Seminar Report on hydrogen as the future fuel

HYDROGEN AS THE FUEL OF FUTURE

DEE SBNITM.

(2012-2016)

CHAPTER -1 HYDROGEN AS THE FUEL OF THE FUTURE 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THE USE OF HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

The curre! eer"# $#$!e% - &'$e  ur *$$+, eer"# re$urce$ - +$ ! ' ,"-,'$!+" $,u!+ ! !he r&,e%$ * $!'!+'r# eer"# $u,# ' $u,# +!h *ue, *r !he !r'**+c. /e 're e,+!+" !he$e h#rc'r& re$urce$ '&u! e %+,,+ !+%e$ *'$!er !h' !he# c' &e re,'ce. I '+!+ ec,"+c', c$+er'!+ &e*re ',, !he ch'"e$ + c,+%'!e ' e+r%e!', ,,u!+ c'u$e &# !he e%+$$ e%+$$+ +  * h'r%* h'r%*u, u, $u& $u&$!' $!'ce ce$$ ' !he "reeh "reehu$ u$ee "'$ "'$ c'r& c'r& ++ ++e e !hru !hru"h "h !he !he ce!+', *$$+,-*ue,e eer"# !r'$*r%'!+ rce$$e$ 're r'+,# "'++" +%r!'ce. A! !he !he &e"+ &e"++ +" " * !he !he *'$! *'$! !ech !ech, ,"+c "+c', ', ee, ee,% %e! e! * ur c++, c++,+3' +3'!+ !+  !he !he re$er re$ere e *  c%&u$!+&,e h#rc'r&$ '$ e'$+,# 'cce$$+&,e ' e'$# ! u$e. T'# e$ec+',,# !he !r'**+c  &'$e$ e'r,# c%,e!e,#  !he u$e * *$$+, *ue,. A,!hu"h !he re$ere$ h'e ! &ee !!',,# c$u%e &u! ,# ' ,+%+!e !+%e $' re%'+$ + h+ch $!+,, re,#+"  !he e,,-e$!'&,+$he ce!+', *ue,$ *ur!her ee,%e! * ',!er'!+e$ h'$ ! &e c'rr+e u!. The ch',,e"e  +$ !he ee,%e! * ' e eer"# ' *ue, $u,# $#$!e% h+ch %u$! &e r+e &# $,'r r'+'!+ + '# *r% $uch '$ +rec! u$e * $,'r r'+'!+ + '!er ' "e!her%', eer"#. I $h'r c!r'$! ! !he re$e! $#$!e% h+ch c$u%e$ ,# ,"-$!re re$ere$ !he e e %u$! &'$e  +c%+" r+%'r# eer"#. A+!+',,# !he e $#$!e% %u$!  &e ' c,$e $#$!e% $ #$!e% &'$e  -,,u!+"  -,,u!+" c#c,e$. c#c,e$ . The +c%+" r+%'r# eer"# %u$! &e $!re + ' $ec'r# eer"# c'rr+er. The %$! ''!'"eu$ c'rr+er 4 +$ h#r"e.

1.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN

5%'re 5%'re ! *$$+, *ue,$ h#r"e **er$ er%u$ ''!'"e$. Re*erre Re*erre ! +!$ e+"h! +! h'$ !he h+"he$! eer"# e$+!# +!h 78 4/h94". I! +$ e'$+,# 'cce$$+&,e + '# '%u! ece$$'r#. I! c'  &e ruce ,,u!'!-*ree  ,,u!'!-*ree *r% *r % '!er +!h '# ree'&,e eer"# eer" # $urce. I! rec%&+e$ ,,u!'!*ree +!h #"e *r% !he '+r &'c4 ! '!er. I! c' &e u$e e:u',,# + ''!e c%&u$!+ e"+e$ ' e eer"# $u,# $#$!e%$ $uch '$ ' *ue, ce,, $#$!e%. The !ech,"# * h#r"e-*ue,e 1

HYDROGEN AS THE FUEL OF FUTURE

DEE SBNITM.

(2012-2016)

c%&u$!+ e"+e$ ' !ur&+e$ +$ ',re'# ee,e re'# ! !he %'r4e!. The ee,%e! *  *ue, ce,,$ +$ "+" er# *'$! ' r%+$+". The $'*e!# '$ec!$ * h#r"e 're er# e,,4 ' ' 're $'*e!# !ech,"# +$ e+$!+" ' ee,e c!+uu$,# $+ce ec'e$. O !he !her h' h#r"e h'$ ' $er+e$ * +$''!'"e$. Re*erre ! +!$ $ec+*+c "'$ ,u%e h#r"e h'$ ' er# , eer"# e$+!# +!h 600 4/h9% '! 200 &'r. Th+$ Th+$ +$ ,# 77 ; * !he eer"# e$+!# * "'$,+e. H#r"e +$ ' "'$ h+ch c' ,# &e $!re + "'$eu$ *r% r '! ' er# , !e%er'!ure * 20

•

H#r"e +$ ,+"h!er !h' '+r.

•

The +"+!+ eer"# * h#r"e +$ er# ,.

•

The +"+!+ ,+%+!$ + '+r 're er# +e.

The +%r!'! $'*e!#-re,e'! ',ue$ * h#r"e 're $u%%'r+3e + !'&,e 1 + c%'r+$ +!h ! !her e,,-4 h#rc'r& "'$e$.  Neer!he,e$$ h#r"e +$ +e,# u$e + !he +u$!r# + er# ,'r"e :u'!+!+e$ e.". *r !he 2

HYDROGEN AS THE FUEL OF FUTURE

DEE SBNITM.

(2012-2016)

c%&u$!+ e"+e$ ' !ur&+e$ +$ ',re'# ee,e re'# ! !he %'r4e!. The ee,%e! *  *ue, ce,,$ +$ "+" er# *'$! ' r%+$+". The $'*e!# '$ec!$ * h#r"e 're er# e,,4 ' ' 're $'*e!# !ech,"# +$ e+$!+" ' ee,e c!+uu$,# $+ce ec'e$. O !he !her h' h#r"e h'$ ' $er+e$ * +$''!'"e$. Re*erre ! +!$ $ec+*+c "'$ ,u%e h#r"e h'$ ' er# , eer"# e$+!# +!h 600 4/h9% '! 200 &'r. Th+$ Th+$ +$ ,# 77 ; * !he eer"# e$+!# * "'$,+e. H#r"e +$ ' "'$ h+ch c' ,# &e $!re + "'$eu$ *r% r '! ' er# , !e%er'!ure * 20

•

H#r"e +$ ,+"h!er !h' '+r.

•

The +"+!+ eer"# * h#r"e +$ er# ,.

•

The +"+!+ ,+%+!$ + '+r 're er# +e.

The +%r!'! $'*e!#-re,e'! ',ue$ * h#r"e 're $u%%'r+3e + !'&,e 1 + c%'r+$ +!h ! !her e,,-4 h#rc'r& "'$e$.  Neer!he,e$$ h#r"e +$ +e,# u$e + !he +u$!r# + er# ,'r"e :u'!+!+e$ e.". *r !he 2

HYDROGEN AS THE FUEL OF FUTURE

DEE SBNITM.

(2012-2016)

 ruc!+ * $u"'r h're+" * *'! ruc!+ * %e!', ',,#$ ' * $e%+cuc!r$. T T'# '# !he h#r"e-c$u%+" +u$!r# rece+e$ +! %'+,# *r% !hree $urce$ !her%', ' c'!',#!+c $,+!!+ $,+!!+" " * '!ur', '!ur', "'$ ch,r+e ch,r+e-',4 -',4',+ ',+ee e,ec!r, e,ec!r,#$+ #$+$$ ' '!er '!er e,ec!r,# e,ec!r,#$+$. $+$. M'+,# M'+,# '!er  '!er  e,ec!r,#$+$ +$ ','#$ u$e '! !he c$u%!+ $+!e +* !he !r'$r!'!+ * h#r"e +$ ! ee$+e. Fr ruc!+ '$ e,, '$ c$u%!+ ' 're.

MI SE

NOMNIMAL IGNITION ENERGY LF IGNITION TEMPERATURE

IG

CNITION LIMITS IN AIR 

E)

PLOSION ENERGY *+, /s

LO

WER HEATING VALUE VALUE

FL D

AME TEMPERATURE IFFUSION COEFFICIENT

HYDROGEN 0 2 mWs 0 ! "C 

METHANE GASOLINE 9 mWs 24 mWs 40"C 22! - 01"C

42 12 204 0'

- 1 V$%.-& %.-& 1' 3 3 / TNTm44' 1 Ws/ 44' "C 220 ( m2s 0'0

# V$%.-& %.-& '3 '3 3 2 / TNTm#'0 0 Ws/ 0 "C 1!# (1 m2s 0'1

0 - #'( V$%.-& 22 / TNTm3  Ws/ 0"C  m2s

T'&,e T'&,e 1> Ree,'! S'*e!# ?rer!+e$ * H#r"e Me!h'e ' G'$,+e

h#r"e $'*e!# !ech,"# +c,u+" $e$r$ 'c!u'!r$ re,+e* ',e$ %e!', ' ,'$!+c %'!er+',$ ' h',+" rceure$ +$ e$!'&,+$he ''+,'&,e ' ,'+  + e,,-e*+e re"u,'!+$ ' ,'$.

I! h'$ ',re'# &ee re $+ce %re !h' 20 #e'r$ &# re$e'rch r"'+3'!+$ ,+4e DLR ' c'r  OEM$ ,+4e BM/ ' D5 !h'! !he +u$!r+', $'*e!# !ech,"# c' &e u$e e:u',,# + c'r$. Th+$ '$ec! * +!ruc!+ * h#r"e '$ ' *ue, +$ ,# ' %'!!er * c!+uu$ ''!'!+ * e+$!+" !ech,"# ! !he $ec+*+c re:u+re%e!$ * ' c'r ' * +!$ r+ce.

