SDBC 101 Sustainable Design Fundamentals for buildings

Sustainable

Design

Fundamentals for Buildings

SDCB 101 Architectural Institute of British Columbia Alberta Association of Architects Saskatchewan Association of Architects Manitoba Association of Architects Ontario Association of Architects Ordre des architectes du Québec Architects’ Association of New Brunswick Association des architectes du Nouveau-Brunswick Nova Scotia Association of Architects Architects Association of Prince Edward Island Newfoundland Association of Architects

In partnership with: The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada

Sustainable Design for Canadian Buildings

Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings 2001 Edition The National Practice Program (NPP) is an alliance of the ten provincial associations of architects and the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC). This manual has been developed by the NPP on behalf of the architectural profession in Canada, represented by these member associations: Architectural Institute of British Columbia Alberta Association of Architects Saskatchewan Association of Architects Manitoba Association of Architects Ontario Association of Architects Ordre des architectes du Québec Architects’ Association of New Brunswick Association des architectes du Nouveau-Brunswick Nova Scotia Association of Architects Newfoundland Association of Architects and The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada

Editor Peter Busby, FRAIC Assistant Editor Michel Labrie Editorial Review Veronica de Pencier, MRAIC Jon Hobbs, MRAIC Contributors Raymond J. Cole, PhD Martine Desbois Pierre Gallant, MRAIC Vivian Manasc, FRAIC Joanne McCallum MRAIC Lyse M. Tremblay Proofreading Isabelle Bossé Graphic Design Aerographics Creative Services Inc. Printing Beauregard Printers ©2001 The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada on behalf of all the members of the National Practice Program. This manual may not be copied in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada. Disclaimer Busby + Associates has compiled the information in the manual Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings. The National Practice Program (NPP) supports the development and dissemination of Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings; however, neither the NPP, nor the Contributors, nor the Editors take responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of any information or its fitness for any particular purpose.

Printed on Rolland Evolution using vegetable inks and made of 100% post-consumer fibre.

Sustainable

Design

Fundamentals for Buildings

The members of the National Practice Program gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance from the following department of the federal government in the development of the Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings:

Public Works and Government Services Canada

Travaux publics et Services gouvernementaux Canada

Sustainable

Design

Fundamentals for Buildings

Ta b l e of

Contents

Acknowledgements Preface Introduction 1.0

Building an Environmental Ethic

2.0

Green Building Design Methodology

3.0

Sustainable Site Design

4.0

Water Efficiency

5.0

Energy and Atmosphere

6.0

Materials and Resources

7.0

Indoor Environmental Quality

8.0

LEED™ in the Canadian Context

9.0

Regional Perspective

10.0

A View to the Future

Glossary Bibliography

Sustainable

Design

Fundamentals for Buildings

Acknowledgements The members of the National Practice Program gratefully acknowledge the support of the following committee in the development of the Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings: The Sustainable Building Canada Committee (SBCC) and the following architects and firms whose projects are featured in the manual: Ædifica Architectura Arthur Erickson Architectural Corporation Bourrassa et Gaudreau Architectes Busby + Associates Architects Christopher Simmonds Architect Colborne Architectural Group Daniel Pearl and Mark Poddubiuk Architectes ECO-TEK Wastewater Treatment Genetron Systems Inc. Hotson Bakker Architects Julia Bourke Architecte Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg Architects Linda Chapman Architect Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd. Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Musson Cattell Mackey Partnership Patkau Architects Inc. Phillip Sharp Architect Ltd. Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg R. Monnier Architecte Roger Hughes + Partners Architects Stone Kohn McQuire Vogt Architects Van Nostrand diCastri Architects

The National Practice Program would also like to thank the many individuals who provided information, advice and assistance. Blair McCarry, P.Eng., Keen Engineering Christine Strauss, Busby + Associates Architects Doug Pollard, CMHC National Office Kevin Hydes, P.Eng., Keen Engineering Mark Swain, Keen Engineering Michael McColl, Busby + Associates Architects Nathan Webster, Busby + Associates Architects Robin Glover, Busby + Associates Architects Rosamund Hyde, Keen Engineering Susan Gushe, Busby + Associates Architects Vince Catalli, by dEsign Consultants

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Preface The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC) and the ten provincial associations of architects, through the National Practice Program (NPP), intend to provide a series of Continuing Education courses on sustainable design to the architectural profession in Canada. SDCB 101 is the first in this series. The NPP plans to offer two other entry level modules in the year 2002: SDCB 102 National Assessment Tool 103 Canadian Case Studies A second level of more specific courses (with SDCB 101 as a prerequisite) will be offered in the future. Some of these include: SDCB 201 Simulation Software and Skills Development 202 Advanced Daylighting Strategies 203 Concrete, Flyash and Other Additives 204 Selecting Sensible Materials for Interiors 205 Photovoltaics and Fuel Cells 206 Deconstruction and Demolition 207 Onsite Wastewater Strategies 208 Sustainability Issues in Urban Planning and Design 209 Greening Your Specifications 210 Sustainable Design of Structures 211 Sustainable Design of Landscapes More advanced courses which are being considered in the future (prerequisites will also be required) include: SDCB 301 Advanced Simulation, Dynamic Thermal Modeling 302 Living Machine Design and Use

Sustainable Building Canada Committee (SBCC) Background and Organization The concept for SDCB 101 and the entire program is a creation of SBCC - Sustainable Building Canada Committee. This committee was formed by the RAIC in January 2001 with four key objectives: • Advancing, within a context of interdisciplinary exchange, the implementation of sustainable building practices in the construction industry. • Providing leadership and overseeing the design and development of various programs including but not limited to: - a Website, - recommendation and promotion of a Canadian Assessment Tool, - a national education program, and - a system for recommending and promoting green products and standards. • Generating and updating the resources necessary for the effective communication of knowledge and research pertaining to sustainable building. • Establishing and maintaining relationships with appropriate regulatory bodies as well as with government and industry on a national level. The purpose of the SBCC is to create a national forum of interdisciplinary groups within the Construction Industry to coordinate efforts in developing and promoting environmentally responsible construction industry practices. This Committee is absolutely critical for Canada. As a nation we have committed to the Kyoto Accord. The buildings we construct and operate constitute almost 40% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in Canada; hence, the work of the

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

SBCC may be the single largest contributor to Canada’s solutions for compliance with the Kyoto Accord. “The Sustainable Building Canada Committee will develop a coherent platform for the design, construction, operation, management, regulation and evaluation of built “green” environments in Canada, and the education of professionals involved in the industry, leading to progressively improved levels of sustainability.” The Executive Committee includes representatives of the RAIC; the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM); the British Columbia Buildings Corporation (BCBC); Public Works and Government Services Canada (PWGSC); the Association of Consulting Engineers of Canada (ACEC); Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA); and the Canadian Construction Association (CCA). In addition to the Executive Committee, there are six Technical Advisory Committees (TAC): Assessment Tool; Website Design; Education and Promotion; Products and Standards; “Green Building” Challenge; and Fundraising. Currently, the SBCC is operated in a manner similar to all other committees within the RAIC. Its funding and expenses are controlled by the RAIC and are subject to the normal policies of the RAIC. The RAIC presently contracts with the Ottawa-based consulting firm, by dEsign Consultants, to provide secretariat and coordination services for the SBCC. The current Sustainable Building Canada Committee organization is as follows:

Chair: Peter Busby, FRAIC, Busby + Associates Architects ([email protected])

Vice Chair: Bruce Lorimer, FRAIC, Director General, PWGSC, A&ES ([email protected])

Secretariat: Jon Hobbs, Executive Director, RAIC ([email protected]) Vince Catalli, MRAIC, President, by dEsign Consultants ([email protected])

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Technical Advisor to Executive Committee: Nils Larsson, NRCan, ([email protected])

Technical Advisory Committee (TAC): Products & Standards Chair: Craig Applegath, FRAIC, Dunlop Architects ([email protected]) Web Site Design Chair: Vivian Manasc, FRAIC, Manasc Isaac Architects ([email protected]) Assessment Tool Chair: Kevin Hydes, P.Eng., Keen Engineering ([email protected]) Education & Promotion Chair: Sandra Marshall, MRAIC, Sr. Researcher, CMHC ([email protected]) Green Building Challenge 2002 Chair: Alex Zimmerman, British Columbia Building Corporation ([email protected]) Funding Chair: Glen Wither, MRAIC, McGraw-Hill Construction Information Group ([email protected]) Volunteers are encouraged to join subcommittees by contacting the chairs directly via e-mail. There is a lot of work to be done to “green” this fine country.

Photo Credits The following photographs of buildings have been used throughout this manual.

Project:

Mountain Equipment Co-op Store, Toronto Architect: Stone Kohn McQuire Vogt Architects Image Credit: Peter Carr-Locke

Project:

CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Architect: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Image Credit: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc.

Project: Revenue Canada Office Building Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Martin Tessler

Project:

City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Martin Tessler

Project:

Project:

Project:

Project: Banff Town Hall Architect: Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd. Image Credit: Robert Lemermeyer

York University Computer Science Facility Architect: Busby + Associates Architects in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Martin Tessler Project:

CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Architect: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Image Credit: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Mountain Equipment Co-op Store, Ottawa Architect: Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect, in joint venture Image Credit: Ewald Richter

Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architect: Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson Image Credit: Richard Klopp, MAIBC

Project:

South East False Creek, Vancouver, BC Image Credit: City of Vancouver Project: Locoshop Angus Architect: Ædifica Image Credit: Patrick Dionne

Project:

Image:

Busby + Associates' office foldable bicycle for "too far to walk" local meetings. Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Project: Architect:

BC Gas Operation Centre Musson Cattell Mackey Partnership Image Credit: Nick Lehoux Photography Strawberry Vale Elementary School Architect: Patkau Architects Inc. Image Credit: James Dow

Project:

Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architect: Architectura, in colaboration with Arthur Erickson Image Credit: Richard Klopp, MAIBC

Project:

Project:

Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architect: Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson Image Credit: Kori Chan, MAIBC Project: Hinton Government Centre Architect: Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd. Image Credit: Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd. Project: Rocky Mountain Institute Image Credit: Rocky Mountain Institute Project:

Sun Life Insurance Head Office, Toronto Image Credit: Genetron Systems Inc. Project: Hastings Park Restoration Plan Landscape Architect: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Image Credit: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Project:

Nicola Valley Institute of Technology Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: James Teit Project: Citadel of Quebec Image Credit: Royal 22e Régiment Mountain Equipment Co-op Store, Toronto Architect: Stone Kohn McQuire Vogt Architects Image Credit: Dan Cowling

Project: Beausoleil Solar Aquatics Firm: ECO-TEK Wastewater Treatment Image Credit: ECO-TEK Wastewater Treatment Project: Architect:

BC Gas Operation Centre Musson Cattell Mackey Partnership Image Credit: Nick Lehoux Photography Project: Hastings Park Restoration Plan Landscape Architect: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Image Credit: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Project:

CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Architect: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Image Credit: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Project: Hastings Park Restoration Plan Landscape Architect: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Image Credit: Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg Project:

CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Architect: Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc. Image Credit: Mike Sherman Project:

Body Shop (Canada) Headquarters Architect: Colborne Architectural Group Living Machine: John Todd Image Credit: Strategic Assertive Public Relations

Project:

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Project:

Advanced house comparable to R-2000 'La maison des marais' Architect: R. Monnier, Architecte Image Credit: R. Monnier, Architecte

Project:

York University Computer Science Facility Architect: Busby + Associates Architects in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects Image Credit: Michael McColl of Busby + Associates Architects Project: Revenue Canada Office Building Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects Project: 440 Cambie Street Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Code Consultant: Pioneer Consultants Ltd. Image Credit: Martin Tessler Project: Architect:

EcoResidence Daniel Pearl and Mark Poddubiuk Architectes Image Credit: Daniel Pearl and Mark Poddubiuk Architectes Project: APEGBC Head Offices Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Martin Tessler Image: Pincher Creek wind turbine farm Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects Project: Telus Office Building Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects Image: Pincher Creek wind turbine farm Image Credit: Busby + Associates Architects Project: 2211 West Fourth Architect: Hotson Bakker Architects Image Credit: Bruce Haden and Rob Melnychuk respectively Project: Architect:

Walnut Grove Aquatic Centre Roger Hughes + Partners Architects Image Credit: Gary Otte

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Project: Architect:

Richmond City Hall Hotson Bakker Architects and Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg Associated Architects Image Credit: Peter Aaron/Esto Project: La Petite Maison du Weekend Architect: Patkau Architects Inc. Image Credit: Richard K. Loesch Project: 1220 Homer Street Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Sue Ockwell of Busby + Associates Architects Project: Angus Locoshop Architect: Ædifica Image Credit: Michel Tremblay Project:

Strawberry Vale Elementary School Architect: Patkau Architects Inc. Image Credit: James Dow Project: Architect:

Richmond City Hall Hotson Bakker Architects and Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg Associated Architects Image Credit: Peter Aaron/Esto Project:

Mountain Equipment Co-op Store, Ottawa Architect: Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect, in joint venture Image Credit: Ewald Richter Project: Concord Sales Pavilion Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Rod Mass of Busby + Associates Architects Project:

The City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility Architect: Busby + Associates Architects Image Credit: Martin Tessler and Busby + Associates Architects respectively

Introduction

“ Of all the changes that will come to Canada in the next generation, we must prevent any of a sort that will diminish the essential beauty of this country. For if that beauty is lost, or if that wilderness escapes, the very nature and character of this land will have passed beyond our grasp.” Pierre Elliott Trudeau

Introduction SDCB 101 – Course Objectives and Content This course is designed to be a primer on green building design in Canada. The material focuses on residential, commercial, institutional and light industrial buildings, pertaining to new construction and renovations. Agricultural and industrial buildings are not specifically addressed in this primer. Part of this course material is also relevant to programming, interior design, and landscape design.

The course objectives are: • to propose a green building methodology; • to introduce issues of sustainable design for Canadian buildings; • to provide environmental strategies applicable in day to day practice; and • to discuss a National Assessment Tool for Canada. The content of this manual is intended for the Canadian architect who is working towards the achievement of more sustainable design. Canadawide strategies are presented as an introduction to the concepts of green buildings. The authors acknowledge the significant climatic variations within Canada, ranging from southern desert and Mediterranean zones to Northern Arctic conditions. Recognizing this, a supplementary section providing a regional perspective is included. Future courses will provide greater detail including specific design solutions within each region. The manual is divided into ten sections, with opening and closing sections written by Raymond J. Cole, PhD, professor at the School of Architecture of the University of British Columbia. Each section provides an overview on key green design

considerations and design strategies, followed by a discussion on regulatory issues, linkages and tradeoffs. Canadian case studies and web resources are merged within the document for easy reference. The order of subjects parallels the organization of LEED™ to develop familiarity for readers. A glossary explaining key concepts, a bibliography of written publications, and a copy of the LEED Green Building Rating System™ Version 2.0 complete the manual. The sections of the manual are:

1.0 Building an Environmental Ethic Introduction by Raymond J. Cole, PhD.

2.0 Green Building Design Methodology This introductory section provides information about design and implementation processes fundamental to green building design. Green building design methodology must include the following: • Implementation Strategies: requiring the following key processes: life cycle assessment; Integrated Design Approach (IDA), which includes clients and governing bodies; the establishment of sustainable goals; and sharing knowledge and promoting green buildings. • Verification and measurement: ensuring that the environmental strategies of the building are designed, installed and operated to their optimum. It includes performance standards, simulation software and programs, assessment tools and commissioning.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

3.0 Sustainable Site Design

5.0 Energy and Atmosphere

Proper site selection can significantly reduce the typical negative impacts of a building on its surrounding ecosystems and watershed. Two key considerations are introduced:

The greatest environmental impact of a building is usually its intensive energy consumption. Approximately 40% of worldwide energy use is for cooling, heating and providing power to buildings. This section introduces four key issues to consider related to energy and atmosphere:

• Sustainable site location, which includes the consideration of a sustainable site selection process, urban redevelopment, brownfield redevelopment and transportation issues. • Reduction of the negative site impacts of a building which can have far-reaching effects on the health of ecosystems. Some factors to consider include: reducing site disturbance, erosion and sediment control, landscape and exterior design, water system management, reducing “heat islands” and light pollution.

4.0 Water Efficiency This section addresses three key issues and strategies regarding water conservation: • Conservation measures for reducing landscaping irrigation. Sustainable landscaping techniques or water efficient irrigation systems can be use to reduce water use. • Water use reduction strategies. Water use reduction is achieved through education and awareness and the use of water-efficient plumbing fixtures and appliances. • Innovative wastewater treatment. These techniques provide significant environmental advantages in protecting water resources by reducing the demand for freshwater and the amount of wastewater.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

• Understanding the relationship between pollution and energy use. The processes of resource extraction, energy production, transportation and manufacturing generate significant pollution. • Reducing initial construction and deconstruction energy through the design process. • Reducing operational energy consumption. The energy used to operate a building is the most significant source of negative impact of a building on the ecosphere. There are several strategies to minimize energy consumption to operate a building, including passive systems and energy efficient products. • Selecting energy sources. The selection of low impact energy sources is fundamental to reducing the negative impacts from a building's energy consumption.

6.0 Materials and Resources Conserving materials and resources is very important, considering that as much as 40% of the world’s raw materials are used in buildings. The section on materials and resources efficiency covers two key issues: • The concept of material efficiency involves reducing the demand for materials and resources. It addresses building reuse and renovation, material reduction and efficiency, designing for flexibility, construction waste management and designing for demountability.

1.0 Building an Environmental Ethic

Building an Environmental Ethic

Chapter 1.0

Building an Environmental Ethic Raymond J. Cole, PhD School of Architecture, University of British Columbia

Introduction The recorded scale and rate of global environmental degradation represents the defining characteristics of the 20th century. Notwithstanding the importance of social and economic needs and constraints, the health of the biosphere will remain the limiting factor for sustainability. A prerequisite for sustainability is the maintenance of the functional integrity of the ecosphere so that it can remain resilient to human-induced stresses and continue to be biologically productive. The ecological footprint provides probably the most graphic portrayal of the mismatch between biological productivity and current human-imposed demands. Canada has an ecological footprint of over 7 hectares/person – far in excess of an equable world average allocation of 1.9 hectares/person.

Green Buildings Buildings represent significant capital investments, both financial and ecological. Almost every attempt to bring a new approach or emphasis to building design is subject to the litmus test of cost and, most typically, this is the capital or initial cost. Not only do costs seldom account for the benefits that may accrue over a building’s life as a result of higher initial investment, but also the broader societal costs of poor quality building or poor environmental standards are not acknowledged within current accounting methods. Environmental issues and associated costs will directly and indirectly shape this century and therefore increasingly underpin almost all aspects of human settlement and building design.

Green building design is assumed to be incremental improvements in the environmental performance of buildings beyond typical practice. There is an implicit assumption that by continually improving the environmental performance of individual buildings, the collective reduction in resource use and ecological loading by the building industry will be sufficient to fully address the environmental agenda.

Climate Change Climate change will be the most significant environmental issue this century. Already, traditional weather patterns are changing, making some areas warmer and wetter, others cooler or drier. These altered patterns will lead to an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and storms. Other anticipated effects include rising sea levels, increased air pollution and health care costs, decreased fish stocks and reduced crop yields. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reaffirms the need for concerted international commitment and action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. IPCC has provided a series of scenarios regarding the burning of fossil fuels, how they will translate into greenhouse gas emissions, how that will translate into global warming, and how that will translate subsequently into climate change. There is widespread agreement that current rates of greenhouse gas emissions will be catastrophic if unabated. This is transforming our understanding of environmental problems based primarily on the availability of resources to an understanding based on the ecological impacts associated with their acquisition and disposal.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 1.0

Building an Environmental Ethic

• Canada is currently the highest per capita consumer of energy and second highest per capita producer of greenhouse gases in the world. • Canada’s green house gas emissions continue to increase by 1.5 per cent annually. It is difficult to imagine that a sustainable system of production and consumption will emerge by simply tweaking the current practice. IPCC is calling for much more significant leaps in performance than those currently declared within the Kyoto Accord. Discussion about Factor 4 and Factor 10 provides some sense of the urgency and the order of magnitude needed to address climate change and other environmental issues. It is also difficult to imagine an easy transition to a lowcarbon economy by requiring industrial countries to break their dependency on fossil fuels, while simultaneously encouraging developing countries aspiring to a similar wealth to leapfrog over the current polluting and resource-intense technological base. This is the challenge to which we must rise - individually and collectively.

Performance Through Time Lifecycle performance has emerged as the frame of reference for discussing environmental issues. This has particular importance for buildings because of the time-dependency of environmental impacts and building life: • Irrespective of current efforts to curb environmental degradation, the time-scale of ecological loadings, such as greenhouse gas emissions and subsequent stabilization of tolerable CO2 levels within the atmosphere, means that the consequences of past and current actions will persist for decades to come.

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SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

• The climatic conditions that buildings will impact will be different in the future than when the building is initially constructed. By 2050 it is estimated that global temperatures may have risen by 2°C and by 2100 perhaps by as much as 4°C – with considerable regional variations. Once triggered, the rate in rise in temperature will increase and the effects will profoundly affect the frequency and intensity of storms, winds and rainfall. Such changes will have potentially serious implications for buildings with passive systems. • Buildings last a long time. The buildings designed today, if they last 50, 75, 100 years, may well exist in a post-petroleum era or certainly at its tail end. Design decisions made today clearly influence future social and environmental agendas. • Buildings take a long time to reveal their true merits. The measure of successful green building strategies can therefore only be assessed in the long term. • Buildings must be capable of being upgraded over time because environmental issues are going to become more important, not less. • A combination of sustained user commitment to environmental technologies is absolutely critical for successful environmental performance. • It is important to differentiate between technologies and strategies that require active engagement from building users from those that do not. Any such increments in those that do need to be weighed very seriously against some long-held and timehonoured expectations of users.

Building an Environmental Ethic

Chapter 1.0

Leadership Any transition to sustainability will require profound shifts in human values and expectations. Nurturing an environmental ethic must precede or at least parallel technological advance. As the realities of resource depletion and global environmental degradation become more evident, we can anticipate a maturing and strengthening of the public’s concern and knowledge on environmental issues. This will translate into an expectation and demand for greater environmental responsibility and, as with other sectors, the building industry will be increasingly scrutinized for its environmental actions. Environmental issues present both a challenge and an opportunity for building design professionals. The challenges are to develop approaches and practices that address immediate environmental concerns and those that adhere to the emerging principles and dictates of sustainability. The opportunities are for both the reinstatement of meaningful and enduring design principles that respond to the ecologies of climate, resources and culture, and for design professionals to provide the visible and creative leadership that will be necessary to create change. Although environmental responsibility has always been implicit in the ethical codes that govern design professionals, this must now become an explicit and demonstrated part of practice. The key message in this course is for design professionals to: • Commit to environmentally responsible building design and to accept and remain collectively focused on sustaining a commitment to the environmental agenda. • Commit to educational programs to attain the necessary skills and remain current as the field matures. • Become proactive in aspiring to and delivering buildings with higher performance levels.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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2.0 Green Building Design Methodology

Green Building Design Methodology

Chapter 2.0

Green Building Design Methodology Overall Objectives • to modify conventional design processes to achieve greener buildings. • to include methods to measure and verify environmental performance. This section of the Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings manual provides information about the conception, design, construction, measurement and verification of green buildings. In order to achieve greener buildings, existing design processes require fundamental shifts in attitude and approach. This shift should be reviewed with the design team and adopted prior to project initiation. Measurement and verification are two important stages in achieving greener buildings, by ensuring that the environmental strategies of the building are designed, installed and operated at optimum settings.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 2.0 - Green Building Design Methodology

2.1 Implementation Strategies

Life Cycle Assessment Integrated Design Approach Clients and Authorities Having Jurisdiction Sustainable Goals Sharing Knowledge and Promoting Green Buildings

Implementation Strategies

Chapter 2.1

2.1 Implementation Strategies Objective • to modify the conventional design process to make buildings greener. New approaches to building design must include consideration of the life cycle and long term impacts of buildings which may affect future generations. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) takes into account the direct and indirect detrimental effects of buildings on the environment and on the community. Some of the fundamentals to achieve greener buildings include: • The initial selection of a multidisciplinary green design team – called the Integrated Design Approach; • The establishment of sustainable goals early in a project’s development; • The involvement of clients, authorities having jurisdiction, and the community in the early stages of the project; • Education to promote sustainable design and the continuous improvement of buildings.

Life Cycle Assessment Objective: • to consider impacts of the entire life cycle of a building in all design decisions. The life cycle assessment (LCA) addresses all stages of a building (or product), from resource extraction, assembly and construction, to the disposal, recycling or reuse of building products during “deconstruction”. In general terms, the concept of life cycle assessment expands the assessment process from immediate, short term,

narrow criteria, to long term, comprehensive criteria. Life cycle costing is usually considered to be a financial analysis, with capital investment decisions weighed against operational savings (i.e. return on investment). More thorough LCA studies, may examine factors such as Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG’s) of materials within buildings for their complete life cycle. Analysing materials and resources using this life cycle concept, can establish more realistic environmental and social costs associated with a building or product. However, this comprehensive assessment is more difficult to quantify; the analysis of building products can be costly, and data is not available for all materials. LCA requires an understanding of how the different stages of a building’s life cycle affect the overall objective of sustainability. The principal stages of a buildings life cycle include: - initial design, - prefabrication, - construction, - operation and maintenance, - demolition, and - disposal. Thorough LCA studies usually indicate that the financial benefits of operational savings, considered over a building’s entire life, significantly outweigh any additional initial capital investments to achieve these operational savings.

SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 2.1

Implementation Strategies

These comparisons however, are very sensitive to energy cost projections. Even in their simpler applications, LCA can support “green” decisions. Relamping offices with T8’s or T5’s fluorescent lamps can result in a 3-4 year payback. Many Canadian clients have established payback thresholds (6-10 years are benchmarks used by the some clients such as BCBC, Alberta Infrastructure, and City of Calgary). The current “payback” for most photovoltaic installations exceeds 100 years; however, energy costs and manufacturing costs are always changing. As Canadian energy costs move to market value through more deregulation, the LCA should become more effective.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Incorporate an analysis of life cycle in all design decisions. • Use other LCA data when available. • Request life cycle data for building products in order to develop a more accurate and complete life cycle assessment.

Case Study York University Computer Science Building Busby + Associates Architects, in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects, Toronto, ON

Resources Life Cycle Assessment Links www.life-cycle.org NIST Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC) Program www.eren.doe.gov/femp

US DOE Building Life Cycle Cost Assessment Programs www.energydesignresources.com

Integrated Design Approach Objective • to achieve holistic solutions through an Integrated Design Approach.

In the York University project, a 75 year life span LCA study was done to assess capital and operational costs. As compared to a reference MNECB building, this building’s operational costs are estimated to be tens of millions of dollars less than the reference building and other buildings with the same capital cost.

A long term view is fundamental to the design of any sustainable project. The financing of a project is usually done only in consideration of the short term, whereas the effects of a building or development on social, economic and environmental systems, both local and global, are long term. By taking a life cycle approach, the full costs and benefits of various design approaches and technologies can be appraised and the best, or most sustainable, solution identified.

