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NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING AND APPLIED GEOPHYSICS  TPG 4140 ­ NATURAL GAS 

  Flow Assurance and Sour Gas  in Natural Gas Production 

    Egor Bokin, Feby Febrianti, Eldar Khabibullin,  Carlos Eduardo Sanchez Perez  Trondheim, November 2010

Abstract The main objective of this study is to analyze flow assurance and sour gas problems in natural gas production in Indonesia, Venezuela and Russia. Hydrate and wax appearance are the traditional issues for Russian offshore gas production. This study considers flow assurance at Sakhalin-2 project on Russian Continental Shelf. Monoethylene glycol system is used to prevent hydrate formation in multiphase pipelines. Wax prevention strategy is based on the regular cleaning of pipelines and flowlines. In the case of Indonesia, the main component of natural gas reservoirs is CO2. In the Natuna field CO2 represents 71% of the gas. Despite of this, Natuna is very attractive for the significant quantity of natural gas deposited in this field. The present study shows the different technological alternative of treatment and disposal of CO2 in Natuna. Regarding to the Venezuelan case, there are significant reserves of natural gas associated with heavy and extra-heavy oil. It is necessary to ensure the heavy and extra-heavy oil production and transport to exploit natural gas there. This paper explains the challenges and possible alternatives of heavy and extra-heavy oil exploitation in Venezuela, especially in the Orinoco Oil Belt. This report reveals the current situation in the Orinoco Oil Belt, including some political issues, and the technology applied there.

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Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii  1 

Introduction...............................................................................................................................1 

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Flow Assurance Phenomena .....................................................................................................2  2.1  Gas Hydrates....................................................................................................................2  2.2  Corrosion .........................................................................................................................2  2.3  Wax Precipitation and Deposition ...................................................................................3 

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Flow Assurance in Offshore Russia..........................................................................................5  3.1  Sakhalin-2 Project Overview ...........................................................................................5  3.2  MEG System Details .......................................................................................................5  3.3  Hydrates Prevention Strategy ..........................................................................................6  3.4  Economical Estimations of MEG System........................................................................6  3.5  Wax Issue on Sakhalin-2 Project .....................................................................................8 

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Flow Assurance in Heavy Oil Production in Venezuela ..........................................................9  4.1  Heavy Oil Overview in Venezuela ..................................................................................9  4.2  Production of Heavy Oil in Venezuela ..........................................................................10  4.3  Transport of Heavy Oil in Venezuela ............................................................................11 

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Sour Gas in Natuna Gas Field, Indonesia ...............................................................................14  5.1  Natuna Gas Field Overview...........................................................................................14  5.2  CO2 Removal Technologies for Natuna Gas Field ........................................................14  5.3  CO2 Disposal in Natuna Gas Field.................................................................................15 

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Discussion ...............................................................................................................................16 

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Conclusions.............................................................................................................................18 

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References...............................................................................................................................19 

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Tables......................................................................................................................................23 

10  Figures ....................................................................................................................................25  11  Appendix.................................................................................................................................33  11.1  Appendix A – History and Projections for Energy Consumption .................................33  11.2  Appendix B – Platform Luna-A and OPF .....................................................................34  11.3  Appendix C – Multiphase Pipelines Profile and MEG Injection Graph........................35  11.4  Appendix D - Overview of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt (The Faja) .............................36  11.5   Appendix E - Pumping Systems Applied in Venezuela ................................................37  11.6   Appendix F - Orimulsion ...............................................................................................38 

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1 Introduction Flow assurance is a relatively new term in oil and gas industry. It describes the phenomena of precipitation and deposition of solids, and offers technical solutions at amenable cost without risk to installations, operators and the environment (Gudmundsson, 2010). Flow assurance very often appears in offshore oil and gas production. Over the last decades offshore production gradually increased due to relatively high oil and gas prices and decreasing of “easy” onshore resources. With the development of offshore production new technologies are introduced. One of them is multiphase transport via pipelines. It is necessary to ensure safety and economical multiphase flow of hydrocarbons using flow assurance solutions. In addition to the precipitation and deposition of solids, the flow assurance faces other obstacles. For example, if the natural gas is associated with oil, it is necessary to ensure oil production before exploiting gas. In the specific case of heavy oil, production and transportation are very challenging because oil viscosity is very high. There are immense reserves of heavy and extra-heavy oil with significant quantities of associated natural gas in Venezuela. However, it is quite difficult to establish strategies of production, transport and commercialization of heavy oil. For example, the transport relies on blending heavy oil with conventional oil and the recovery factor in production is low. But not only high viscosity heavy oil requires significant efforts to produce it. The composition of a natural gas itself may be an additional difficulty for gas production. Different gas fields have different gas compositions. For example, the most gas fields in Norway have relatively high quality gas in reservoirs with low carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide content. But in case of Natuna gas field, Indonesia, the carbon dioxide content may achieve 71% of the total gas amount. Undoubtedly, the production of such gas requires new technologies to be introduced. Referring above flow assurance and sour gas issues of 3 different cases in 3 different countries, this report strategically discuss and provide more information about these issues. Starting with hydrates prevention system in Sakhalin, Rusia, then heavy oil technology in Venezuela and finally, sour gas treatment in Natuna gas field Indonesia.