3

1.4 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN

Be$+e$ !he ruc!+ *r% *$$+, re$urce$ ' +!$ r,e '$ ' &#-ruc! ur+" !he ch,r+e  ruc!+ !he e%+$$+-*ree ruc!+ * h#r"e !hru"h '!er e,ec!r,#$+$ ,'#$ !'# ,# ' $u&r+'!e r,e + +u$!r# +!h '&u! e er ce! * !he #e'r,# !!', ruc!+. Bu! + !h+$ c'$e ,# !he ''+,'&+,+!# * h#r"e '$ ' che%+c', r' %'!er+', +$ %+'!. I* h#r"e +$ u$e ' e%+$$+ -*ree *ue, +!$ r,e +$ !h'! * ' $ec'r# eer"# c'rr+er. I! ee$ ! &e ruce +!h h+"h e**+c+ec# *r% ree'&,e eer"# $urce$ h+ch "eer',,# h'e ' %uch ,er +u! eer"# e$+!# ' e,+er +!$ eer"# %$!,# +$c!+uu$. I rer ! *u,*+, !he re:u+re%e!$ * h#r"e %'$$ ruc!+ '! ' ce+e! r+ce ,ee, c%'c! ruc!+ ,'! e$+" ' +!h h+"h ur+!# !he $,+!!+" * '!er +!h e,ec!r+c eer"# +! +!$ c$!+!ue!$ h#r"e ' #"e !hru"h !he $-c',,e ',4',+e '!er e,ec!r,#$+$ +$ 'c!u',,# &e$! ch+ce. I r+c+,e ' e,ec!r,#$+$ ce,, c$+$!$ + ! e,ec!re$ 'e ' c'!he + ' hu$+" *+,,e +!h ' e,ec!r,#!e %+!ure * '!er ' !'$$+u% h#r+e (s $?  PV-E%:$%;s,s S;sm

CHAPTER-2 HYDROGEN PURIFICATION

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION

 2.1. HYDROGEN PURIFCATION AND PRODUCTION STORAGE

The er'!+ * ' e,ec!r,#3er !"e!her +!h ' ?@-*+e, r '!her #'%+c',,# er'!+" er  $urce h'$ ! *,, $eer', re:u+re%e!$. B# h'$ * !he !#+c', er'!+" cure $h'e$ + *+"ure 6 !he# c' &e e,'+e $hr!,#. Sec+*+c',,# !he$e 're> S!'r! u ' $hu!  $h',, ! &e re$!r+c!e &# ' h+"h $!'r!u r $hu! er ,ee, * !he e,ec!r,#3er. I c'$e * $,'r+3e e,ec!r,#3er$ !he %++%u% $!'r!u er ,ee, +$ $%',,er !h' 7 ; c%'re ! '&u! 20 ; * ce!+', e$. The e,ec!r,#3er %u$! *,, '# ch'"e$ * e,ec!r+c +u! er !hru"hu! !he '# +!hu! '# $hu!. The "'$ +%ur+!+e$ * h#r"e + #"e (H2 + O2) ' #"e + h#r"e (O2 + H 2)

h+ch 're c'u$e &# !he $,u&+,+!# * !he "'$e$ + !he e,ec!r,#!e $h',, eer ecee !he

$hu! $'*e!# ,+%+! * 2 @,.-;. The O 2 + H2-+%ur+!# $h',, ','#$ %e &e, 1 @,.-; + rer ! "u'r'!ee ' $+%,e ' $'*e ur+*+c'!+. I !h+$ e'%,e !he H2 + O2-+%ur+!# %e$ ','#$ &e, 02 @,.-;. The O2 + H2-+%ur+!# +$ ,# '&u! h',* * !h+$ ',ue. L'$! &u! ! ,e'$! +eee!,# * !he ch'"e$ * 

+u! curre! !he e,ec!r,#3er ce,, ,!'"e $h',, %e &e!ee 16 ' 1C @ '$ ' %'+%u% ! "u'r'!ee ' h+"h cer$+ e**+c+ec# &e!ee 1 ' 67 ;. Fr% +!$ r+c+,e * er'!+ e,ec!r,#$+$ h#r"e +$ %uch urer !h' !h'! ruce &# !her  che%+c', rce$$e$. A! !he e,ec!r,#$+$ u!u! +! ,# c!'+$ '!er 'r ' $%',, '%u! *  #"e ' !he "'$e$ h+ch 're $,u&,e + '!er. The cce!r'!+ * !he$e "'$e$ %e$ u$u',,# + !he er# , 'r!$-er-%+,,+ r'"e (%) ' !hu$ +$ 'cce!'&,e ee *r !he er'!+ *  $e$+!+e *ue, ce,, $#$!e%$. 5$e:ue!,# + !h+$ c'$e !he %'+ u!+e$ * ' ur+*+c'!+ $#$!e% 're !he re%', * #"e '!er 'r ' ,+:u+ '!er re$!$ * !'$$+u% h#r+e + c'$e * ',4',+e e,ec!r,#$+$ '  'r!+c,e$. A+!+',,# ur+*+c'!+ ' *+', $!r'"e $#$!e% h'e ! *,, !he &u'r# c+!+$ * +$c!+uu$ h#r"e ruc!+. Me'$ure%e!$ +!h !hree +**ere! e,ec!r,#3er !#e$ '! !he DLR 10 4/ ?@-e,ec!r,#$+$ !e$!

*'c+,+!# h'e $h !h'! !he r' h#r"e * $,'r-''!e e,ec!r,#3er$ *u,*+,,$ !he re:u+re%e!$ * +u$!r+', h#r"e +!h !he Ger%' :u',+!# $!''r .0 crre$+" ! CCC ; ur+!# + !er%$ * h#r-c'r&$ N2 5O ' 5O2. The &'$+c ur+*+c'!+ ' $!r'"e $#$!e% *r e,ec!r,#!+c h#r"e !here*re c$+$!$ +>

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H#r"e c,,ec!+ ++"

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F+,!er *r 'r!+c,e re%',

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/'$h+" &!!,e *r :ss$:

2.1.3 STORAGE METHODS FOR MOILE AND STATIONARY CONSUMERS

H#r"e +$ + u$e $+ce !he '#$ * !he *+r$! u&,+c $!ree! ,+"h!+" ' u&,+c hu$e he'!+" ,'!$ !h

 &'$+"  "'$ '! !he ,'!e 1C  ce!ur#. I! '$ u$e '$ ' h#r"e-r+ch "'$ %+!ure -'&u! 60; - * 

H2 5O ' 5O 2 4 '$ c+!# "'$. Er%u$ %'$$e$ ere ruce *r% c', ' '!er  h+ch ere $!re '! e'r,# '!%$her+c re$$ure + "+'! e''&,e $!ee, e$$e,$ +!h *+e  &!!% ' ',, ' ' u '  %+" cer h+ch '$ ,+*!e &# !he c!e! * h#r"e. The$e e$$e,$ 're c',,e "'$--%e!er$. A,$ er# e'r,# +! &ec'%e &+u$ !h'! !he$e e$$e,$ c!'+e ' e!re%e,# , erce!'"e * h#r"e c%'re ! +!$ e+"h! ' !he# ere ,# $!'!+'r# e+ce$. 5$e:ue!,# *r% !he +$! %!r$ ' ee,%e! * h#r"e c%re$$r$ !h

 &'$+"  +$! %e%e! '$ er+e + !he er# e'r,# 20   ce!ur#. T'# !h+$ 4+ *  c%re$$r re'che$ '$ %uch '$ 6000 &'r. Neer!he,e$$ !he c%re$$r$ '$ e,, '$ $!r'"e e$$e,$ 're +%r'c!+c', + u&,+c. Fr% !he ee,%e! * h#r"e-$'*e $!e', ',,#$ ' ur'&,e c%r%+$e '$ *u '! ' ,ee, * 170 - 200 &'r * h#r"e. Th+$ +$ $!+,, !he u$u', &!!,e  re$$ure ,ee, * !'#.

T'4+" ' 70 , $!''r &!!,e +!h ' *+,,+" re$$ure * 200 &'r ' ' !'re e+"h! * 67 4" +!$ 

c!e! +$ ,# C N%  crre$+" ! 8C7 ". Th+$ %e'$ ,# ' $!r'"e e$+!# * 12 !.-;. F'r ! , *r %&+,e

F,/.2.35 I86=s:,% H;6:$/8 S$:/ M$6

',+c'!+$ r ee e**+c+e! "'$ !r'$r!'!+  !he r'. I *+"ure C  !he curre!,# u$e $!r'"e %e!h$ *r $!'!+'r# ' %&+,e ',+c'!+$ +!h !he+r ch'r'c!er+$!+c !e%er'!ure ,ee,$ $!r'"e c''c+!# r r'"e$ re$ec!+e,# '$ e,, '$ 're'$ * u$e 're re$e!e. The# +,, &e e,'+e $hr!,# $!'r!+" *r% ,e*! ! r+"h! + !h+$ *+"ure.

F,/.2.45 L,=,6 H;6:$/8 T8 $? DLR 

The %$! c%% $!r'"e e+ce + c'r$ +$ !he cr#"e+c $!r'"e * ,+:u+ h#r"e + 'cuu%$uer-+$,'!e De'r-!'4$. F+"ure 10 $h$ ' 'r!,# cu! e e'%,e * $uch ' e$$e,. A 120 , !'4 '$ $h + !h+$ *+"ure c!'+$  4" *  h#r"e h+ch crre$$ ! 2882 4/h r '&u! 2 , * "'$,+e. I !er%$ * ,u%e $uch ' !'4 +$ '&u! *ur !+%e$ &+""er '$ ' "'$,+e !'4. I !er%$ * e+"h! !he ',u%+u% er$+ +$ ,# ! !+%e$ he'+er !h' "'$,+e !'4 +!h !he $'%e eer"# c!e!. Bu! !hree %'+ r&,e%$ 'r+$e *r% !he u$e * ,+:u+ h#r"e>

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The eer"# '%u! *r ,+:ue*'c!+ +$ h+"h. A,!hu"h !here!+c',,# !he eer"# '%u! +$ ,# C2 4/h94" * ,+:u+ h#r"e !he r'c!+ce e,+er$ ',ue$ &e!ee 10 ' 0 4/h94" * r+%'r# eer"# '%u!.

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The h#r"e e'r'!e$ *r% !he !'4 +!h ' r'!e &e!ee 2 ' 7 ; * !he c!e!.

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The h#r"e +$ $!re '$ ' $uer-c, ,+:u+ '! 20 < r -2705 h+ch %'4e$ !he h',+" +**+cu,! ! !he u&,+c.

Th+$ $!r'"e %e!h **er$ 'cce!'&,e r'"e$ *r c'r$ &e!ee 10 4% *r ce!+', e$ '

u ! 00 4% *r e r+e !r'+ cce!$ ' ,+"h!-e+"h! c'r$. The r+$4$ * !h+$ !ech,"# h'e  &ee e'%+e er# c're*u,,# ' 're "r'u',,# $%',, '! !he curre! $!'"e * ee,%e!. The '&$r&er $!r'"e %e!h '! , !e%er'!ure$ +!h e.". 'c!+e c'r& c%&+e$ !he ''!'"e$ *  2.1.4 STORAGE METHOD

5%re$$e "'$ +!h +!$ , eer"# '%u! *r $!r'"e ' ,+:ue*+c'!+ +!h !he h+"h $ec+*+c eer"# e$+!#. I !h+$ c'$e ' re$$ure e$$e, c!'+$ ' 'c!+e c'r& er r c'r& '!u&e$ +!h h+"h +er! $ur*'ce ' re'c!++!# ! '&$r& h#r"e '! !he $ur*'ce. A $!r'"e  re$$ure * 70 &'r ' ' !e%er'!ure -10 ' -2105 "+e $!r'"e e$+!+e$ &e!ee 2 ' 6 !.;. Th+$ 4+ * $!r'"e e$ ! h'e !he +**+cu,!+e$ * !he h+"h h#r+e $!r'"e e+"h! ' e$ ! ee ' h+"h !e%er'!ure ,ee, * !her%', er *r h#r"e e-$r!+ *r% !he $!r'"e %'!er+', $ur*'ce. Neer!he,e$$ !h+$ !ech,"# +$ $!+,, uer ee,%e! + !he ,'&r'!r+e$ ' ,#  + $%',, ,u%e$ ''+,'&,e ! !he %'r4e!. Me!', h#r+e$ 're ',,#$ * ! u ! *+e ',,# c%e!$ h'+" ' h+"h,# ru$ cer'%+c-,+4e c$+$!ec#. The h#r+e$ $!re h#r"e + "'$eu$ *r% '$r&e +!h+ !he %'!er+',. The ',,# "ru * h#r+e$ c' &e ++e +! !hree %'+ "ru$ h+ch 're c,'$$+*+e &# +!$ !e%er'!ure ,ee, *r ' h#r"e +$$c+'!+ re$$ure ≥ 1 &'r.