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SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Not only does the green building design process require a vision and a commitment to sustainability; but also the application of an Integrated Design Approach (IDA). Greener building design begins with a multidisciplinary team of design professionals such as environmental design experts, architects, engineers, planners and landscape architects. It also includes the client as a core team member. The IDA ensures all building systems and components, such as site design, structure, orientation, envelope, lighting, and ventilation are viewed as interdependent. Professionals involved in such a team must overcome a narrow point-ofview related to their discipline and be open-minded to consider “global” solutions encompassing all disciplines. This approach is achieved by respecting each consultant or team member as a colleague rather than as a competitor for a portion of the building’s budget.

Implementation Strategies

Chapter 2.1

An example of such teamwork is the tradeoff between high-performance windows and a building’s mechanical systems. Typically, when a building in Canada is designed to perform 30-50% better than the Model National Energy Code (MNEC) by incorporating high-performance windows, the costs for mechanical equipment, such as chillers and ducts, decreases dramatically. In other words, these construction costs shift from mechanical engineering to architectural components (in this case, insulating operable windows). Such a solution takes teamwork, in the form of the IDA, to achieve.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

One useful technique is to establish fixed design fees for mechanical and electrical engineers at “conventional” cost projections, which means that the engineering consultants must work hard to find design solutions, often resulting in fewer drawings and less documentation. It is a win-win solution for both the client and the environment.

York University - Computer Science Building Busby + Associates Architects, in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects, Toronto, ON

The IDA team of consultants can be structured with core and peripheral team members. The core team members (including the client, architect, mechanical, electrical and structural engineers) provide continuity in addressing a project’s sustainable goals. The peripheral members (such as materials experts, quantity surveyors, the client’s operations team, maintenance supervisors, etc.) can be consulted for their specific expertise during the course of the project. It is important to include all consultants in the “communication loop” so that they can absorb and assimilate information and contribute to the sustainable vision of the project. IDA’s can start with design charrettes or workshops which set goals and strategies. They may also be a vehicle to obtain a client’s buy-in to the process. Team meetings for the Integrated Design Approach must be held frequently during the schematic design and design development phase of a project. Periodic “full table” reviews are important for “sign-offs”. The client’s maintenance and operations staff should also be included because they must understand the finished building during the critical period after takeover.

• Use an Integrated Design Approach for all building projects. • Document and distribute the sustainable vision for the project. • Include green design experts on the design team. • Include experts or “peripheral” consultants for advice on a wide range of sustainable issues.

Case Study

Resources Green Building BC – Guide to Value Analysis and Integrated Design Process www.greenbuildingsbc.com/ new_buildings/resources.html

Clients and Authorities Having Jurisdiction Objective • to reduce any real or perceived obstacles to achieving greener buildings. Green buildings provide many advantages to clients and the community at large. They can be built with no cost premium, they are cheaper to operate, they can result in cost savings for infrastructure, they have low environmental impacts, and they have high-quality indoor environments for users. Consequently, green buildings are more marketable than conventional buildings. However, in order to design and construct green buildings, some impediments need to be overcome, including: • the fear of innovation, such as a reluctance to adopt new tools and processes • the perception of additional costs.

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Implementation Strategies

By involving clients and authorities having jurisdiction from the outset, perceived or real obstacles can often be overcome. The IDA is an important tool in overcoming such obstacles. It is very important to involve decision-makers at all levels, as well as building maintenance and operations staff. By including the wider community, the Integrated Design Approach for sustainable design provides an opportunity to educate the public, thereby increasing expectations and the demand for and acceptance of sustainable technologies.

At the CK Choi Building at University of British Columbia (UBC) the approving authority agreed to allow composting toilets in the building. This would have come to nothing if UBC operations staff had not agreed to maintain the composters, including handling the “red wriggler” worms which assist in decomposition. Green roofs pose similar maintenance challenges because they may need occasional weeding.

Authorities having jurisdiction, through various regulations, can control the extent of allowable innovation for incorporated sustainable features and technologies in buildings. Certain existing regulations impede sustainable buildings and developments because they were imposed in response to practices and values that predate our awareness of sustainability issues. Typical regulatory challenges include electrical and plumbing codes that require all installed equipment to be new. Buildings designed for large municipal clients often demonstrate the potential for change. For example, the Materials Testing Laboratory for the City of Vancouver Engineering Department was constructed out of 80% salvaged material – with client agreement all the way. Often authorities will permit an application if they have been advised and informed early in the process and have agreed with the sustainability goals for the project.

The Materials Testing Laboratory for the City of Vancouver Engineering Department was constructed out of 80% salvaged material.

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At the CK Choi Building at UBC, the authorities agreed to allow composting toilets in the building.

No one jurisdiction can possibly regulate all sustainable issues. Architects with new innovative solutions should approach regulators respectfully to make progress toward greener buildings and developments.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Include clients and authorities having jurisdiction early in the design process; • Challenge conflicting regulations and seek mutually beneficial solutions; • Identify clearly the relative risks and impacts of conventional systems as well as those associated with any innovation, in order to facilitate further discussion; • Enlist the help of credible professionals to negotiate with regulatory agencies and authorities having jurisdiction to build a relationship of trust between the applicant and the regulator; • Cultivate relationships with champions within the regulatory agencies for any proposed innovations.

Implementation Strategies

Chapter 2.1

CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC

Finally, the design team should consider defining goals with multiple objectives. Multiple objectives lead to potential synergies in green design.

City of Vancouver Material Testing Facility Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC

Some examples of quantifiable goals are:

Case Studies

Resources Green Building BC – Guide to Value Analysis and Integrated Design Process www.greenbuildingsbc.com/ new_buildings/resources.html

Sustainable Goals Objective • to establish quantifiable goals in order to motivate the design team and to measure success. Establishing sustainability goals at the outset helps define the environmental scope of a given project. Clients, stakeholder representatives, and team members should participate in defining the project’s sustainability goals; this strengthens every team member’s commitment to those goals.

• the number of tons of greenhouse gas emissions saved in construction (compared to a benchmark); • savings in operational costs (such as annual figures showing savings in energy consumption); • the amount of preservation or restoration of native vegetation; • the percentage of modal mix in a development’s transportation system. An example of an organization that establishes clear goals and objectives is the Mountain Equipment Co-op, an enlightened company with a “Green Building Mandate” that all design teams must meet. Eighty (80%) of the materials used in the new Mountain Equipment Co-op store in Ottawa, travelled no more than 500 km to the site. That’s a clear and commendable goal.

Goals and priorities should also reflect the local context, issues and values. For example, a region or community that regularly experiences a shortage of water may emphasize water efficiency features within its environmental goals. There it would still be important to consider other variables that contribute to sustainability, such as operational energy reduction, but the team would recognize that those variables would have a lower priority than water conservation. Clearly established goals and priorities will guide the team during the design process. Quantifiable goals can be set to meet energy performance standards or to increase energy savings. Typically in Canada, targets are compared to the Model National Energy Code (MNEC) and are often expressed as, for example “30% better than” the applicable standard set in the code. Similar goals use ASHRAE 90.1 (1999) as a standard. Less specific qualitative goals make the measurement of success more difficult. Whenever possible, the design team should avoid qualitative goals such as “increase indoor air quality” or “improve resource efficiency”.

In the MEC store in Ottawa, 80% of the materials travelled no more than 500 km.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Define goals with multiple objectives; • Define specific quantifiable targets for diverse green design strategies; • Expend exceptional effort to meet the stated goals; • Consider the widest range of goals. SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Implementation Strategies

Case Studies Mountain Equipment Coop (Ottawa) Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect in joint venture, Ottawa, ON Mountain Equipment Coop (Toronto) Stone Kohn McQuire Vogt Architects, Toronto, ON CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC York University - Computer Science Building Busby + Associates Architects, in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects, Toronto, ON

Resources Green Building BC – Guide to Value Analysis and Integrated Design Process www.greenbuildingsbc.com/ new_buildings/resources.html Centre for Excellence for Sustainable Development www.sustainable.doe.gov

Sharing Knowledge and Promoting Green Buildings Objective • to share knowledge and to promote green building successes. Green buildings provide exciting and challenging opportunities in the design, construction and management of the built environment. Showing leadership and commitment, researching new solutions, and sharing knowledge of sustainability are required roles for architects to lead the movement towards the continuous improvement of green buildings and the ultimate objective of achieving a sustainable human society on this planet.

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Architectural practices interested in green buildings should demonstrate leadership and commitment to the concept of sustainability by: • adopting sustainable business practices, • leading by example, • researching new solutions, • educating staff and colleagues, • sharing information about green design, and • marketing the firm’s successful green buildings. The dissemination of green design strategies is critically important to ensure a greater positive impact on the Canadian environment.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Educate, update, and consolidate knowledge of current and future trends to achieve sustainability; • Market successful green design strategies; • Make sustainable design knowledge a criteria when hiring team members.

Resources Green Building BC – Guide to Value Analysis and Integrated Design Process www.greenbuildingsbc.com/ new_buildings/resources.html Green Building Information Council www.greenbuilding.ca/

Chapter 2.0 - Green Building Design Methodology

2.2 Measurements and Verification

Performance Standards Simulation Software and Programs Assessment Tools Commissioning

Measurement and Verification

Chapter 2.2

2.2 Measurement and Verification Objective • to measure and verify the operation of building systems over their life cycle to ensure optimal performance. Measurement of the project’s goals at all phases of design, construction and operation is crucial; this provides quantitative results and ensures optimum performance. Measurement and verification practices can often instill the sponsor the confidence needed to secure project funding. By demonstrating that investments in energy efficiency have a feasible payback period may be critical to funding. Measurement and verification practices allow project performance risks to be clarified, managed, and allocated among the parties. Measurement and verification will also optimize systems efficiency. Assessing energy savings strategies at the design stage is sometimes difficult. It is during a building’s actual operation that energy consumption, material and systems performance and water savings can be measured, documented, and properly assessed. There are several methods available to Canadian architects for assessing designs and constructed buildings. Performance standards, simulation software and assessment methods are three types of useful tools to ensure the achievement of environmental goals. Measurement and verification occur at two important stages: • During the design phase, simulation software and assessment methods facilitate measuring the design team’s proposed environmental targets; • During construction and operation, a comprehensive and ongoing commissioning, measurement and verification program optimizes and documents performance.

These programs may also provide feedback concerning issues of adaptability, such as a change in use or the introduction of new sustainable technologies.

Performance Standards Objective • to monitor and increase the environmental performance of buildings. Performance standards such as the Model National Energy Codes, the C-2000 Program, and the ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-1999 Energy Standard offer benchmark objectives for minimum environmental performance. Use of these performance standards may help reduce the number of buildings that are claimed to significantly reduce detrimental environmental impacts, but really demonstrate little environmental merit (sometimes referred to as “green wash”).

Model National Energy Codes The National Research Council of Canada has produced the Model National Energy Code of Canada for Buildings (MNECB) and the Model National Energy Code for Houses (MNECH). Their purpose is to help practitioners to design energyefficient buildings. By considering local climate, fuel sources and costs, and construction costs, these codes establish minimum standards that can be adopted as regulations by the appropriate provincial or territorial authorities. Alternatively, they may be used simply as a guide to low impact environmental energy conservation practice for buildings. These model codes apply to new construction or additions, but not to alterations or renovations of existing buildings.

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Chapter 2.2

Measurement and Verification

ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-1999 ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-1999 is an energy benchmark for US buildings (except for low- rise residential buildings). This well-known benchmark targets commercial buildings and focuses on two areas: • the building envelope, and • the building’s systems and equipment. This energy benchmark dictates mandatory provisions required in order to meet the standard. Two paths are offered to design teams: a prescriptive path, and a performance path. Mechanical calculations must be done in order to prove compliance.

C-2000 Program The C-2000 Program for Advanced Commercial Buildings is a demonstration program for highperformance office buildings, developed and sponsored by CANMET and the Canadian Energy Technology Centre (CETC), Natural Resources Canada. This program focuses on the energy and environmental performance of buildings. Additional criteria have been developed for a wide range of other parameters, such as occupant health and comfort. The program demonstrates the feasibility of achieving energy efficiency and minimum negative environmental impacts through the application of innovative green building technologies. The program provides incremental financial support and technical assistance to development teams for design which conforms to the program’s whole-building performance requirements. The C-2000 overall strategy is to assist in the completion of projects that meet the performance criteria, to monitor their actual performance, and, to inform the industry of the results. Program goals are achieved by the application of explicit performance targets, careful selection of qualified teams and the development of close working relationships with experts in the field. A variety of simulation software programs such as HOT 2000 are available to aid the design teams.

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Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use performance standards for setting sustainable goals.

Resources C-2000 Program buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca Model National Energy Codes www.nrc.ca/irc ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-1999 www.ashrae.org

Simulation Software and Programs Objectives • to identify incentive programs which encourage the design and construction of more green buildings. • to list software which assesses the environmental merit of various strategies during the design stage. Simulation software programs are available to Canadian design teams to increase environmental performance of buildings during the design stage. These software programs are sometimes associated with a performance standard. Examples of software and programs available to Canadian design teams are: CBIP Screening Tool, ATHENATM software, CMHC’s Watersave, DOE-2, Energy-10, and RETScreen® Tool. This is not a comprehensive list, but a survey of the more commonly used software available. Simulation software is a rapidly growing and changing source of sustainable design strategies.

CBIP Screening Tool Natural Resources Canada’s Commercial Building Incentive Program (CBIP) is a program which facilitates the incorporation of energy efficient strategies by offering financial incentives for applying energy efficiency features in new commercial and institutional buildings.

Measurement and Verification

In order to qualify, the applicant must use EE4.CBIP energy performance simulation software in order to demonstrate that 25 percent more energy efficiency than the Model National Energy Codes will be achieved for larger buildings. A screening tool is available to quickly verify if the building will qualify. The CBIP Screening Tool estimates annual energy costs for the building as designed, and for the same building constructed to meet the Model National Energy Codes. To encourage builders of small commercial buildings to participate in CBIP, and facilitate the achievement of CBIP’s energy target, the CBIP Technical Guide includes regulatory energy efficiency strategies for specific building types.

ATHENA™ Software The ATHENATM Sustainable Materials Institute is a Canadian non-profit organization created to continue the work started in 1991 by Forintek Canada Corporation, with the support of Natural Resources Canada. The Institute has successfully initiated and managed an extensive series of studies and it has developed one of the most highly regarded databases of Life Cycle Inventories (LCI) for building products in the world. The project was originally known as Building Materials in the Context of Sustainable Development Project. The Institute has Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) software that analyzes: • production processes for different building products, • the use of those products in building and construction, and • broader environmental issues associated with resource extraction, building demolition and disposal.

Chapter 2.2

RETScreen® Tool Few design professionals consider renewable energy technology (such as, solar photovoltaic power and wind generators) to be a feasible option, and presently discount such applications. The RETScreen® Renewable Energy Project Analysis Software can assist in breaking down this barrier. RETScreen International is a tool for renewable energy awareness, decision support and capacity building. It has been developed by the CANMET Energy Diversification Research Laboratory (CEDRL) with the contribution of numerous industry experts, government and academia. The tool consists of standardized and integrated renewable energy project analysis software that evaluates the energy production, life cycle costs and greenhouse gas emission reductions for various types of renewable energy technologies (RETs). The RETScreen® tool can be used for a variety of purposes, including: • • • • • • • • • •

preliminary feasibility studies, project lender due diligence, market studies, policy analysis, information dissemination, training, sales of products and/or services, project development and management, product development, and research and development.

The software also facilitates project implementation by providing a common evaluation platform for the various stakeholders involved in the project.

WATERSAVE Software Design teams can use the ATHENATM Software to carry out assessments of the structural systems of a building. Additionally, the ATHENATM Institute can assist design teams by providing consulting services regarding LCA and LCI in the early design stage. A more in-depth assessment of detailed drawings can also be done.

The Canadian Mortgage and Housing Commission (CMHC) supplies WATERSAVE, a computer program intended for the design and analysis of water flows, water quality, and energy use in housing projects. The software can be applied to singlefamily detached houses or multi-unit residential projects. The program was developed as an aid to design teams for designing innovative household water systems, including wastewater recycling or reuse, water conservation, use of rainwater as a supplementary water source, and on-site wastewater disposal. The program can simulate

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Chapter 2.2

Measurement and Verification

water and wastewater flows for residential water systems, calculate concentrations of a given parameter throughout the system, and determine the distribution of heat and water temperatures in the system. The software can also assist in determining the capacity and efficiency of a rainwater cistern system as an alternative water source. The program does not design system components and depends on user-provided information to define the configuration of the system, water use, raw and treated water quality and treatment efficiencies, and energy inputs and recovery options.

DOE-2 and Energy Plus The Simulation Research Group of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California produces building energy simulation software such as DOE 2 and Energy Plus. The lab is managed by the University of California for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE); although these software programs are American, they are often used in Canada. DOE-2 Software program predicts the hourly energy usage and the energy cost of a building based upon hourly weather information, a description of the building and its HVAC equipment, and the utility rate structure. Using DOE-2, designers can assess design decisions regarding building parameters that improve energy efficiency, while still maintaining thermal comfort and cost effectiveness. A simple or detailed description of building designs, an accurate estimate of the proposed building’s energy consumption, interior environmental conditions and energy operation cost are the base from which DOE-2 analyzes energy usage in buildings. DOE-2 is to be considered an aid; it does not provide a holistic assessment of the building’s overall environmental performance. Therefore, like most tools used in the design process, it must be used in conjunction with other assessment methods. EnergyPlus is a new generation building energy simulation program designed for modeling buildings with associated heating, cooling, lighting, ventilating, and other energy flows. EnergyPlus builds on the earlier DOE-2 software but includes many new simulation capabilities

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SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

including time steps of less than an hour, and systems simulation modules that are integrated with zone simulation based on heat balancebased. Other planned simulation capabilities include solar thermal, multizone airflow, and electric power simulation including photovoltaic systems and fuel cells. EnergyPlus is a simulation engine, which reads input and writes output as text files, thus facilitating the involvement of clients and governing bodies in the design process.

Energy-10 ENERGY-10 is another software tool developed by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with the Sustainable Building Industry Council, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and the Berkeley Solar Group with support from the U.S. Department of Energy. Energy-10 is design software that analyzes and illustrates the energy and cost savings achievable through more than a dozen sustainable design strategies. Hourly energy simulations can help quantify, assess, and clearly depict the benefits of green building strategies such as daylighting, passive solar heating, natural ventilation, well-insulated building envelopes, better windows, lighting systems, and mechanical equipment. Using climate data that is site specific, the software shows how different combinations of materials, systems, and siting yield lesser or greater results in terms of energy use, comparative costs, and reduced emissions. The software offers the possibility of customizing weather files, converting file formats, and illustrating results in a variety of ways. This software can be customized for a Canadian context.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use simulation software to assess design decisions. • Include simulation personnel in the design team. • Work with Mechanical and Electrical engineers who know and use simulation software as a matter of good practice.

Measurement and Verification

Resources CBIP Screening Tool cbip.nrcan.gc.ca/cbip.htm ATHENATM Software www.athenasmi.ca RETScreen® Tool www.retscreen.gc.ca WATERSAVE Software www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/burema/hoin DOE-2 and EnergyPlus gundog.lbl.gov/ Energy-10 www.sbicouncil.org/enTen

Assessment Tools Objective • to identify platforms for the comparison of environmental strategies for buildings. Comprehensive assessment methods can be used to rate buildings for overall environmental performance, something which goes beyond the purpose of simulation software. Examples of available assessment systems: Green Building Challenge (GBC) GB Tool, BREEAM Green Leaf rating system, and US Green Building Council (USGBC) LEED™ rating system.

GBTool Software The Green Building Challenge (GBC) is an international collaborative effort that has grown to include over 25 countries. Its purpose is to create a forum for the international exchange of green building strategies. As part of the international GBC process, Green Building Tool Software (GBTool) was designed to be the operational software for the GBC assessment framework. Nils Larsson of NRCAN and Ray Cole of UBC were the authors of the GBTool. It is a sophisticated and subtle spreadsheet that allows participating countries to selectively incorporate ideas or modify their own building assessment tools. The GBC and GBTool processes are valuable research and development initiatives which influence many nationally recognized systems in participating countries.

Chapter 2.2

GBTool assesses potential environmental merits of proposed buildings but it has no mechanism to evaluate constructed projects. The tool can be applied to offices, multi-unit residential and educational buildings. It is possible to simulate performance in areas such as energy consumption, estimate embodied energy and emissions, and predict thermal comfort and air quality. The tool compares a proposed design to the benchmark values defined by national teams. The strategies of the proposed design are weighed and scored to produce a final score. The weighing and scoring must be properly coordinated with the national teams for proper assessment of the proposed building. The software has been implemented on an Excel spreadsheet and may be downloaded for evaluation and educational purposes. It is time intensive and therefore “costly” to create a complete assessment ($20,000-$30,000). The software has been developed by Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) on behalf of the GBC group of countries. It should be noted that this tool is not meant for commercial purposes. However, agreements may be worked out between potential users, the relevant national team and NRCan.

BREEAM GREEN LEAF Rating System BREEAM/Green Leaf was created in 1998. Its simple approach addresses a broad scope of issues but nevertheless maintains the principles of credibility, affordability and efficiency. The program is based on the international BREEAM environmental criteria as developed by the Building Research Establishment in the U.K. The assessment procedure was modeled on the Green Leaf Eco-Rating Program for the Canadian Hotel Industry. ECD Energy, Environment Canada and Terra Choice produce the program. This Canadian rating system was developed as assessment tool to be used by building owners and managers. It is appropriate for office buildings and multi-residential buildings which require a comprehensive assessment of environmental performance. In addition to global, local and indoor environmental issues, BREEAM/Green Leaf covers a several important tenant concerns selected from the BOMA Tenant Satisfaction Survey 1998. These selected issues are often associated with tenant satisfaction and include thermal comfort, security and office layout.

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Measurement and Verification

The system results in a comprehensive report with recommendations for improvements in operational savings and occupant health and comfort. It is a tool produced for the private sector, and a fee is charged to use it.

LEED™ Rating System V2.0 The LEED Green Building Rating System™ is a major program of the US Green Building Council (USGBC). The USGBC enjoys wide representation from the construction industry including product manufacturers, building owners, environmental leaders, design professionals, contractors, builders, utilities, governments agencies, building controls contractors, research institutions and the financial industry. The LEED™ program is a voluntary, consensus-based, and market-driven building rating system based on proven technology. It evaluates environmental performance of a series of criteria over a building’s life cycle. LEED™ is based on accepted energy and environmental principles and aims at striking a balance between accepted practices and new sustainable technologies. LEED™ is a self-assessing system designed for rating new and existing commercial, institutional, and high-rise residential buildings. It is a “feature-oriented” system where credits are earned for satisfying criteria. Different levels of green building certification are awarded based on the total credits earned. Section 8 of this manual describes the LEED tool in more detail, as it is likely to become the standard tool in North American for Building Assessment.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use assessment tools to rate buildings. • Increase marketability of a building by promoting its environmental rating.

Resources GBTool Software www.greenbuilding.ca/gbc2k/gbc-start.htm BREEAM GREEN LEAF Rating System www.breeamcanada.ca LEEDTM Rating System www.usgbc.org

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Commissioning Objective • to provide the optimal settings for all building systems. Commissioning procedures should be in place to ensure that a completed building is performing as designed and that the construction adheres to the drawings and documented design intent. Commissioning should occur during construction as well as during occupancy. A commissioning agent should be present during the construction phase to ensure the calibration of various systems. This is more cost effective prior to occupancy of the building. The commissioning of green buildings includes all systems, such as mechanical, lighting, water, controls, thermal performance, the building envelope and natural systems. Natural systems which may need commissioning include the proper functioning of operational windows for natural ventilation, passive solar systems such as louvers, or daylighting features such as light shelves. One of the most important stages of commissioning occurs in post-occupancy. Postoccupancy commissioning is valuable because sustainable design considers the entire life cycle of a building, from construction to deconstruction. As previously mentioned, the operation of a building consumes the most energy in the useful life of a building. Changes in staffing, building use, or systems failure, can result in significant changes to the performance of a building’s systems. They may not be functioning as designed. Ongoing measurements and verification throughout the life of a building optimize performance and permit adaptation of building systems to changes. For example, the slightest improvement in the performance of a building with respect to water consumption or energy use, when calculated over a 50 or 75 year period, will account for enormous savings.

Measurement and Verification

Chapter 2.2

Additionally, commissioning should include the training of building users for ultimate building operation. Post-occupancy commissioning adds additional cost to professional fees; however, these costs can be justified and recovered through increased energy efficiency, increased occupant well-being and improved tenant satisfaction. Ensuring the proper functioning of all systems also reduces maintenance and repair costs. Post-occupancy measurement and evaluation is not typically included in conventional design team services. The intent of a well developed commissioning strategy is aligned with long term sustainable goals and targets. Commissioning subconsultants or specialist firms can be retained by the client to carry out this task, however, the IDA team should ensure that commissioning agents understand and share the sustainability goals of the project.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Include a commissioning agent in the design team. • Document and review the design intent of all systems. • Develop a commissioning plan as early as possible. • Provide an operation and maintenance manual. • Prepare a commissioning report. • Provide the means for continual environmental monitoring.

Resources International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol www.ipmvp.org ASHRAE (1996) Guideline 1: The HVAC Commissioning Process www.ashrae.org

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Chapter 2.0 - Green Building Design Methodology

2.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 2.3

2.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs One of the biggest obstacles to achieving more sustainable buildings is the implementation of new and different processes for development, financing, design, construction and operations. Incorporating green building technologies requires a fundamental shift in the attitudes of all participants including a deep respect for the environment. Building industry professionals can play a part in influencing public opinion and, ultimately, all related regulations by promoting successful green building technologies to the public, clients and fellow professionals.

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3.0 Sustainable Site Design

Sustainable Site Design

Chapter 3.0

Sustainable Site Design Overall Objectives • to reduce and minimize negative impacts as a result of site selection. • to reduce and minimize negative site impacts as a result of the site development and its buildings. Over the course of history, human activity has affected the earth incrementally. Now, this activity has reached unprecedented levels and has become very visible. The green design team must reinforce the notion that buildings are connected to their surroundings; the construction, operation and deconstruction of buildings have negative effects on local and regional ecosystems and watersheds. Conventional practices must be modified to reverse current building processes that degrade the environment. These practices and processes must be transformed into processes which enhance the environment. Buildings can contribute positively to their surroundings! Such examples include generating energy and collecting rainwater. A building can be an attribute to a community by providing certain services and utilities as well as by establishing intrinsic aesthetic and urban values. Sustainable site design involves two primary issues: site location and site impacts.

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Chapter 3.0 - Sustainable Site Design

3.1 Site Selection

Site Selection Process Urban Redevelopment Brownfield Redevelopment Transportation Issues

Site Selection

Chapter 3.1

3.1 Site Selection Objective • to select the most appropriate site for a given project. The four main factors to consider for site location are: • the process for site selection; • opportunities for urban redevelopment; • opportunities for brownfield redevelopment; and • transportation. As previously stated, proper site location can significantly reduce the harmful impacts of buildings on surrounding ecosystems and watersheds. However, in many cases, site selection is not part of the design team’s mandate.