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2 Flow Assurance Phenomena 2.1 Gas Hydrates Hydrates are ice-like solids composed of water and gaseous hydrocarbons, which can form in multiphase transportation systems under conditions of low temperature and high pressure. Hydrate plugging of subsea gas pipelines is a common threat (Fadnes et al., 1998). The shape of elementary polyhedral cavities and their characteristics are shown in the Figure 2.1. Elementary cavities are formed by the hydrogen bonded water molecules. They trap small gas molecules inside them (Makogon, 1997). The requirements for hydrate formation are free water, small gas molecules, low temperature and high pressure. Temperature pressure curves and zone of hydrate appearance are presented in Figure 2.2. (Sandengen, 2010). There are several ways to avoid hydrate formation: to keep temperature high, to keep pressure low or to dilute water. One of the most effective ways is the injection of monoethylene glycol (MEG) solution into a pipeline. MEG shifts hydrate equilibrium curve from pipeline operational zone. 2.2 Corrosion One of the common problems in natural gas production is corrosion. Corrosion is defined as deterioration of materials, usually a metal, due to its reaction with the environment or handling media (Mokhatab et al., 2006). Corrosion in multiphase system is a complex phenomenon. It depends on partial pressure of components, temperature, pH, and concentration of corrosion products. Consequently, corrosion prediction requires substantial understanding of the simultaneous interaction of the many process variables that govern both flow and corrosion condition (Mokhatab et al., 2006). The presence of sour gases such as H2S and CO2 in natural gas composition from well is one main factor which causes corrosion. Thus, these have to be removed in order to prevent corrosion along the pipeline and equipment in natural gas production. In Table 2.1 is shown technologies commonly used for CO2 removal (Forde, 2010)

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2.3

Wax Precipitation and Deposition

Wax precipitation and deposition are important issues in natural gas/condensate production and transportation. Paraffin waxes are predominantly heavy hydrocarbons, which contain in natural gas condensate. “Natural gas condensate is a low-density mixture of hydrocarbon liquids that are present as gaseous components in the raw natural gas produced from many natural gas fields.” (Wikipedia, 2010). It may contain the following components: hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, carbon dioxide (CO2), straight-chain alkanes (from C2 to C12), cyclohexane and other naphthenes, aromatics (benzene, toluene, xylenes and ethylbenzene). A phase envelope with a dew point curve is shown in Figure 2.3. Wax starts to precipitate upon cooling down of a stream, for example, in long pipelines and forms deposits. Thus some difficulties during gas/condensate transportation may occur. The bigger pressure drops, the decreasing of the flow rates or even plugging of the cross-section of a pipeline are the common problems. Wax appearance temperature, or WAT is the temperature at which paraffin wax starts to precipitate. Also the term “cloud point” is used (Gudmundsson, 2010). As the condensate is cooled further below the cloud point, higher amount of paraffin wax is precipitated. A soft solid formed as a result of paraffin wax mixture being cooled down is called gel. The pour point is the temperature at which gelling occurs. It should be mentioned that ‘stationary gel can increase in stiffness with time’ (Gudmundsson, 2010). A typical precipitation curve shows the amount of paraffin wax precipitated from condensate. It depends on the extent to which the paraffin wax mixture is cooled down below the WAT. This curve is called wax precipitation curve, or WPC, and shown in Figure 2.4. “Precipitation curves can be measured and estimated by modeling” (Gudmundsson, 2010). The precipitation of paraffin waxes in crude oils and condensates is dependent on the solubility. As the heaviest waxes are the least soluble they precipitate first, and upon further cooling on lighter paraffin waxes precipitate. From here one can conclude that with the distance and, consequently, lower temperatures the density of paraffin waxes precipitated decreases. As the precipitation occurs it does not mean that paraffin wax will form a deposit. To determine paraffin wax precipitation one needs to know thermodynamic equilibrium and the phase behavior. In addition, pipeline temperature calculations should be carried out and TPG4140 - Flow Assurance and Sour Gas in Natural Gas Production  

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appropriate deposition models should be applied. In other words, the wax precipitation from solution does not necessarily lead to the deposit formation on a pipe wall. Paraffin waxes are crystals with the crystals of small size forming in condensate and of big size in crude oil (Bacon et al., 2009). Wax crystals can be classified as paraffinic (macroscopic) and microcrystalline (microscopic). “The stiffness (hardness) of paraffin wax deposits in laboratory flow loops and operational pipelines ranges from mushy to hard. Mushy soft deposits are usual in flow loops while hard deposits are found in pipelines” (Gudmundsson, 2010). The amount and location of the deposits are the most important things to know while operating a pipeline with potential wax deposition. The widely used practice is to send a mechanical scraper (pig) through such a pipeline at appropriate time intervals. Pressure drop, tracer testing and pressure pulse measurements can be used to monitor paraffin wax deposition in pipelines. These methods work properly in pipelines with liquids, particularly, condensate. The most suitable method to determine both the volume and location of paraffin wax in a pipeline is pressure pulse measurement. This measurement is shown in Figure 2.5. The most commonly used methods for paraffin prevention are pigging (cleaning up the pipelines), chemical inhibition and heating while utilizing steam or electricity. For gas/condensate pipelines pigging are usually used. The typical scrapper is shown in the Figure 2.6. Chemical inhibition and heating may be useful for heavy oil production and transportation. Typical heat tracer and steam heat tracer are shown in the Figures 2.7 and 2.8.It should be mentioned that sometimes these procedures are implemented together to provide flow assurance solutions for oil and gas industry.