F,/.2. 5 M% H;6:,6 S$:/ $? D,m%: 8<

The %$+ m>:=: ;6:,6s  h'e ' !e%er'!ure r'"e &e!ee -0 ' '&u! 805. Fe-T+ r  T+-5r $#$!e%$ 're !#+c', e'%,e$. Reer$+&,e $!r'"e e$+!+e$ &e!ee 17 ' 2 !.-; ere %e'$ure +!h $!r'"e !'4$. The +$''!'"e$ * !he$e ',,#$ 're !he , $!r'"e e$+!# ' !he ,'+" re$$ure ,ee, &e!ee 10 ' 70 &'r. The$e e+ce$ %'# &e u$e *r h+"h,# e**+c+e! eer"# cer!er$ $uch '$ *ue, ce,,$ + c%&+'!+ +!h ' , c'r e+"h! ! re'ch ce+e! r'"e$. M,66% m>:=: ;6:,6s r4 &e!ee 100 ' 2005. L'-N+ r Fe-N+ 're !#+c',

rere$e!'!+e$. S+ce !he $!r'"e e$+!# * %'+%u% 27 !.-; +$ ,# "r'u',,# h+"her !h' !he '.%. e !he# %'# &e +!ere$!+" &ec'u$e * !he , ,'+" re$$ure ,ee, * ≤ 7 &'r ,#. The r'c!+c', re,e'ce *r c'r$ +$ er# $%',,. The %'+ %'r4e! 're' %'# &e !he $!r'"e * he'! *r hu$eh, ur$e$. Fr c%&u$!+ e"+e$ !he ,/ m>:=: ;6:,6s +!h +!$ !e%er'!ure '&e 2005 ' !he h+"h $!r'"e e$+!# * u !  !.-; ere ' %'!!er * +!e$+e re$e'rch. T#+c', ',,# e'%,e$ 're M"-5u ' M"-N+ $#$!e%$. A '+!+', ''!'"e * !h+$ h#r+e *'%+,# +$ !he ,'+" re$$ure 'ru r &e, 1 &'r. Neer!he,e$$ !he er'!+ * !he$e h#r+e$ +$ +**+cu,! + c'r$ ue ! !he ece$$+!# * !her%', eer"# '! ' h+"h !e%er'!ure ,ee, *r h#r"e e-$r!+ e$ec+',,# '! $!'r!u. Th+$ 4+ * $!r'"e $#$!e% ee$ ' h+"h,# e**+c+e! !her%', %''"e%e! $#$!e%. F+"ure 11 $h$ ' !ech+c', $!r'"e e$$e, *r% D'+%,er-Be3 h+ch '$ u$e + c%&u$!+ e"+e c'r$. A,, h#r+e $!r'"e e+ce$ h'e !he +$''!'"e$ * h+"h e+"h! ece$$+!# * c,+" ur+" !he ,'+" rceure ' he'!+" ur+" er'!+. O !he !her h' +!$ er'!+ r+$4 +$ er# , ' e,, 4. A! ' ,e'4'"e !he h#r+e$ *ree3e er# $ '*!er re,e'$e * $%',, '%u!$ * "'$ ' e,+er '*!er'r$ ,# $%',, *,$. The $!r'"e * c%re$$e "'$ h'$ &ee e$cr+&e '! !he &e"++" * !h+$ ch'!er *r !he ,ee, *  200 &'r. T'# ',$ $!'!+'r# ' %&+,e e$$e,$ *r 00 u 70 &'r 're u$u',. The ,'!e$! ee,%e! "e$ '$ h+"h '$ 800 &'r. S $!r'"e e$+!+e$ u !  !.-; c' &e 'ch+ee. Ee !he e+"h! * !he$e h+"h-re$$ure !'4$ +$ reuce &# !he u$'"e * c%$+!e %'!er+',$ $uch '$ ',u%+u%- c'r& *+&er. Bu! !he eer"# '%u! *r h+"h re$$ure +$ h+"h ' !he *+,,+" re$$ure c' " '$ h+"h '$ 1000 &'r. Th+$ +$ ' !ech,"# h+ch ee$ e ee,%e!$ +e'$ ' !+%e.

The r+$4 * re$$ure $!r'"e +$ er# h+"h. A+!+',,# ! !he r+$4 * &ur+" ' e!'!+ * &+" '%u! * "'$eu$ h#r"e !he r+$4 * e$$e, e!'!+ h'$ ! &e c$+ere &e*re ',,. O!her $!r'"e %e!h$ * h+"h +!ere$! 're "r'h+!e '*+&er$  curre!,# * h+"h $c+e!+*+c +!ere$!  +!h ' ,'+" re$$ure u ! 120 &'r $"e +r +cu,'!e +!h ' c'!',#!+c &,e %e!', ! re'ch er'!+" !e%er'!ure$ &e!ee 0 ' 2005. The +'&+,+!# * !h+$ %e!h h'$ ! #e! &ee $er+u$,# +e$!+"'!e. G,'$$ %+cr$here$ +!h ' $!r'"e e$+!# * '&u! 10 !.-; &u! *r ,'+" c+!+$ * 200  005 ' re$$ure$ u ! 60 &'r 're ece$$'r# ' *+',,# 'er"e,$ '$ ' !#e * e-ce,, *'% +!h u,!r'-*+e re$ ' ' h+"h $ur*'ce 're'. A $!r'"e e$+!# * 8 !.-; '!  &'r '$ rer!e $ *'r.

CHAPTER  -3 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 3.1 THE NEED FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

5urre! U.S. eer"# $#$!e%$ 're ! $u$!'+'&,e. The# r+%'r+,# e,+! ,+%+!e re$urce$ ' +,, $ 'ccu%u,'!e u'cce!'&,e e+r%e!', +%'c!$. 5'r& ++e (5O2) *r% eer"#  ruc!+  c!r+&u!e$ 2; (e+"h!e &# ",&', 'r%+" !e!+',) * !he "reehu$e "'$ e%+$$+$ + !he U.S. Bec'u$e !he e**ec! * 5O 2  re,e'$e +$ cu%u,'!+e !he ee ! *+ ',!er'!+e %e'$ * eer"# ruc!+ +$ &ec%+" +cre'$+",# c%e,,+". Rece! e$!+%'!e$ c',, *r !he "eer'!+ * %re !h' 0; * r+%'r# er *r% -c'r&"e+c $urce$ &# 2020 + rer ! $!'&+,+3e !he ",&', %e' !e%er'!ure +cre'$e ue ! 5O2-+uce 'r%+" '! 25 (5',e+r' e! ',. 200). A,!hu"h h#r"e +$ ! ' eer"# re$urce +!$e,* (&ec'u$e  '!ur', h#r"e re$ere$ e+$!) +! h'$ !he !e!+', ! $ere '$ ' eer"# c'rr+er '! !he cre *  ' c'r&-eu!r', $#$!e% * eer"# ruc!+ ' u$e. 5$!-e**ec!+e ruc!+ * h#r"e + $u**+c+e! :u'!+!+e$ ! %ee! "r+" eer"# e%'$ heer +$ ' ch',,e"e !h'! c'! &e re$,e +!hu! +!e$+e e**r! + &!h &'$+c re$e'rch ' e"+eer+". The U.S. re:u+re$ ' er%u$ '%u! * eer"# %'4+" !h+$ ' 'u!+" ch',,e"e. Bec'u$e * !he $hr! !+%e,+e *r ee,%e! * ,'r"e-$c',e h#r"e ruc!+ c''c+!# !he ee ! 're$$ !he uer,#+" &'$+c $c+ece :ue$!+$ +$ +%%e+'!e.

The ee ! ee, ',!er'!+e eer"# !ech,"# +$ ',$ r+e &# !he ,+%+!e e!r,eu% re$ere$ + !he U.S. A! !h+$ !+%e e!r,eu% +$ !he %'r c!r+&u!r ! eer"# ruc!+. F$$+, *ue,$ curre!,# r+e 7; * !he '!+J$ eer"# $u,# +!h +, 'ccu!+" *r C; * !h'! !!',K '!ur', "'$ 2;K ' c', 22;. B# 2020 !he u$e * *$$+, *ue,$ h+ch !!',e 'r+%'!e,# . !er''!!$ (T/) + 2000 +$ rec!e ! +cre'$e &# 2; %'+!'++" ru"h,# !he $'%e rr!+$ * +, '!ur', "'$ ' c',.1 Tr'$r!'!+ c$u%e$ '&u! !!h+r$ * !he '!+J$ +, ' !h+$ *+"ure +$ eec!e ! re%'+ e$$e!+',,# c$!'! !hru"h 2020. I 2000 !he U.S. +%r!e 72; (e!) * +!$ +, $u,#K &# 2020 !h+$ erce!'"e +$ eec!e ! +cre'$e ! 67;. O+, +%r!$ 'ccu!e *r '&u! e-*ur!h * !he U.S. !r'e e*+c+! + "$ + 2000. 5,e'r,# '$ ," '$ +, c!+ue$ ! &e !he %$! $+"+*+c'! c%e! * U.S. eer"# u$e (e$ec+',,# *r !r'$r!'!+ '$ +,,u$!r'!e + F+"ure 1') +! +,, &e ' ,'r"e c!r+&u!r ! !r'e e*+c+!$ ! !he cu%u,'!+e e**ec!$ * 5O2  e%+$$+$ (F+"ure 1&) '

 $$+&,# ! "e,+!+c', +$!'&+,+!#.