Site Selection Process Objective • to ensure sustainable design principles are incorporated in the site selection process. During site selection, it is important to expand the criteria normally considered, providing a comprehensive approach to: • the potential to reduce negative environmental impacts; • the site’s contribution to increased economic prosperity; and • the incorporation of community land use strategies.

Successful integration of these criteria can be achieved by including authorities having jurisdiction, the community at large, and all other stakeholders early in the design process. Techniques such as design charrettes, open houses for the public, and organized public commentary are successful in addressing and understanding all the issues. Sustainable site selection considers impacts of development on the local environment by an assessment of geological information, watersheds and groundwater aquifers, sun and wind patterns, natural ecosystems and habitats, sensitive areas such as floodplains and wetlands, and the history of the site. The impact of the surroundings on future users of the building is another consideration. For example, a site located near high traffic areas or a site polluted from a nearby industry will have a detrimental influence on indoor environmental quality. The fundamental vision of any sustainable land use is that of the “complete community”, which supports a range of lifestyles, incomes and ages. The design team must aim to provide a diversity of activities for the community. Sustainable communities must include the following land use considerations: • planning for community energy; • transportation; and • ecological factors. Design teams should consider the flow of energy, resources and wastes produced within the community to increase efficiency and synergies. It is important to avoid incompatible land uses such as heavy industry adjacent to daycares. Employment and housing opportunities must be balanced. Comfortable walking distances should form the basis for locating retail facilities, schools and amenities within a community. Density levels

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Chapter 3.1

Site Selection

should be as high as possible, in order to reduce infrastructure costs and preserve land. Transit and alternative transportation methods should be the backbone of the community. These complex, interconnected issues can be addressed by ensuring community planners are included as part of the Integrated Design Approach (IDA) team members. Issues and considerations for selecting economically viable building sites include: • short and long term profitability and economic diversity; • industrial ecology; and • the proximity of the supply of key goods and services. The South East False Creek neighbourhood in Vancouver is an interesting example of a contaminated site which the City of Vancouver is investigating the feasibility of transforming into a model of sustainable development. This brownfield redevelopment promises to be an important Canadian precedent for a sustainable urban community.

• Perform a site survey to identify all features, such as trees, ecologically sensitive areas, climatic data and slopes, etc. • Engage consultants, such as landscape architects, geologists, ecologists and environmental engineers, to perform a comprehensive site analysis. • Select a site which supports a wide range of uses, and which can produce a density capable of supporting a viable transit system and commercial activity. • Select a site which contributes to a diversity of activities, both social and economic, and which offers a range of stable employment opportunities for the community. • Select a site which contributes to the health and education and recreation of the community.

Resources Smart Growth Network www.smartgrowth.org Global Environment Options www.geonetwork.org

Urban Redevelopment Objective • to ensure that sites within existing urbanized areas are favoured. All sustainable urban redevelopment should ensure that new projects are located within existing urban areas. The environmental benefits of such redevelopment are: The City of Vancouver is currently reviewing ways to transform this contaminated site into a model of sustainable development.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Include all stakeholders in the site selection process. • Encourage the development of an “ecoindustrial network” that takes waste products from one business and supplies them as resources for another, thereby increasing resource efficiency and reducing waste.

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• an increased efficiency of energy and infrastructure; • the protection of existing ecosystems and greenfield sites; • the strengthening of existing commercial, social and cultural communities; and • the reduction of urban/suburban sprawl. Significant financial and environmental costs are attributed to municipal and regional infrastructure. By connecting to existing systems, the need to expand existing infrastructure (water supply, sewers and wastewater treatment, power distribution, and roads) is minimized.

Site Selection

Chapter 3.1

Additionally, urban redevelopment provides an opportunity to reuse and renovate existing buildings. Such a strategy helps to conserve capital, energy and materials which would be necessary for new construction. Instead of constructing new buildings, the renovation of existing buildings can save thousands of tonnes of landfill and greenhouse gas emissions. By developing sites in dense urban areas, other efficiencies can result (such as sharing partywalls, heat and materials exchange, etc.). Urban redevelopment can also preserve greenfield sites. The advantages of preserving greenfield sites are many: increased regional biodiversity, protection of agricultural land for future generations, increased potential urban agriculture, protection of animal habitat, and the intrinsic and often intangible values of greenfield sites for the community at large. Favouring dense, multi-use urban development strengthens existing social and cultural facilities and programs by increasing the number of potential patrons for these programs and facilities. Well-established community facilities within easy walking distance of households can increase the community’s overall quality of life. By developing only urban sites, suburban sprawl is reduced. Sprawl puts pressure on freshwater resources and food producing ecosystems two valuable ‘services’ provided by our natural surroundings. Reducing sprawl helps regions to conserve and protect natural ecosystems and watersheds that support and sustain urban areas. The Angus Loco Shop project in Montréal is a renovation and conversion of an existing historical industrial complex into a multi-functional center to house small and medium-sized businesses specializing in environmental technology. Located in a previously urbanized area, this redevelopment demonstrates how new life can be injected into a site with a history of intense industrial activity.

The Angus Loco Shop project is a renovation and conversion of an existing industrial building with historical features into a multifunctional industrial center.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Favour infill development over greenfield sites. • Provide compact and dense development. • Reuse and renovate existing buildings.

Case Study Angus Locoshop Ædifica, Montreal, QC

Resources Smart Growth Network www.smartgrowth.org The Center for Livable Communities www.lgc.org BC Green Buildings Directory www.greenbuildingsbc.com

Brownfield Redevelopment Objective • to favour, in the site selection process, sites located in former industrial zones, which may require environmental restoration. Brownfield redevelopment is the restoration of sites previously damaged by human activities. Redevelopment of contaminated sites can eliminate sources of pollution and reduce pressures on undeveloped land. In most cases, brownfield sites are located within older urban areas; hence, redevelopment of these sites can achieve the sustainable design advantages of urban redevelopment strategies mentioned above. SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Site Selection

Brownfield sites often pollute local ecosystems with hazardous contaminants; therefore, their redevelopment and ecological restoration offers the additional benefits of eliminating or reducing pollution sources, which pose risks to health. Unfortunately, remediation of groundwater contamination and restoration of animal habitats is costly and, in some cases, uneconomical. Government incentives for brownfield cleanup can offset capital costs. Sometimes, site “cleaning” costs can be offset by the increase in land value in comparison with an existing, low-priced, marginal site.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Favour brownfield sites over greenfield sites. • Favour ecologically benign remediation strategies such as regenerative landscaping. • Gain community support for cleaning brownfield sites. • Include remediation experts on the design team. • Treat contaminated soils on site. • Demonstrate to clients how to increase land value through environmental cleanups.

Resources Mainstreaming Green Sustainable Design for Buildings & Communities www.e-architect.com Ontario Centre for Environmental Technology Advancement www.oceta.on.ca Center for Excellence for Sustainable Development www.sustainable.doe.gov

Transportation Issues Objectives • to ensure that sites serviced by public transportation are favoured. • to provide alternative transportation systems (such as pedestrian walkways, bicycle paths and electric cars). Transportation systems contribute to our high levels of energy consumption and other negative impacts associated with the built environment.

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Intense automobile and truck traffic is linked to urban sprawl, high-energy use, air pollution and a reduced quality of life for commuters. The infrastructure required for highway transportation has devastating impacts on ecosystems and watersheds. In a typical Canadian city, 30% to 40% of land is dedicated exclusively to the use of vehicles. Urban sprawl is a result of low-density residential and commercial uses being linked by roadways. The convenience of automobile transportation for daily commuting, one of the key factors behind urban sprawl, encourages the further proliferation of low-density development. Low-density suburban areas with single-family detached houses are one of the least efficient forms of development in terms of energy and materials. Vehicular transportation accounts for a large portion (29%) of the fossil fuel used in Canada. The increased popularity of large automobiles, such as sports utility vehicles (SUV’s), adds to the problem. Transportation accounts for approximately 35% of the production of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG’s) in Canada and automobiles are responsible for approximately half of these emissions. The reduction of the negative impacts of transportation includes: • promoting urban densification; • encouraging low-impact transportation modes (such as walking, cycling and public transit); and • reducing the amount of impervious paved surfaces. Urban densification increases the feasibility of mass transit systems and facilitates infrastructure efficiencies; furthermore, higher, mixed-use densities support a vibrant street life with a mix of retail, office and residential activities. The proximity of diverse uses is necessary to support a walking or cycling community. Alternative vehicular transportation is in its infancy. Hybrid cars available now (Honda Insight, Toyota Prius) require no special site support. It is anticipated that electric cars (high efficiency, lightweight plug-ins) and fuel cell cars will be available in two to four years. Site support for plug-in vehicules should be relatively simple –

Site Selection

many Canadian communities already provide plugins for winter use. Fuel cell cars will be more difficult to accommodate, as hydrogen stations may be few and far between. Laboratories, industrial plants and universities, where hydrogen tanks are already maintained, may be the first locations for such stations. Another opportunity for the research and development of “fuel cell refilling station” is within the Chemical Engineering departments on Canadian university campuses. Architects should encourage clients to support employees using low-impact trans-portation alternatives. Some alternatives include: • transit subsidies instead of parking passes; • shared company vehicles for employee use during the day; and • changing / shower facilities for bicycle commuters. In Vancouver, Busby + Associates provided the following employee statistics regarding transportation to the office: • • • • •

25% 30% 10% 15% 20%

Chapter 3.1

Automobile parking affects site design. By reducing the amount of parking, it is possible to reduce certain negative impacts. Paved surfaces for trucks and automobiles produce contaminated runoff that threatens natural water resources. Reducing this runoff can be accomplished by reducing the size of impervious paved areas or by specifying porous paving materials. Various alternative products can provide the necessary structural support required for vehicular circulation, parking or fire fighting and allow water to infiltrate the soil. Parking lots can also be designed to slope towards biofilter swales that treat and disperse rainwater runoff. This solution has an additional bonus as it can improve the attractiveness of the parking areas. Landscape architects are usually experienced in designing solutions incorporating biofiltration. For example, the British Columbia Gas building in Surrey, BC incorporates bio-filtration in surface parking areas.

walk to work cycle car pool commute by personal automobile use transit regularly

The firm provides lockers; showers; indoor, secure, bicycle parking; a van for free daytime use by employees on a “book it out” basis; a “hybrid” company car for longer site visits, and a small, folding bicycle for local meetings which are “too far to walk”. The folding bicycle fits into the elevator and into the meeting room (it is small, light and beautiful). There is no parking at the office.

The BC Gas building in Surrey, BC incorporates biofiltration in surface parking areas.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Choose a site within walking distance from a transit system. • Plan and design the development or the building to include mixed-uses and high densities. • Encourage on-site pedestrian circulation by incorporating pedestrian paths in all new developments with access to existing paths. • Provide secure indoor/outdoor bicycle parking for occupants and guests. • Provide changing facilities for cyclists. Busby + Associates’ office foldable bicycle for “too far to walk” local meetings. SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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• Advocate to the client to use low-impact alternative transportation modes to reduce private vehicular use. • Reduce the amount of impervious paved areas. • Provide paving surfaces when paving is required. • Provide biofilter permeable swales for parking lot drainage.

Case Study BC Gas Operation Centre Musson Cattell Mackey Partnership, Surrey, BC

Resources North American Greenways Information page www.ontarioplanners.on.ca/greenway.htm National Center for Bicycling and Walking www.bikefed.org CarFree Cities www.carfree.com North American CarSharing Organization (NACSO) www.carsharing.net

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Chapter 3.0 - Sustainable Site Design

3.2 Site Impacts

Site Disturbance Erosion and Sediment Control Landscape and Exterior Design Site Water Systems Management Heat Islands Light Pollution

Site Impacts

Chapter 3.2

3.2 Site Impacts Objective • to minimize the negative site impacts from a building. Buildings have profound effects on ecosystems, watersheds and human populations. Some of these negative environmental impacts include: • • • • • •

site disturbance; erosion and sediment deposits; water pollution; loss of landscape; creation of heat islands; and light pollution.

In the design of the Liu Centre at UBC in Vancouver, remarkable care and attention was demonstrated in order to avoid site disturbances. The following is noteworthy: • an existing building pad was reused; • a microclimate was created by mature existing vegetation which became an integral component of the ventilation system; • a careful contractor adjusted the foundations around ‘found’ root systems; and • specimen trees were ‘saved’ and became important architectural features of the design.

Site Disturbance Objective • to reduce the size of the building footprint and the paved area of new developments. Construction disturbs sites and this activity can destroy animal habitats and reduce a site’s biodiversity by eliminating existing native vegetation. Some of the benefits of protecting or enhancing the native vegetation include: promoting the movement of wildlife, allowing for regional biodiversity of flora, increasing property values, and contributing to the well-being of the community at large. Green design teams should favour compact buildings with small footprints and incorporate the natural landscape into both the building and site design. Dense development with common party walls and reducing pavement can help in conserving greenfield sites elsewhere. Density is accomplished by building vertically rather than horizontally, hence reducing the ratio of building footprint to floor area. This also increases energy efficiency by reducing the ratio of building envelope to floor area.

The design of the Liu Centre at UBC demonstrates remarkable care and attention to site disturbance issues.

Site disturbance can be minimized by locating new buildings on previously damaged areas and by incorporating landscape features in the building design. One strategy to incorporate the landscape into the building design is a “green” roof. Green roof design is presented in detail later on in this manual.

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Chapter 3.2

Site Impacts

Generally, civil engineering site “improvements” should be as benign as possible. The following are design guidelines:

Erosion and Sediment Control

• Resist civil engineering dictums requiring rainwater to be “something to put in a pipe.” Rainwater is natural and should be dispersed and absorbed on the site. • Avoid curbs and culverts. • Avoid asphalt; use gravel or other pervious materials instead. • Contour parking lots around trees and the existing natural grade. Parking lots need not be flat. • Save every tree possible. Eliminate a parking space if even one additional tree can be saved. • Plant two new trees for every one tree cut down to accommodate the construction.

• to reduce erosion in order to minimize detrimental impacts on water and air quality.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Design compact and dense developments to reduce site disturbance. • Avoid locating buildings within, or close to, ecologically sensitive areas. • Design and incorporate green roofs. • Locate new buildings on previously disturbed parts of the sites. • Preserve all the natural features on a site.

Case Study Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC, and Cornelia Oberlander, Landscape Architect

Resources

Objective

Erosion can be reduced and sediment contamination can be controlled by minimizing site disturbance during construction and by various design features. Excavation, grading and other construction activity, as well as the removal of vegetation, can cause serious erosion problems, the degradation of property, and contamination of ground and surface water. During construction, precautions should be taken to minimize the disruption of remaining vegetation and to reduce the runoff of soil and other contaminants. Most provinces have legislation controlling erosion and runoff during construction. It is important to ensure that such regulations are included in Division One of the project’s specifications. Structural control and stabilization of soils must consider erosion and sedimentation for the full life cycle of a building. Soil stabilization can be achieved by various planting techniques including temporary and permanent seeding and mulching. Structural control can be achieved by providing earth dikes, silt fences, sediment traps and basins. Landscaping features and a reduction of on-site runoff can help to control erosion and sedimentation. The Hinton Government Centre by Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd. in Hinton, AB, demonstrates many aspects of green design. During construction, various strategies were used to control erosion.

Green Roofs for Healthy Cities www.greenroofs.ca/grhcc/main.htm Big Green Building Database www.biggreen.org University of Manitoba Sustainable Community Design www.arch.umanitoba.ca/la/ sustainable/contents.htm

During construction of the Hinton Government Centre, strategies were in place to control erosion.

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Site Impacts

Chapter 3.2

Topsoil and seed materials, removed during site preparation, were stockpiled and reused to reestablish native groundcover. Surface water runoff from roads and parking lots is managed on-site. Erosion and sediment contamination of all on-site water was kept to a minimum.

In addition, native vegetation provides many other additional benefits requiring less irrigation water, and fewer pesticides and fertilizers for maintenance. Native groundcover increases onsite water retention, through absorption and dispersal of storm water and reduces runoff.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

Architects and their design teams should work with landscape architects to:

• Minimize site disturbance during construction. • Conserve as much as possible of the existing vegetation on any site. • Provide long-term structural control and stabilization of soil. • Reference provincial environmental control regulations in all specifications.

• Identify native plant species and incorporate them in all designs. (Four generations ago the prairies were covered with tall grass. The small amount of tall grass prairie remaining in Canada is disturbing and it is necessary to restore this balance). • Incorporate landscape design solutions using no irrigation or water efficient irrigation. • Commit to low or non-irrigation (refer to the section on Water Efficiency). • Work with existing ground contours whenever possible. • Balance cut and fill, and use excavation spoils onsite (i.e., do not permit trucking offsite). (Berms make excellent acoustic shields and windbreaks and are great landscape backdrops for coloured or textured plantings). • Use planting schemes that are naturally “complete” in their biodiversity. • Plant evergreens around the north, east and west sides of buildings to protect from the wind and to provide shade. • Plant deciduous trees at south, southeast and southwest sides of buildings to provide shade in the summer and sunlight in the winter.

Resources US EPA Office of Water www.epa.gov/OW International Erosion Control Association www.ieca.org

Landscape and Exterior Design Objective • to protect the natural habitat and to provide biodiversity within the interior and exterior landscape. Landscaping can enhance a project and is essential for the success of green buildings. Appropriate landscaping can: • increase the contribution to local biodiversity; • facilitate on-site water management; • provide seasonal solar control; and • reduce the effects from “heat island”.

The use of vegetation in interior environments is of growing interest to green building designers. Interior plants provide oxygen, absorb CO2 and also moisturize and “scrub” interior air.

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Chapter 3.2

Site Impacts

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

At the Rocky Mountain Institute in Aspen, Colorado, bananas are grown, in winter, in the centre of the office space at 1500 m of elevation.

Bananas are grown, in winter, in the centre of the office space at the Rocky Mountain Institute in Aspen, Colorado, elevation 1500 m. The use of interior plants can be very sophisticated. An advanced “breathing wall” was installed in the main boardroom of the Sun Life Insurance Head Office in 1993. Plants became an integral part of the mechanical air purification system for the room - moisturizing and cleansing the air, and enriching the space environmentally and visually.

• Design all landscapes to accommodate local precipitation and water conditions and to minimize maintenance and use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. • Coordinate the landscape concept with energy strategies, stormwater control, water collection, graywater treatment, lighting strategies and productive gardening. • Design a habitat for local species in local soil conditions. • Avoid lawns, as they require more maintenance and water than other solutions. • Test soils to determine nutrient content, organic matter, and necessary soil modifications. • Use drought-tolerant, low-maintenance native plants and non-native plants that are well adapted to existing soil conditions. Use native plants in landscape plans. • Utilize pervious paving and walkways sloped toward landscaped areas. • Develop a composting program to continuously add nutrients to landscaping. • Provide interior planting for better indoor air quality.

Case Studies Sun Life Insurance Head Office Main Boardroom Genetron Systems Inc., Toronto, ON Hinton Government Centre Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd., Hinton, AB

Resources Sustainable Urban Landscape Information Series www.sustland.umn.edu The Evergreen Foundation www.evergreen.ca US EPA Green Landscaping with Native Plants www.epa.gov/greenacres

An advanced “breathing wall” concept was installed at the Sun Life Insurance Head Office main boardroom in 1993.

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SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

Site Impacts

Site Water Systems Management Objective • to protect existing freshwater resources. According to a United Nations report, the quality and quantity of water is at the top of a list of pressing problems facing humanity in the 21st century. This report highlights the need to prevent scarcity and pollution of freshwater. “Green” buildings with low negative impacts on the quality and quantity of freshwater will be in demand.

Offsite Water Systems Typical municipal or regional piped water systems (water supply and wastewater treatment) often lead to degradation of natural water resources. Green buildings can reduce water use with efficient design and water resource management. These strategies will reduce the volume of piped water entering and leaving the site, and thus diminish any associated energy consumption. By limiting the distance between water source and the user reduces expenditures for materials and costs for infrastructure-related energy. Finally, sustainable harvesting of onsite water and the use of innovative onsite wastewater treatment reduces pressure on offsite water and waste systems infrastructure. Refer to the section on Water Efficiency.

Stormwater Management Stormwater runoff is the most common disruption to natural water cycle flows.

Chapter 3.2

species depletion and the degradation of marine ecosystems. In Canada, most water tables are lowering and aquifers are shrinking. Sufficient groundwater recharge is essential to the health of the watershed. Impervious surfaces are possible without reducing surface infiltration, if design solutions direct runoff to onsite permeable surfaces permitting infiltration and absorption. In order to protect the watershed, a minimum level of precipitation must percolate into the ground on-site. Stormwater runoff also contributes to offsite water pollution. At the point of discharge of the storm sewer, negative impacts include increased flooding, erosion, loss of streamside habitat, and contamination. Runoff from infrastructures used for vehicular traffic is especially polluted because streets and sidewalks contain a wide range of toxic contaminants. The Hastings Park Restoration in Vancouver is an example of sustainable management of storm water. The historic Renfrew Creek was restored by removing a concrete culvert and exposing the creek to daylight. A system of ponds, along with a portion of restored stream corridor, slows down the waterflow. The system was designed to ensure proper fish habitat, using ecological strategies such as soil separation, a sediment basin, biofiltration, and deep-water sinks to maintain cold water. Additionally, the park reduced impervious hard surfaces by substituting compacted limestone or pavers.

The conventional design of suburban and urban communities collects and disposes of runoff offsite, quickly and inefficiently via storm sewers. Usually, there are few design options available to permit infiltration of rainwater into the ground. Unfortunately, rainwater is usually channeled and disposed of in surrounding bodies of water where it can cause ecological problems, such as contamination and species depletion. The use of impervious surfaces is not the only problem. The sheer amount of stormwater collected and transported offsite beyond the watershed creates negative impacts on the natural water cycle. This runoff removes water which would normally infiltrate the surface or evaporate. It is this lack of infiltration that leads to

The Hastings Park Restoration in Vancouver provides an example of sustainable management of storm water.

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Chapter 3.2

Site Impacts

Onsite Water Collection Collecting onsite water reduces the demand on existing water systems, thereby saving capital expenditures for new water systems. A supply of onsite water can be harvested from both rainwater and groundwater. To avoid negative environmental impacts, the limits of the local watershed or groundwater aquifer must be respected. This requires careful monitoring of water flows to avoid affecting the existing water supply, which supports the local ecosystems. Onsite water supply for landscape irrigation or toilet flushing can supplement municipal systems. The exploitation of water resources beyond natural recharge limits reduces groundwater levels and can reduce the amount of water for fish-bearing streams and other sensitive ecosystems. Careful environmental assessment should precede any use of groundwater. In the case of rainwater, careful design of systems for collection, filtration and storage is required. The design team must use materials that do not leach contaminants into the collected water. Green roofs can be used as a filter in the collection of rainwater. If rainwater is the major source for the water supply, the storage tank may need to be large. The costs of a rainwater harvesting project can be offset by using the cistern (storage tank) for other purposes such as a fire suppression header tank or a heat sink. Some claim that rainwater collection could supply the majority of graywater needs in most parts of Canada.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use green roofs as an initial filter in the collection of rainwater and to minimize runoffs. • Use soft or permeable surfaces instead of hard impervious surfaces. • Use swales and retention ponds to facilitate natural infiltration. • Control water runoff and promote percolation of the groundwater for irrigation and to recharge natural aquifers. • Redirect building stormwater and graywater to irrigate landscaped areas. Do not use potable water sources.

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• Control and reduce offsite discharge of stormwater, and thereby support the health of the site’s ecosystem. • Collect and store rainwater for use in toilets and urinals, irrigation, or for washing vehicles.

Case Study Hastings Park Restoration Plan Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg, Vancouver, BC

Resources Environment Canada: Stormwater Assessment Monitoring and Performance Program (SWAMP) www.acs.ryerson.ca/civil/swamp Canadian Water Resources Association www.cwra.org Environment Canada – Water Page www.ec.gc.ca/water Canadian Ground Water Association www.cgwa.org

Heat Islands Objective • to reduce the increase in local temperature created by buildings and site development. The effect of “heat islands” is caused by the retention of solar heat by the built environment. Paved areas and buildings absorb solar energy and this energy can affect local microclimates, including human and wildlife habitats. The result of “heat islands” is a significant difference in microclimate between urbanized and non-urbanized areas that share similar climatic characteristics. Seventyfive years ago, Vancouver was a mossy, temperate rainforest. Today, the Vancouver Parks Board plants and maintains palm trees in the West End and there are now productive banana palms nearby. One of the most obvious negative effects that “heat islands” have on buildings is the increased heat load in summer which increases the output required from air conditioning systems. Designers should consider minimizing the “heat island” effect by specifying highly reflective roofing materials, using green roof systems, providing vegetation cover to sites, and minimizing heat absorbing paved surfaces.

Site Impacts

Roofing materials should demonstrate high reflectivity and high emissivity over the useful life of the product. Reflectivity is defined by the solar reflectance ratio of the product (a reflectance of 100% means that all energy striking the surface is reflected back into the atmosphere). These proprieties will reflect the sun’s heat instead of storing it or transferring it to an internal space. Reflected solar radiation is not the problem; it is the conversion of short wave energy to long wave heat that creates increased local temperatures in most urban areas. One important design consideration to reduce the effects of “heat islands” is to specify white or lightly coloured roofing materials. Most roof membrane materials can be specified this way for little or no additional cost.

Chapter 3.2

For the Nicola Valley Institute of Technology, part of the building design is inspired by a traditional native pithouse. These pithouses demonstrated many green building technologies, including a sod roof.

Green roofs are another strategy for “heat islands” and offer a number of significant advantages. The primary benefit of green roofs in Canada is the capability to retain stormwater on site, without the need to construct any a stormwater retention device in the landscape. Because stormwater retention and sewers are expensive, this is an ideal solution for newer communities which may not already have a sewer infrastructure. The retention capability of green roofs can provide a delay of one to two hours in a stormwater surge. Delay periods can be “engineered” to suit. Downspouts and stormwater drainage piping can be downsized and costs reduced. Green roofs can also provide added levels of thermal insulation and, more importantly, reduce summer solar heat gain through roofs. Green roofs also create oxygen and remove smog and CO2 from the environment. From the air, any city in Canada appears to be acres of “black tar” roofs. Imagine all of these converted to be soft, green, oxygencreating, lifegiving, healthy green roofs … which save energy too. Canadian green roof technology is old and should be understood by most Canadian clients. Native “pit house” structures date back thousands of years. Most Canadian prairie residents have grandparents who were born under sod roofs (and walls). The Citadel in Quebec City has a fine 150 year old sod roof.

For the Nicola Valley Institute of Technology, part of the building design is inspired from a traditional native pit house.

The Citadel in Quebec City has a fine 150 year old sod roof.

Modern green roofs are lightweight and easy to maintain. “Ecoroofs” are 125 to 175mm thick and comprised of a 25mm thick light “egg crate” holding structure (plastic) topped with a filter fabric to keep the top layer of 100 to 150 mm of “soil mix” from going down the drain. Some green roofs include wild flower or grass vegetation and shrubs with an irrigation system, and are capable SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 3.2

Site Impacts

of supporting access from building occupants. Other low maintenance systems include fleshy leaved sedums and no irrigation. Both systems are installed over full membrane roofs. “Ecoroofs” are not subject to failure due to our freeze-thaw cycles. They do require occasional weeding. They are easily removed for membrane repair. There are four competitive suppliers in most of Canada and they will not jeopardize most roofing guarantees. “Ecoroofs” add a cost premium of about $40-$80/m2. This cost can be offset against the savings in the cost to construct stormwater retention structures, drainage systems and insulation, as well as energy savings in operating costs. Green roofs also look good— visit the Mountain Equipment Co-op (MEC) store in downtown Toronto in May or June for a special wildflower show!