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3 Flow Assurance in Offshore Russia 3.1

Sakhalin-2 Project Overview

The first Russian LNG project is located on Sakhalin Island, in the East of Russia. The Sakhalin-2 Project is one of the largest integrated oil and gas development in the world. It produces 9.6 million tons of LNG per year and about 180,000 barrels of oil per day. The total project cost reaches 20 billion dollars (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008). There are three platforms PA-A, PA-B and Lun-A which produce oil, gas, water and condensate (Figure 3.1). Platforms PA-A and PA-B have separation units, therefore oil and gas are transported to Onshore Processing Facilities (OPF) by different pipelines. There is no threat of hydrates formation in these pipelines. The feed from Lun-A platform is transported to OPF by two parallel multiphase pipelines. This feed consists of gas phase, condensate phase, water in a vapour phase, 85% MEG which is used as a hydrate inhibitor and carrier for corrosion inhibitor. Produced water and MEG form aqueous phase and three phase flow appears (Figure 3.2). The main issues of these multiphase pipelines operation are handling of liquids during ramp up and start up, slugging at low flow rates and hydrate prevention by means of MEG injection. Multiphase pipelines facts are shown in the Table 3.1. 3.2

MEG System Details

MEG system designed for maximum flow rate 14.3 m3/h and maximum pressure 130 bar. But it is operated under the flow rate 12 m3/h and pressure 113 bar. The four inches diameter pipeline connects OPF and platform Lun-A. Lean MEG (85% purity) is pumped into this pipeline and injected to multiphase pipelines at Lun-A. There are two P-5602A pumps for MEG pumping: one operating and one standby. Three MEG regeneration units are used to separate water and condensate from MEG. Each of them is sized to process 15.6 m3/h of rich MEG (MEG with condensate and water). In addition, there are two tanks for rich and lean MEG storage. The tanks capacities for rich and lean MEG are 2755 m3 and 1459 m3 respectively. This MEG system is illustrated in Figures 3.3 3.5.

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3.3

Hydrates Prevention Strategy

The first element of the hydrate prevention strategy consists of the injection of the correct amount of MEG and the daily verification of the MEG concentration in the inlet vessels. It is recommended to inject 12 m3/hr MEG per 1800 MMSCFD gas. The following formula was used to calculate this amount (Sakhalin Energy, 2008):

MEG Rate [m 3 /h] = 1  4.2  10 -3 * GasRate [ksm 3 /hr] + 2.4  10 -3 * Cond.Rate [m 3 /h] The second step in the hydrate management strategy consists of the continuous monitoring of the MEG injection system. As long as sufficient MEG is injected hydrates will not form during normal production. However, the injection of insufficient MEG can have serious consequences such as production deferments and the formation of a hydrate plug. For gas/condensate lines, a decrease or stoppage of the water production rate is usually the first sign that hydrates are forming. An additional problem to spot this first warning sign might be the unsteady production at low flow rates caused by terrain induced slugging. However, any major decrease in the aqueous flow should trigger a careful check of MEG system. 3.4

Economical Estimations of MEG System

“Capital investment is the total amount of money needed to supply the necessary plant and manufacturing facilities plus the amount of money required as working capital for operation of the facilities” (Peters, 1991). The following equipment has been used for MEG system at Sakhalin-2 Project: rich MEG storage tank, lean MEG tank, pipeline (4 inches @ 21108 m), two pumps P5602-A, three MEG regeneration units. Rich MEG storage tank may cost about 3 MUSD. By using sixtenths-factor rule the price of lean MEG Tank will be: Cost lean MEG tank = Cost of rich MEG tank * (Vlean meg tank/Vreach meg tank)0.6 Cost lean MEG tank = 3 MUSD * (1600/3040)0.6 = 2 MUSD The climate conditions in Sakhalin waters are very similar to Alaskan waters. By using Table 3.2 it is possible to estimate that 21 km MEG pipeline costs: MEG pipeline = 21.108*377000$ = 8 MUSD