5'r&-eu!r', h#r"e ruc!+ !ech,"+e$ (+c,u+" !ech,"+e$ !h'! u$e ' reu$e c'r& &u! 're ! e! rucer$ * 5O2) cu, e,+! %'# re$urce$ + $u**+c+e! $u,# ! %ee! !he ee$ * ' h#r"e ec%#. The$e re$urce$ +c,ue $u-eer"+3e re$urce$ ($,'r &+%'$$ +) ' uc,e'r eer"#. Ge!her%', ' "eche%+c', re$urce$ cu, ',$  ,'# ' r,e. I e'ch c'$e ee,%e! +$ eee. Su&$!'!+', +%re%e!$ + e**+c+ec# ' reuc!+$ F,/3.15 H;6:$/8 7:s=s V,% B::%s =:7

+ &!h c'+!', ' er'!+', c$!$ 're eee ! e'&,e h#r"e ruc!+ ! %ee! !he '!+J$ *u!ure eer"# ee$. E'ch !ech,"# *'ce$ ' +**ere! $e! * !ech+c',,# +er$e $c+e!+*+c ch',,e"e$ ',!hu"h $%e * !he$e ch',,e"e$ (+%re che%+c', rce$$e$ c'!',#$+$ %'!er+',$ ' $e'r'!+$) 're c%% ! ',,.

3.1.2 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM FOSSIL FUELS

H#r"e +$ curre!,# ruce  ' +u$!r+', $c',e (C M!$9#r + !he U.S.) !hru"h $!e'% re*r%+" * '!ur', "'$. A! re$e! %$! * !he h#r"e %'e *r% *$$+, *ue,$ +$ u$e + !he *er!+,+3er e!r,eu% ' che%+c', +u$!r+e$. N'!ur', "'$ re$urce$ +,, &e $u**+c+e! *r $eer', ec'e$ ! e' !h+$ c''c+!# ! $ur! !he Free%5AR ' Fue, I+!+'!+e. B# 200 +! +$ '!+c+'!e !h'! !he u$e * h#r"e + *ue, ce,, ere c'r$ ' ,+"h! !ruc4$ cu, re,'ce c$u%!+ * 1. MB er '# * e!r,eu%. A$$u%+" !h'! h#r"e ere eh+c,e$ h'e 2.7 !+%e$ !he eer"# e**+c+ec# * +%re "'$,+e eh+c,e$ !h+$ reuc!+ + e!r,eu% u$e u, re:u+re !he 'u', ruc!+ * 'r+%'!e,# 170 M!$ * h#r"e &# 200. I* ',, *  !h+$ h#r"e ere ruce &# e!r,eu% re*r%+" !he e! $'+"$ + e!r,eu% u$e u, &e 11 MB er '# (U.S. De'r!%e! * Eer"# DOE 200). The !!', eer"# u$e *r !r'$r!'!+ + !he U.S. heer +c,ue$ ' $u&$!'!+', c%e! * !her 4+$ * eh+c,e$ (F+"ure 1') ' %ee!+" !h'! ee $e$ ' "re'!er ch',,e"e ! h#r"e ruc!+.

O!her *+e c'r& re$ere$ $uch '$ c', r &+%'$$ *ee$!c4$ cu, &e u$e ! "eer'!e h#r"e +' re*r%+" rce$$e$. Re,'!+e ! '!ur', "'$ heer !he$e re$urce$ "eer'!e 'r+%'!e,# !+ce '$ %uch 5O2 er '%u! * h#r"e ruce. Th+$ *'c!r u!$ '+!+',  re$$ure  !he ee,%e! ' ec%+c$ * c'r& $e:ue$!r'!+ ($!r+" !he 5O2  ruce r'!her !h' re,e'$+" +! +! !he '!%$here). The$e *ee$!c4$ ',$ c!'+ 'r+'&,e '%u!$ *  '!er $u,*ur +!r"e ' ,'!+,e %+er',$ !h'! $u&$!'!+',,# c%,+c'!e re*r%+" rce$$ e"+eer+". Neer!he,e$$ +* ' ec%+c ' $'*e %e!h *r 5O2  $e:ue$!r'!+ +$ ee,e ec%+c *'c!r$ (!he "eer', ''+,'&+,+!# ' re,'!+e,# , c$! * c',) %'# e'&,e c', ! ,'# ' $+"+*+c'! %+-!er% r,e + h#r"e "eer'!+. Re,+'ce  c', '$ ' $,e $urce * eer"# *r 

"eer'!+" h#r"e *r Free%5AR !r'$r!'!+ ee$ u, re:u+re u&,+" * curre! %e$!+c c', ruc!+ ' c$u%!+. T !ech+c',,# e**ec!+e $!r'!e"+e$ *r h#r"e  ruc!+ *r% c', r &+%'$$ 're uer ee,%e!> (1) re*r%+" uer 'r!+', +'!+ ' (2) ' c%&+e-c#c,e %e!h !h'! u$e$ 5'(OH)2 ! *rce !he re*r%+" re'c!+ &# '$r&+" 5O 2 '$ +! +$ ruce (L+ e! ',. 2002).

A,!hu"h !he !ech,"# +$ ''+,'&,e *r "eer'!+" h#r"e + :u'!+!# +' re*r%+" * '!ur', "'$ r $$+&,# !her c'r& re$ere$ !he h#r"e ruce +$ ! * $u**+c+e! ur+!# *r +rec! u$e + !he ,-!e%er'!ure (105) *ue, ce,,$ uer ee,%e! *r !r'$r!'!+ ',+c'!+$. The ,'$! $!'"e + curre! re*r%+" rce$$e$ !he '!er-"'$ $h+*! re'c!+ ,e'e$ eu"h c'r& %+e (5O) + !he ruc! $!re'% ! +$ !he *ue, ce,, 'e. 5urre! %e!h$ *r re%+" !h+$ re$+u', 5O +c,ue re$$ure-$+" '$r!+ re*ere!+', +'!+ r c'!',#!+c %e!h''!+ ',, * h+ch ' c$! ' c%,e+!# ! !he *ue, rce$$+" $#$!e%. B'$+c re$e'rch c' $u,# ',!er'!+e $,u!+$ ! !h+$ r&,e% h+ch cu, c%e + !he *r% * %re 'c!+e c'!',#$!$ *r !he ,- !e%er'!ure '!er-"'$ $h+*! re'c!+ &e!!er "'$ $!re'% $e'r'!+ rce$$e$ ' %e%&r'e$ r 5O-!,er'! c'!',#$!$ '! !he *ue, ce,, ' e $ee $ec!+  *ue, ce,,$.

3.1.3 WATER ELECTROLYSIS5 PROTON REDUCTION AND WATER O)IDATION

E,ec!r,#$+$ +$ ' rce$$ *r &re'4+" '!er (H2O) +! +!$ c$!+!ue! e,e%e!$ (h#r"e H2 ' #"e O2) &# $u,#+" e,ec!r+c', eer"#. The ''!'"e * !h+$ rce$$ +$ !h'! +! $u,+e$ ' er# c,e' h#r"e *ue, !h'! +$ *ree *r% c'r& ' $u,*ur +%ur+!+e$. The +$''!'"e +$ !h'! !he rce$$ +$ ee$+e re,'!+e ! $!e'% re*r%+" * '!ur', "'$ &ec'u$e * !he c$! *  !he e,ec!r+c', eer"# eee ! r+e !he rce$$. 5he%+c',,# !he e,ec!r,#$+$ * '!er +$ $+%,# !he reer$e * !he e,ec!r+c+!#-"eer'!+" re'c!+ !h'! ccur$ + ' *ue, ce,,. ?h#$+c',,# ' e,ec!r,#3er +$ e$+"e er# %uch ,+4e ' *ue, ce,, +!h ! e,ec!re$ +%%er$e + ' c%% ':ueu$ e,ec!r,#!e $,u!+. The re'c!+ c' &e !hu"h! * '$ ccurr+" + ! h',*-ce,,$ $e'r'!e &# ' "'$-+%er%e'&,e

E,ec!r,#!e %e%&r'e (!he *+"ure r+e$ '$che%'!+c r'+" * !he e,ec!r,#$+$ rce$$).I !he c'!he h',*-ce,, h#r"e +$ (r!$) 're reuce ! h#r"e> 2 HP(':) P 2eQ  H2(").

O !he 'e $+e '!er +$ ++3e ! #"e ' r!$>

2 H2O(,+:)  O2(") P  H P(':) P eQ.

B# %u,!+,#+" !he *+r$! h',*-re'c!+ &# ! ' '+" !he ! h',*-re'c!+$ !"e!her e &!'+ !he er',, re'c!+>

2 H2O(,+:)  O2(") P 2 H2(").

Bec'u$e '!er +$ ' er# $!'&,e %,ecu,e re,'!+e ! #"e ' h#r"e !h+$ re'c!+ re:u+re$ +u! * eer"#. I r+c+,e !he re'c!+ c' &e r+e &# ' ',+e ,!'"e * 1.2 @ h+ch !r'$,'!e$ ! ' *ree eer"# +u! * 28 49%,e * h#r"e. I r'c!+ce $%eh'! ,'r"er r++" ,!'"e$ (1.771.67 @) 're u$e &ec'u$e * $, 4+e!+c$ + !he ! h',*-ce,,$. The eer"# e**+c+ec# * !he ce,, c' &e c',cu,'!e $+%,# '$ !he !here!+c', ,!'"e (1.2 @) ++e &# !he ',+e ,!'"eK *r e'%,e ' ce,, er'!+" '! 1.60 @ u, h'e ' e**+c+ec# * 1.291.60  100;  88;. The rce$$ * ++3+" '!er + !he #"e-e,+" h',*-ce,, +$ %ech'+$!+c',,# ' 4+e!+c',,# %re c%,e !h' !he h#r"e-e,+" rce$$ &ec'u$e +! re:u+re$ *ur  e,ec!r$ ' rcee$ !hru"h ' $er+e$ * +$!+c! +'!+ +!er%e+'!e$. I ' uc'!',#3e re'c!+ $%e * !he$e +!er%e+'!e e,ec!r !r'$*er $!e$ re:u+re %re eer"# !h' !her$ ' $%e 're $,er !h' !her$. A$ ' c$e:uece e!r' ,!'"e +$ eee ! r+e !he ce,, r+%'r+,# '! !he #"e-e,+" e,ec!re ' e**+c+ec# +$ reuce. A +e', c'!',#$! *r '!er +'!+ u, e:u',+3e !he eer"# re:u+re '! e'ch $!e + '+!+ ! e:u',+3+" !he r'!e$ * e'ch e,ec!r !r'$*er !hu$ %'+%+3+" e**+c+ec#. The '!er +'!+ c%,e !h'! $ur!$ #"e e,u!+ + h!$#!he$+$ +$ e c'!',#$! !h'! c%e$ c,$e ! %ee!+" !h+$ +e', ' r+e$ ' !'!',+3+" %e, *r &u+,+" c'!',#$!$ *r e,ec!r,#3er 'e$ ' *ue, ce,, c'!he$.

