-9029_EJ_COM_0187). doi.org/10.1163%2F1872-9029_EJ_COM_0187). ISBN 9789004141001.

External links "Israel 2016 International Relig R eligious ious Freedom R Report: eport: Israel Israel and the Occupied Territories" (htt ps://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Israel.pdf) (PDF). State.gov . US Department of State-Bureau of Democracy, Democracy, Human R Rights, ights, and Labor. 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2020. Feldman, Rachel Z. (8 October October 2017). "The Bnei Noah (Children (Chi ldren of Noah)" (https://wrldrels.o (https://wrldrels.o rg/2017/10/08/the-bnei-noah-children-of-noah/ rg/2017/10/ 08/the-bnei-noah-children-of-noah/). ). World Religions and Spirituality Project . Archived (htt (https:// ps://archive.today/ archive.today/20200121162034/https: 20200121162034/https://wrldrels.org/ //wrldrels.org/2017/10/08/t 2017/10/08/the-bnei-no he-bnei-no ah-children-of-noah/) from from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2020. Kellner Kell ner,, Menachem (Spring 2016). "Ort "Orthodoxy hodoxy and "The Gentile Probl Problem" em" " (https: (https://www. //www.jewi jewi shideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem). Institut Institute e for Jewish Ideas and Ideals Ideals.. Marc D. D . Angel. A Archived rchived (htt (https:// ps://web.archive.org/web/20200801013545/ht web.archive.org/web/20200801013545/https:/ tps://www.jewishi /www.jewishid d eas.org/article/orthodoxyeas.org/ article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem) and-gentile-problem) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved R etrieved 7 November 2020. Singer, Isidore; Isidore; Greenst Greenstone, one, Julius H H.. (1906). "Noachian Law Laws" s" (http: (http://jewishencyclope //jewishencyclopedia.c dia.c om/articles/9679-laws-noachian). Jewish om/articles/9679-laws-noachian).  Jewish Encyclopedia Encyclo pedia.. Kopelman Foundation. Retrieved 7 November 2020. Spitzer, Jeffrey Jeffrey.. "The Noahi Noahide de Law Laws" s" (htt (https:// ps://www.myjewishl www.myjewishlearning.com/ar earning.com/article/the-noahide ticle/the-noahide -laws/). My Jewish Learning. Learning. Retrieved 7 November 2020. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seven_Laws_of_Noah&oldid=1158511914"