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Each P5602-A pump costs approximately 0.1 MUSD and MEG regeneration unit may cost 0.45 MUSD (Vergara, 2007). The necessary value of MEG to fill rich MEG storage, lean MEG storage and pipeline may be calculated: VMEG pipeline = 3.14D2/4*L = 3.14*0.10162*21,108/4 = 171,04 m3 VRich MEG Tank = 2755/2 = 1377.5 m3 (due to 50% MEG in rich tank) VLean MEG Tank = 1500 m3 VTotal = VMEG pipeline + VRich MEG Tank + VLean MEG Tank = 171,04 + 1500 + 1377.5 = 3048.54 m3 The density of lean MEG is 1034 kg/m3, so m=3048,54*1034=3152.19 tons. One kg of MEG costs 3$ (for offshore conditions). Price of initial MEG = 3152.19*3000=9.46 MUSD Operational costs per year may be presented as MEG losses during MEG regeneration and labor cost. Heat gases from gas turbines can be used for MEG heating, so there is no need to spend any additional money on this. There is 172.8 kg of MEG lose per day during gas production with gas flow rate 247 MMSCFD (Vergara, 2007). Gas flow rate in Sakhalin-2 multiphase pipelines is 1800 MMSCFD. Therefore the losing of MEG may achieve 1200 kg per day. To replace it is necessary to buy new MEG and spend 1200*360*3 = 1.3 MUSD per year. For labor cost estimations the following formula may be used: NOL = (6.29+0.23Nnp)0.5 Where NOL is the number of operators per shift and Nnp is the number of non-particulate processing steps and includes compression, heating, cooling, and mixing. Four and one-half operators are hired for each operator needed in the plant any time (Turton, 2008). For MEG system there are two tanks in the process and three MEG regeneration units so Nnp=5. NOL = (6.29+0.23 * 5)0.5 = 2.72 operator per shift Operating labour = 2.72 * 4.5 = 12.24 (rounding to the nearest integer gives 13) Labor costs = 13 * 100000$/year=1.3 MUSD/Year The total capital investment (for 30 years of MEG system operation) equals operational cost per 30 years plus fixed capital investments in equipment and MEG. This sum achieves value of 102.01 MUSD. The calculations are summarized in the Table 3.3.

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3.5

Wax Issue on Sakhalin-2 Project

The relatively large wax deposits are formed during the transport of two-phase fluid (hydrocarbon vapor and a liquid condensate), MEG and water from the platform to OPF. The deposits amount scraped by pigs can reach 300-400 kg. Pigging is commonly used for the cleaning of the pipelines. During pipelines cleaning operations, the liquid/vapor ratio within the pipeline will change. This may cause slug formation in the pipeline and slugs can be transferred to the OPF (Sakhalin Energy, 2008). At OPF liquid slugs enter a gas liquid receiver. The liquid level within this vessel will rapidly increase. OPF has limited slug receiving capacity, thus a parking loop is applied. The parking loop is a facility to store excess liquid at high pressure and to enable it to be gradually processed. The parking loop is a buried pipe and it is designed to accommodate the expected slug volume (Figure 3.6). The expected frequency of the liquid slugs received by the OPF is based on the estimated requirements of pigging for each incoming pipeline from Lun-A every fortnight. To simplify these operations, the parking loop is designed in the form of a hairpin loop with pig traps at each end. Both pig traps are located within the OPF area, although the major part of the parking loop is buried along the pipelines corridor outside the OPF (Sakhalin Energy, 2008). Lun-A has two vertically mounted pig launchers for two multiphase pipelines to enable regular cleaning and inspection of these pipelines using intelligent pigs. The design of the pig launchers is such that the pigs are preloaded into a launch cassette, which in turn is loaded into the barrel of the pig launcher the design allows pigs to be launched into the pipeline without interrupting the export rate. The pigging frequency during the early production phase is infrequent and the requirement to pig is advised by the Pipeline Operations team. When the pig launcher is in operation, gas flows through the pig launcher camera and drives the pig to the OPF. It is received in pig receivers. During the early production phase only single pigs are loaded into the Lun-A pig launchers (Sakhalin Energy, 2008).

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4 Flow Assurance in Heavy Oil Production in Venezuela 4.1 Heavy Oil Overview in Venezuela

Nowadays, heavy oil has gained importance due to the steady decrease of conventional oil reserves. In addition, the prices of oil have rocketed throughout the last decade. Venezuela and Canada have the largest reserves of heavy oil and bitumen of the world. In Venezuela, are mainly located in Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt (Faja Petrolífera del Orinoco or the Faja), which has an area of about 55000 km2 (600 km from east to west, and 70 km from north to south) (Aular & Amariscua, 2008). It is estimated that the oil in place of the Faja at about 1.2 billion of barrels (1.2*1012 barrels) and PDVSA (the state Venezuelan oil company) concluded that about 22% of this oil is recoverable (Cleveland, 2007). Furthermore, the oil in the Faja contains significant quantities of natural gas dissolved, with a range from 53 to 262 trillion cubic feet of gas (Schenk et al., 2007), so it might be a very important source of natural gas if the oil production is guaranteed. The huge quantity of oil deposited in the Faja seems very attractive but its production and transport results difficult due to its characteristics. As it is well known, heavy oil is considered all liquid petroleum which has API gravity between 10 and 21.9, and extra-heavy oil has less than 10ºAPI (Berberii, 1998). In the Faja, the oil has API gravity from 4 to 16 (Schenk et al., 2007). This kind of oils have very large viscosities, from 1000 cP to 95000 cP (Berberii, 1998), although in the Faja are relatively low, on the order of 2000 to 8000 cP (Schenk et al., 2007). However, this range of viscosity is very high comparing to conventional oil, so it results difficult to produce and transport it. Another important issue is the content of sulfur, between 1% and 8%, and heavy metals (Nickel, vanadium and others) in heavy oil, in the range from 100 to 500 ppm (Berberii, 1998). Therefore, it is much more expensive to refine heavy oil than conventional oil. On table 4.1, it is shown a comparison among conventional and heavy oils. The oil deposited in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, was actually discovered several years ago (in the middle of 1930s specifically) but there were enormous reserves of conventional oil in other places, so oil companies did not take into account this oil until the 1970s. According to the first studies of the Faja, the oil recovery factor was only from 3% to 10% and it was considered unprofitable the oil exploitation there. In addition, the technology at those days