CHAPTER-4

SOLAR HYDROGEN 4.1 INTRODUCTION S,'r h#r"e h+ch +$ ruce &# r++" '!er e,ec!r,#$+$ +!h $,'r ce,,$ &# +rec!  h!c'!',#!+c '!er $,+!!+" +! h#r"e ' #"e &# h!&+,"+c', '!er $,+!!+" r &# $,'r !her%', rce$$e$ rere$e!$ ' h+"h,# e$+r'&,e c,e' ' '&u'! $urce * h#r"e. H#r"e %'e !h+$ '# +$ $u+!'&,e *r u$e +!hu! *ur!her ur+*+c'!+ + ,-!e%er'!ure *ue, ce,,$ ' ee + ',4',+e *ue, ce,,$ h+ch 're %re e**+c+e! &u! %re c'r&-+!,er'!. /h+,e $,'r-!-e,ec!r+c eer"# cer$+ +$ ' e$!'&,+$he !ech,"# curre! $,'r ce,,$ 're e+!her ! ee$+e r ! +e**+c+e! *r +e$re' ',+c'!+. Heer !he !e!+', c''c+!# *r $,'r  h#r"e +$ :u+!e ,'r"e. The e$!+%'!e er u!u! *r% 10; e**+c+e! $,'r ce,,$ cer+" 1.8; * !he ,' 're' * !he U.S. (' 're' c%'r'&,e ! !he ,' e!e ! !he '!+J$

F,/=: 4.15 *L? S88,8/ T=88%,8/ M,:$s$>; Im/ $?  N, S=:? A%%$;6 +, A= *T A= $ms : s$+8 ,8 B%  8,/B$:,8/ N, $ms 7  6,s,8 %:$8, s:==:

4.1.2 DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS

A r%+$+" e !ech,"# + $,'r eer"# cer$+ +$ !he #e-$e$+!+3e h!e,ec!rche%+c', ce,, r Gr!3e, ce,, (Gr!3e, 2001). Th+$ ce,, c$+$!$ * ' h+"h,# ru$ !h+ ,'#er (V17



%) * !+!'+u% ++e 'cr#$!',

'""re"'!e$ (V20 % + +'%e!erK $ee $c'+" e,ec!r %+cr"r'h) !he $'%e %'!er+', u$e '$ !he  +"%e! + h+!e '+!. The ' cr#$!',$ 're c'!e +!h ' #e ' ' ,+:u+ e,ec!r,#!e !h'! c!'+$ re'c!+e ++e +$ r !her +**u$+&,e +'!+9reuc!+ %e+'!r $'+che &e!ee ! cuc!+" ",'$$ r ,'$!+c ,'!e$ $e',e !"e!her ($che%'!+c r'+" $h$ !he %e+'!r  c#c,e ' e,ec!r +ec!+). /he ec+!e &# ,+"h! (S0 ! S W !r'$+!+ + !he *+"ure) !he #e  &ec%e$ ++3e (SP $!'!e) +ec!+" e,ec!r$ +! !he !+!'+u% ++e. I !he *+"ure +'!+9reuc!+ !e!+',$ * !he 'r+u$ re'c!'!$ 're e+c!e re,'!+e ! !he r%', h#r"e e,ec!re (,e*! '+$). The !+!'+u% ++e ,'#er !he !r'$%+!$ e,ec!r$ ! !he cuc!+" ",'$$ e,ec!re h+ch +$ cec!e ! ' e!er', c+rcu+!. The reuce reuc!+9+'!+ %e+'!r  !r'$*er$ e,ec!r$ ! re-reuce !he #e ' !he ++3e *r% +**u$e$ ''# + !he e,ec!r,#!e. The re!ur '!h *r !he e,ec!r$ +$ !hru"h !he !her e,ec!re ! !he ++3e %e+'!r + !he $,u!+ h+ch c%,e!e$ !he c#c,e &# +**u$+" &'c4 ! !he *+,% ,'#er.

F,/ D; S8s,,$: ,8 M%s 86 H;6:$/8-ss,s6 Dm/ M8,sms

5rr$+ ' h#r"e e%&r+!!,e%e! * %'!er+',$ 're c,$e,# cec!e ! e!'+,$ * !he+r  %+cr$!ruc!ure ' + 'r!+cu,'r ! !he $e"re"'!+ ' +**u$+ rce$$e$ !h'! ccur '! +!er', +!er*'ce$ ' '$$c+'!e e*ec!$ $uch '$ +$,c'!+$. A,!hu"h +! +$ e,, 4 !h'! !he $e"re"'!+ * c%% $,u!e +%ur+!+e$ $uch '$ $u,*ur ' h$hru$ ! "r'+  &u'r+e$ c' r%!e eche$+ * !he$e &u'r+e$ !he $u$ec!e $#er"+$!+c r,e *  h#r"e + !h+$ rce$$ +$ ! e,, uer$!. The eeece * +!er*'c+', $e"re"'!+  !he '!ure * !he "r'+ &u'r# +$ ',$ uc,e'r. F+,,+" !h+$ "' u, he, + e$+"+" ' !+%', %+cr$!ruc!ure !h'! %+"h! *r e'%,e %++%+3e !he cec!++!# * *r'c!ure$u$ce!+&,e &u'r+e$. /e ee ! +%re ur uer$!'+" * !he %ech'+$%$ ' 'c!+'!+ &'rr+er$ *r +!er"r'u,'r +**u$+ + 'r!+cu,'r &ec'u$e "r'+ &u'r+e$ c' 'c! '$ *'$! +**u$+ '!h'#$. D+**u$+ ' &+" * h#r"e + !he %+cr$!ruc!ure * &u,4 

$hu, &e e,re. Such ' &'rr+er c' &e cre'!e &# $ur*'ce $e"re"'!+ * ' +$$,e e,e%e! !h'! re'c!$ +!h h#r"e ! *r% ' r!ec!+e ,'#er. Bre'che$ * !he $ur*'ce ,'#er 're 'u!%'!+c',,# $e',e &# re'c!+ * h#r"e +!h *re$h,# e$e $ur*'ce. Re$e'rch +$ eee ! +e!+*# $u+!'&,e ',,#$ +!h c%e!$ !h'! $ur*'ce-$e"re"'!e ' *r% &'rr+er$ u re'c!+ +!h h#r"e.

.4.2 S8s$:s ?$: H;6:$/8

 Ne cce!$ *r h#r"e $e$r$ 're eee ! e!ec! !he re$ece * '"eru$ ,ee,$ *  h#r"e + re*ue,+" $!'!+$ re'+r "'r'"e$ '$$e"er c'&+$ + h#r"e-ere c'r$ ' !her $+!u'!+$ here !he u&,+c +$ e$e ! h#r"e. The$e $e$r$ ee ! &e re,+'&,e h+"h,# $ec+*+c ' , c$! ' !he# ee ! h'e , er re:u+re%e!$. Fr e'%,e re$+$!+e $e$r$ cu, &e ee,e *r% '+re$ r u,!r'-!h+ *+,%$ here ' !h+ ,'#er *  h#r+e *r%+" '! !he $ur*'ce $+"+*+c'!,# ',!er$ !he &u,4 re$+$!++!#. A$r!+ * h#r"e  c'r& '!u&e$ ruce$ ' +$!+c!+e $+"'!ure + !he !r'$r! rer!+e$ e$ec+',,# + !he !her%er. H+"h,# $e,ec!+e e!ec!+ * H2 c' ',$ &e 'ch+ee +!h 'r+u$ $ec!r$c+c 'r'che$. Fr +$!'ce !he h+"h re'c!++!# * h#r"e e'&,e$ che%+c', $e$+" here ' h#r+e *r%+"  !he $ur*'ce * ' re'c!+e *+,% c' &e e!ec!e $ec!r$c+c',,# r !hru"h +!$ !+c', re*,ec!++!#.

.4.3 POTENTIAL IMPACTS

S'*e!# +$ ' r+%e re:u+re%e! *r !he $ucce$$ * !he h#r"e ec%#. The ee,%e! *   re+c!+e %e,$ *r !he #'%+c$ * *ree H2 + '+r + e ' ec,$e $'ce$ u, ',, !he '$$e$$%e! * r+$4 ' e$!'&,+$h%e! * $'*e!# rceure$ *r $ec+*+c 'c!++!+e$ * !he h#r"e ec%# $uch '$ h#r"e eh+c,e re*ue,+" r++" + 'r!+',,# ec,$e !ue,$ +r 'r4+" ' eh+c,e re'+r. Me,$ * h#r"e +"+!+ ' e!'!+ + !he re$ece * 'r$ *r% c%% ,'!+,e ,+:u+$ u, e'&,e e $!''r$ *r !he+r u$e + r+%+!# ! h#r"e. Fu'%e!', 4,e"e * h#r"e e%&r+!!,e%e! * %e!',$ ' e,e +!$ u, e'&,e !he $e!!+" * $!''r$ *r !he %'!er+',$ u$e + &u+,+" ' h#r"e +*r'$!ruc!ure. Se$+!+e $e,ec!+e $e$r$ *r e!ec!+" h#r"e u, 'r '"'+$! !he '"er * *+re r e,$+ + $he,!ere r ec,$e 're'$.

.4.4 THEORY' MODELING' AND SIMULATION OF HYDROGEN O7:7,+

There!+c', %e,+" +c,u+" c%u!'!+', $+%u,'!+ ' '',#$+$ +,, +%'c! ',, re$e'rch 're'$ e$$e!+', *r !he ee,%e! * e**ec!+e h#r"e eer"# $#$!e%$. A $!r" $#er"+$!+c re,'!+$h+ &e!ee !her# ' eer+%e!$  e,,-e*+e $#$!e%$ +,, r+e +$+"h! +! %ech'+$%$ re+c! !re$ +e!+*# r%+$+" e %'!er+',$ ' re'c!+  rce$$e$ ' "u+e e eer+%e!$. Succe$$*u, e**r!$ + !he$e 're'$ +,, $+"+*+c'!,# eh'ce ur '&+,+!# ! %ee! !he 4e# !ech+c', ch',,e"e$ * !he h#r"e ec%# + h#r"e  ruc!+ $!r'"e ' u$e. •

Rs: N6s

 Ne c%u!'!+', 'r'che$ 're eee ! +!e"r'!e 'cr$$ +$'r'!e !+%e ' ,e"!h $c',e$ !h'! 're +%r!'! *r h#r"e ruc!+ $!r'"e ' u$e. Fr e'%,e %e,+" h'$ !r'+!+',,# &ee c'rr+e u! $e'r'!e,# *r +cre%e!$ * ,e"!h $c',e$ u$+" :u'!u% %ech'+c$ (0.1 ! 10 %) $!'!+$!+c', %ech'+c$ (1 ! 1000 %) %e$$c',e (0.1 ! 100 \%) ' c!+uu% %ech'+c$ (1 %% ! 10 %). T+%e $c',e$ r'"e *r% :u'!u% %ech'+c', -17

%e!h$ (10

7

 $) ! c!+uu% %e!h$ (1 ! 10 $). There +$ ' cr+!+c', ee *r !here!+c',

%e,+" ' $+%u,'!+ ! $' ',, !he$e ,e"!h ' !+%e $c',e$ $e'%,e$$,# ! %ee! !he ee$ * h#r"e re$e'rch. Ne *+r$!-r+c+,e ',"r+!h%$ 're re:u+re ! $+%u,'!e ' %e, ce$e-h'$e

he%e'

+!h h+"her 'ccur'c#. Th+$

+,, e'&,e eer+%e!',

%e'$ure%e!$ ! &e '$$e$$e *r !he +e!+*+c'!+ * !re$ !h'! +,, '+ + !he ee,%e! *  e %'!er+',$ ' rce$$e$ *r $ec+*+c ',+c'!+$. Fr e'%,e c%u!'!+', !,$ cu, '+ + !he +e!+*+c'!+ * e,e%e!$ r c%u$ !h'! cu, &e 'e ! '$!ruc!ure h#r"e $!r'"e %'!er+',$ ! he, +%re !he r'!e * h#r"e re,e'$e. S+%u,'!+$ cu, !he &e u$e ! uer$!' !he %,ecu,'r-,ee, rce$$e$ re$$+&,e *r !he &$ere +%re%e!$.