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide shade to all surfaces using native vegetation. • Specify highly-reflective, light-coloured materials for hard landscaped surfaces. • Specify highly-reflective, light-coloured and high emissivity materials for the roof. • Provide green roofs wherever possible.

Case Studies Mountain Equipment Co-op Stone Kohn McQuire Vogt Architects, Toronto, ON Nicola Valley Institute of Technology Busby + Associates Architects, Merritt, BC

Resources Heat Island group eande.lbl.gov/heatisland Green Roofs www.greenroofs.com US EPA Energy Star Roofing Products www.energystar.gov/products

Light Pollution Objectives Visit the MEC store in downtown Toronto in May/June for a special wildflower show!

The effect of solar heat retention can be reduced by providing vegetation to shade heat-absorbing surfaces and by reducing the amount of impervious paved surfaces. Shading heat-absorbing surfaces with native trees and shrubs is preferable because they require little watering and maintain the local biodiversity. Minimizing heat-absorbing paved surfaces can also be achieved by using paving materials with a high reflectivity or by replacing surface parking with underground parking. In addition, underground parking sometimes creates less site disturbance; results in less stormwater runoff caused by impervious surface materials; and provides more efficient use of materials.

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SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

• to reduce the amount of light that negatively impacts the environment. • to provide energy savings by reducing unnecessary exterior lighting. Exterior lighting is necessary for the safe exterior environment of a building. Sidewalks, parking lots and green open areas should be adequately lit. Night lighting is also used for advertising to feature parts of the city skyline. However, exterior and interior lighting can disturb certain nocturnal ecosystems and reduce the enjoyment of the night sky by the community. This exterior “overlighting” is referred to as light pollution. The elimination or reduction of light pollution provides additional benefits such as reduced energy consumption, as well as reduced materials and resources associated with the overlighting of exterior spaces. There can be considerable long-term savings in energy costs over the life of a building.

Site Impacts

The design team should ensure that exterior lighting levels reduce light pollution without compromising the safety of the community. For example, the design team could provide exterior lighting levels that are safe for pedestrians while minimizing lighting for automobile circulation. Lighting should be focused on critical high use portions of roadways such as intersections and pedestrian crossings. Alternatively, other safety features can be used to avoid extra lighting. In addition, by providing “down” lighting, rather than “up” lighting, there is a overall in the amount of light wasted into the night sky. Substantial savings in energy and materials can also be realized by specifying exterior light sensors.

Chapter 3.2

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Favour downward exterior lighting instead of upward exterior lighting. • Use the services of a lighting professional for exterior lighting. • Incorporate safety and energy conservation features when reducing light pollution.

Resources Royal Astronomical Society of Canada www.rasc.ca/light/home.html Outdoor Environmental Lighting Committee, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America www.iesna.org

Stairwells and other circulation routes that are illuminated and have exterior windows for security reasons should also be fitted with occupancy sensors and located so they do not remain on all night, thereby wasting energy and disturbing neighbours.

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Chapter 3.0 - Sustainable Site Design

3.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 3.3

3.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs As indicated at the outset, sustainable site design strategies require many professionals in the design process. An integrated design team including landscape architects, community planners, urban ecologists, biologists, ecologists and engineers will lead to more thorough environmental solutions. Additionally, an integrated design team with broad and diverse skills is better equipped to challenge regulations that might impede the design and construction of green buildings. To overcome obstacles to green solutions, design teams should include authorities having jurisdiction in the design process from the outset. Institutional landscapes architects and ground maintenance crews may also resist the implementation of certain solutions, unless they are included early in the green design process. Green buildings require a holistic approach to design and solution-finding. When approaching the design of green buildings, there are many possible linkages as well as numerous tradeoffs. For example, landscaping strategies can help increase biodiversity, reduce water use, and conserve energy. On the other hand, by conserving a significant amount of the existing vegetation on a site may compromise the advantages of highdensity development. A green design team must find the right balance!

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4.0 Water Efficiency

Water Efficiency

Chapter 4.0

Water Efficiency Overall Objectives • to reduce water demand for landscape irrigation. • to reduce water consumption within buildings. • to promote the reclamation of wastewater in order to conserve water and to minimize detrimental impacts of wastewater disposal. The need for water conservation may seem unnecessary in a country with an apparent abundance of water. Canada has one of the highest per capita water consumption rates in the world. And, it is likely that future demands upon this resource will increase greatly -- this increase in demand will be from outside our borders and from within Canada. The demand for fresh water and wastewater treatment and disposal is already putting great pressure on global water resources. The contamination of the water supply in Walkerton, Ontario confirms the importance of maintaining high water quality. It is critical to protect and conserve our natural fresh water resources. Regionally, the ecology of our local watersheds is threatened due to the demand for freshwater and the amount of wastewater disposal. The green design team can address these needs by applying water conservation strategies to reduce water demand, and by including innovative low impact wastewater treatment systems and disposal techniques.

Some of the benefits of water conservation include: • increased efficiency, deferred capital expansion costs for infrastructure, and lower operating costs as a result of reduced water distribution systems and lower wastewater flows; • protection of fish and wildlife threatened by soil erosion, sedimentation, and reduced levels of water in watersheds, rivers and streams; • access to reliable and safe water as a result of reduced water consumption. Water efficiency in green buildings involves the following: • minimizing exterior water use; • minimizing interior water use; and • minimizing the negative impacts of wastewater treatment by seeking alternatives for disposal. Addressing water efficiency provides support for other green building strategies. Native vegetation will not only decrease exterior water use - it can also increase biodiversity, wild life habitat, and reduce the creation of “heat islands”. Operational energy can be saved by using insulation and heat traps to reduce heat loss on hot water heaters; specifying high efficiency heaters and boilers; using passive solar systems for heating hot water; and installing heat recovery systems on wastewater plumbing.

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Chapter 4.0 - Water Efficiency

4.1 Reducing the Need for Irrigation

Water Free Landscaping Water Efficient Irrigation Systems

Reducing the Need for Irrigation

Chapter 4.1

4.1 Reducing the Need for Irrigation Objective • to reduce water demand and water use for landscape irrigation. In Canada, the irrigation of the landscape around residential, commercial and institutional buildings consumes great quantities of water. Using waterfree landscaping or providing water efficient irrigation systems are important design strategies to minimize or eliminate exterior water use.

Water Free Landscaping Objective

Xeriscaping includes creative landscape techniques that conserve water. Some of these techniques include: • soil analysis; • reduced turf area; and • appropriate plant selection (often native species). These techniques not only reduce water demand and but also reduce the need for pesticides and fertilizers that may contaminate the water flows offsite. The reduction in the disturbance of the natural flows of infiltration, evaporation and runoff helps maintain healthy water systems. These flows are an essential part of the hydrological cycle.

• to provide drought-resistant landscaping. The common lawn has one of the greatest demands for water, absorbing an enormous amount of water during an average summer. The domestic lawn is not native to Canada – our country was exquisitely landscaped with native “irrigation free” plants before European settlement. CMHC estimates that a typical suburban lawn will absorb 100,000 litres of irrigation water every summer. Automated irrigation systems often operate without regard for weather or moisture in the soil because timers control them. The dramatic increase in water demand during summer months often results in water shortages, as it coincides with the low rainfall season. Water-free, drought-resistant landscaping is an appropriate green design solution. There are various design strategies that provide substantial water savings, such as xeriscaping and zeroscaping.

In several older inner city neighbourhoods in Toronto, xeriscaping has become fashionable, now overshadowing the “postage stamp” lawns of more conventional neighbours. These “grass free” lawns are beautiful. Another example is Hastings Park restoration in Vancouver, which transformed an existing site used by the Pacific National Exhibition into a community park. This park is a showcase for sustainable practices in storm water management and wildlife habitat restoration. The site was restored using native plants to enhance the ecology of the previously developed site, and it has reduced demand for water and maintenance.

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Case Study Hastings Park Restoration Plan Phillips Farevaag Smallenberg, Vancouver, BC

Resources Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca Sustainable Urban Landscape Information Series www.sustland.umn.edu The Hasting Park site was restored using native plants to enhance the ecology of the previously developed site, as well as reduce water and maintenance requirements.

Zeroscaping is the replacement of vegetation with mineral materials, such as gravel and rocks that require no water. However, this strategy also eliminates the evaporation process from vegetation that considerably contributes to the hydrological cycle. For new construction on undeveloped sites, the retention of existing native vegetation maintains the evaporation process and minimizes water demand. Providing native vegetation respects indigenous ecosystems and increases biodiversity, a significant improvement over “mono-planting” landscapes such as the typical lawn. In addition to reducing water consumption, the selection of native plants is the right strategy for other reasons. This choice reduces weeds and maintenance requirements, supports a diverse animal and insect habitat, and eliminates the need for pesticides. Across Canada, we enjoy the richness, delicacy and abundance of the natural wild landscape. Instruct the landscape architect to design a “clearing in the forest” for all projects.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Include a landscape professional on your design team who is knowledgeable about water efficient designs. • Complete a soil analysis for better native plant selection. • Use native and drought-resistant plants.

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US EPA Green Landscaping with Native Plants www.epa.gov/greenacres

Water Efficient Irrigation Systems Objective • to provide water efficient irrigation systems for landscapes that require occasional watering. In general, the specification of irrigation systems should be avoided in favour of water efficient systems. The available technologies consist of micro-irrigation systems such as drip irrigation, moisture sensors and weather database controllers. These technologies are available off the shelf, but may result in a higher initial capital cost. Collecting rainwater for landscape irrigation is an excellent alternative to irrigation systems that draw on the public supply of water. By applying drought resistant landscaping strategies, the storage requirements can be kept to a minimum. Also, collecting and storing rainwater onsite helps control runoff and increases onsite infiltration. The storage container can be incorporated into the landscape design as a water feature and as an amenity for the building users. Rainwater can also be stored on roofs (by ponding), in detention ponds (in conjunction with stormwater retention strategies), in landscaped or “eco” roofs, or in cisterns deliberately constructed within the building or buried in the landscape. Cisterns can be constructed of concrete or plastic. Cisterns should be sized for maximum drought periods; typically they are surprisingly small. Reclaimed and reused wastewater can also be used for landscape irrigation, as described in the innovative wastewater section below. At the

Reducing the Need for Irrigation

Chapter 4.1

University of British Columbia in the CK Choi Building, graywater from sinks is cleaned and disbursed through a biofilter located in front of the main façade. This eliminates the demand for landscape irrigation, and at the same time it filters the graywater. Furthermore, it provides an attractive vegetation feature at the building entry.

For the UBC CK Choi Building, graywater from sinks is cleaned and dispersed through a biofilter located in front of the buildings main façade.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide water efficient irrigation systems appropriate for the local climate and for local plants. • Collect and store rainwater for landscape irrigation. • Provide graywater irrigation systems.

Case Study CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC

Resources Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca US EPA Office of Water www.epa.gov/OW Waterwiser: the Water Efficiency Clearinghouse www.waterwiser.org The Irrigation Association www.irrigation.org

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Chapter 4.0 - Water Efficiency

4.2 Water Use Reduction

Advocacy and Awareness Water Efficiency Fixtures and Appliances

Water Use Reduction

Chapter 4.2

4.2 Water Use Reduction Objective

Advocacy and Awareness

• to reduce fresh water demand within buildings.

Objective

Urban development increasingly challenges our ability to protect our water resources. Conventional design and building practices do not include water conservation strategies; instead, they tend to contribute to excessive water consumption and wastewater production. The general adoption of water-efficient strategies for buildings can achieve at least a 30% savings in the water consumption of a region or municipality. Reducing demand for the use of fresh water will not only protect water resources but also considerably reduce energy consumption, materials and costs related to water supply and wastewater treatment pumping and infrastructure. Reducing water consumption can be achieved in both new construction and renovation projects by: • promoting awareness of the limits and fragility of our water resources; (Clients and the general public must understand the need for water conservation in order to modify community water consumption patterns.) • specifying water efficient fixtures; • incorporating wastewater reclamation. The quality of water needed for various uses is an important part of water conservation. Not all activities require fresh potable water. Toilet flushing, landscape irrigation and exterior washing can be done with lower quality water. By reducing the demand for all water use, wastewater reclamation systems, supplemented with rainwater, become viable alternatives. This approach will be described in the innovative wastewater section below.

• to reduce fresh water demand in buildings by modifying consumption patterns, values and behaviour. Advocating for water conservation during the initial stages of a project influences the client and authorities having jurisdiction and helps the design team to achieve its sustainability goals. By including clients and key building users in the design process, the design team demonstrates the importance of water conservation with a view to influence users’ behaviour during occupancy. Currently in Canada, water is either provided free or at very low cost to the consumer. There will likely be higher water utility prices in the future. By designing water efficient buildings for clients, architects will be providing them with savings in operating costs. After occupancy, the design team should provide a building manual that highlights and explains the water conservation strategies incorporated into the building. This assists users’ awareness of their water consumption and leads to even further reductions.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Advocate water conservation strategies at the early stage of the project to clients and authorities having jurisdiction. • Propose lower municipal development fees for projects being designed with lower water consumption, as these developments will result in cost savings for municipal infrastructure.

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Chapter 4.2

Water Use Reduction

Resources Environment Canada Water Page www.ec.gc.ca/water Waterwiser: the Water Efficiency Clearinghouse www.waterwiser.org Water Education Foundation www.water-ed.org

Water Efficiency Fixtures and Appliances Objective • to decrease water demand, thereby reducing demand on existing and future municipal infrastructure. The following provides an overview of the major types of water efficient fixtures and appliances available to design teams.

Toilets Some manufacturers of conventional residential (tank flush) and commercial (flush valve) toilets provide water-conserving fixtures. There are three basic types of water conserving toilets:

introduced to Canada from Asia, are an alternative to conventional fixtures. They are simple and effective, providing a two level flush that can contribute to significant water savings. Composting toilets are an alternative to water flush fixtures in that they do not use water. However, they are not compatible with all water reclamation systems (such as the Solar Aquatics system). Another constraint of composting toilets is that the technology requires a considerable amount of space on two levels, at and below the toilet. They also require a change in consumer attitude as their function is significantly different and they require periodic maintenance. The advantage of composting toilets is that no water source is required and biomass is produced. which is usable as garden fertilizer. Composting toilets are ideal where municipal sewage systems are not available because they do not require septic field systems. When combined with ventilation fans driven by photovoltaic energy, composting toilets can be pleasant to use as they are usually warm in the winter. The CK Choi building at UBC uses composting toilets.

• Gravity flush (gravity-flush toilets, like conventional residential toilets, use the weight of water flowing down from the tank to clear the toilet bowl); • Pressure-assisted or flush valve (pressureassisted toilets require air compressed and/or pressure in the water lines to force water into the bowl and clear waste); and • Vacuum-assisted (vacuum-assisted toilets have chambers inside the toilet tank to pull water and waste from the bowl with vacuum assistance). Ultra low flush toilets are available for the three basic types of toilet. They use 6.0 litres per flush compared to almost 20 litres per flush for conventional toilets. In general, pressure-assisted toilets effectively remove liquid and solid waste but tend to be noisier than other types, and they are more expensive. Some of the newer, more innovative designs may have higher maintenance costs due to specialized parts. Dual flush toilets, recently

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The CK Choi building at UBC addresses its water cycle by providing composting toilets and reusing the building’s graywater for landscape irrigation.

Water Use Reduction

Chapter 4.2

Urinals

Showerheads

Wall hung and stall urinals are usually for commercial applications, although residential models do exist. Urinals are either manual flush or automatic (electronic or battery powered). Their water flow can be controlled by automated systems. Some models offer infrared sensor controlled flushing. Ultra low flush urinals use between 1.9 litres and 3.8 litres per flush. Waterless models do exist; however, most models use a chemical treatment process that may offset any environmental merits of water conservation.

Showering accounts for almost 17% of domestic water use in Canada. Water saving showerheads restrict flow rates to a maximum of 9.5 litres per minute. Conventional fixtures operate at 20 litres per minute.

Washing Machines The most water efficient washing machines are front-loading horizontal axis types. These models can be loaded like a dryer, and the tub rotates on the horizontal axis. Clothes tumble in a shallow pool of water at the bottom of the tub, while baffles scoop up water and spray it on the clothes. Water levels automatically adjust based on the water absorption rate of the clothing. Front loading washers use up to 40% less water and up to 50% less energy than conventional top-loading (vertical axis) machines. Also, without the agitator found in top-loading machines, front-loading machines accommodate larger capacity loads. The high-speed spin cycle of a top-loading appliance extracts 30% more water from clothes, resulting in less drying time. Although reduction in operating costs and water consumption are extensive, front-loading machines are generally more expensive than conventional models. Front-loading machines are available in standard (side-by-side with dryers) and smaller, stackable models.

Faucets Water-conserving lavatory and gooseneck faucets are available for commercial and residential use. The faucets have either manual or automatic controls (battery or low voltage powered). Some models operate using infrared sensors for increased water conservation. A few manufacturers produce metered, pneumatic- control faucets. Depending on the model, temperature control may be internal or external. Water saving faucets have aerators with maximum flows ranging from 1.9 litres to 8.3 litres per minute. By comparison, a flow of 13 litres per minute is standard for conventional faucets.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Advocate water conservation strategies to clients and authorities having jurisdiction. • Specify water conserving plumbing fixtures and fittings. • Specify water and energy conserving appliances.

Case Study CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC

Resources Dishwashers Water-conserving dishwashers currently available use between 12.3 litres and 25.1 litres of hot water, compared to approximately 35 litres used by conventional dishwashers. These models are also energy efficient on normal washing cycles. Some models offer sensors that adjust the water level according to the amount of dirt on the dishes; that is, the cleaner the dishes, the less water needed. Some models include features for washing on the top rack only. Models with stainless steel interiors resist discolouration over time and prolong the life of the dishwasher.

Environment Canada Water Page www.ec.gc.ca/water Waterwiser: the Water Efficiency Clearinghouse www.waterwiser.org US Department of Energy – Energy Star www.energystar.gov/products

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Chapter 4.0 - Water Efficiency

4.3 Innovative Wastewater Treatment

Water Demand and Wastewater Production Wastewater Reclamation

Innovative Wastewater Treatment

Chapter 4.3

4.3 Innovative Wastewater Treatment Objectives • to reduce negative impacts of wastewater by incorporating innovative wastewater treatment strategies. • to use wastewater reclamation to reduce fresh water demand. The treatment and disposal of wastewater is a significant negative impact of buildings. Municipal sewage treatment invariably pollutes the receiving ecosystem. At a smaller scale, septic systems can contaminate local groundwater. In order to reduce these negative impacts of wastewater treatment, strategies with low impacts on the environment must be selected. Consideration should be given to developing multiple purification systems that will allow building systems to adapt to future changes. A possible benefit from wastewater treatment is energy production. During the treatment process, significant amounts of energy can be harvested through heat recovery systems.

Water Demand and Wastewater Production Objectives • to understand the difference in demand for water in buildings (potable and non-potable water). • to recognize the two types of wastewater produced by building occupants (blackwater and graywater).

Water Requirements In most residential, commercial and institutional buildings, the needs for non-potable water are significantly greater than the needs for potable

water if potable water is used only for food preparation and personal hygiene. Toilet flushing can use water of a lower quality. In a typical building, flushing of toilets accounts for 50% of the water demand. In other building types, such as office buildings, the non-potable water requirement can be an even higher percentage. This demand can be met with lower quality, nonpotable water. Lower quality water can also be used in landscape irrigation. A study of the water requirements in a project can demonstrate the possibility of a design solution using a dual water system. The key concept of “potable” versus “non-potable” water must be considered when investigating innovative wastewater treatment solutions.

Types of Wastewater Wastewater can be classified in two categories: blackwater and graywater. Typically wastewater is treated through septic systems for low-density developments, or through large-scale wastewater treatment facilities for entire communities. Blackwater is the wastewater produced by toilets and urinals. It requires significant treatment before being reused, recycled or disposed of. Regulatory requirements may include the need to provide conventional wastewater treatment systems. Also, development on sites adjacent to wastewater treatment facilities may be restricted due to possible contamination. Blackwater treatment systems require significantly more maintenance than graywater systems. Graywater is the wastewater produced from sinks, showers and laundry. Treatment requires less maintenance and less infrastructure than the treatment of black water and it may be achieved by means of a landscape biofilter. Landscape biofilters can be incorporated as an amenity or landscape feature such as a marshland. Biofilters can also provide other ecological and social benefits. Treated graywater may be recycled, SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Innovative Wastewater Treatment

reused for irrigation and toilet flushing, used for landscape irrigation or dispersed on site.

Resources

An advanced house, ‘La maison des marais’, located in proximity to a marshland, uses Quebec technology called ‘Le biofiltre Ecoflo’ to filtrate the house’s wastewater and avoid contamination of the surrounding sensitive ecosystem.

Greywater Central www.greywater.net

Canadian Water and Wastewater Association www.cwwa.ca

Greywater Information www.greywater.com

Wastewater Reclamation Objectives • to reduce freshwater demand by applying wastewater reclamation strategies. • to reduce the negative impacts of wastewater. The impact of buildings on water resources can be minimized by recycling and reusing wastewater. Using reclaimed or non-potable, lower quality water can dramatically reduce freshwater demand. An advanced house ‘La maison des marais’, located in proximity to a marshland, uses a Quebec technology called ‘Le biofiltre Ecoflo’ to filtrate the house’s wastewater and avoiding contamination of the surrounding sensitive ecosystem.

Although blackwater is more challenging to treat and dispose of, incorporating innovative wastewater treatment systems offers the potential to reduce the negative impacts of buildings.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Assess the different water needs of the building users. • Determine the level of water quality needed (potable or non-potable) based on its use. • Incorporate innovative wastewater treatment systems.

Case Study Advanced house comparable to R-2000 ‘La maison des marais’ R. Monnier, Architecte, QC

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Wastewater reclamation usually requires a dual piping system to deliver the potable water and the reclaimed water. A dual piping system may require modifications to existing plumbing regulations and it will cost more. Two options are available for wastewater reclamation systems: recycling and reuse.

Wastewater Recycling Wastewater recycling recirculates blackwater and graywater many times through a reclamation system. These systems use controlled applications of natural absorption materials and in-line filters. They are commonly known by trade names, such as Solar Aquatics, Waterloo Biofilter Living Machines, and Cycle-Let technologies. Each time wastewater passes through a reclamation system, a percentage of water is absorbed by the system. The initial amount of water is reduced during each successive cycle through the system. Water is absorbed by the system’s living organisms that feed off the nutrients in the reclaimed water. Wastewater recycling is the most efficient type of reclamation, because it uses a closed loop system.

Innovative Wastewater Treatment

Water recycling has the potential to concentrate certain pollutants. The water is recycled many times; if the system does not remove all pollutants from the water, those left in the water after treatment accumulate in the system. This problem can be identified with a comprehensive monitoring system and resolved by providing a series of different consecutive treatments in order to remove all pollutants. Combining different treatments increases the efficiency of the system.

Chapter 4.3

Another technology that can be used to filter wastewater on-site is a Living Machine. The Body Shop Canada’s Home Office and Production Facility in Don Mills, ON, was equipped with a Living Machine for onsite wastewater treatment. A system of water tanks and plants provides the treatment. The water coming out of the system is passed through an ultra-violet filter to “clean” it enough for reuse.

Innovative onsite wastewater recycling technologies require extensive maintenance. They also may require modification of certain health regulations to be implemented. However, a reduction of up to 85% in the use of water can be achieved by using recycled water for non-potable water uses. Complete onsite wastewater recycling could eliminate loads on wastewater treatment facilities, because a building or development with such a system would output no wastewater. A leading biological wastewater treatment technology is Solar Aquatics. Under controlled conditions, Solar Aquatics duplicates the natural process of fresh water streams, meadows and wetlands. Sewage flow passes though a series of water tanks filled with algae, plants, bacteria and aquatic animals. The process can take between 2 to 4 days depending on the level of treatment. One installation in Errington, BC, features an odourless pleasant greenhouse, which provides wastewater treatment for a mobile home community. It is an amazing experience to see wastewater coming out of the greenhouse as clean, clear water after four days of treatment!

The Body Shop Canada’s Home Office and Production Facility in Don Mills, ON, was equipped with a Living Machine for on-site wastewater treatment.

Wastewater recycling technologies are costly and should be used when municipal infrastructure is unavailable. Central larger municipal wastewater treatment plants may be more cost effective and sustainable than these on-site technologies.

Wastewater Reuse Wastewater reuse is a process that does not include the complete recycling of wastewater. These systems treat wastewater sufficiently to permit its reuse as lower quality water. For example, water from showers and baths can be treated and reused for toilet flushing. Compared to full wastewater recycling, reuse strategies produce a larger amount of wastewater and are usually less successful in reducing overall water demand.

It is an amazing experience to see after four days, and after use, clean, clear water coming out of the greenhouse.

Although the reduction in water demand is not as great as with wastewater recycling, wastewater reuse is simpler, more economical and probably more acceptable -- the Canadian public may not be ready to use wastewater for daily bathing and showering.

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Chapter 4.3

Innovative Wastewater Treatment

Technologies Many innovative wastewater treatment systems are available to Canadian design teams. All new systems will require the involvement and support of the building users because they may need an explanation of the function of the system. Moreover, ongoing maintenance will be required to ensure the proper functioning of the wastewater treatment system. Each system has different advantages and tradeoffs. Some commonly used wastewater and septic tank treatment technologies are Clivus Multrum Greywater Filter™, Waterloo Biofilter™, polishing filter, ultraviolet disinfection, ozone disinfection, Alascan™ wastewater system, Biogreen™ wastewater system, Biokreisel™, Clean Flush™ System, Cycle-Let™, Hydroxyl Systems™, and Rotordisk™.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Advocate for wastewater reclamation to clients and authorities having jurisdiction at the early stage of a project. • Allow for modular, plug-in purification systems for building adaptability in the future. • Use graywater for landscape irrigation and toilets.

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Case Studies Beausoleil Solar Aquatics ECO-TEK Wastewater Treatment, Errington, BC Body Shop (Canada) Headquarters Colborne Architectural Group, Don Mills, ON

Resources Ocean Arks International www.oceanarks.org Ecological Engineering Associates (EEA) www.solaraquatics.com Living Technologies Inc. www.livingmachines.com

Chapter 4.0 - Water Efficiency

4.4 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 4.4

4.4 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs Authorities having jurisdiction have the potential to improve water efficiency in the built environment. Changes in legislation and policy can promote conservation and provide leadership in water management. At the national level, initiatives that target the built environment include: • establishing standards for efficient fixtures; • imposing efficient water use amendments to building codes; • promoting and studying wastewater technologies; and • adopting and enforcing provincial, regional and municipal water conservation policies, regulations and by-laws and legislation. Regional water and wastewater managers can institute residential and commercial pricing, which promotes water conservation, and reduce outdoor water use by means of legal restrictions. Municipalities can stipulate landscape design guidelines for new developments in order to reduce irrigation needs. Broader water conservation measures for both interior and exterior water use include water rights allocation; purchase and transfer; licensing; water quality regulation; educational programs; and economic instruments.