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was not developed enough to transport very viscous flow from remote reservoirs to the processing and commercialization areas along the shore. The energetic crisis in the 1970s and the significant increase of conventional oil exploitation in nearby areas attracted the interest of a possible exploitation of the Faja’s oil. Furthermore, after of the nationalization of Venezuelan oil in 1976, it was created an oil research institute called INTEVEP which has the main purpose to develop feasible strategies of production, transport and processing of heavy oil. Many years of research and the investment of foreign oil companies in association with PDVSA since 1996, it has been possible the exploitation of heavy oil in Venezuela at large scale. 4.2 Production of Heavy Oil in Venezuela

The heavy oil in the Faja has enough low viscosity and enough dissolved gas that it can be collected by cold production technologies, which result economically viable to implement. However, the recovery factor is very low, typically 5% to 10% (Clark, 2007). For this reason, it has been though to implement other technologies such as SAGD (Steam-assisted gravity drainage) which has had excellent results in Canada. Alternatively, it has been used the method of Cyclic Steam Stimulation which was discovered by accident in Mene Grande tar Sands, Venezuela, 1959 (Terry, 2001). The president of INTEVEP reported that it is being produced 120000 BPD of heavy oil in the Faja by using this method (Ford, 2010). The heavy oil deposited in the Faja has enough low viscosity for recovering it by using cold production methods. In addition, heavy oil is often located in shallow reservoirs with a range in depth from 150 to 1400 m (Schenk et al., 2007). It allows use horizontals wells, which increase the oil production and it has been developed networks of horizontal wells with multiple lateral branches for improving the recovery efficiency. Initially the operators at the Zuata field drilled two horizontal wells into a series of “drainage rectangles” of 1,600 m by 600 m size. The results from the first 95 wells did not meet expectations, so the operator embarked on an extensive data acquisition program. The next wells were drilled with multiple laterals in various patterns. It is shown in Figure 4.1 of six different multilateral patterns used in the Faja region. The use of multilaterals and improved placement of well completions (resulting from the data collected) allowed the operator to achieve its target production of 120000 BPD by 2001 (Veil & Quinn, 2008). The Figure 4.1 provides a simplified illustration of a horizontal well network used in Venezuela. TPG4140 - Flow Assurance and Sour Gas in Natural Gas Production  

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At another Venezuela location, the Sincor project, the operator (Total) has used horizontal wells and progressing cavity pumps (PCPs) to produce heavy oil. It is reported that Total had reached a production level of 200000 BPD of heavy oil with 8° to 8.5° API gravity by 2004 (Veil & Quinn, 2008). It is also required an especial pumping system, because the heavy oil is often accompanied by sand, water and natural gas. In addition, the heavy oil requires extra work to be pumped. The most common pumps used in these operations are: progressing cavity pumps and electric submersible pumps (ESPs). A diluent such as naphtha or light oil may be injected near the pump to reduce the viscosity of the heavy oil and allow it to be more easily pumped. Alternatively, diluent may be added at the surface to facilitate pipeline transport (Clark, 2007). The other method above-mentioned was the cyclic steam stimulation (CCS), which consists firstly in injecting from 5000 to 15000 bbl of high quality steam (Terry, 2001). It could take a period of days and even weeks. Then the well is shut in, allowing the steam to soak the area around the injection well. It usually takes from 1 to 5 days. Afterwards, the injection well is then placed on production. The length of the production period is dictated by the oil production rate but can last from several months to a year or more. The cycle is repeated as many times as is economically feasible (Terry, 2001). This process is illustrated in Figure 4.2. These processes required special equipment for monitoring and controlling the oil production. In the particular case of Venezuela, especially in the Faja, these electronic devices are vulnerable to the intense lightning activity in the area. Therefore, Wells, and their associated electronic equipment are protected by surge protectors and, increasingly, by power backup capabilities and software modifications which prevent the well from being shut down due to brief power outages or brownouts (Foster, 2006). 4.3 Transport of Heavy Oil in Venezuela

After of production stage, it is vital to find a feasible form to transport heavy oil. Then, it is necessary to process it for being commercialized. At the beginning of the 1960s, Phillips Petroleum Co., Amoco, and Creole Petroleum Co (Exxon Subsidiary) developed a commercial operation for the production of the Morichal (8.5° API), Jobo (8-9° API), Pilon (13° API) and Temblador (19° API) oil fields based at the Morichal Camp (Rodriguez, 2004). Then, Jobo and Morichal were blended with gasoil at the head well to reduce their viscosity, TPG4140 - Flow Assurance and Sour Gas in Natural Gas Production  