5%u!'!+', %e!h$ c' &e u$e + !he e$+" * e, &+,"+c',,# +$+re c%e!$ *r c'!',#$+$ *r e'%,e ' ! re+c! !he $!ruc!ure ' %ech'+$%$ * !he$e rce$$e$. 5%u!'!+', %e!h$ 're ',$ eee ! uer$!' !he $!ruc!ure * %'!er+',$ ' +!er*'c+', re"+$ +!er'c!+$ + c%$+!e$ ' ++c ' e,ec!r+c !r'$r! +!h+ ' 'cr$$ h'$e  &u'r+e$. ?re+c!+e %e,+" +,, &e re:u+re

r+e

'!%+c-$c',e uer$!'+" * 

h#r"e re'c!$ +!h !he $ur*'ce +!er*'ce "r'+ &u'r+e$ ' &u,4 e*ec!$ * ' 'r!+cu,'r  $!r'"e %'!er+',. I *ue, ce,, re$e'rch *u'%e!', uer$!'+" * ++c !r'$r! rer!+e$ * e,ec!r,#!e$ u$e + %e%&r'e$ ' !he e!'+,e reuc!+ rce$$e$ * #"e '! !he c'!he e,ec!rc'!',#$!-e,ec!r,#!e +!er*'ce *r e'%,e 're eee ! ee, +%re e,ec!re ' e,ec!r,#!e %'!er+',$. Uer$!'+" e,ec!r !r'$*er rce$$e$ '! +!er*'ce$ +$ eee ! eh'ce h!c'!',#$+$ ' e,ec!rc'!',#$+$ rce$$e$ +,e + *ue, ce,,$ ' h#r"e ruc!+. Im>

5u,e +!h e ch'r'c!er+3'!+ !ech+:ue$ !h'! +,, #+e, urecee!e '%u!$ *  e!'+,e +*r%'!+ '&u! '!%+c ' %,ecu,'r rce$$e$ e c%u!'!+', %e!h$ *r  !her# %e,+" ' $+%u,'!+ h'e !he !e!+', ! re,u!++3e !he e$+" * %'!er+',$ '! !he ' $c',e ' ! ee+!e !he +$cer# * %,ecu,'r-,ee, rce$$e$ cr+!+c', *r h#r"e eer"# $#$!e%$. Dee,%e! * !he$e e, %'!er+',$ ' rce$$e$ +$ cr+!+c', *r '!!'++" !he *u,, $u+!e * !ech,"+e$ ece$$'r# *r ' h#r"e ec%#. The !+%e hr+3 *r !he ee,%e! * r'c!+c', h#r"e eer"# $#$!e%$ +$ $hr! ' c'! &e %e! +!hu! ' $!r" +e$!%e! + !her# ' %e,+" + 'r',,e, +!h ' $+"+*+c'! +e$!%e! + &'$+c eer+%e!', re$e'rch.

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES O7:7,+

S'*e!# ' e+r%e!', +$$ue$ +%'c! ',, '$ec!$ * h#r"e u!+,+3'!+. M+" !'r ' h#r"e ec%# +,, re:u+re ruc!+ $!r'"e ' u!+,+3'!+ * ,'r"e :u'!+!+e$ *  h#r"e uer 'r+u$ er'!+" c+!+$. The 'cc+e!', re,e'$e * h#r"e $e$ $+"+*+c'! r+$4$ !h'! +**er *r% !h$e '$$c+'!e +!h *$$+, *ue,$. H#r"e +"+!e$ %re re'+,# !h' r'e ' ' h+"h-re$$ure ,e'4 c' &e $e,*-+"+!+" &ur+" +!h ' ++$+&,e *,'%e. I!$ h+"h +**u$++!# ' &u#'c# r%',,# ree! !he &u+,u * *,'%%'&,e cce!r'!+$ + !he e '+r &u! + ec,$e $'ce$ !he r+$4 * *+re r e,$+ c' &e $er+u$. /+!h ,'r"e :u'!+!+e$ * h#r"e + eer#'# u$e e %u$! &e '&,e ! re+c! !he  &eh'+r * h#r"e uer %'# c+!+$ +c,u+" ec,$e "'r'"e$ cere 'r4+" $!ruc!ure$ ec,$e r 'r!+',,# e!+,'!e c'r$ ' +,e$$ r +# e '+r. I e'ch c'$e

%'"+!ue * !he re,e'$e he'! ' &,'$!. O* 'r'%u! +%r!'ce ! !he $'*e h',+" *  h#r"e +$ !he !r'++" * $4+,,e er$e, ' e!e$+e u&,+c euc'!+. I '+!+ +%re %'!er+',$ 're eee !h'! 're$$ +$$ue$ re,'!e ! h#r"e e$ure $uch '$ e%&r+!!,e%e! e, *'+,ure$ ' "eer', %'!er+',$ c%'!+&+,+!#. Dee,e !ech,"+e$ %u$! ',$ +crr'!e $'*e"u'r$ ' rce$$e$ !h'! r!ec! !he e+r%e! *r% h#r"e ,e'4$ ' !e!+',,# h'3'ru$ &#-ruc!$ * h#r"e ruc!+ $!r'"e ' u$e. A ,'r"e 'r! * !he +!ere$! + '!+" h#r"e *r u$e '$ ' eer"# c'rr+er 'r+$e$ *r% +!$  !e!+', *r reuc+" !he e"'!+e e+r%e!', +%'c!$ * ur eer"# $#$!e%$. Heer +  ,'+" !he ee,%e! * '# !ech,"# $#$!e% !h'! +$ +!ee ! &e +%,e%e!e  ' ,'r"e $c',e +! +$ rue! ! '!+c+'!e !e!+', e,e!er+u$ e+r%e!', +%'c!$ '$ e,,. I*  h#r"e ere ! &ec%e e$!'&,+$he '$ !he r+%'r# c'rr+er + !he r,+e eer"# ec%# !he '+!+', '%u! * h#r"e c#c,e e'ch #e'r u, ecee !he 4 '%u! c#c,e  &# ',, re$e!-'# "eche%+c', &+,"+c', ' '!%$her+c rce$$e$. I* 10; * !he h#r"e + u$e ere ! e$c'e ! !he '!%$here !he '%u! * h#r"e e!er+" !he '!%$here *r% ',, $urce$ u, %re !h' u&,e. H#r"e +$ r'+,# %+e +! !he '!%$here ' h'$ ' re,'!+e,# $hr! !urer !+%e (V2 #r) &e+" c$u%e + '!%$her+c rce$$e$ ' &# $+, %+crr"'+$%$. The !e!+', c$e:uece$ * u&,+" !he 'u', +u!$ +! !he$e rce$$e$ ee c're*u, $c+e!+*+c $!u#. Rs: N6s

The ee ! uer$!' !he &eh'+r * h#r"e uer ' +e 'r+e!# * c+!+$ e%'$  &e!!er !her# ' %e,+" * +!$ h#r#'%+c$ ' c%&u$!+ #'%+c$. Such %e,$ u, ',, re+c!+e c''&+,+!# *r '$$e$$+" !he r+$4 * *+re r e,$+ uer !he %'#  $$+&,e ,e'4 ' *'+,ure $ce'r+$ !h'! u, &e *u + !he h#r"e ec%#. The$e  re+c!+e %e,$ * h#r"e 'ccu%u,'!+ +"+!+ ' c%&u$!+ +,, *r% !he &'$+$ *r  e$!'&,+$h+" c%rehe$+e $'*e!# $!''r$ ' rceure$. The *u'%e!',$ * !he +!er'c!+$ * h#r"e +!h $ec+*+c %'!er+',$ ee ! &e uer$! '$ e,, '$ !he %ech'+$%$ +,e + %'!er+',$ *'+,ure. E%&r+!!,e%e! + %e!',$ !he r,e * "r'+ &u'r+e$ ' !her %+cr$!ruc!ure + r%!+" r re!'r+" %'!er+',$ e"r''!+ ' !he e**ec! *  h#r"e + e'4e+" e,$ ' +!$ ee ! &e e'%+e ! '!+c+'!e c'!'$!rh+c *'+,ure$ + !he h#r"e +*r'$!ruc!ure. S!u+e$ 're eee ! *u,,# '$$e$$ re:u+re%e!$ *r %'!er+',$ c%'!+&+,+!#. Se$r$ 're eee ! e!ec! !r'ce '%u!$ * h#r"e e$c'+" +! u&,+c  ,'ce$ ' ! 'r * !e!+', *,'%%'&,e 'ccu%u,'!+$ + ec,$e $'ce$. Such $e$r$

!he c$e:uece$ * +cre'$e re,e'$e$ c' &e 'ccur'!e,# %e,e ' rec!e. The c''c+!# * $+, ' 'r+u$ ':ueu$ %+cr&+', ec$#$!e%$ ! !'4e u !he +cre'$e h#r"e *,u %u$!  &e '$$e$$e. T %'4e ' 'ccur'!e '$$e$$%e! !he rer!+e$ * h#r"e-%e!'&,+3+" r"'+$%$ ' %+cr&+', c$r!+' ee ! &e %uch &e!!er uer$!. The +%'c! * '# +cre'$e %+cr&+', u!'4e  !he +er$+!# ' $!'&+,+!# * !he+r ec$#$!e%$ ' * +cre'$e 'ccu%u,'!+ * !he+r %e!'&,+c &#-ruc!$ $uch '$ %e!h'e %u$! ',$ &e '$$e$$e. The$e '!' 're eee *r rec!+" he!her r ! !he e! c!e! * h#r"e + !he '!%$here u, r+$e. The c$e:uece$ * +cre'$+" '!%$her+c h#r"e %u$! &e c're*u,,# $!u+e +c,u+" ' '$$e$$%e! * +!$ +%'c!  !her '!%$her+c rce$$e$. •

Im>

The '&+,+!# ! %e, !he h#r#'%+c$ ' c%&u$!+ #'%+c$ * h#r"e + !he e '+r  ' + ec,$e $'ce$ +,, e'&,e re,+'&,e r+$4 '$$e$$%e! * !he %'# !e!+', h#r"ehu%' c!'c! $+!u'!+$ !h'! u, ccur + ' h#r"e ec%#. Uer$!'+" !he c'u$e$ ' e,u!+ * h#r"e e%&r+!!,e%e! * %e!',$ ' e, +!$ '! !he '!%+c ,ee, +,, e'&,e re+c!+ ' ree!+ * %ech'+c', *'+,ure$ +!h+ !he h#r"e +*r'$!ruc!ure ' !he 'cc+e!', re,e'$e * h#r"e ! !he e+r%e!. Dee,%e! * +ee$+e ' e**ec!+e $e$r$ *r !he re$ece ' cce!r'!+ * h#r"e +,, r+e e'r,# 'r+" *  '"eru$ h#r"e cce!r'!+$ &e*re !he# re'ch !he +"+!+ +!.