All new or amended legislation and policies should encourage stewardship of our water resources. This requires collaboration with all water resource stakeholders. Cooperation will reduce duplication of effort, prevent contradictory legislation and promote integrated resource management. Furthermore, legislation and policy must be realistic and enforceable. Because there are many perceived and actual regulatory barriers related to water conservation and wastewater reclamation, it is good practice for design teams to hold detailed discussions with regulatory authorities in the early stages of projects. These discussions will establish allowable practices, acceptable costs and provide sufficient timing for approvals. For example, some jurisdictions do not allow non-potable water in toilets, because pets may drink it. Regulatory changes will require experimentation, testing and approval. In light of the wellpublicized concerns about Canada’s water supply systems, particularly post-Walkerton, these approvals may be difficult to obtain.

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5.0 Energy and Atmosphere

Energy and Atmosphere

Chapter 5.0

Energy and Atmosphere Overall Objectives • to understand and minimize detrimental environmental impacts of energy use. • to design buildings that use less energy. • to select energy sources having the lowest possible environmental impacts. Approximately 40% of worldwide energy use is for the cooling, heating and supply of power to buildings. There are two strategies for reducing energy use: • the selection of low impact energy sources; • the application of energy efficient solutions to building design. Energy consumption produces damaging environmental impacts through resource extraction, energy production, transportation, inefficient distribution and emissions. Low impact renewable energy sources can overcome some of these problems. The low impact energy supply sector is growing and there are now new technologies available. Through their entire life cycle, buildings consume energy for construction, operation and deconstruction; however, it is the operation of buildings that consumes the most energy. Numerous methods are available to minimize the operational energy consumption of buildings, including passive systems and energy efficient design strategies.

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Chapter 5.0 - Energy and Atmosphere

5.1 Energy and Pollution

Polluting Emissions Factors Affecting Pollution

Energy and Pollution

Chapter 5.1

5.1 Energy and Pollution Objective • to understand and minimize the detrimental environmental impacts of energy use. It is critical to minimize the negative impacts associated with energy production, transportation, inefficiency, emissions and energy consumption in buildings. Energy consumption is connected to the global problem of air quality and climate change. In order to minimize pollution, the design team must include the reduction of energy consumption as a criterion for design decisions. When selecting an energy source, factors to be considered include cost, feasibility and regulations. Unfortunately, sometimes Canadian design teams cannot choose the energy source; however, the design team can use production, transportation and the efficiency of energy as selection criteria.

Polluting Emissions Objective • to minimize the amount of polluting emissions from energy use. Greenhouse gases (GHG) are by-products of energy production and consumption. For example, coal burned for electricity production and fossil fuels burned for automobile use both produce greenhouse gases (GHG’s) such as CO2. Energy production is the largest activity that produces GHG emissions in Canada, accounting for approximately 34% of the total emissions. Greenhouse gases cause global warming, which is damaging ecosystems. The 1997 Kyoto Accord identified targets for the reduction of GHG emissions. Over the last

few years, Canada has continued to increase emissions by moving further away from this target. Green buildings can play a key role in meeting the Kyoto objectives. It has been calculated that by reducing the GHG emissions by 25% from renovated and new buildings, architects and design teams have the power to achieve 15% of Canada’s Kyoto commitment within 5 years. Ultimately, the construction industry must shoulder the responsibility for 40% of Canada’s Kyoto commitment – our proportional share of total national energy consumption. To attain that target, we need greater energy efficiencies in new buildings and we have to renovate a higher percent of the existing building stock. Other emissions can be damaging for the environment and for a growing portion of the population. One example is airborne sulphur dioxide, a byproduct of coal fired electricity production that leads to acid rain and smog. The design team must avoid the use of certain types of refrigerants that damage the ozone layer. Ozone occurs in two layers of the atmosphere. The 10 km deep layer surrounding the earth’s surface is the troposphere. In this layer, groundlevel ozone, a key ingredient of urban smog, is an air pollutant that harms humans, animals, vegetation, among other things. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which contains the protective ozone layer; it extends upward from about 10 to 30 km and protects life on earth from harmful solar ultraviolet rays (UV-B). Refrigerants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), hydrofluorocarbons, (HFC’s), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons used in HVAC systems and refrigeration equipment are also harmful and can add to urban smog. Upon rising into the upper ozone layer, they form chemical bonds and destroy the protective ozone layer that prevents global warming. Each refrigerant has different impacts on smog and global warming. The 1987

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Chapter 5.1

Energy and Pollution

Montreal Protocol dictates that ozone-depleting substances be phased out and ultimately eliminated. These chemical compounds are also potent greenhouse gases.

Resources

In Europe, the use of these chemicals in HVAC equipment is outlawed. North American regulations are not as stringent. Mechanical engineers who are committed to not specifying CFC’s, HFC’s, or HCFC’s should be engaged on all projects. Alternatives do exist – for example, the Mountain Equipment Co-op store in Ottawa has HVAC equipment and building materials without CFC’s or HCFC’s.

David Suzuki Foundation www.davidsuzuki.org

Climate Change Solutions www.climatechangesolutions.com/ english/default.htm

Rocky Mountain Institute www.rmi.org

Factors Affecting Pollution Objective • to minimize pollution associated with energy consumption.

Energy Production

In the design and construction of the Mountain Equipment Co-op store in Ottawa, HVAC equipment and building materials without CFC’s or HCFC’s were selected.

Energy production has serious environmental impacts – examples include drilling for fossil fuels in ecologically vulnerable areas and flooding of large areas of land for large-scale hydroelectricity production. Small scale, low impact systems such as solar collectors, wind turbines, geothermal energy, and small scale distributed electrical generation for communities (co-generation and fuel cells) should be considered.

Transportation Issues In brief, the selection of low impact energy sources can reduce damage to the environment, depletion of the ozone layer, and consequent human illnesses (e.g. UV-B exposure can cause skin cancer, eye damage).

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Specify building products manufactured with no damaging refrigerants such as CFC‘s and HCFC’s. • Phase out existing CFC based refrigerants when retrofitting existing buildings.

Case Study Mountain Equipment Co-op Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect in joint venture, Ottawa, ON

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The distance between an energy production facility and the energy user should be kept to a minimum. Large distribution systems: • are inefficient (transmission losses account for over 50% of total hydro electricity generated); • occupy a considerable amount of land; and • consume great quantities of natural resources. The construction of oil and gas pipelines significantly disrupts ecosystems and animal habitats. Canadians are familiar with rights-ofway for energy transmission lines that scar the landscape and damage ecosystems.

Energy and Pollution

Chapter 5.1

Efficiency

Most energy production plants are relatively inefficient and waste heat that is released into the air. Cogeneration plants can capture this wasted energy and use it for heat and power, thereby improving efficiency. The forecast is for increases in energy demand, population and consumption; hence, greater energy efficiency is necessary for a sustainable future.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Minimize the distance between the project and the energy source. • When possible, select low impact efficient energy sources.

Resources Natural Resources Canada www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network www.eren.doe.gov

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Chapter 5.0 - Energy and Atmosphere

5.2 Reducing Embodied and Deconstruction Energy

Embodied Construction Energy Deconstruction Energy

Reducing Embodied and Deconstruction Energy

Chapter 5.2

5.2 Reducing Embodied and Deconstruction Energy Objective • to minimize the amount of energy contained and released in construction and demolition. A building consumes considerable energy during its entire life cycle. Design teams must reduce energy consumption for all stages of a building’s life cycle: construction, operations and deconstruction. Each phase must be targeted for overall reduction in energy demand and use in green buildings. This section discusses initial embodied energy and deconstruction energy contained in buildings. However, the greatest return on investment is achieved by reducing “operational” energy. Minor improvements in the daily energy efficiency of a building can lead to enormous savings after 50 or 100 years of operation. When considering the entire life cycle of buildings, operational energy is the largest factor, more important than embodied and deconstruction energies. The reduction of embodied and deconstruction energy does not necessarily result in a cost premium; however, when specific solutions do cost more, it is possible that these costs may be offset by savings in operating costs.

Embodied Construction Energy

The embodied energy of a building product is the amount of energy required to produce it, from raw material extraction to installation, and finally disposal. Similarly, the process of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides data on the environmental impacts of products. Generally, materials in more natural states (wood, slate, etc.) have lower embodied energy than materials that are more highly refined or manufactured. The reduction of embodied energy and an assessment of life cycle requires a rethinking of the entire extraction, manufacturing, and distribution process related to material selection. Organizations such as the Athena Institute can provide embodied energy and LCA data about many building products. The use of building materials that require human rather than mechanical labour can reduce the initial construction energy. For example, one or two workers can construct a wood frame house, as compared to the number of workers needed for building a house using concrete or heavy steel members. Straw bale houses can also be constructed easily with manual labour. Additionally, straw is a by-product of agriculture, making it a building material with very low embodied energy. Straw bale houses can also provide high thermal performance, as exemplified by the R-40 straw bale house designed by Julia Bourke, Architecte in Montreal.

Objective • to minimize embodied construction energy. Minimizing the initial amount of energy used for the construction of a building can be achieved by specifying building products with low embodied energy and low life cycle environmental impacts, as well as by using systems, materials and construction techniques that do not require heavy machinery and energy-intensive construction.

Straw bale houses can be constructed easily with manual labour. SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 5.2

Reducing Embodied and Deconstruction Energy

The potential long life of concrete or steel resulting in longer building life may validate the selection of those materials for many projects. Aluminium is a very high embodied energy material; however, it is easily recycled with little new added energy. Design teams must be aware of these tradeoffs. In all design decisions, it is crucial to consider issues such as the energy used for operating buildings, material efficiency and indoor air quality. Successful green design requires the right balance of these issues for a particular project and location.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Specify materials with low embodied energy and low life cycle impacts. • Use design solutions and construction techniques requiring low use of heavy machinery and energy-intensive construction. • Provide natural materials that are locally sourced. • Evaluate embodied energy in relation to recycling potential for various products.

Case Study Straw bale house in an urban environment Julia Bourke, Architecte, QC

Resources

Designing for demountability can reduce energy use and the consumption of new materials. Demountability allows for reuse or recycling of the energy embodied in existing building elements. The principles of demountability include: • designing for easy access and exposed connections; • simplicity of construction and design details; • independence of assemblies to reduce damage during deconstruction; • minimizing onsite alterations and “compositions”. When composite systems (such as wall assemblies) are constructed using nails, glues and other adhesives, in a way that alters the components, they become hard to recycle or salvage. It is much easier to disassemble a building when materials are used without alteration. Pure wood, steel, and rigid insulation can be reused or recycled. When materials are fused together they often end up in the landfill. A good example of designing for deconstruction is the MEC store in Ottawa, the structure of which incorporates visible screwed and bolted connections that facilitate the future reuse of structural elements. A future fundamental decision to renovate and reuse will minimize the amount of energy necessary for deconstruction, and conserve materials and resources.

Athena Sustainable Material Institute www.athenasmi.ca SETAC Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) Advisory Group www.setac.org/lca.html

Deconstruction Energy Objective • to minimize the energy required to deconstruct buildings.

The MEC store in Ottawa has a structure with visible screw connections, facilitating the possible future reuse of structural elements.

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Reducing Embodied and Deconstruction Energy

Chapter 5.2

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide design solutions with connections and details that facilitate deconstruction. • Reuse and/or recycle existing buildings where possible.

Case Study Mountain Equipment Co-op Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect in joint venture, Ottawa, ON

Resources CMHC - Designing for Disassembly www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca Institute for Self Reliance – Building Deconstruction www.ilsr.org/recycling/builddecon.html

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Chapter 5.0 - Energy and Atmosphere

5.3 Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Compact and Efficient Buildings Energy Efficient Products Building Orientation Thermal Performance Passive Systems

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Chapter 5.3

5.3 Reducing Operational Energy Consumption Objective • to reduce energy consumed to operate buildings. In order to minimize operational energy, consider the following:

sufficient, generating its own electricity, collecting and distributing rainwater, and composting human waste. “La Petite Maison du Weekend” encourages us to consider the relationship between housing, consumption, technologies and the environment.

• Compact and efficient buildings save energy, materials and water. • Energy efficient equipment and products used for HVAC systems, lighting, and appliances, further reduce energy consumption. • Optimum building orientation improves thermal performance, allows for passive systems and saves energy. • Passive systems for heating, cooling, ventilating, thermal mass storage, and lighting further reduce negative environmental impacts of buildings. • Investigate “free” energy sources.

Compact and Efficient Buildings Objective • to minimize detrimental impacts of a building on energy, water, air and other materials. Reducing energy demand requires a new approach to design. The rationale for all design decisions must be confirmed in the context of reducing any detrimental impacts of buildings. One key objective is to design compact efficient buildings. Small efficient buildings reduce impacts on the site, consume less water, less energy, and fewer materials and resources. “La Petite Maison du Weekend” is a minimal dwelling in a recreational setting. It can be installed on any outdoor site and is virtually self

“La Petite Maison du Weekend” provides us with a reflection on the relationship between housing, consumption, technologies and the environment.

Repetitive modular systems can also produce efficient buildings that reduce environmental impacts through their simple economical design logic. Green buildings are simple and elegant, rarely complex and elaborate. Challenging the energy needs for programmed spaces can also help improve buildings. Room temperature variations and ventilation rates can be designed with energy conservation in mind. For example, some low occupancy areas may be able to accommodate larger temperature variations than others. Design teams should work with clients and users to establish environmental performance targets and energy budgets for specific building areas and uses – significant overall savings can accrue. The energy wasted on

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Chapter 5.3

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

unoccupied, or underoccupied, areas of a building can be reduced or eliminated. For the unbuilt Earth Science Building at UBC, a 50% energy savings in operational energy will be achieved by allocating energy budgets to specific areas and needs: • 90% to laboratories (worker comfort and safety); • 35% to classrooms and lecture spaces (energy required only early in the day); • 15% to circulation spaces (high temperature range tolerance); • 10% to faculty and graduate student offices (where an individual can effectively moderate and control the passive systems in his or her own space). These approaches to increased energy efficiency can and should influence the development of functional programming for all buildings.

Case Studies La Petite Maison du Weekend Patkau Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC UBC Earth Science Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC

Resources The Guide to Resource Efficient Buildings Elements www.crbt.org

Energy Efficient Products Objective • to specify energy efficient products to reduce energy demand and use during building operation. Specifying energy efficient building products helps reduce the demand and use of energy. The main areas targeted for energy efficiency are heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, lighting, appliances and equipment.

HVAC

For the Earth Sciences Building at UBC (unbuilt), a 50% savings over operational energy savings was achieved in the building design.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Design compact efficient buildings to minimize operational energy. • Explore ways to make more efficient use of programmed areas. • Use simple, lean design approaches. • Coordinate energy consumption budgets with building users. • Establish temperature tolerance guidelines with the client.

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The energy required to heat, ventilate and cool buildings is considerable. Even if natural systems are employed, additional mechanical systems may be needed to achieve the performance requirements of the client. The most efficient systems must be specified, not necessary those with the least initial capital cost. Some of the more efficient systems are indeed smaller and offer capital cost savings. Efficient systems reduce the potential for pollution resulting from the operation of larger HVAC systems. A mechanical engineer who thinks “small is beautiful” is an asset to the design team! Numerous factors increase the efficiency of HVAC systems: • installing appropriately sized ducts and other components; • providing high performance components such as chillers, boilers, fans and pumps; • variable speed motors; • reducing or recovering heat loss in systems; and • providing an effective energy management and control system.

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Sensors and monitoring systems can further increase the efficiency of building systems.

Lighting

The evolution of artificial lighting has moved from direct-fired fuel light sources such as gas lamps and candles, to the commonly accepted use of 100% artificial lighting. Lighting levels have evolved with the advent of better types of illumination and inexpensive electrical power, from a 30 foot-candle level in the offices of the 1920’s and 1930’s to a 100 foot-candle level in the 1950’s and 1960’s. The current trend is to return to ambient lighting levels in the 20 to 30 foot-candle range, augmented by more precise task illumination of 70 foot-candles. These levels can be achieved by integrating task lighting in all work areas, thus reducing lighting levels and therefore, energy consumption. When this approach is integrated with daylighting strategies, the result is a reduced lighting load on total building energy consumption. Daylighting is logical; however, energy efficient lighting technologies must continue to improve for nighttime lighting as well. Energy efficient lighting equipment results in a speedy payback. Recently in North America, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) and energy efficient linear fluorescent lamps, such as the T-8, have been integrated into mainstream design to reduce energy consumption. Fluorescent lighting is 75% more efficient and lasts 10 times longer than incandescent lighting. European fluorescent technologies, such as the linear T-5, are now being used in lighting design in North American. The T-5, and more recently T-5HO technologies, offer a smaller, more efficient light source with higher output, better lighting control, better light distribution, reduced power consumption, and fewer lamps per office. Fewer lamps means less material and less manufacturing, hence less environmental impact. Unnecessary lighting of unoccupied spaces can be reduced by lighting management software, light sensors, occupancy controls, and automatic dimming. User controls also increase indoor environmental quality. Lighting efficiency can be enhanced with pendant light fixtures that provide general (reflected) low-glare uplighting, and taskoriented, downlighting components, all from a single source. Exterior lighting should be solar

Chapter 5.3

powered, or use low energy lamps such as metal halide, high-pressure sodium and low-temperature fluorescents. Emerging technologies such as light emitting diodes (LED’s) are very energy efficient, have an extremely long life (80 years), and have very low heat generation. LED’s are made of semiconductor material that changes electric current into light of a certain wavelength (colour). LED technology is being applied to emergency system lights for long life and low energy use, and to traffic lights. Lighting designers are hard at work applying LED technology to office lighting equipment – these products should soon be available. Induction lamps and silicon phosphors may also hold future promise for lighting. Energy efficient products are also available for residential lighting. Dimmable, self-ballasted compact fluorescents operating with standard base sockets are available and provide an energy efficient alternative to the residential customer. Although these units are expensive, growing awareness and marketing techniques are leading to an increase in their use.

Appliances and Equipment

In Canada as well as in the USA, programs are in place to promote minimum standards for the energy efficiency performance of new products. Also, the appliance manufacturing industry has begun responding to demands for reduced energy consumption. New, smaller energyefficient designs, adapting technologies from energy efficient manufacturers in Europe, are now penetrating the marketplace. The promotion of voluntary standards, both within and outside the appliance industry, is expected to generate even more efficient appliances. Although residential appliances are becoming more energy efficient, the development of efficient commercial equipment is not keeping pace and efficiency gains are somewhat offset by the rapidly growing number and size of appliances. Microwave ovens, clothes washers and dryers, dishwashers, personal computers, and small appliances are more and more prevalent. Appliances such as refrigerators have generally become larger, with more features such as automatic defrost and icemakers. To facilitate the task of specifying energy efficient appliances, the Canadian Office of Energy Efficiency SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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publishes an appliance directory which lists energy consumption ratings. Today’s typical offices are a network of fax machines, photocopiers, computers, scanners, printers, and plotters – all of which have been designed to improve our productivity. The proliferation of these energy consuming machines, many of which are left on for 24 hours a day, has had a profound effect on total office ‘plug loads’ over the last ten years. Designs for 5 and 6 watts per square foot are not uncommon. Whereas the overall power input requirements of the devices has remained relatively constant, the embedded material and energy costs are being considerably reduced. The change in technology from cathode ray tube screen displays to LED flat screen will yield a significant energy reduction. For example, the replacement of a 15" monitor using 95 watts with an equivalent 35-watt LED flat screen, will save approximately 150 kwh per workstation per year.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada HVAC • Select energy efficient HVAC equipment. Lighting • Design to low interior lighting levels and incorporate maximum daylighting. • Provide light levels appropriate to the task at workstation locations, instead of high ambient light levels. • Minimize the number of fixtures. • Use suitable, high efficiency fixtures (such as fixtures with T5 and T5HO lamps). • Incorporate lighting controls, including photocell sensors to monitor daylight and occupancy. • Develop “plug-in” designs that allow for flexibility in fixture location and fixture type. Appliances and Equipment • Minimize appliance use, or use smaller, more efficient appliances. • Specify energy efficient equipment. • Promote LCD/LED screens for computers and televisions.

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Resources Consumer Reports www.consumerreports.org Energuide energuide.nrcan.gc.ca The National Lighting Product Information Program (NLPIP) www.lrc.rpi.edu EPA Energy Star www.energystar.gov

Building Orientation Objective • to orient the building to take advantage of solar and localized climatic conditions. Proper building orientation and perimeter design can reduce energy consumption by permitting passive and active solar power to reduce: • energy use; • the amount of mechanical equipment; and • levels of artificial lighting. Ideally in Canada, buildings incorporate southfacing glazing for increased winter solar gain (well shaded to mitigate summer solar heat gain). On the east and west elevations, the sun needs to be controlled with more comprehensive systems (such as louvres) to avoid large heat gains and glare. This is due to the low angles of the sun, entering deep into the spaces. Solar control strategies need to be designed for each specific location. The north elevation of buildings should be well-insulated with less glazing. When the ideal orientation is difficult to achieve due to existing street patterns, other solutions such as photovoltaic panels should be used to benefit from the sun. At the York University Computer Science Facility, the east elevation is designed to let in morning sun in the winter, but to exclude morning sun in the summer. The west elevation is designed to eliminate solar gain year round. South elevations capture winter passive solar gain.

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Chapter 5.3

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Orient buildings to take advantage of winter solar gain. • Provide year round shading to western exposures. • Provide summer shading for southern exposures. • Incorporate shading using the landscape or integrated with the building. • Orient buildings to allow for the addition of solar panels and other ‘plug-in’ elements.

At the Nicolas Valley Institute of Technology in

At the York University Computer Science Facility, the east elevation is designed to let in winter morning sun, but exclude summer morning sun. The west elevation is designed to eliminate solar gain all year. South elevations capture winter passive solar gain.

Merritt, BC, four types of wood perimeter louvers, each with different blade angles and spacing, were placed according to the sun’s path and the building’s orientation.

At the Nicolas Valley Institute of Technology in Merritt, BC, we took a given form (a circle, prescribed for cultural reasons) and developed four types of wood perimeter louvres with different blade angles and spacing, and placed these according to the sun path to deal with orientation issues.

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Case Studies York University Computer Science Facility Busby + Associates Architects, in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects, Toronto, ON Nicola Valley Institute of Technology Busby + Associates Architects, Merritt, BC

Resources Sustainable Buildings Industry Council www.sbicouncil.org Advanced Buildings technologies and Practices www.advancedbuildings.org

Thermal Performance Objective • to increase thermal performance in order to reduce operational energy use. Improving the thermal performance of all elements of a building – the floor, roof, glazing and walls – will significantly improve the energy efficiency of a building. It is critical to reducing long and short-term operational energy and system costs. In addition, improved thermal performance facilitates the use of passive systems. Some techniques include: • increasing overall thermal performance of the walls and windows; • minimizing thermal breaks and heat loss through the envelope; • using high performance glazing; and • restricting and optimizing the use of glazing while maintaining benefits of light, air and views. Possible recommendations for insulation include: • R30/40 (Wall and Roof) for Canadian maritime regions; • R40/60 for central regions; and • higher for northern communities. Scandinavian practice already uses these levels. Because rising costs are anticipated in a future deregulated energy industry, such levels of insulation will result in a payback from improved thermal performance. The insulation level architects specify today is intended to last 50 to 75 years.

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The first double skin building in Canada (only one other in North America dating 1980) is the Telus office in Vancouver, where a new outer wall was suspended around an existing building.

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

“Double wall” glazing systems are gaining popularity in Europe, particularly in Germany where approximately 20 buildings with double wall glazing have already been constructed. This strategy creates a 500 mm to 1.2 m ‘greenhouse’ or thermal buffer around a building, which yields opportunities for passive strategies (such as, heat gain, natural ventilation and cooling). The first double skin building in Canada (there is only one other building in North America, dating to 1980) is the Telus office in Vancouver, where a new outer wall was suspended around an existing building. The energy consumption figures for the Telus building are very low.

Chapter 5.3

Passive Systems Objective • to use the natural attributes of the site to reduce environmental impacts.

Case Study

Passive systems can minimize or eliminate mechanical systems for heating, cooling and ventilating buildings. The design of passive systems requires an integrated design approach (IDA). Therefore, it is essential to involve mechanical and electrical engineers early in the design process, particularly for decisions related to building location, orientation, form, daylighting, and shading. As the sun is the only true sustainable energy source on earth, passive systems should be encouraged whenever possible because they produce no emissions or pollution. The design team should specify passive systems that are simple, accessible and easy to maintain. Moving parts should be avoided. Additionally, flexible and adaptable approaches are important to accept future technologies. Traditional temperature “regimes” for different activities and room types should be reviewed and challenged.

Telus Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC

Natural Ventilation

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Increase thermal performance (insulation or R-values) of the building envelope. • Specify high efficiency glazing (there are several Canadian suppliers). • Use details that contribute to thermal performance.

Resources Sustainable Buildings Industry Council www.sbicouncil.org The Building Thermal Envelope Systems & Materials Program www.ornl.gov/roofs+walls Institute of Research In Construction www.nrc.ca/irc

Natural ventilation is not well understood but it can offer significant environmental advantages for all Canadian climates. It can perform well in moderate climates and has been used for centuries in hot climates. Natural ventilation can reduce the total annual consumption of energy in all climatic zones in Canada, and therefore significantly reduce GHG emissions and pollutants into the atmosphere. It reduces heating and cooling loads and maximizes fresh air cycles, thus improving indoor environmental quality. Most building users enjoy the opportunity to open a window – taking control of their own local environmental conditions, and gaining access to fresh air.

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Chapter 5.3

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

There are five factors that influence natural ventilation: • • • • •

quality of air intake; ventilation mechanisms; building form; building orientation; and special interior arrangements.

The quality of intake air should be maximized. Outside air can be filtered or not, depending on the system design. Outside air intake should not be located in proximity to parking lots, high volumes of automobile traffic, garbage disposal areas or loading docks. Ventilation mechanisms should permit user control and require minimum maintenance. Examples of ventilation mechanisms include: operable windows, trickle vents and drum ventilators. Good practice for successful natural ventilation is the development of individual and overall building ventilation protocols. These can be placed in a building user’s manual and/or they can be part of an automated control system. Building orientation and building form can maximize the use of wind for cooling and ventilation, and can minimize heating requirements in the winter. Wind creates high pressure on upwind faces and low pressure on downwind faces. Suction on downwind faces creates the best opportunity for ventilation. The effectiveness of the system depends on the existence and configuration of upwind obstructions. If the shape and size of the site allows it, orient the long face of the building perpendicular to the prevailing wind in order to create the greatest pressure difference between the windward and leeward faces, allowing cross ventilation across the building’s depth. Orientation for the best wind may conflict with the orientation to optimize passive solar systems. The design team must assess all tradeoffs and synergies which exist in green building design. Natural ventilation can take many forms. The Walnut Grove Aquatic Centre provides a series of glazed overhead doors that provide natural ventilation. By opening mechanically operated vents, fresh air is pulled into the facility and exhausted naturally through the roof.