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so they could be transported easily by pipeline and reach the specifications of the commercial blend Morichal (12.5), which was used to produce asphalt. Pilon and Temblador were also blended to make the Pilon Segregation with 13.5° API for general refining feedstock (Rodriguez, 2004). Nowadays, it is still commercialized heavy oil as a blend but it is called Merey 16, which is produced blending heavy and extra-heavy oil with lighter crude oils obtained from the adjacent areas. However, during the 1980s it was carried out other strategies to exploit the heavy oil contained in the Faja. It was thought, that blending heavy oil with other lighter could be very limiting, the heavy oil commercialization only relied on the supply of medium or light crude oil. Among the alternatives found, the most promising was: emulsifying the oil in water and producing syncrude. The former resulted very challenging, because the knowledge regarding to behavior of this kind emulsion was very scarce. The latter resulted very expensive, because the initial investment of building a syncrude refinery was very high. The decision was taken at the beginning of 1980s and it consisted in transporting heavy oil as an emulsion, which water was the continuous phase, and to build an especial refinery where the heavy oil would be converted into syncrude. Regarding to the emulsion, the research was carried out by INTEVEP and FIRP (University of the Andes’ Laboratory, located in Merida-Venezuela). Unfortunately, the oil prices plummeted in the middle of the 80s and the project of producing syncrude was abandoned, although the research concerning to the emulsion was at a final stage. In addition, the utilization of this emulsion was promising because the viscosity was reduced more than two orders of magnitude (Langevin et al., 2004). Surprisingly, it originated the idea of burning the new emulsion as a traditional fuel for generating electricity and this emulsion was called Orimulsion (Ramirez, 2003). Orimulsion is an emulsion of approximately 70% natural Cerro Negro bitumen 8.5° API suspended in 30% fresh water by means of mechanical energy and the addition of less than 1% alcohol-based surfactants (emulsifiers) that allow the bitumen droplets to remain suspended in a stable mode (Rodriguez, 2005). Once the bitumen is produced and treated, it is sent to the Orimulsion manufacturing plant, where is emulsified with water and the surfactant under carefully controlled conditions, using special mixers specifically designed for the product.

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Although the bitumen is almost solid at room temperature, the action of the surfactant and the shear forces provided by the mixer at the formation temperature, results in the bitumen being finely divided in almost perfect spheres dispersed in water (Gomez-Bueno et al., 1998). Then, it is transported by pipeline to the shipping port, about 320 km away from the manufacturing plant (Gomez-Bueno et al., 1998). Power plants which are run by coal and heavy fuel oil, could be run by Orimulsion with small modifications. In addition, Orimulsion has environmental advantages compared to the other two fuels. For example, the Orimulsion produces 20% less NOx than heavy fuel oil and 2030% less CO2 than medium BTU coal (Gomez-Bueno et al., 1998). Despite Orimulsion advantages and its low cost, it was difficult to commercialize due to the opposition of environmental groups and coal suppliers. The most emblematic example is the Florida case, where the company Florida Power & Light could not implement Orimulsion as a new fuel to generate electricity. Due to very strong propaganda made by environmental groups such as Sierra Club and FCAN (Ramirez, 2004) in conjunction with the coal suppliers. However, this new fuel was commercialized in other markets such as Japan, Italy, Denmark, Canada and China. Surprisingly, the most prominent enemy of Orimulsion has been the current government of Venezuela. It decided to discontinue the new fuel production in 2006; arguing that it was not profitable to Venezuelan State (Chirinos, 2006). Nevertheless, others argue that the real reason has political characteristics because Orimulsion had been the pride of former PDVSA engineers, who were dismissed as punishment for participating in the strike that hit the state oil company from december-2002 and February-2003. As a result, Orimulsion fell out the favor of key political leaders and they winded down the Orimulsion program. Other strategies of heavy oil transport have been studied, but they still are in research stage. For example, it has been studiy of core-annular flow of heavy oil which water migrates into regions of high shear at the wall of the pipes, where it lubricates the flow (Joseph, 1997). Arney et al. recommended use cemented pipelines instead of steel or galvanized pipes for preventing fouling.

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5 Sour Gas in Natuna Gas Field, Indonesia 5.1 Natuna Gas Field Overview

The Natuna D Alpha gas field is located in the Natuna Sea or South China Sea in Indonesian waters, approximately 140 miles northeast of Natuna Island. The Island is 373 miles northeast of Singapore and 683 miles north of Jakarta (Fenter & Hadiatno, 1996). The Natuna gas field, discovered in 1973, has estimated total gas resources of 222 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of which CO2 comprise some 71% of the total gas (Suhartanto & Green, 2002). Recoverable hydrocarbon (75% gas recovery), which is almost all methane, is estimated at 46 TCF or 1270 billion cubic meters. This number is equal in size to Troll, the largest gas field in Norway. This is enough gas to supply Japan for 17 years based on current annual Japanese gas demand (PRNewswire, 1994). Figure 5.1 shows the location of Natuna field. Currently, Natuna D Alpha gas field development is still on debate due to political issue. Exxon Mobil had planned to develop this field before finally the Government of Indonesia appointed the state-owned Pertamina to develop the Natuna D Alpha. However, Pertamina still lacks capability to develop the project in the deep waters, which needs approximately 40 billion U.S. dollars. Thus, it has been decided to split development of Natuna D Alpha between state-owned Pertamina and Contractor. Based on the latest news, the percentage of this split has not been decided yet and is still evaluated (tender-indonesia, 2010). 5.2 CO2 Removal Technologies for Natuna Gas Field