CHAPTER-(

FUTURE OF THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY RIGHT OR LAC  (.1.1 INTRODUCTION

H#r"e h'$ *'$c+'!e "eer'!+$ * e,e *r ce!ur+e$ +c,u+" +$+'r+e$ ,+4e u,e$ @ere. A H#r"e Ec%# +$ *!e 'c'!e '$ !he u,!+%'!e $,u!+ *r eer"# ' e+r%e!. H#r"e $c+e!+e$ h'e &ee *r%e *r !he r%!+ * !h+$ "', &#  u&,+c'!+$ %ee!+"$ ' eh+&+!+$. H#r"e c' &e ruce *r% e,ec!r+c+!# ' '!er. I!$ cer$+ ! he'! r er +$ $+%,e ' c,e'. /he &ur! +!h #"e h#r"e "eer'!e$  ,,u!'!$ &u! ,# '!er h+ch c' re!ur ! '!ure. Heer h#r"e !he %$! c%% che%+c', e,e%e!  !he ,'e! e$ ! e+$! + '!ure + +!$ e,e%e!', *r%. I! h'$ ! &e $e'r'!e *r% che%+c', c%u$ &# e,ec!r,#$+$ *r% '!er r &# che%+c', rce$$e$ *r% h#rc'r&$ r !her h#r"e c'rr+er$. The e,ec!r+c+!# *r !he e,ec!r,#$+$ %'# c%e ee!u',,# *r% c,e' ree'&,e $urce$ $uch '$ $,'r r'+'!+ 4+e!+c eer"# * + ' '!er r "e!her%', he'!. There*re h#r"e %'# &ec%e ' +%r!'! ,+4 &e!ee ree'&,e h#$+c', eer"# ' che%+c', eer"# c'rr+er$. Bu! h'e !he h#$+c$ ' che%+$!r# &ee rer,# c$+ere] M$! '!!e!+ h'$ &ee "+e ! !he ''re! &ee*+!$ * h#r"e + u$e h+,e !he u$!re'% '$ec!$ * ' h#r"e ec%# 're r're,# 're$$e F+"ure 1.

Hydrogen Economy Packaging compression, liquefaction, hydrides

Hydrogen Production

Distriution pipelines, road, rail, ship

Hydrogen Use

Storage pressure & cryogenic containers

!ransfer 

 

F,/=: Sm, R>:s8,$8 $? 8 %m8% H;6:$/8 E$8$m;

L+4e '# !her ruc! h#r"e %u$! &e 'c4'"e !r'$r!e $!re ' !r'$*erre !  &r+" +! *r% ruc!+ ! *+', u$e. The$e $!''r ruc! rce$$e$ re:u+re eer"#. I !'#=$ *$$+, eer"# ec%# !he eer"# ,$! &e!ee !he e,, ' !he c$u%er +$ '&u!

H#r"e Ec%#. Our '',#$+$ $hu, &e * 'r!+cu,'r +!ere$! *r !he '$$e$$%e! *  *ue, !+$ *r !r'$r! ',+c'!+$. /+!hu! :ue$!+ !ech,"# *r ' h#r"e ec%# e+$!$ r c' &e ee,e. I *'c! c$+er'&,e '%u!$ * h#r"e 're "eer'!e h',e !r'$r!e ' u$e + !he che%+c', +u$!r# !'#. Heer !h+$ h#r"e +$ ' che%+c', $u&$!'ce ! ' eer"# c%%+!#. H#r"e ruc!+ ' !r'$r!'!+ c$!$ 're '&$r&e + !he r+ce * !he $#!he$+3e che%+c',$. The c$! * h#r"e +$ +rre,e'! '$ ," '$ !he *+',  ruc!$ *+ %'r4e!$. T'# !he u$e * h#r"e +$ "ere &# ec%+c 'r"u%e!$ ' ! &# eer"e!+c c$+er'!+$.

Heer +* h#r"e +$ ! &e u$e '$ ' eer"# c'rr+er eer"e!+c +$$ue$ %u$! ',$ &e c$+ere. H %uch h+"h-"r'e eer"# +$ re:u+re ! %'4e ! 'c4'"e ! h',e ! $!re ' ! !r'$r! h#r"e] I! u, &e +**+cu,! ! e$!'&,+$h ' $u$!'+'&,e eer"# *u!ure +* %uch * !he eer"# h're$!e *r% '!ure +$ '$!e &e*re +! re'che$ !he eer"# c$u%er. /e h'e e'%+e !he 4e# $!'"e$ &# h#$+c', ' che%+c', re'$+" ' cc,ue !h'! !he *u!ure eer"# ec%# +$ u,+4e,# ! &e &'$e  e,e%e!', h#r"e. H#r"e %'# &e !he %'+ ,+4 &e!ee ree'&,e h#$+c', ' che%+c', eer"# &u! %$! ,+4e,# +! +,, re'ch !he c$u%er che%+c',,# 'c4'"e + !he *r% * e r %re c$u%er-*r+e,# '!ur', r $#!he!+c ,+:u+ h#rc'r&$ •

?re,+%+'r# re$u,!$ * ur $!u# h'e ',re'# &ee re$e!e '! THE FUEL 5ELL

WOR! conference in "uly #$$# %&'( (.1.2 P:$>:,s $? H;6:$/8

The h#$+c', rer!+e$ * h#r"e 're e,, 4 2 . I! +$ !he $%',,e$! * ',, '!%$. 5$e:ue!,# h#r"e +$ !he ,+"h!e$! "'$ '&u! e+"h! !+%e$ ,+"h!er !h' %e!h'e (rere$e!+" '!ur', "'$). ?r%!er$ r'+$e !he eer"# c!e! * h#r"e. Heer *r  %$! r'c!+c', ',+c'!+$ !he he'!+" ',ue er u+! %'$$ * '# "'$eu$ eer"# c'rr+er  +$ * ,+!!,e re,e'ce . M$! $!r'"e !'4$ 're ,+%+!e &# ,u%e e$ec+',,# + 'u!%!+e ',+c'!+$. A,$ !he c''c+!# * +e,+e$ ee$  !he $:u're * !he+r  +'%e!er ' !he *, e,c+!#. There*re + %$! c'$e$ +! +$ %re %e'+"*u, ! c$+er !he eer"# c!e! er u+! ,u%e. Fr !h+$ eer"# '',#$+$ +! +$ rer ! u$e !he he'! * *r%'!+ r h+"her he'!+" ',ue

ere$$+" !he e**+c+ec# * he'! e"+e$ ' !her eer"# cer!er$ !he ,er he'!+" ',ue (LH@) +$ u$e. Heer he re*erre ! !he h#$+c',,# crrec! HH@ !he e**+c+ec+e$ u, &e ,ere 'ccr+" ! !he r'!+ * LH@ ! HH@ +.e. &# *'c!r 0.C0 *r "'$,+e 0.C0 *r '!ur', "'$ ' 0.7 *r h#r"e 7. Hece e**+c+ec+e$ ' *ue, ec%+e$  !he LH@ &'$+$ 're 6.; 10.8; ' 1.; h+"her !h' !h$e  !he HH@ &'$+$. I 'r!+cu,'r h#r"e eer"# cer!er$ ,4 %uch ,e$$ '!!r'c!+e +* !he+r u!u! +$ re,'!e ! !he h#$+c',,# crrec! eer"# +u!. A,$ LH@-e**+c+ec+e$ %'# ecee 100; - '$ +!h $%e ce$+" &+,er$ - h+ch +,'!e$ !he eer"# c$er'!+ r+c+,e. There*re !he u$e * !he LH@ $hu, &e '&'e *r ',, eer"# e"+eer+" ',+c'!+$. S+ce !he ruc!+ * h#r"e +$ "ere &# !he he'! * *r%'!+ r !he h+"her  he'!+" ',ue +!$ u$e $hu, ',$ &e re,'!e ! !he HH@ eer"# c!e!. Our '',#$+$ +$  &'$e  h#$+c', ' che%+c', re'$+" ' !here*re u$e$ !he h+"her he'!+" ',ue (HH@) !hru"hu!. The re*erece e$+!# ' he'!+" ',ue$ * h#r"e ' %e!h'e u$e + !h+$ $!u# 're $h + T'&,e 1. TB% D8s,; 86 ,8/ 7%=s $? ;6:$/8 86 m8 U+!$ H#r"e 

De$+!# '! NT? Gr'+%e!r+c HH@

4"9% M94"

@,u%e!r+c HH@ '! NT?