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The Walnut Grove Aquatic Centre provides a series of glazed overhead doors that contribute to natural ventilation.

For the upper levels of a building to enjoy the benefits of natural ventilation it is sometimes necessary to create temperature differentials by adding ‘stacks’ to the roof (shapes with voids that create a “stack effect” and draw air out of the building). The York University Computer Science Facility uses stack effect chimneys to facilitate the natural ventilation of the building. This building has no ventilation ducts; instead, three largescale atriums, ventilation chimneys and plenums are used to naturally air-condition the facility. The following principles are important in the consideration of natural ventilation: • Spaces that have windows on only one wall can be ventilated with high level and low level windows if the depth of the space is less than 3 or 4 times the room height. • Greater room depths require cross ventilation, preferably to an interior atrium or circulation space. • Stack effects of multi-storey interior spaces force natural ventilation more effectively. Stacks also provide great pools of heat and conditioned air to draw upon in winter heating conditions.

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Chapter 5.3

Natural ventilation strategies and resultant interconnected spaces can create difficulties in building code compliance and fire separation requirements. These can be overcome with permitted “equivalencies”. A code specialist in the green design will be familiar with accepted equivalencies. At the Architectural Centre in Vancouver, home of the Architectural Institute of British Columbia (AIBC), equivalencies were obtained for cross-ventilated fire-separated tenancies and for an interconnected atrium space that utilizes stack effect natural ventilation.

The York University Computer Science Facility uses stack effect chimneys to facilitate the natural ventilation of the building. This building has no ventilation ducts - three large scale atriums, ventilation chimneys and plenums are used to naturally conditioned the facility.

• Underfloor air distribution systems and displacement ventilation mechanical systems work well with natural ventilation strategies (heat rises). • Nighttime ‘flushing’ of buildings (in summer) enhances natural ventilation by completely exhausting heat gained during the daytime, and by drawing in cooler nighttime air.

At the Architectural Centre in Vancouver (home of the AIBC), equivalencies were obtained for cross ventilated fire separated tenancies and an interconnected atrium space that utilizes stack effect natural ventilation.

Passive Solar Heating

Interior special arrangements can aid or hinder natural ventilation.

The sun is a source of free, nonpolluting energy. Passive solar heating uses solar radiation to heat interior spaces or hot water systems and it significantly reduces the size and energy needs of mechanical systems. In order for passive solar energy strategies to work, a significant amount of thermal mass needs to be included in the building. Thermal mass captures heat during the day for future release, thus reducing nighttime heating and daytime cooling demands. Passive solar systems must be designed for low maintenance and user control.

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Passive design strategies can be modeled using computer simulation programs or a sunchart. With proper knowledge, both professional and amateur solar designers can use the sunchart to efficiently and easily design and optimize passive solar buildings. The Eco Residence of the McDonald Campus of McGill University is a student housing project using solar “green houses” for passive solar heating. The building reuses a concrete, 1960’s era building. Solar green houses constructed of salvaged doors and windows are used to capture the sun energy and to preheat and filter the outside air.

window can reach up to 4.5 m to 7.5 m deep into spaces with a 2.4 or 2.5 m floor to ceiling height. Highly reflective interior materials can be specified to facilitate daylighting. Light shelves and clerestory windows can be used to further increase the penetration and effectiveness of natural light into buildings. When providing daylighting in buildings, the design team should consider solar control, shading and glare and their respective effects on heating and cooling loads. Glare control should be carefully considered. Glare in the workplace could lead to a significant loss in comfort for many building users. Minimizing glare in the workplace begins with: • 100% shading co-efficient to exterior glazing; • indirect lighting to the workstations; and • increased user control.

The Eco Residence of the McDonald Campus of McGill University is a student housing project using solar “green houses” for passive solar heating.

The Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia (APEGBC) Head Office in Burnaby, BC, is an example of successful daylighting strategies – lots of natural daylight fills the spaces of this building. Exterior, glass, sun-control louvres limit heat gain and provide successful glare control.

Daylighting

Daylighting has numerous benefits. It provides energy savings by eliminating or reducing the need for artificial lighting, with energy and material consumption reduced accordingly. Additionally, it improves environmental quality for building occupants by providing natural light for work, play, and living spaces. Access to daylight improves the quality of space for occupants and may improve access to views. European studies have shown significant improvements in the effectiveness of hospitals and schools using daylighting strategies. Studies document that productivity in the workplace increases as a result of improved access to daylight. Narrow floor plates, interior courtyards and atria are design approaches that lead to better daylighting. Useful daylight from a typical

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The Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia, (APEGBC) head office in Burnaby, BC, is an example of successful daylighting strategies. Large amounts of natural daylight fill the spaces of this building. Exterior glass sun-control louvers limit the heat gain and provide successful glare control.

Reducing Operational Energy Consumption

Solar control should maximize sun penetration during colder months to minimize heating loads, and minimize penetration during warmer months to decrease cooling loads. Controls should be coordinated with street orientation and neighbouring buildings or trees. Heat loss should be avoided by minimizing glazing on the north façade. Computer simulation software is available to help design teams assess various solutions.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada Natural ventilation • Release hot air to the exterior in summer and recirculate warm air in winter. • Maximize the use of external air in temperate “swing” seasons (spring and fall). • Use wind pressure differential, stack effect, and air paths through the building to facilitate natural ventilation. • Shape the building to make use of natural ventilation. • Orient the building to take advantage of prevailing winds. • Design landscapes that work with natural ventilation strategies. • Provide operable windows. • Develop solutions for nighttime cooling. • Provide temperature regimes appropriate to varying activities. Passive Solar Heating • Use thermal mass to capture heat during the day for release in off-peak hours to reduce demands for nighttime heating and daytime cooling. • Seek low maintenance and simplicity in user controls. • Review and challenge traditional temperature requirements for different activities and room types.

Chapter 5.3

Daylighting • Design interiors with good access to natural light, using narrow floor plates, courtyards and atria. • Redirect daylight with light shelves to extend naturally lit spaces deeper into buildings. • Limit or angle west elevation glazing away from direct western light. • Limit shading on east elevations to allow for morning solar preheating. • Shade south elevations. • Limit glazing on the north elevation to reduce heat loss.

Case Studies EcoResidence Daniel Pearl and Mark Poddubiuk Architectes, Montreal, QC York University Computer Science Facility Busby + Associates Architects, in association with Van Nostrand diCastri Architects, Toronto, ON APEGBC Head Offices Busby + Associates Architects, Burnaby, BC Walnut Grove Aquatic Centre Roger Hughes + Partners Architects, Langley, BC AIBC offices, 440 Cambie Street Busby + Associates Architects, Pioneer Consultants Ltd. (Code Consultant), Vancouver, BC

Resources Advanced Technologies for Commercial Buildings www.advancedbuildings.org Solar Energy Society of Canada www.solarenergysociety.ca MIT’s Natural Ventilation Case Studies naturalvent.mit.edu

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Chapter 5.0 - Energy and Atmosphere

5.4 Energy Sources

Non-Renewable Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources

Energy Sources

Chapter 5.4

5.4 Energy Sources Objective • to select energy sources with the lowest possible environmental impact. One strategy to reduce the negative environmental impacts of buildings is to select a ‘green’ energy source. Modern society has become extremely dependent on a very few forms of energy - electricity, gas and oil. However, depending on the site, many different sources of onsite renewable energy are possible. Priority should be given to renewable, low impact, decentralized, locally supplied, flexible energy systems. When choosing an energy source, the design team is faced with two choices: nonrenewable or renewable energy sources.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources Objective • to provide maximum efficiency when using non-renewable energy source. The most common forms of non-renewable energy are fossil fuels such as fuel oil, natural gas, gasoline and coal. Fossil fuels are associated with the release of pollution and GHG emissions. Fossil fuels can be used as primary fuels or as secondary fuels to produce electricity which heat buildings. Gas offers higher site efficiency and the potential for use in cogeneration (thermal and electric energy produced from the same source – a more efficient choice). Fuel oil, natural gas, gasoline and coal release various levels of emissions into the air. In the case of non-renewable energy use, the design team should focus on energy efficiency.

For example, instead of specifying conventional 80% efficiency gas boilers, design teams should specify mid-efficiency boilers at 85% efficiency or even high-efficiency condensing boilers that operate at efficiencies between 90-95%. This is an example of a green strategy that can be easily achieved. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices which convert fuel energy directly into electrical energy. They are classified with non-renewable sources because, although they do not create emissions, they do consume fuels. Fuel cells operate much like continuous batteries when supplied with fuel. Possible fuels are hydrogen, natural gas, and methanol. Fuel cells eliminate the creation of wasted energy by eliminating combustion heat. Instead, fuel cells chemically combine the molecules of a fuel and an oxidizer without burning, avoiding the inefficiencies and pollution of traditional combustion. Low emissions from fuel cells (water and oxygen) and their high efficiency contribute to the reduction of detrimental environmental effects. Fuel cells are not readily available in the marketplace. However, a few large-scale test projects are underway. Global Thermoelectric (Calgary) is working on fuel cells for residential applications (2-3 years away). Ballard is concentrating on stationary power plants (some have been installed) and vehicular applications (1-3 years away). Fuel cell technology is still expensive to harness.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use non-renewable energy sources in a very efficient manner. • Plan for fuel cell applications in the near future.

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Chapter 5.4

Energy Sources

Resources Advanced technologies for Commercial Buildings www.advancedbuildings.org The Energy Efficiency + Renewable Energy (EREN) Database www.eren.doe.gov NRCan Energy Sector www.nrcan.gc.ca/es

Renewable Energy Sources Objective • to select low impact renewable energy sources whenever possible. Renewable energy sources have varying degrees of environmental impact. Large-scale hydroelectric power generation releases no emissions; however, this power source damages host ecosystems and the physical environment. Dams and transmission facilities destroy vast areas of natural habitat. New technologies provide low impact renewable energy; these energy sources are increasingly available, and are now feasible for certain applications. Renewable energies are “cleaner” energy sources and can provide the possibility of onsite generation, with little or no transmission loss. Sources of renewable onsite or offsite energy are solar, low impact hydro, tidal, wind, wood, biomass, geothermal, and alternative fuels.

The sun’s energy has produced fossil fuels and is responsible for the functioning of all natural systems.

systems and cladding. These envelopes can react and change to seasonal variations, to become a “living” building skin. Solar energy can be used in passive designs or with solar collectors and photovoltaic panels. Solar collectors offer approximately 70% efficiency versus the 10-15% efficiency of photovoltaic panels. In the Telus Office Building in Vancouver, when the sun is out, PV panels supply energy to fans that assist the natural ventilation system.

Solar Energy

Solar energy is the source of all energy on the planet. The sun’s energy produced fossil fuels, and is responsible for the functioning of all natural systems. Plants produce 300 billion tonnes of sugar a year from solar energy; mankind’s ability to harness solar energy is immeasurably small by comparison. Solar energy can be used directly to produce electricity with photovoltaic (PV) cells, or indirectly, as passive solar heating or hot water heating. Photovoltaics are gaining momentum as a source of energy in Europe and their popularity will spread to Canada soon. New technologies for utilizing photovoltaics permit the design of building envelopes that create energy. Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are already being produced for applications in roofs, window

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The Telus Office Building in Vancouver utilizes a rational application that works best when needed most. When the sun is out, PV panels supply energy to fans that assist the natural ventilation system.

Energy Sources

Hydroelectric

Hydroelectric power is free of emissions and it is renewable. In order to be of low environmental impact, the system must have short transmission distances and be appropriately scaled to the host watershed or shoreline. Transmission losses from large hydroelectric projects are over 60%, which is not very ‘green’. Priority should be given to small-scale systems that have lower detrimental environmental effects.

Wind Power

The Washington-based Worldwatch Institute calls wind power “the world’s fastest growing energy source” for the fourth year in a row. Worldwide, wind power capacity has increased by 35% during 1998. 20% of Denmark’s power is provided by wind. Mechanical energy from wind turbines is an old technology experiencing renewed popularity, as evidenced by a number of recent projects in Quebec and Alberta. Pincher Creek is the largest wind turbine farm in Canada – it powers Calgary’s transit system. However, the impact of wind turbines on bird populations is a concern and studies are currently being undertaken in the USA to alleviate this problem.

Pincher Creek is the largest wind turbine farm in Canada and it powers Calgary’s transit system.

Chapter 5.4

Alternative Fuels

In the near future, the “carbon era” of fossil fuels should be replaced by the establishment of the “hydrogen era” of nonpolluting fuels. Alternative fuels such as hydrogen and biomass can be used to provide electricity, heat and transportation fuel. For many years now, hydrogen has been recognized as a potential source of fuel. Current uses of hydrogen are industrial processes, rocket fuel, and spacecraft propulsion. With increasing research and development, hydrogen could serve as an alternative source of energy for heating and lighting homes, generating electricity, and fueling vehicles. When produced from renewable resources and technologies, such as low impact hydro, solar, and wind energy, hydrogen becomes a “renewable” fuel. Biomass is composed of vegetation-based refuse such as tree cuttings, garden waste, grass and crop cuttings. Using biomass as a fuel could divert significant amounts of material from landfills, where no composting facility is available. However, the burning of biomass emits GHG’s such as CO2, decreasing its environmental merits.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is harvested from below the earth’s surface. It has a high associated capital cost, but can have a reasonably fast payback time. Capital costs are increased by the onsite geological testing and drilling required to determine the presence of a geothermal heat reservoir. In the case of a large reservoir, the system could be made to accommodate growth or phased construction. Groundsource heat pumps are the most efficient devices for harvesting geothermal energy. Despite their high cost, there is an increase in the use of groundsource heat for buildings. Although heat pumps tap geothermal energy, they still consume electricity to operate. They work best in climates with higher temperature extremes (central and northern Canada), exploiting the temperature differentials between air and ground. They have been widely utilized in the prairies for years and are considered energy efficient. The presence of aquifers greatly enhances system performance and efficiency because they are highly conductive. Low conductivity soils, difficult drilling conditions and the high cost of drilling wells for expanding developments are factors that can make this energy source inappropriate.

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Chapter 5.4

Energy Sources

A commercial mixed-use development in Vancouver, BC, demonstrates the use of thermal energy harnessed with heat pumps. The project provides geothermal hot water heating as well as a combination of geothermal heating and energy efficient gas fireplaces.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • When possible, select low impact energy sources. • Design with the entire energy infrastructure in mind. • Choose source, transmission and storage systems that require a minimum number of transformations that reduce efficiency. • Design buildings and developments that supply energy as well as consume it. • Match energy source output with appropriate needs for electric or heat power. • Use connections to the grid for onsite electricity generation which can “wind back” electricity meters with excess power, thereby reducing total consumption. • Design for adaptation to future and more sustainable technologies.

Case Studies 2211 West Fourth Hotson Bakker Architects, Vancouver, BC Telus Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC

Resources Canadian Renewable Energy Network www.canren.gc.ca A commercial mixed-use development in Vancouver, BC, demonstrates the use of thermal energy harnessed with heat pumps.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems in Canada www.newenergy.org Solstice: Renewable and Alternative Energy www.crest.org Renewable Energy Deployment Initiative nrn1.rncan.gc.ca/es/erb/reed Canadian Earth Energy Association earthenergy.org

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Chapter 5.0 - Energy and Atmosphere

5.5 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 5.5

5.5 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs Energy used in buildings is linked to all aspects of green building design. Many green building strategies contribute to the overall reduction of a building energy use. The selection of an urban site minimizes infrastructure and transportation energies. Water efficiency saves energy from expanding infrastructure for water systems. Selecting green building materials minimizes embodied energy. Daylighting, user controls and natural ventilation also save energy. In brief, a holistic approach to green building design results in a multitude of synergies.

There are a few regulatory hurdles to overcome when using renewable energy sources. However, there is still one important impediment to site energy generation in many parts of Canada – it is still very difficult to “wind back” an electricity meter with onsite generation and get a reasonable credit for the energy supplied to the grid. Utilities should be lobbied to remove this impediment; site generators should be lauded, not hindered.

Tradeoffs also happen when designing green buildings for low energy consumption. For example, daylighting strategies and natural ventilation may reduce the thermal performance of buildings. Using rating systems and standards such as LEED™, the Model National Energy Code for Buildings, and ASHRAE 90.1 1999 can take into account these anomalies and ensure optimization of the total environmental performance of buildings. The design team, clients and authorities having jurisdiction can then agree on the strategies that best suit a given building.

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6.0 Materials and Resources

Materials and Resources

Chapter 6.0

Materials and Resources Overall Objectives • to reduce the demand for materials and resources. • to maximize the use of green building products. • to minimize waste during construction. • to minimize demolition. Buildings and natural resources are closely linked. Considerable natural resources are extracted for the purpose of constructing buildings; in fact, about 40% of the world’s raw materials are used in the construction industry. This extraction means that ecosystems are damaged, energy is consumed, and water quality is reduced. Mining and manufacturing processes produce significant pollution to their host ecosystems. Waste and pollution from manufacturing can be very toxic. The transportation of construction materials to distributors and building sites also produces pollution. Many materials, once installed, release toxic gases, affecting occupants health. Cleaning and maintenance requires more energy and these activities can produce toxic waste or cause health risks. Finally, after the end of their useful life, building products will need to be reused, salvaged or discarded. Disposal prevents the potential reuse of recoverable resources, increases the demand for landfill sites, and can lead to further pollution. All of the environmental impacts resulting from certain choices of building materials can only be understood when the full “upstream and downstream” history of the product is considered.

The design team must understand and acknowledge that most natural resources harvested for building construction are finite. Consumption of these resources must not compromise the use of the same resource by future generations. For example, the rate of harvesting of renewable resources (such as wood) must permit the ongoing, long-term sustainable regeneration of these resources. Two major green building concepts are important when choosing building materials: • striving for material efficiency; • selecting green building products.

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Chapter 6.0 - Materials and Resources

6.1 Material Efficiency

Building Reuse or Renovation Material Reduction and Efficiency Design for Flexibility Construction Waste Management Designing for Deconstruction

Material Efficiency

Chapter 6.1

6.1 Material Efficiency Objective • to reduce the demand for new materials by reusing materials and renovating buildings, by increasing material efficiency, and by designing flexible buildings for future adaptation.

Building Reuse or Renovation

found” materials are the final finishes. This project, completed in 2000, demonstrates a successful reuse and adaptation of a robust and flexible structure that now has greater value. An identical building, two doors down the street, was demolished this year for a “new development,” creating over a thousand tonnes of landfill, and approximately the same amount in unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions.

Objective • to achieve materials, energy and cost savings by reusing or renovating existing buildings. Reusing and renovating buildings offers material and resource efficiency by avoiding the construction of new buildings. The reuse of buildings is a very effective way to reduce demand for new materials. Buildings are constructed with a hierarchy of building elements and systems, such as, 1. structural components, 2. envelope, and 3. interior finishes. Reusing only the structure can save 20-30% of new building costs and avoid massive additions to landfills (30% of Canadian landfill sites consist of construction wastes). In some instances, it is feasible to save only the structural elements and to replace the building envelope and interior finishes. In other cases, a “cosmetic” renovation may require replacing only interior finishes. Designing buildings with structural systems that last and perform well over time is a first step to facilitating the future reuse of a building. The office of Busby + Associates Architects is located in a 1950’s era concrete warehouse. The structure was seismically upgraded. Simple openings have been cut for atriums and ventilation. Natural ventilation, daylighting and material efficiency are some of the design strategies employed in this recycled facility. “As

Our office is located in an old concrete warehouse built in 1951. Simple openings have been cut for atriums and ventilation strategies.

The Angus Locoshop project in Montreal is a stunning example of larger scale recycling and upgrading of industrial properties – with exciting architectural results.

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Chapter 6.1

Material Efficiency

In addition to material reduction, these strategies can also help the architect to meet the client’s budget.

The Angus Locoshop project in Montreal is a stunning example of larger scale recycling and upgrading of industrial properties – with exciting architectural results.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Reuse and/or renovate buildings when feasible.

Case Studies Telus Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC 1220 Homer Street Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC Angus Locoshop Ædifica, Montreal, QC

Resources

Responding to the functional program by providing compact and efficient spaces reduces energy use and capital costs, and conserves materials and resources. An example of this is efficient wood framing and careful detailing. By avoiding finishing materials and by specifying products that do not require the use of paints and coatings, resource consumption is reduced and the future reuse of natural materials is facilitated. Designing using a module facilitates through repetitive construction techniques, possible ease of disassembly and reuse, and reduction of onsite waste during construction. Using structural modules can also permit incremental additions to buildings, thereby increasing their adaptability over time. In the Strawberry Vale Elementary School, Patkau Architects consciously limited the finishes used throughout the building. Strategies included avoiding gypsum board in the corridors and library areas, and exposing the polished concrete floor. In this project, numerous other green building design features include high levels of natural light in the classrooms, native landscaping in the schoolyard, and on-site stormwater management.

Sustainable Architecture Compendium www.css.snre.umich.edu

Material Reduction and Efficiency Objective • to provide design solutions that reduce material and resource demand. Material reduction can significantly reduce the consumption of new resources. This can be achieved by: • designing compact spaces; • using material-efficient construction techniques; • avoiding superfluous materials such as unnecessary finishes; and • using standard material dimensions to avoid waste during construction.

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In the Strawberry Vale Elementary School, Patkau Architects consciously limited the amount of finishes used throughout the building.

Material Efficiency

During the operation of most buildings, the occupants produce waste. The design team should plan for central, adequate and convenient recycling, sorting and composting facilities to assist in reducing material waste.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Minimize the quantity of materials used. • Look for synergies within the functional program to reduce building areas. • Maximize use of materials that do not require finishes and avoid the unnecessary use of finishes. • Design with precut and engineered construction products to minimize waste. • Fabricate modules based on ‘no cutting’ panel sizes. • Develop structural systems based upon building industry modular sizes. • Plan buildings with facilities for recycling, sorting and composting.

Case Studies 1220 Homer Street Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC Strawberry Vale Elementary School Patkau Architects Inc, Saanich, BC La Petite Maison du Weekend Patkau Architects Inc, Vancouver, BC

Resources Guide to Resource Efficient Building Products www.crbt.org

Design for Flexibility Objective • to prolong the life of buildings using flexible design solutions. Buildings should be designed with the longest possible useful life. In order for buildings to fully accommodate their changing functions over time, flexible spaces must be provided. The goal should be to increase a building’s lifespan and to make it adaptable.

Chapter 6.1

Lifespan The CSA Standard S478-95, Guidelines on Durability in Buildings, analyzes the lifespan of interior materials for an office building over 60 years. The design service life of finishes is defined as 5 years for painted materials, 10 years for carpet and floor finishes, and 20 years for partitions, gypsum board and masonry substrates. For longer useable lives, buildings must be designed for maximum flexibility, with the knowledge of these differing lifespans. Building designs must accommodate for the fact that components with shorter lifespans need to be replaced without compromising or damaging components with longer lifespans. Architects must create details for easy access, removal and replacement of various building components. The useful life of these removed components can be extended by subsequent reuse or recycling.

Adaptability Adaptability is a fundamental concept for the design of green buildings. The design of conventional buildings dictates their energy and resource consumption as well as their waste production for their entire life cycle. Conventional buildings can be “technological time capsules”, locked into consumption profiles based on the design approaches and technologies prescribed at the time of their design and construction. Since sustainable designs must take the longterm view and respond to different uses and needs over the entire lifecycle of a building, it is important that a building evolve and that it be readily adaptable to different uses and new sustainable technologies. Green buildings should accommodate changes in use, new systems, and ease of maintenance. Contiguous service zones should be provided for increased adaptability of existing systems and as support for future new technologies, such as solar panels, fuel cells, vehicle charging stations, etc. These new technologies may need to be incorporated either in the service zones or externally. Flexible buildings should be able to provide both internal and external plug-in connections. Non-zoned schemes are much less flexible for accommodating future unanticipated uses and room configurations, for additional systems, and for future distribution needs. It is difficult to predict future technologies; nevertheless, the green design team must provide for future adaptability to the extent possible. SDCB 101 – Sustainable Design Fundamentals for Buildings

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Chapter 6.1

Material Efficiency

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Consider the varying lifespans of building systems and components. • Design primary structural elements for an extended life span. • Provide structural systems with minimum fire ratings, which may be easily upgraded. • Design secondary structures, such as nonloadbearing walls, guards, and infill floor panels to be demountable, using adaptable materials. • Develop adaptable plug-in service connection points with easy access. • Use standard modules. • Develop a module based on available materials and in sizes that are capable of being relocated without sophisticated equipment. • Develop a modular system based on local standards in which components can be reused and reassembled. • Plan using a module size that will satisfy a variety of space planning criteria. • Design modular interior elements to permit future alteration (move, remove or recycle). • Develop easily demountable connection details. • Design flexible spaces that can accommodate the maximum number of uses. • Provide service zones to accommodate future upgrading of systems.

save considerable amounts of materials and reduce cost for materials and landfill. One of the greatest challenges for construction jobsite recycling is to educate the contractors and subcontractors about salvage and recycling programs. In the Greater Vancouver Regional District, for example, studies have shown that jobsite recycling of construction waste can divert up to 45% of materials from the landfill to recycling facilities. For the Richmond City Hall project, a jobsite recycling program saved the project $10,000. This figure includes cost savings for new materials, expenses related to disposal fees, and additional labour costs.

For the Richmond City Hall project, a job site recycling program saved the project $10,000.

Designing with module-based building products reduces on-site cutting and fitting. The use of modular products can:

Resources

• increase savings in both material and time; • reduce construction waste; and • minimize purchases of new materials.

Modular Building Institute www.mbinet.org

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

Advanced Technologies for Commercial Buildings www.advancedbuildings.org

• Design using raw material unit dimensions. • Use modular materials and thoughtful detailing to reduce waste. • Reuse or recycle waste material from the construction process. • Train construction personnel to implement a jobsite recycling program. • Require recycling of construction waste in specifications and construction contracts. • Find uses for recycled waste close to site. • Consider waste as a resource.

Construction Waste Management Objective • to reduce the amount of waste occurring during construction. Proper construction waste management provides an opportunity to recycle and salvage materials. Not only is the construction industry the single largest user of natural resources, it is also a large producer of waste. Construction waste management can

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Material Efficiency

Case Studies Richmond City Hall Hotson Bakker Architects and Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg Associated Architects, Richmond, BC Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC

Resources Greater Vancouver Regional District Sustainable Design and Construction www.gvrd.bc.ca/services/garbage/ jobsite/index.html C&D Waste Web www.cdwaste.com

Designing for Deconstruction

Chapter 6.1

Architects and owners must allow sufficient time for deconstruction. The labour costs and extended timeframe required for deconstruction can be offset by income generated from selling salvaged materials, savings in the purchase of fewer new building products and savings in landfill (tipping) fees. Design teams should provide construction details that facilitate deconstruction. Materials should be easily removable from their assemblies for recycling. Demountable connections promote the reuse of structural components such as heavy timber. Bolts or screws should be used instead of other damaging industrial fasteners. Power-actuated industrial fasteners, such as Hilti fasteners, should have threaded inserts. Adhesives and composite structures should be avoided whenever possible. Modular access floors, carpet tiles, suspended light fixtures, and demountable metal or wood partitions are excellent choices.