Treating 157 TCF of CO2 from Natuna gas field requires appropriate technologies in order to operate safe and reliable gas plant. As mentioned previously, Exxon Mobil had planned to develop Natuna D Alpha gas field, so that some researches had been done and technologies of CO2 removal had been evaluated. These evaluated technologies are discussed further in this chapter. Gas from the Natuna field is planned to be liquefied in a new LNG plant which will be built on Natuna Island, then transported by specially refrigerated ships to markets. Since Natuna Island is about 225 km (140 miles) away from the Natuna gas field, the produced gas will be treated offshore to remove most of the CO2. The remaining CO2 will be removed onshore. It would be very risky to deliver the gas composed by 71% of CO2 directly to onshore and otherwise, it would be very expensive to build all gas processing plant offshore.

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Natuna offshore processing facilities will include inlet cooling and separation of produced gas, CO2 removal, and compression of treated and excess gas streams. Raw gas is predicted entering the plant at 91 oC (196 oF) at 1265 psi pressure. A two-step process will condense and separate most CO2 and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from the methane, and then producing a treated gas stream of about 80% methane, 18% CO2, 1% nitrogen, and small amounts of H2S. This stream will then be warmed with inlet gas via a heat exchanger and compressed for pipeline transport to Natuna Island. Condensed excess gas provides cooling for the CO2 removal process, and is then compressed for pipeline transport and injection into aquifers. The CO2 removal process is based on extensive industry experience in low temperature gas separation. 5.3 CO2 Disposal in Natuna Gas Field

Global warming is important issue regarding CO2 disposal in Natuna. Thus, it requires appropriate technologies to dispose such large amount of CO2. The removed CO2 is planned to be transported via pipeline to the injection platforms. There it will be injected underground into carbonate formations for permanent disposal. Such underground storage is proven technology. Since 1946, nearly 100 storage projects have been completed in the U.S., Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Saudi Arabia, and other countries (PRNewswire, 1994). The CO2 will be injected into the aquifer in the form of a supercritical fluid (with the density of a liquid and the transport properties of a gas) at high pressure. The aquifers are adjacent, but separate from, the Natuna gas reservoir. They are part of the same Terumbu formation that makes up the gas reservoir. Data from 14 wells and extensive studies indicate that the structure has porosity and other characteristics even better than those of the producing reservoir (PRNewswire, 1994). Also, the combined pore volume of the two aquifers, greater than 40 times the volume of the Natuna gas reservoir, is over 100 times the volume of the excess gas which could be injected over a 30 year period. Most of the gas will remain trapped within the rock pore space through a phenomenon known in the industry as residual gas saturation. The small volume of gas which is not trapped in the pore spaces will be contained below the impermeable rock sealing the top of the aquifer.

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6 Discussion The prevention of hydrates formation in multiphase pipelines is expensive operation. The development of new oil and gas fields may be uneconomical with existing hydrate prevention systems. It is necessary to create new technologies to economically develop small oil and gas fields. One of them may become cold flow. Cold flow technology may reduce the cost of deepwater production facilities, provide cost effective and trouble free flow of oil and gas and become environmentally friendly solution of hydrate problem (Gudmundsson, 2002). As for wax deposition in gas/condensate pipelines it is important to develop more accurate wax deposition models. It may be difficult due multiphase nature of gas/condensate flow. Temperature profile influences very much on the wax deposition and there are a lot of uncertainties in the prediction of temperature profile for multiphase flow pipelines. However, nowadays Norway is the world leader in multiphase pipelines system. It has the world’s largest multiphase pipeline with length 143 km in Snøvit (Sandvik, 2010). Furthermore, the issue of new technologies to prevent deposition of paraffin wax in gas associated wells tubing has been considered for years. One of the cost-effective approaches is using microbes. A thermophilic microaerophillic paraffin degrading consortium was developed along with compatible biocatalysts, which are capable of reducing the pour point of the paraffinic crude oil (ONGC TERI Biotech Ltd, 2010). Another emerging technology not been deployed commercially is ultrasonic technology developed to chemically reduce the length of the paraffinic molecules so they will not precipitate (Mokhatab & Towler, 2009). For heavy oil production and transport in Venezuela it is also necessary to apply new technologies to take advantage of the enormous potential of the Orinoco Oil Belt. Concerning to production, most of the developments have been aimed to improve cold methods. For example, the implementation of networks of horizontal wells and modern pumping systems have been possible the exploitation of heavy and extra-heavy oil in Venezuela at high scale. But it is still at low level so it could be necessary to use the other alternatives to ensure heavy oil production and transport at long term. Another difficulty in natural gas production is sour gas. There are two main issues in natural gas production with high CO2 content: to economically separate CO2 and to storage it. For the last decades the importance of CO2 utilization sharply increased, especially in developed

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countries. This is due to global warming worries. So, the utilization of CO2 will be significant challenge for oil and gas industry.