M9%



Me!h'e

0.08 12.0

0.808 77.6

12.8

0.0

(.1.3 E8:/; N6s $?  H;6:$/8 E$8$m;

H#r"e +$ ! ' '!ur', *ue, &u! ' $#!he!+c eer"# c'rr+er. I! ,# c'rr+e$ eer"# "eer'!e &# !her rce$$e$. Fr e'%,e h#r"e %'# &e ruce *r% e,ec!r+c+!# &# e,ec!r,#$+$ * '!er. Heer h+"h-"r'e e,ec!r+c', eer"# +$ ',$ re:u+re ! c%re$$ r  ,+:ue*# +! ' ! !r'$r! !r'$*er ' $!re +!. Mreer + %'# c'$e$ h#r"e **er$ ,+!!,e r  e-u$e ''!'"e er !he $urce eer"#. Fr e'%,e + ',, $!'!+'r# ',+c'!+$ h#r"e u, c%e!e +!h "r+ e,ec!r+c+!# h+ch cu, &e +$!r+&u!e +rec!,# ! !he e u$er +!h %uch ,er eer"# ,$$e$. 5,e'r,# !he c$! * h#r"e $hu, &e '$ , '$ $$+&,e. Heer ' h#r"e ec%# cu, e$!'&,+$h +!$e,* ,# +* +! %'4e$ $e$e eer"e!+c',,#. O!her+$e &e!!er $,u!+$ +,, c:uer !he %'r4e!. A,$ !he re$e! +*r'$!ruc!ure cu, h',e ',%$! '# $#!he!+c ,+:u+ h#rc'r& h+,e h#r"e re:u+re$ ' !!',,# e +$!r+&u!+ e!r4. A

uer$! &e*re %'4+" '# +e$!%e!$ - +c,u+" !h$e *r re$e'rch ' ee,%e!. The *u'%e!', :ue$!+> H %uch eer"# +$ eee ! er'!e ' h#r"e ec%#] +$ '',#3e here + $%e e!'+,. /e c$+er !he 4e# $!'"e$ * ' h#r"e ec%# - ruc!+ 'c4'"+" !r'$r! $!r'"e ' !r'$*er * e,e%e!', h#r"e ' re,'!e !he eer"# c$u%e *r !he$e *uc!+$ ! !he eer"# c!e! * !he e,+ere h#r"e. A,, !he rce$$ '',#$e$ 're &'$e  e+!her +e', h#$+c$ ' che%+$!r# r  'c!u', '!' *r% !he "'$e$ +u$!r#. Hece !he# 're %$! u,+4e,# ! &e &e!!ere $+"+*+c'!,# + *u!ure. (.1.4 P:$6=,$8 $? H;6:$/8

H#r"e e$ ! e+$! + '!ure + +!$ e,e%e!', $!'!e &u! h'$ ! &e ruce *r% $urce$ ,+4e '!er ' '!ur', "'$ +!h !he ee+!ure * eer"#. Ie',,# !he eer"# +u! u, e:u', !he eer"# c!e! * !he $#!he$+3e "'$. Heer h#r"e ruc!+ &# '# rce$$ $uch '$ e,ec!r,#$+$ r re*r%+" +,e$ !he !r'$*r%'!+ * eer"#. The e,ec!r+c', eer"# r che%+c', eer"# * h#rc'r&$ +$ !r'$*erre ! !he che%+c', eer"# * h#r"e. U*r!u'!e,# eer"# !r'$*r%'!+$ 're ','#$ '$$c+'!e +!h eer"# ,$$e$. M'4+" h#r"e *r% '!er &# e,ec!r,#$+$ +$ e * !he %re eer"#-+!e$+e %e!h$. A$ ," '$ !he e,ec!r+c+!# c%e$ *r% ' c,e' $urce e,ec!r,#$+$ +$ ' c,e' rce$$ &u! +! +$ '$$c+'!e +!h c$+er'&,e ,$$e$. E,ec!r,#$+$ +$ !he reer$e * !he h#r"e +'!+ re'c!+ + ' *ue, ce,, !he $!''r !e!+', * h+ch +$ '&u! 1.2 @,!$ '! NT? c+!+$. Heer e,ec!r,#3er$ ee ' h+"her ,!'"e ! $e'r'!e '!er +! h#r"e ' #"e. Uer er'!+', c+!+$ ' er-,!'"e +$ eee ! erc%e  ,'r+3'!+ ' re$+$!+e ,$$e$. Fr $,+ ,#%er r ',4',+e $#$!e%$ !he ,'r+3'!+ ,$$e$ 're !#+c',,# 0.2 @,!. A$$u%+" !h'! !he $'%e e,ec!r,#!e ' c'!',#$!$ 're u$e !he e c+rcu+! ,!'"e$ *r *ue, ce,, ' e,ec!r,#3er &ec%e 1.2 @ P9- 0.2 @  0.C7 @ ' 1.71 @ 2

re$ec!+e,#. A$$u%+" ',$ *r &!h c'$e$ ' 're'-$ec+*+c re$+$!'ce * 0.2 Oh%-c%

"+e$ !he ch'r'c!er+$!+c$ * ' , !e%er'!ure *ue, ce,, ('$he ,+e) ' ' crre$+" e,ec!r,#3er ($,+ ,+e) + F+"ure .

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Uer e c+rcu+! c+!+$ !he $!''r e,ec!rche%+c', !e!+', * !he h#r"e-#"e  '+r +$ 1.2 @,!$ '! NT?. T !+%+3e !he $#$!e% e**+c+ec# *ue, ce,,$ 're r%',,# er'!e '! '&u! 0.8 @,!  +.e. '! '&u! 1.2 A9c%2. /e '$$u%e !he $'%e !+%+3'!+ re:u+re%e!$ ',$ h, *r ' e,ec!r,#3er. I !h+$ c'$e !he crre$+" ,!'"e * er'!+ +$ 1.86 @,!$ - '$ ++c'!e &# !he hr+3!', '$h-! ,+e + F+"ure . The $!''r !e!+', * 1.2 @,!$ crre$$ ! !he h+"her he'!+" ',ue HH@ * h#r"e. 5$e:ue!,# !he er-,!'"e +$ ' %e'$ure * !he e,ec!r+c', ,$$e$ * !he *uc!++" e,ec!r,#3er. The ,$$e$ re,'!+e ! !he HH@ * h#r"e ee  !he h#r"e ruc!+ r'!e  +.e. !he curre! e$+!#. 5%'re +!h !he $!''r !e!+', * 1.2 @,!$ ' er'!+" !e!+', * 1.86 @,!$ +%,+e$ !h'! 1. eer"# u+!$ %u$! &e $u,+e ! "eer'!e 1 HH@ u+! * h#r"e "++" ' $!'"e e**+c+ec# * 191.  80;. A! h+"her $ec+*+c h#r"e ruc!+ r'!e$ +.e. h+"her curre! e$+!+e$ !h+$ e**+c+ec# +$ ee ,er. A,$ !h+$ '',#$+$ !'4e$  'ccu! * !he ,$$e$ + cer!+" !he h+"h ,!'"e A5 e,ec!r+c+!# *r% !he "r+ ! !he h+"h curre! D5 e,ec !r+c+!# u$e + e,ec!r,#3er$.  Neer!he,e$$ e,ec!r,#$+$ %'# &e !he ,# r'c!+c', ,+4 &e!ee h#$+c', ree'&,e eer"# (4+e!+c eer"# *r% + '!er ' 'e$ r'+'!+ *r% !he $u "e!her%', he'!) ' $!'!+'r# *ue, ce,,$ eee *r !r'$r!'!+. A,$ e,ec!r,#!+c ruc!+ * h#r"e **er$ e %e!h * $!r+" e,ec!r+c+!# *r% +!er%+!!e! $urce$. O!her - ' re  %e!h$ +c,ue h#r-e,ec!r+c+!# u%e $!r'"e *,#hee,$ ' &'!!er+e$(

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H#r"e c' ',$ &e e!r'c!e *r% h#rc'r&$ &# re*r%+". Th+$ che%+c', rce$$ +$ +  r+c+,e ' eer"# !r'$*r%'!+ rce$$. The HH@ eer"# c!'+e + !he r+"+', $u&$!'ce c' &e !r'$*erre ! !he HH@ eer"# * h#r"e. There!+c',,#  e!er', eer"# +$ eee ! cer! ' h#r"e- r+ch eer"# c'rr+er ,+4e %e!h'e (5H) r %e!h', (5H OH) +! h#r"e  &# ' 'u!!her%', re*r%+" rce$$. Heer + re',+!# !her%', ,$$e$ c'! &e '+e ' !he HH@ eer"# c!'+e + !he "eer'!e h#r"e +$ ','#$ ,e$$ !h' !h'! + !he r+"+', h#rc'r& *ue,. The e**+c+ec# * 

h#r"e ruc!+ &# 'u!!her%', re*r%+" +$ '&u! C0; &u! %'# &e ,e$$ e$ec+',,# *r  c%'c! %&+,e ,'!. Thu$ '! ,e'$! 1.1 u+!$ * eer"# %u$! &e +e$!e ! &!'+ 1 HH@ u+! *  h#r"e. A,$ %re 5O2 +$ re,e'$e &# !h+$ ++rec! rce$$ !h' &# +rec! u$e * !he h#rc'r& recur$r$. Hece !h+$ reuce$ !he er',, e,,-!-hee, e**+c+ec# ' +cre'$e$ !he er',, 5O2 e%+$$+$. Fr %$! r'c!+c', ',+c'!+$ '!ur', "'$ c'  h'! h#r"e e$. There +$  ee *r ' cer$+ * '!ur', "'$ +! h#r"e h+ch '$ $h + !h+$ $!u# +$ %re +**+cu,! !  'c4'"e ' +$!r+&u!e !h' !he '!ur', eer"# c'rr+er. Fr ',, $!'!+'r# ',+c'!+$ !he $urce eer"# (e,ec!r+c+!# r h#rc'r&$) cu, &e u$e +rec!,# &# !he c$u%er '! c%'r'&,e eu$e e**+c+ec# ' hece h+"her er',, $urce-!-$er+ce e**+c+ec# ' ,er er',, 5O2 e%+$$+. There*re !r'$*r%+" e,ec!r+c+!# r '!ur', "'$ ! h#r"e **er$  u+er$', $,u!+ ! !he eer"# *u!ure. A! !'#=$ eer"# r+ce$ +! +$ c$+er'&,# %re ee$+e ! ruce h#r"e &# '!er  e,ec!r,#$+$ !h' &# re*r%+" * *$$+, *ue,$. Accr+" ! 6 +! c$!$ 'ru 7.60 *r eer# G * h#r"e eer"# ruce *r% '!ur', "'$ 10.0 er G *r% c', ' 20.10 er G !  ruce h#r"e &# e,ec!r,#$+$ * '!er. Be*re !'e$ "'$,+e c$!$ '&u! .00 er G. (.2.1 P/,8/ $? H;6:$/8 (.2.2 C$m>:ss,$8 $? H;6:$/8

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Ee %re eer"# +$ eee ! c%'c! h#r"e &# ,+:ue*'c!+. There!+c',,# ,# '&u! 1.2 M94"LH2  h'e ! &e re%e ! c, h#r"e "'$ *r% 2C < (275) ! 20. < ' ! ce$e !he "'$ '! 20. < ' '!%$her+c re$$ure C. Th+$ eer"# '',#$+$ +c,ue$ !he eer"# eee *r !he re%', * he'! re,e'$e &# !he 'r'-r!h cer$+ * e,ec!r $+ r+e!'!+$ '! , !e%er'!ure$. I !he +!ere$!$ * eer"# e**+c+ec# h#r"e +$ ,+:ue*+e &# c%,e rce$$e$. The c,+" +$ 'cc%,+$he &# %u,!+-$!'"e c%re$$+ ' e'$+ cu,e +!h cu!er*, he'! ech'"e ' eer"# recer# &# e'$+ !ur&+e$. Geer',,# ' !hree-$!'"e 'r  c%re$$+ r'e re*r+"er'!+ $#$!e% +$ u$e *r c,+" *r% '%&+e! !e%er'!ure ! 8