Objective • to reduce demolition and deconstruction waste. Designing for building deconstruction (demountability) helps minimize the negative impacts of buildings on the environment. The construction industry is a large producer of demolition waste approximately 30% of Greater Vancouver Regional District landfill waste originates from demolition and land clearing. The remaining waste is from the institutional, industrial and commercial sectors (50%) and the residential sector (20%). It is possible to change an industry. Following a 1996 law, German cars must be “deconstructed” into separate types of material with less than five hours labour. Current demolition usually involves mixing large quantities of valuable materials with less valuable materials, contaminated or ruined in the demolition process. This valuable material could be diverted from the waste stream by deconstructing buildings rather than demolishing them. Careful disassembly during deconstruction permits the reuse of salvaged building materials in new construction.

The MEC store in Ottawa was designed to facilitate disassembly by providing screwed and bolted connections for the entire structure.

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Chapter 6.1

Material Efficiency

Designing for disassembly has the potential to significantly reduce the amount of materials wasted and deposited in landfills. The Mountain Equipment Co-op (MEC) Store in Ottawa was designed to allow disassembly by using screwed and bolted connections throughout the entire structure. Many of the structural elements in this building had already been salvaged once – the heavy timbers were from old log booms and the steel structure consists of columns, beams and joists from the former building on the site. The Concord Pacific Sales Pavilion in False Creek was designed to be easily demountable and transportable in order to be reused over a 20-year “site buildout” program. It has already been moved twice, with a minimum of effort, materials and energy.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Design structures to be demountable. • Require the deconstruction of existing buildings in all construction contracts. • Use modular materials and thoughtful detailing to facilitate deconstruction. • Train demolition personnel to deconstruct. • Reuse salvaged materials close to the site. • Consider waste as a resource.

Case Studies Concord Sales Pavilion Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC Mountain Equipment Co-op Linda Chapman Architect and Christopher Simmonds Architect in joint venture, Ottawa, ON

Resources CMHC - Designing for Disassembly www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca

The Concord Pacific Sales Pavilion in False Creek was designed to be easily transportable and demountable, facilitating reliable reuse over a 20-year site buildout programme.

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Chapter 6.0 - Materials and Resources

6.2 Selecting Green Building Products

Life Cycle Assessment and Embodied Energy Energy Efficient Building Products Material Efficient Building Products Certified Products Building Products with Low Emission

Selecting Green Building Products

Chapter 6.2

6.2 Selecting Green Building Products Objectives • to select building products that have minimal impact on the environment and building occupants during their full life cycle. • to select resource-efficient building products. • to select energy-efficient building products. When choosing building products, the design team must take into account energy and water and resource use during harvesting, production and transportation of the material. A comprehensive list of selection criteria provides the necessary information for responsible environmental selection.

Life Cycle Assessment and Embodied Energy Objective • to select building products that have low embodied energy through their full life cycle. • to select building products that have minimal environmental impacts through their full life cycle. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a process that documents the environmental impacts of the full life cycle of a building product. For example, the LCA data for a building product such as a masonry unit considers the following environmental impacts: • • • • • •

raw resource extraction; manufacturing; transportation; installation; use; and disposal.

The list of potential environmental impacts includes water and air pollution, toxic releases, chemical combinations, greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions, energy consumption, landfill impacts, recycled content, recycling potential, etc. LCA information is not yet available for most building products. However, LCA data introduces the building industry to the notion of full life cycle environmental impacts and will identify areas of environmental problems. In order to remain competitive, building product companies have an interest in improving the weaknesses of their products. Architects should become advocates for full life cycle assessment and insist that suppliers provide all the necessary data. Sound environmentally-based reasons will lead to certain materials not being selected. The construction industry will react and ultimately be transformed. Embodied energy is another measurement of the detrimental environmental impact of building products. Embodied energy can be defined as the amount of energy consumed by all of the activities directly or indirectly associated with the full life cycle of a building product. The concept of measuring embodied energy is similar to life cycle assessment, except that it focuses solely on energy. These two methods provide information to manufacturers and design teams about the impacts of building products. When possible, these methods should be used to select building products. However, because full data is not readily available for all materials, partial information and less quantifiable criteria are often used in practice. In the medium term, materials should be classified into three main categories: • energy efficient building products; • material efficient building products; and • products that have benign impact on building users.

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Chapter 6.2

Selecting Green Building Products

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada

• Specify materials that have low associated energy costs for their full life cycle. • Specify materials that have a minimal environmental impacts for their full life cycle. • Request full data from manufacturers and advocate for full life cycle assessments of building products.

• Specify locally available materials that are durable, repairable and require low maintenance. • Research and maintain a resource list of locally available “green” products, salvage companies, trades, businesses, etc. • Specify building products that contribute to the reduction of operational energy.

Resources

Resources

Athena Sustainable Material Institute www.athenasmi.ca

US EPA Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) www.epa.gov/cpg/index.htm

Life Cycle Assessment Links www.life-cycle.org Environmental Resource Guide (ERG) www.e-architect.com

Energy Efficient Building Products

EPA Energy Star www.energystar.gov Energuide energuide.nrcan.gc.ca

Material Efficient Building Products

Objective • to reduce the energy demand associated with building products. In order to reduce the energy use associated with building products, the design team can specify local and regional materials, thereby reducing transportation energy and providing support for the local economy. Using local materials enhances “regionally-differentiated” architecture; for example, the use of a local stone or other cladding materials can define a regional architectural characteristic. Products that reduce operational energy use should be incorporated. As mentioned in the Energy and Atmosphere section, energy savings can be obtained by specifying products that minimize operational energy, such as energyefficient appliances, lighting and HVAC systems.

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Objective • to specify only building products that are material efficient. A green building material should demonstrate material and resource efficiency through its entire life cycle. The environmental selection criteria that can be used for selecting efficient green building products include resource efficiency, renewable materials, salvaged materials, recycled content, and materials selected for low maintenance characteristics.

Renewable Materials When specifying a building product, the design team may be faced with the selection of either renewable products, non-renewable products or a combination of the two. Renewable building products, if sustainably harvested, offer the advantage of conserving other building products made from finite resources. The use of renewable materials can be sustained for many generations without compromising the current global stock. Some products, such as bamboo and straw, rapidly

Selecting Green Building Products

regenerate; this rate of sustainable regeneration increases their potential application in green buildings. Bamboo flooring products and wheatboard (an alternative to MDF) are readily available in Canada. Biodegradable renewable products such as cellulose insulation offer an added attraction because they generate no toxic waste after disposal. The finite resources available limit building products made of nonrenewable resources; therefore, many environmentalists view the conservation of materials and resources as a cautionary measure to ensure use for future generations. Efficiency, recycling and reuse of materials should be the foremost consideration when selecting building products.

Salvaged Materials The use of salvaged building material minimizes demands for new materials and resources, reduces pressure on existing landfills, and offsets the negative environmental effects from the production of new materials. There are many materials that can be reclaimed from existing buildings. Reclaimed, large dimension lumber is usually high quality, clear wood that is very difficult to obtain new today. It should be remilled and used in ways that demonstrates its inherent natural beauty in applications such as millwork or furniture.

The City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility is constructed of 80% salvaged building materials.

Chapter 6.2

A number of significant challenges face design teams wanting to use salvaged building products. Many of these challenges were overcome in design of the City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility, which is constructed of 80% salvaged building materials. A normal design/tender/build process should not be used, as few bidders care to identify and locate the materials to be salvaged, or contractors may inflate their bids to cover any risks associated with salvaging materials. The architect should assist the client in locating and selecting materials prior to determining the process for construction procurement. Salvage yards are a rich resource; architects should incorporate products found at salvage yards into their designs. The results will be a saving in materials costs, offset by more labour in the design and construction process. The end product, as the Materials Testing Laboratory demonstrates, can be very satisfying in terms of the quality of materials used. Websites with inventories of salvaged materials are being developed now in several Canadian cities.

Recycled Content and Recyclability of Materials Recycling can divert waste destined for landfills, thus reducing the demand for new materials. Some building products already contain waste from post-consumer, post-industrial or postagricultural processes. Two examples of products with high recycled content are Isoboard and concrete with high contents of flyash. Isoboard, used as equivalent to particleboard, is made of straw, an agricultural waste product. Using flyash in concrete instead of Portland cement is another excellent example. Concrete made with replacements for Portland Cement is known as EcoSmartf Concrete The production of Portland Cement produces a significant amount of CO2, at the rate of one tonne of CO2 for each tonne of cement produced. Therefore, using flyash significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions and helps Canada meet its Kyoto commitment.

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Chapter 6.2

Selecting Green Building Products

Many existing materials have a large content of recycled materials, and the list is growing. Reinforcing steel or “rebar” is composed primarily of scrap steel. Subject to environmental protection regulations in certain jurisdictions, the drywall industry has started to establish a sensible, industry-wide recycling program requiring the supplier to take responsibility for recycling (gypsum cannot be put in landfills). The paint industry is moving in the same direction. Concrete can be recycled easily. Some asphalt paving has a high content of recycled tires. Flooring made of recycled tires is attractive and durable. Architects must do the research and establish minimum targets of 20-30% recycled content in new buildings, a standard that is relatively easily achieved today in Canada.

Low Maintenance Materials Many exterior and interior finishing building products require a lot of maintenance during their useful life. By specifying low maintenance materials, considerable amounts of energy, cleaning products (usually chemical-based), and maintenance costs can be saved over time. Low maintenance materials can be left in their natural state and paints and coatings with a short life should be avoided. Polished surfaces are easy to clean (glass, stone, metal). Durable finishes are low maintenance (anodized powder coated). Also, materials that require chemical cleaners should be avoided because these cleaners are pollutants.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Select products that use less material to perform the same function. • Specify salvaged, recycled and/or recyclable building products. • Specify building products that come from renewable sources. • Set targets, such as the use of 20%-30% salvaged or recycled products in all new buildings. • Understand the maintenance requirements of specified materials.

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Case Studies City of Vancouver Materials Testing Facility Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC

Resources EcoSmart Concrete Project www.ecosmart.ca Used Building Material Associations (UBMA) www.ubma.com Used Building Materials Exchange (UBM) Index www.build.recycle.net

Certified Products Objective • to specify certified products to ensure minimum environmental performance There are third party associations that will certify the environmental merits of certain products. In the case of sustainably harvested wood, two organizations undertake such certification: the Silva Forest Foundation and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Numerous labeling programs are also available such as EcoLogo, Energy Star Label, and Terrachoice. Certification and labeling is growing rapidly and there are likely to be ‘green labels’ on most products in the near future. In the meantime, architects should request the data and backup reports for all ‘eco’ labels on products specified.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Select certified building products. • Specify certified wood from sustainably managed forests. • Promote the use of certified products to manufacturers and clients. • Request data and backup reports. • Develop a library of certified products for use in all designs and specifications.

Selecting Green Building Products

Chapter 6.2

Resources Forest Stewardship Council www.fscoax.org UPA Energy Star www.energystar.gov Green Seal www.greenseal.org Silva Forest Foundation www.silvafor.org

Building Products With Low Emissions Objective • to specify building products with little or no negative impact on building users. Most building products contain compounds that adversely affect indoor air quality and contribute to the poor outdoor air quality of our urban centres. Many manufactured materials emit Volatile Organic Compounds or VOC’s (wood naturally emits VOC’s). All indoor environments have a certain percentage of VOC’s. Adhesives, sealants, composite wood products, paints and many carpets have high levels of VOC emissions. The green design team must specify materials with low VOC emissions. Certification or labeling programs are in place to provide minimum performance standards, such as EcoLogo Certification Criteria from Environment Canada. Materials with low VOC emissions, such as low toxicity paints and finishes are readily available in Canada. Many projects exemplify interior environments designed using these materials, such as the Urban Strawbale House, designed by Julia Bourke Architecte.

The Urban Strawbale House, designed by Julia Bourke Architecte, incorporates many materials with low emissions.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Use materials and equipment with low emission finishes to minimize indoor air pollution. • Select non-toxic materials that minimize or eliminate off-gassing of VOC’s. • Develop a library of products having low emissions of VOC’s.

Case Studies Strawbale house construction in an urban environment Julia Bourke, Architecte, QC Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC Low Cost Dwelling for the Environmentally Hypersensitive Phillip Sharp Architect Ltd, Ottawa, ON CK Choi, Institute for Asian Research Matsuzaki Wright Architects Inc., Vancouver, BC

Resources Environmental Building News Product Catalog www.buildingreen.com OIKOS Green Building Source www.oikos.com Canada’s EcoLogo www.environmentalchoice.com

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Chapter 6.0 - Materials and Resources

6.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 6.3

6.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs Regulations have significant influence on design strategies related to materials and resources. Close coordination with authorities having jurisdiction may be necessary, such as the incorporation of salvaged building materials in new construction. Municipalities could also encourage this practice by granting deconstruction permits faster than demolition permits. Such a policy would help encourage the time-consuming disassembly of building materials in order to optimize the use of salvaged building materials. A reduction in the consumption of materials and resources leads to savings in energy and water associated with harvesting, production and transportation of new materials. The selection of low-toxicity building products, that do not offgas airborne contaminants, contributes to healthy indoor environments. A healthy indoor environment will also increase the marketability of green buildings by increasing occupant comfort and by reducing operating costs. The marketplace is a powerful tool for change in the construction materials industry. Architects should: • always look for green labels; • require manufacturers to provide green product data; • advocate for green labeling standards in the construction industry; and • support manufacturers of green products.

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7.0 Indoor Environmental Quality

Indoor Environmental Quality

Chapter 7.0

Indoor Environmental Quality Overall Objectives • to provide the best possible indoor air quality. • to ensure maximum comfort for occupants with the greatest control. Canadians on average spend approximately 90% of their time indoors. The quality of indoor air affects the productivity, health and well-being of building occupants. High quality indoor environments can increase employee productivity, thereby yielding a significant return on the investment spent on systems that support and control the environment. Poor indoor environ-ments lead to illness and can even result in liabilities for building owners and managers. The delivery and maintenance of high quality indoor air is a primary goal for green building design teams. Factors that affect the quality of indoor environments are air quality and occupant control and comfort. Indoor air quality is influenced by indoor and outdoor contaminants and by the rate of ventilation of interior spaces. Some factors that influence occupant control and comfort include the ability to control various systems, the actual performance of HVAC systems and appropriate lighting solutions.

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Chapter 7.0 - Indoor Environmental Quality

7.1 Indoor Air Quality

Outdoor Pollutants Indoor Pollutants Fresh Air and Ventilation

Indoor Air Quality

Chapter 7.1

7.1 Indoor Air Quality Objective • to provide the highest possible Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) throughout the building. Indoor air pollutants are contaminants found in the air emitted from interior sources. These pollutants can take the form of allergens, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), fumes, high levels of CO2, inert gases (such as radon) and microbial and bacterial particles of many kinds. Outdoor air pollutants are better known, including a full range of noxious gases and particulates emitted by industry, vehicles and all forms of combustion (smog). Design teams can control indoor air quality by carefully preventing outdoor contaminants from entering buildings, by minimizing indoor pollutants, and by providing adequate ventilation systems. Ventilation systems, natural or mechanical, should be designed to eliminate potential health risks and to minimize the dissemination and growth of contaminants in circulated air.

Outdoor Pollutants Objective • to minimize the penetration of outdoor pollutants into buildings. The presence in outdoor air pollutants is exacerbated by various activities located in the immediate vicinity of buildings. Outside activities such as high traffic, idling vehicles at loading docks and industrial processes nearby can introduce contaminants into a building’s ventilation system or through operable windows. Contamination from outdoor air pollutants can be effectively mitigated by the proper location of outdoor air intakes and the orientation and distribution of operable windows.

Outdoor air intakes should be located to avoid proximity to building exhaust fans, cooling towers, automobile traffic, standing water, sanitary vents, loading docks, and garbage collection areas. Design teams should study the prevailing winds and nearby sources of emissions including exhaust air, chimneys and fume hoods. It may be necessary to conduct a wind study and, possibly, build a model. An authority on wind models recognized worldwide is a Canadian firm, Rowan Williams Davies and Irwin Inc., located in Guelph, ON. Airflow into operable windows is not easy to control. It is necessary to observe and determine sources of pollution and noise in adjacent streets. The wind rose and prevailing seasonal wind patterns for the site must be studied. Window locations should be determined on the basis of both distribution and orientation. Windows located on the leeward (downwind) side are successful at enhancing airflow patterns within buildings. Adjacent areas of natural vegetation and landscape buffers prevent outdoor pollutants from mixing with the air through operable windows. Plants are great natural air scrubbers. Buildings must not themselves contribute to outdoor air pollution. It is important to specify scrubbers on all stacks, chimneys and fume hoods. Architects should advocate to clients for the installation of scrubbers.

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Chapter 7.1

Indoor Air Quality

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Avoid air intakes close to polluting activities such as automobile traffic. • Study wind patterns and site conditions to determine the correct locations for air intakes and operable windows. • Provide landscape buffers to protect operable windows from pollutants. • Ensure the building does not contribute to air pollution.

Resources ASHRAE 62-1999 “Ventilation Standards for Acceptable Indoor Quality” www.ashrae.org Health Canada www.hc-sc.gc.ca Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca

Indoor Pollutants Objectives • to minimize the contamination of indoor air during construction and during operation. • to reduce or eliminate the use of materials that emit contaminants or pollutants to indoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be introduced by various construction processes, interior activities, inadequate maintenance and by materials specified and used in buildings. Compounds introduced during construction and renovation can contaminate the indoor environment and lead to long-term problems with indoor air quality. HVAC systems are especially vulnerable to contaminants such as dust, VOC’s, and micro-organisms. Contaminants can remain in HVAC systems for long periods of time, causing serious health problems to building occupants. Strategies to minimize contamination during construction include: • isolating HVAC systems; • isolating work areas to minimize overall contamination;

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• cleaning frequently during construction; and • cleaning thoroughly after construction but before system startup. During construction or renovation, it is important to schedule the installation of pollutant-absorbing materials as late as possible in the construction process. Some materials, such as fabric-coated partitions, carpets, insulation, ceiling tiles and gypsum products will absorb VOC’s from paints and sealants used during construction. By installing these products at the end of the process, VOC’s have nowhere to be absorbed, thus resulting in a better IAQ. Finally, the allocation of sufficient time (at least two weeks) for systems operations prior to occupancy, permits a complete flushing of building air, thus improving indoor air quality. However, the release of contaminants from the building reduces the quality of outside air and contributes to smog. After occupancy, common office equipment (such as photocopiers and fax machines) produce volatile organic compounds that contaminate the rest of the building. Design teams should provide adequate measures to prevent the transmission of these VOC’s to the entire building by providing HVAC solutions that isolate this equipment, by locating exhaust air vents to serve them or by providing separate ventilation systems. Many manufactured materials emit VOC’s; including adhesives, sealants, composite wood products and carpets. PVC and vinyl products also emit a range of atmospheric pollutants. The best design strategy to reduce the amount of VOC and other contaminants in the indoor environment is to specify low emission materials. (Refer to the Materials and Resources section). Certification or labeling programs are in place to provide minimum performance standards. For example, Environment Canada’s EcoLogo Certification Criteria for paints and surface coatings stipulate that a product must not be formulated or manufactured with formaldehyde, halogenated aromatic solvents or heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium or chromium. Paints and stains must not contain VOC’s in excess of 200 grams per litre and varnishes in excess of 300 grams per litre.

Indoor Air Quality

Indoor air contaminants are particularly harmful to allergy sufferers. The design of environments for hypersensitive occupants is a specialty of some Canadian architects. A housing project in the Ottawa region demonstrated that a low toxicity indoor environment can be achieved with no premium on construction costs.

Chapter 7.1

The maintenance and cleaning of indoor air supply and distribution ducts is important. Therefore, easy access to ducts and shafts for periodic cleaning must be provided. Concealed ducts should be avoided whenever possible. An under floor air system with access floors provides for easy and economical cleaning. The interior of an air supply duct that has not been cleaned for 25 years is a frightening sight, as evidenced by this duct with a 10mm layer of organic and bacterial “growth” contaminating all the air that flows through it.

A housing project in the Ottawa region demonstrated that low toxicity indoor environments can be achieved with no premium on capital cost.

Buildings usually have cleaning and maintenance routines associated with them. The selection of low maintenance natural building products may reduce the use of chemical cleaning products or maintenance materials such as paints. The Liu Centre at the University of British Columbia illustrates the use of low toxicity finishes requiring minimal maintenance.

Interior of duct that has not been cleaned.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Minimize HVAC system contamination during construction. • Provide for an adequate period to flush the building before occupancy. • Isolate areas and activities that generate VOC’s such as photocopiers, and storage areas for cleaning and maintenance supplies. • Specify low emission materials that minimize or eliminate off gassing. • Specify low maintenance materials to reduce the use of chemical cleaning products. • Prior to selecting a product, determine the level of emissions of VOC’s from the manufacturer. • Specify certified products that meet a minimum standard. • Provide maintenance access to all air supply and distribution systems.

The Liu Centre at the University of British Columbia illustrates a minimal use of overall finishes. Low toxicity and low maintenance were primary considerations for the selection of finishes.

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Chapter 7.1

Indoor Air Quality

Case Studies Low Cost Dwelling for the Environmentally Hypersensitive Phillip Sharp Architect Ltd, Ottawa, ON Liu Centre for the Study of Global Issues Architectura, in collaboration with Arthur Erickson, Vancouver, BC

and activities in the building. These monitors can be linked to the automated control system to affect HVAC operations. The monitoring system, together with calibration information and other requirements, should be included in the commissioning plan and the building manual. CO2 systems consume energy, but they also provide significant energy savings by ensuring that the HVAC system operates efficiently.

Resources Canada’s EcoLogo www.environmentalchoice.com OIKOS Green Building Source www.oikos.com/products Building Materials for the Environmentally Hypersensitive, CMHC www.cmhc.ca Public Works and Government Services Canada, IAQ www.pwgsc.gc.ca/rps/iaq

Fresh Air and Ventilation Objectives • to provide fresh air and ventilation appropriate for diverse uses within buildings. • to minimize the distribution of pollutants with the ventilation system. Adequate ventilation rates should respond to the functional program, building use and occupancy. Satisfactory levels of air change are a result of the effectiveness of the distribution of outside fresh air throughout the building. The ideal ventilation system is balanced to optimize ventilation effectiveness and energy efficiency. Design teams should consider potential changes of use during a building’s life cycle and incorporate strategies for flexibility when designing the ventilation systems. A good indicator of adequate ventilation is the level of CO2 in the building. CO2 monitoring systems maximize indoor air quality (IAQ) by ensuring interior CO2 levels are similar to exterior healthy outdoor levels. A CO2 monitoring system will increase initial capital costs; however, it can prevent health problems and increase productivity. Systems are most effective when they are installed throughout a building and are capable of monitoring CO2 levels for all conditions

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Rates of fresh air input into buildings are measured in CFM/person. ASHRAE standards were 15 CFM/ person prior to the 1970’s oil crisis. In the mid 1970’s, ASHRAE lowered these levels to 5 CFM/ person and convinced a generation of mechanical engineers to eliminate operable windows. “Sick building syndrome” was the result and by 1989, ASHRAE restored the former 15 CFM/person standard. (All airflow measurements are based on a system’s “minimum” mode, (i.e. in Canada, during the winter.) Adequate air input is currently 15 CFM/person for children and 20 CFM/person for adults. Some recent “high-quality” offices have pushed the fresh air input to 30 and 40 CFM/person. Architects should ensure that mechanical engineers design to higher standards. Energy can be recaptured with heat exchangers on exhaust loops. Furthermore, the HVAC system should have the ability to provide 100% fresh air when outdoor air temperatures allow.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide effective ventilation. • Provide a CO2 monitoring system. • Ensure frequent inspection and cleaning of HVAC systems. • Design for 30-40 CFM of fresh air per person. • Ensure frequent inspection and cleaning of HVAC systems. • Include operable windows everywhere possible.

Resources ASHRAE 52.2 “Method for Testing General Air Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size” www.ashrae.org USEPA Indoor Air Quality Division www.epa.gov/iaq Canadian Lung Association www.lung.ca

Chapter 7.0 - Indoor Environmental Quality

7.2 Occupant Control and Comfort

Controllability of Systems Thermal Strategies Lighting Strategies

Occupant Control and Comfort

Chapter 7.2

7.2 Occupant Control and Comfort Objective • to provide maximum ability to control systems by the occupants. Providing maximum occupant control in both HVAC and lighting systems increases the productivity, comfort and well-being of building occupants, in addition to offering potential energy savings through the elimination of unwanted cooling, heating or lighting. Conventional buildings, particularly those with inoperable windows, are usually completely disconnected from their surroundings and offer occupants limited or no control over their indoor work, play, and living environments. These limitations contribute to a reduction in the well- being of occupants and eliminate the possibility to use natural systems to control the indoor environment.

Controllability of Systems Objective

controls and smaller zones is offset by the advantages listed above. More individual controls can have beneficial effects on energy conservation. Energy use can be decreased if occupant controls permit adjustments to unwanted air conditioning or heating during occupancy and offset settings at night or during long periods out of the home or office. A green building design can and should infuse the building occupants with an awareness of energy efficiency. Building cleaners, security and maintenance personnel should check windows and lights, in the appropriate seasons, on their nightly rounds. Building user manuals, on-going commissioning, and education can maximize the benefits from occupant controlled systems throughout the life cycle of the building. At the Telus Office Building, flexible airflow Trox diffusers, adjustable by the occupants without the use of tools, were specified and installed. Trox diffusers can be located anywhere occupants wish, and the numbers of diffusers can be adjusted to suit personal preferences.

• to provide maximum “controllability” for all building systems in order to produce energy savings and increase comfort. There are two main advantages for installing systems that occupants can control or adjust: • enhancing occupant comfort and well-being; and • improving the energy efficiency of building systems. By allowing individuals and groups to customize their microenvironments, the overall comfort, satisfaction and related productivity of occupants can be improved. Conventional HVAC and other building systems are often designed in a “first cost”, efficient manner, with large zones and few controls. The cost of providing additional

At the Telus Office Building, flexible airflow Trox diffusers that can be adjusted by the occupants without the use of tools, were specified.

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Chapter 7.2

Occupant Control and Comfort

At the Revenue Canada Building in Surrey, BC, two levels of occupant control from a pressurized underfloor air system were provided.

office buildings, these systems can offer optimal occupant controls at each workstation.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide maximum occupant control for increased comfort.

Case Studies Revenue Canada Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Surrey, BC Telus Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC

Resources Best Practice to Maintaining IEQ www.ipmvp.org ASHRAE Indoor Air Quality Position Document www.ashrae.org USEPA Indoor Air Quality Division www.epa.gov/iaq At the Revenue Canada Building, Trox diffusers can be located anywhere occupants wish, and the numbers of diffusers can be adjusted for people who are chronically hot or cold.

System Zones Occupant control strategies can be applied to either perimeter or interior HVAC zones.

Thermal Strategies Objective • to provide maximum thermal comfort for occupants • to maximize energy savings.

In perimeter zones, the most important issue to coordinate with other green design goals is the size and functionality of windows. The intent of the fenestration and window design, window sizes, and operable opening sizes, must be discussed with the team members. Windows affect many things in a building including natural ventilation, daylighting, thermal performance, views and solar control strategies. Artificial lighting and daylighting strategies require coordination to optimize both systems. In interior zones, air distribution and artificial lighting are the main factors to consider. Systems should provide small zones and individual controls. This allows for the implementation of Personal Environment Control (PEC) systems. There are specialized furniture systems available that are capable of providing controls and air delivery locations within the furniture itself. In

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Thermal comfort supports the well-being of building occupants and increases energy savings by providing efficient heating systems.

Occupant Control and Comfort

Thermal comfort supports the well being of building occupants and increases energy savings when efficient heating systems are used. To reduce the overconditioning or overheating of spaces, building occupants need to be educated about the system and the environmental goals of the building. Levels of activity, clothing, humidity levels, air temperature, radiation exchange and air circulation all affect an individual’s thermal comfort in a given space. All of these, except clothing, can be controlled by the building systems. An assessment of these factors is necessary to provide thermal comfort. The Integrated Design Team must evaluate many systems and factors simultaneously. For example, in a naturally ventilated building, the rate of fresh airflow can affect the thermal comfort of an occupant. Recent literature has shown that natural building system strategies such as increases in thermal mass and air velocity control will modify conventional comfort zones. It is important to look for synergies and to document and share results of successful designs. The Intuit Canada Headquarters in Edmonton, AB, Alberta has an 18-inch access floor that provides building occupants with better control of heating within their work environment. Grilles in the flooring supply air at locations near the occupants rather than at ceiling levels, and also take advantage of natural air currents. The grid of access flooring, covered by easily removable and replaceable carpet tiles, permits access to the pressurized air cavity for ease of maintenance.

Chapter 7.2

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Design thermal environments that suit the functional program • Specify building systems that can be adjusted to meet the occupants’ needs.

Case Studies Telus Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Vancouver, BC Intuit Canada Headquarters Manasc Isaac Architects Ltd., Edmonton, AB

Resources ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Standard www.ashrae.org

Lighting Strategies Objective • to provide adequate lighting levels for increased energy savings and occupant comfort. Lighting design represents an opportunity to improve the indoor environment through increased occupant control, improved daylighting, reduced glare, and a better visual connection with the outside. When using daylighting strategies, glare control should be carefully considered. Increased energy savings are a result of the increased use of natural daylight and reduced use of artificial lighting. The BC Gas Operation Centre is full of naturally lit spaces. Here, light shelves increase the amount of daylight entering the spaces and facilitate solar control.

The Intuit Canada Headquarters in Edmonton, Alberta provides an 18 inch access floor that allows the building occupants to better control the heating of their work environments.

Increasing the level of control over lighting increases the satisfaction of building occupants and eliminates energy consumption from unnecessary lighting. Individual lighting controls vary in complexity and “intelligence”. Room and task light switches are simple and effective, and occupancy sensors and photocells increase the reliability of lighting controls. New, more sophisticated products for task and room lighting feature occupant controls that can be operated from personal computers, allowing adjustments to

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Chapter 7.2

Occupant Control and Comfort

Lightshelves are in place to provide solar control and increase the amount of daylight entering the spaces.

light levels and hours of operation. These controls can also be linked to automated building control systems for even more energy efficiency.

Summary of Strategies for Use across Canada • Provide maximum occupant control for increased comfort. • Provide light shelves to increase light penetration. • Provide design solutions for glare control. • Use room and task light switches, occupancy sensors and photocells as energy efficient occupant controls.

Case Studies Revenue Canada Office Building Busby + Associates Architects, Surrey, BC APEGBC Head Offices Busby + Associates Architects, Burnaby, BC

Resources Tips for Daylighting with Windows windows.lbl.gov/daylighting/ designguide/browse.htm

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Chapter 7.0 - Indoor Environmental Quality

7.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs

Chapter 7.3

7.3 Regulations, Linkages and Tradeoffs There are very few regulations that inhibit the design team from producing excellent indoor environments. However, design teams and clients are not always aware of the factors that affect or reduce indoor air quality (IAQ). If building occupants are not educated to be sensitive to the environment, an increase in the number and accessibility of controls can conflict with energy efficiency measures. Education is essential for the optimum performance of occupant-controlled systems. The objective of realizing a high-quality indoor environment is consistent with other green design goals, such as increasing energy efficiency, facilitating the use of passive systems and reducing the use of materials that compromise IAQ.

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8.0 LEED™ in the Canadian Context

LEED™ in the Canadian Context

Chapter 8.0

LEED™ in the Canadian Context Overall Objective • to introduce the LEED™ rating system to Canadian architects. The Sustainable Building Canada Committee (SBCC) is currently reviewing the merits of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™) as a potential Canadian assessment tool for green buildings. The LEED™ Rating System was developed by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) in an effort to provide a benchmark for the rating of green buildings. Its purpose is to accelerate the implementation of green building policies, programs, technologies, standards and design practices. It is probable that this assessment tool will become the North American standard.

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Chapter 8.0 - LEED™ in the Canadian Context

8.1 LEED™ Green Building Rating System

LEED™ Green Building Rating System

Chapter 8.1

8.1 LEED™ Green Building Rating System Objectives • to provide background information regarding the history and evolution of the LEED™ Rating System. • to present a brief overview regarding the application of the LEED™ Rating System. • to provide information related to the potential implementation of LEED™ in Canada.

History of the LEED™ Rating System The USGBC has developed the LEED™ program to provide a benchmark for buildings and to provide guidelines for the development of sustainable projects. The USGBC, a Washington, DC - based organization, was formed in 1993 with a mandate to be “the centre for debate and action on environmental issues facing the multiple interests of the building industry”. The USGBC has grown to include various construction industry players such as product manufacturers, building owners, environmental leaders, design and other building professionals, general contractors, trade contractors, utilities, government agencies, building control sub-contractors, research institutions and leaders in the financial industry. This wide representation provides a “unique and ideal platform for carrying out important programs and activities”.

Overview of the LEED™ Rating System The LEED Green Building Rating System™ is a voluntary, consensus-based, and market-driven building rating system based on existing proven technology. Using a series of criteria, the system evaluates environmental performance over a building’s life cycle. LEED™ is based on accepted energy and environmental principles and aims to strike a balance between existing accepted practices and new sustainable technologies.

LEED™ is a self-assessing system used for rating new and existing commercial, institutional and high-rise residential buildings. It is also a feature-oriented system where credits are earned for satisfying each criterion. Different levels of certification are awarded based on the total credits earned. LEED™ Version 2.0 is currently used. Version 2.0 allows for the possibility to obtain a total of 69 points with four possible ratings: • • • •

LEED™ LEED™ LEED™ LEED™

Platinum Gold Silver Certified

(more than 52 points) (between 39 and 51 points) (between 33 and 38 points) (between 26 and 32 points)

This SDCB 101 Manual is organized in accordance with the LEED Green Building Rating System™ environmental categories: • • • • •

Sustainable Site Design Water Efficiency Energy and Atmosphere Materials and Resources Indoor Environmental Quality • Innovation and Design Process

(14 (05 (17 (13

possible possible possible possible

points) points) points) points)

(15 possible points) (05 possible points)

These categories not only have credits but also numerous prerequisites which support the point system. The following document offers a detailed breakdown of the various prerequisites and credits included in the LEED™ Rating System. For more detailed information on the rating system, refer to the LEED™ reference guide at the USGBC website (www.usgbc.org).

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Chapter 8.1

LEED™ Green Building Rating System

LEED™ in the Canadian Context The LEED™ assessment tool and rating system is gaining momentum in North America. It is very possible that this assessment tool will become the North American standard. The potential to implement a Canadian adaptation of LEED™ is being considered by a subcommittee of the Sustainable Building Canada Committee (SBCC). In order to implement LEED™ in Canada, Canadian equivalencies must be determined for the series of American performance standards which are referenced in the LEED™ document. A report on these adaptation issues has been funded by various federal agencies and is being conducted by Nils Larsson of NRCan and the Athena Institute. The report should be available by the end of 2001. Momentum to adopt the LEED™ system is building across the country, especially in British Columbia. An ad hoc group composed of the City of Vancouver, the Greater Vancouver Regional District, the British Columbia Building Corporation and the Green Building BC - New Buildings Program was formed to discuss LEED™. The committee has recommended rapid adoption of LEED™ Version 2.0 for BC and Canada. It also has recommended that BC and Canadian stakeholders participate in the shaping of LEED™ Version 3.0. The City of Vancouver is the first Canadian jurisdiction to formally adopt LEED™ on a trial basis for a new sustainable community being developed at False Creek. This use is dependent on a LEED™ BC Application Study which should be completed by late 2001. The Municipality of Whistler is also recommending implementation of this tool.

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“LEED™ Accreditation” is now available to Canadian architects and engineers through the computer based LEED™ Professional Accreditation Exam. A number of Canadian professionals have already received accreditation. The USGBC website provides an up-to-date list of accredited professionals. The Sustainable Building Canada Committee (SBCC) is proceeding with the translation of LEED™ Version 2.0 into French.

Resources United States Green Building Council www.usgbc.org BREEAM GREEN LEAF Rating System. www.breeamcanada.ca SBCC and National Assessment Tool www.raic.org

Chapter 8.0 - LEED™ in the Canadian Context

8.2 Applying LEED™ Version 2.0

9.0 Regional Perspective

10.0 A View to the Future

RAIC Vision As members of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada, we believe that architecture is intrinsic to our national culture, and that it must be experienced, discussed, and respected to stimulate its development and to define our heritage. We believe that excellence in the practice of architecture embodies environmental and social responsibility, the exceptional resolution of built form and functional requirements, and the ability to lift the human spirit.

A View to the Future

Chapter 10.0

A View to the Future Raymond J. Cole, PhD

School of Architecture, University of British Columbia

Introduction

Information Technologies

The 20th century was undeniably America’s century. The USA emerged as the world’s most powerful and affluent nation – a status built on an insatiable appetite for natural resources derived both domestically and globally. The 21st century will be shaped not by the unconstrained consumption of resources, but by the dictates of sustainability. Those countries that flourish will be the ones that make the transition to a sustainable pattern of production and consumption that operates within the biological capabilities and limits of the planet. Clearly the economic cost of transforming infrastructures, industries and the built environment will be enormous and that cost will have to be borne by everyone. That cost will only be surpassed by one other cost - and that is the cost of inaction. The cost of such inaction will be borne by future generations - our children and our grandchildren.

Developments in information and communications technologies now dominate industry, commerce and recreation and, as such, dictate the pace of almost all human activity and expectation. Romm et al. (1999) suggests that information technology has redefined the way that “virtually every product and service is designed, produced, and operated” and reshaped productivity by allowing rapid and significant increases in the efficiency with which materials, labor, and capital are used throughout the economy.

Climate change will remain the most significant environmental issue that we collectively face. This will be directly and indirectly evident in almost every human endeavour. However, it will also be impossible to isolate any discussion on green buildings, now or in the future, from other profound changes that are occurring or likely to occur. There will be inevitable parallel developments, with technological sophistication and cultural expectations that will ultimately shape the way and the rate at which we change buildings and infrastructure in response to mounting environmental issues.

In addition to significantly transforming product design and manufacture – including buildings – the widespread adoption of information technology will transform human settlement through “demobilization” and “dematerialization.” (Mitchell, 1999) Demobilization: The Internet holds the prospect of reducing “transportation energy intensity” by: • Replacing some commuting with telecommuting. • Replacing some shopping with teleshopping. • Replacing some air travel with teleconferencing. • Enabling digital transmission of a variety of goods. • Improving the efficiency of the supply chain management, thereby reducing inventory warehousing. • Increasing the capacity utilization of the entire transportation system. In short, Romm, et al. (1999) suggest that the Internet has the potential to “break the historical relationship between communications and travel.”

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Chapter 10.0

A View to the Future

Dematerialization: Information technologies offer the promise of satisfying a wide range of human needs without construction - employing electronic services in place of physical built facilities. The social and behavioural implications of widespread adoption of Information Technologies are currently uncertain, but they will profoundly alter our perceptions of time and space and, one can speculate, the perceived limits of human possibility.

Decarbonization Energy production and use are central to the current environmental problems and to any discussion of sustainability. A “decarbonization” of energy has occurred over the past 150 years, reflecting greater conversion efficiencies and the substitution of fuels that are progressively lighter in carbon - from wood, to coal, to oil, and now to natural gas. Current discussions see solar and other renewable energy technologies emerge as the logical alternative to fossil fuels, either harnessed centrally or captured locally. But alternative paths have been posited. Ausubel (1996), illustrates that growth of per capita energy consumption has also been historically keyed to the adoption of cleaner fuels and that in the past, per capita energy consumption “tripled before the energy services desired outgrew the old fuels or portfolio of fuels”, whether the limits were economic, social, technical, and / or environmental. He suggests that we are on a steady trajectory toward a methane, and eventually hydrogen, economy. Solar and renewable technologies would eventually be used to generate hydrogen that would then be the primary storage medium, capable of fulfilling human need without the adverse environmental consequences associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. The promise suggested by Ausubel is for yet another seemingly unconstrained increase in energy use.

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World Views The key question is not what will be the nature of future building, but what value set or “worldview” will prevail and the extent to which it embraces and engenders environmental responsibility across a range of diverse cultures. The way that the broader technological and other contextual changes may shape this worldview over the next century is critical. There are two current conflicting worldviews. One is a recognition of ecological constraint; the other is shaped by the perceived freedoms permitted by new technologies: • At the centre of an ecological-based worldview is that humans are an integral part of the natural world and are constrained by its production and assimilative abilities. The underlying message in environmental debate over the past two or three decades, above all, has been about respecting natural limits and understanding how to live within them. • The emergence of the Internet and the promise of a “New Economy,” a new “Energy Economy” – the “Hydrogen Economy” – , may well change human preference, expectation and action. Any answer to the question of the future of green building must start with anticipating how the seemingly unlimited capability of information technologies and the potential of abundant clean energy within a hydrogen economy may affect human aspirations. Not only are they about constraint and freedom, but they are also about fundamentally different time frames of reference. Ecological responsibility is about accepting the long-term view and yet emerging information technologies are shortening our time horizons of thinking. How we react to either long-term or shortterm demands of these information technologies, will indirectly but profoundly transform our understanding of energy and environmental problems, future environmental policy, the strategies that we implement, and what and how we build.

A View to the Future

Embracing Sustainability The shift from green performance to sustainable levels of performance may well require a conceptual leap. Whereas we can define “green” and even “greener” as well as the incremental process for improving performance, it is difficult to currently envision a sustainable future – either in general terms or as related to the configuration of human settlement. As such it is more difficult to identify sustainable targets for individual buildings and the “individual” building is a too constraining level to define “sustainable” practice. While greater leaps in building performance may be perceived more risky and more challenging for clients and the design team, they will not necessarily be more expensive. Greater and more comprehensive leaps in performance enables the creative integration of systems and strategies. Further, a more coordinated effort by the design team can provide a greater opportunity for trade-off of one cost item against another.

Shifting From “Product” to “Service” Oriented Industry Current industrial production is based on the throughput of resources – raw materials enter, goods are produced and waste discarded. Industrial Ecology seeks the application of ecological theory to industrial systems or the ecological restructuring of industry to reducing environmental burdens by optimizing the total material cycle from virgin material, to finished material, to component, to product, to obsolete product, and to ultimate disposal. (Graedel and Allenby, 1995)

Chapter 10.0

Sustainable design will require a fundamental rethinking of the services that buildings offer and our approaches to providing them. The current notion of building production centres on buildings as products. Within this prevalent ‘product provider’ business model, profits within the building industry are directly linked to the quantity of product sales. Maximizing the quantity of materials, with little perceived benefit from closing the productionuse throughput, clearly inhibits the acceptance of industrial ecology. In the future, the notion of the building industry as a ‘service provider,’ where industry can profit by providing ‘services’ that generate convenience, comfort, security and various benefits embodied with function and performance of buildings, will gain prominence. (Tomanari, 2001) The service provider model assigns responsibility for environmental performance to manufacturer and generates incentives for fundamental improvement of resource productivity in construction.

References Ausubel. J.H., (1996) Can Technology Spare the Earth? American Scientist, Vol. 84, March-April, 1996, pp167-179 Graedel, T.E. and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology, Prentice Hall, 1995 Mitchell, W.J., (1999) The Era of the E-topia: the right reactions to the digital revolution can produce lean and green cities, Architectural Record, March 1999, pp35-36 Romm, J., Rosenfeld, A., and Herrmann, S., (1999) The Internet Economy and Global Warming: A Scenario of the Impact of E-commerce on Energy and the Environment, The Center for Energy and Climate Solutions, A Division of The Global Environment and Technology Foundation, Version 1.0, December 1999 Yashiro, T., (2001) Incentive for Industrial Ecology in Building Sectors. Paper presented at OECD/IEA Joint Workshop: The Design of Sustainable Building Policies, OECD, Paris, 28-29th June 2001.

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Glossary

Glossary

SDCB 101

Glossary Biodegradable

Ecology

Blackwater

Ecosystem

Brownfields

Efficient Detailing

Capable of decomposing rapidly under natural conditions. Blackwater is the wastewater produced by toilets and urinals. Brownfields are areas of land previously used for industrial activities. These sites are usually in central urban locations, and they are usually contaminated.

Commissioning

Commissioning is a systematic, documented and collaborative process that includes inspection, testing and training conducted to confirm that a building and its component systems are capable of being operated and maintained in conformance with design intent.

Daylighting

The method of illuminating building interiors with natural light.

Daylighting Controls

Devices that allow for user or automated changes in the amount of artificial lighting within interior spaces designed for daylight such as electrical switching controls, exterior or interior louvers, and dimming devices.

Depletion

Totality or pattern of relationships between organisms and their environment. The complex of a community and its environment that functions as an ecological unit in nature. Design detailing that eliminates or reduces the amount of materials used. For example, designing with a module to reduce cutoff waste or leaving structural material or mechanical systems exposed to eliminate finishing costs or superfluous finishes.

Embodied Energy

The total energy that a product “contains”, including all energy used in growing, extracting and manufacturing it plus the energy used to transport it to the point of use. The embodied energy of a structure includes the embodied energy of its components plus the energy used in construction.

Emission

Discharge of entities (such as chemicals, heat, noise and radiation) to the environment from the system studied.

Environmental LCA

Part of a broader LCA in which only environmental consequences are considered.

Depletion is the result of the extraction of resources from the environment faster than they can be created. Depletion can be subdivided into abiotic depletion and energy depletion.

Extraction

Ecolabel

Treatment process for removing solid particulate matter from water by passing it through porous media such as sand or artificially produced filters. This process is often used to remove particles that contain pathogenic organisms.

Official award granted to a number of product alternatives in a product group conforming to the environmental criteria as set for that group, usually on the basis of a life cycle assessment.

Use of materials or resources obtained directly from the environment by an economic process.

Filtration

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SDCB 101

Glossary

Fossil Fuel

A fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas, produced by the decomposition of ancient (fossilized) plants and animals.

Freshwater

Naturally occurring water having a low concentration of salts. It is generally accepted as suitable for extraction and treatment to produce potable water.

Global Warming (greenhouse effect)

Environmental problem caused by pollution. Global warming potential is defined as the amount of CO2 (in kg) emitted. Mostly caused as a result of the burning of fuels, and by emission of CH4.

Graywater

acceptable temperature and relative humidity. According to ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, indoor air quality is defined as “air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and with which a substantial majority (80 percent or more) of the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction”.

Life Cycle

The consecutive, interlinked stages of a product, beginning with raw materials acquisition and manufacture, continuing with its fabrication, manufacture, construction and use, and concluding with any of a variety of recovery, recycling or waste management options.

Non-Renewable Resource

Wastewater that does not contain toilet wastes and can be reused for irrigation after simple filtration. Wastewater from kitchen sinks and dishwashers may not be considered graywater in all cases.

Resource that exists in a fixed amount (stock) in various places in the earth’s crust and has the potential for renewal only by geological, physical, and chemical processes taking place over hundreds of millions to billions of years. Examples are copper, aluminum, coal and oil.

Green Design

Overall Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Design which considerations.

focuses

on

environmental

Hazardous Wastes

Wastes with toxic, infectious, radioactive or flammable properties that pose a substantial actual or potential hazard to the health of humans and other living organisms and the environment.

Heat Island

Study of many aspects of a product process, considering the complete life cycle through a range of aspects such as the environment, costs and safety.

Photovoltaic

The generation of electricity from the energy of sunlight, using photocells.

Quality of Life

The additional heating of the air over a city as the result of the replacement of vegetated surfaces with those composed of asphalt, concrete, rooftops and other man-made materials.

Notion of human welfare (well-being) measured by social indicators rather than by “quantitative” measures of income and production.

Hydrological Cycle

Materials that are capable of being recycled are typically made of a single component or of materials that can be separated.

Biogeochemical cycle that collects, purifies and distributes the earth's fixed supply of water from the environment to living organisms, and then back to the environment.

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the definition of good indoor air quality includes (1) introduction and distribution of adequate ventilation air; (2) control of airborne contaminants; and (3) maintenance of

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Recyclable Materials

Recycling

To collect and/or process waste from a system that results in a useful application in the same or in another system.

Glossary

Renewable Energy

Energy resources such as wind power or solar energy that can keep producing indefinitely without being depleted.

Resource Efficiency

A term used to describe the efficient use of materials in design and construction. For example, design strategies that reduce material use or enable materials to be salvaged, reused or recycled.

Runoff

SDCB 101

Stormwater Management

The process of collecting, storing and treating rainwater, especially rainwater runoff that occurs in the first few minutes of a storm event. This initial rainwater contains the highest concentrations of contaminants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons or particles from erosion or other sources.

Sustainability

Sustainability is a state in which interdependent natural, social and economic systems prosper today without compromising their future prosperity.

Portion of rainfall, melted snow or irrigation water that flows across the ground’s surface and is eventually returned to streams. Runoff can pick up pollutants from air or land and carry them to receiving waters. Impervious surfaces such as asphalt, concrete and rooftops significantly increase runoff in urban areas.

Thermal Mass

Scrubber

Organic compounds that evaporate readily and contribute to air pollution mainly through the production of photochemical oxidants.

Air pollution control device that uses a spray of water or reactant to reduce or remove pollution from air.

Sedimentation

Settling of matter to the bottom of a liquid or water body, notably a reservoir.

Sewage

Organic waste and wastewater produced by residential and commercial establishments.

Sewer

Channel or conduit that carries wastewater, sewage and storm water from their source to a treatment plant or receiving stream. A sanitary sewer conveys household and commercial wastes, a storm sewer transports rain run off and a combined sewer is used for both purposes.

Smog

Combination of smoke and fog in which products of combustion such as hydrocarbons, particulate matter and oxides of sulphur and nitrogen occur in concentrations that are harmful to human beings and other organisms.

Mass in a building (furnishings or structure) that is used to absorb solar gain during the day and to release the heat as the space cools in the evening. Thermal mass can assist in the proper functioning of passive systems.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s)

Waste

Materials without any positive commercial value created by an economic process. (Sometimes a by-product with a low value or one, which makes only a small contribution to the total revenue, is also considered as waste). A distinction can be made between waste that is re-processed in the economic system with resulting emissions, and final waste, which is introduced into the environment.

Watershed

An area of land that, as a result of topography, drains to a single point or area.

Water Table

Level below which water-saturated soil is encountered. It is also known as groundwater surface.

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Bibliography

Bibliography

SDCB 101

Bibliography Publications Adams, William Mark. 1990. Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in the Third World. London: Routlege. Cole, Raymond J., and Nils Larsson. 1998. "Preliminary Analysis of the GBC Assessment Process." In Conference Proceedings Green Building Challenge ’98. Vol. 2, 251-267. Vancouver, BC: Natural Resources Canada. Crosbie, Michael J. 1994. Green Architecture : A Guide to Sustainable Design. Gloucester, MA: Rockport Publishers. Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, Statistics Division. United Nations. New York, NY. Glossary of Environment Statistics. 1997. Earthscan. Earthscan Publications Ltd. London, UK. New Books. October 2000-April 2001. Environment Canada, Minister of Public Works and Government Services. Hull, QC. Informing Environmental Decisions: First steps towards a Canadian Information System for the Environment. Interim Report of the Task Force on a Canadian Information System for the Environment to the Minister of Environment. 2001. Hawken, Paul, Amory B. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. 1999. Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution. Boston: Little Brown & Co. Kasian Kennedy Design Partnership (KKDP). 1995. Design Smart: Energy Efficient Architectural Design Strategies. BC Hydro:Vancouver. Kincaid, Judith, Cheryl Walker, and Greg Flynn. 1995. WasteSpec: Model Specifications for Constrution Waste Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling. Research Triangle Park, NC: Triangle J Council of Governments. Knight, Kevin D. and Bryan J. Boyle. Guidelines for Delivering Effective Air Barrier Systems. 2001. Ottawa: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Lawson, Bill. 1996. Building Materials Energy and the Environment: Towards Ecologically Sustainable Development. Manuka, Australia: Royal Australian Institute of Architects. National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB). Washington, DC. Sustainable Design: Professional Development Program. 2001 National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy. Ottawa, ON. Managing Potentially Toxic Subtances in Canada. 2001.

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Bibliography

O’Cofaigh, Eoin, and Eileen Fitzgerald. 1999. A Green Vitruvius: Principles and Practice of Sustainable Architectural Design. New York. James and James Science Publishers. Peck, Steven and Monica Kuhn, B.E.S., B.Arch, O.A.A. Design Guidelines for Green Roofs. May 2001. Ottawa: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Projet de société: Planning for a Sustainable Future. Ottawa, ON. Canadian Choices for Transitions to Sustainability. Volume 5, (Revised Draft) 1995. Rees, William. 1989. Planning for Sustainable Development: A Resource Book. Vancouver, BC.: Info Vancouver and the UBC Center for Human Settlements. Rees, William. 1998. The Built Environment and the Ecosphere: A Global Perspective. Conference Proceedings Green Building Challenge. Vancouver, BC: Natural Resources Canada. Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC). Ottawa, ON. Micro, Metro, Global: Architecture and the Environment. 1994 Steele, James. 1997. Sustainable Architecture: Principles, Paradigms, and Case Studies. New York: McGraw Hill. United Nations Environment Programme. Industry and Environment. Cleaner Production Programme. Paris, France. Life Cycle Assessment: What it is and how to do it. United Nations Publications. Combating Global Warming: Possible Rules, Regulations and Administrative Arrangements for a Global Market in CO2 Emission Entitlements. United Nations Publications. International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management. United Nations Publications. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: 1998 Report of the Technology and Economics Assessment Panel. United Nations Publications. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: Flexible and Rigid Foams Sourcebook. United Nations Publications. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: Report of the Flexible and Rigid Foams – Technical Options Committee 1995 Assessment. United Nations Publications. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: Report of the Halon Fire Extinguishing Agents – Technical Options Committee United Nations Publications. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps – Technical Options Committee 1995 Assessment. United Nations Publications. Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation. United Nations Publications. Study on the Potential for Hydrocarbon Replacements in Existing Domestic and Small Commercial Refrigeration Appliances. Wines, James, ed. 1997. The Architecture of Ecology. London: Academy Editions. Zeiher, Laura C. 1996. The Ecology of Architecture. New York: Whitney Library of Design..

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