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7 Conclusions The traditional flow assurance problem in offshore Russian projects are hydrates and wax appearance. To prevent hydrates formation in multiphase flowlines of Sakhalin-2 project monoethelyne glycol injection system is used. It consists of tanks for rich and lean MEG, pipeline, pumps for MEG pumping, MEG regeneration units. The initial investment and operational costs may achieve value of 102.01 MUSD for this project. For wax and paraffin deposition, the regular cleaning of pipelines allows to avoid these problems. But for multiphase pipelines the technology is more complicated compare to gas or oil pipelines. There is a possibility of slug appearance in a pipe. Thus such pipelines require some additional pieces of equipment like slug catcher or parking loop as for Sakhalin-2 Project. Also, a combination of electrical heating and thermal insulation was deployed on the production platform on Sakhalin to prevent wax deposition. The heavy and extra-heavy oil production in Venezuela has increased significantly throughout the last two decades. However, there are still some problems, especially in oil transport. The blending of heavy and extra-heavy oil with conventional oil is a solution only for short term time period. In case of Indonesia, Natuna gas filed with 71% of CO2 is considered. Despite such a huge CO2 content it is still economically to develop this field. The produced gas will be treated offshore to remove most of the CO2 and the remaining part will be removed onshore. Natuna gas is planned to be liquefied and produced CO2 is planned to be injected into carbonate formations.

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8 References Arney M., Ribeiro, G., Guevara, E., Bai, J., & Joseph, D. (n.d): Cement lined pipes for water lubricated transport of heavy Oil. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.agar.ru/PDF/Venezuelan%20Experience.pdf Aular, E., & Amariscua, J. (2008): Explotación y Manejo de Crudo Pesado y Extrapesado [Exploitation and Handling of Heavy and Extra-heavy oil]. Presentation at Simon Bolivar University. Caracas, Venezuela [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved October 9, 2010 from: http://asignaturas.usb.ve/.../49c824be52c89_Presentacion1.1.ppt_.ppt Berberii, E. (1998): Crudos Pesados y Extrapesados [Heavy and Extra-heavy Crude Oils]. In El Pozo Ilustrado [The Illustrated Well], 4th ed, CD-rom version, 193-202. CaracasVenezuela: FONCIED. Chirinos, C. (2006, September 26): Venezuela elimina la Orimulsion [Venezuela eliminates Orimulsion]. BBC Mundo [BBC News in Spanish]. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.soberania.org Clark, B., Graves, G., & Lopez-de-Cardenas, J. (2007): Working Document of the NPC Global Oil & Gas Study: Topic paper # 22, Heavy Oil. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.npc.org/Study_Topic_Papers/22/TTG/Heavy/Oil.pdf Cleveland, C. (2007): Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, Venezuela. The Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Orinoco_Heavy_Oil_Belt,_Venezuela Crude Oil Specifications: (2010). Retrieved October 8, 2010 from: http://www.genesisny.net/Commodity/Oil/OSpecs.html#Top Economy Engineering Corporation: (2010). Electric Heat Tracers. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from: http://economyengineeringcorporation.tradeindia.com/Exporters_Suppliers/Exporter21283.37 2603/Electric-Heat-Tracers.html EIA International Energy Outlook: (2010). Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/highlights.html Fadnes F.H., Jakobsen T., Bylov M., Calsep S., Hoist A., Downs J.D. (1998): Studies on the Prevention of Gas Hydrates Formation in Pipelines using Potassium Formate as a Thermodynamic Inhibitor. SPE Paper 50688. Fenter, D.J. & Hadiatno, D. (1996): Reservoir Simulation Modeling of Natuna Gas Field for Reservoir Evaluation and Development Planning. SPE Paper 37026.

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Ford, M. (2001, June): Proyectos Tecnológicos que Apalancan la Explotación y Mejoramiento de Crudos Pesados de la Faja Petrolífera del Orinoco [Technological Projects which allow the Exploitation and Improvement of Heavy Oils from the Orinoco Oil Belt], Presentation at INTEVEP, Los Teques, Venezuela [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved September 12, 2010 from: www.camarapetrolera.org/eventos/programa_crudos_pesados_24_05.pdf Foster, F. (2006): Heavy Oil Science Centre: Applying Canadian Heavy Oil Innovations in Venezuela. . Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.lloydminsterheavyoil.com/venezuelainnos.htm Gomez-Bueno, C., Marcano, N., & Sanchez, A., (1998): Orimulsion® a Fuel from Heavy Oil, Engineered for Performance. Retrieved October 11, 2010 from: http://www.oildrop.org/Info/Centre/Lib/7thConf/19980011.pdf Gudmundson, J.S., Celius, H.K., Markland, A.S. (1999): Gas-Liquid Metering Using Pressure-Pulse Technology. SPE Paper 56584. Gudmundsson, J.S. (2002): Cold Flow Hydrate Technology. 4th International Conference on Gas Hydrates, May 19-23, Yokohama. Gudmundsson, J.S. (2010): Flow Assurance - Solids in Oil and Gas Production, Unpublished manuscript. Gunningham M., Varley C., Cagienard P. (2008): The Integrated Use Of New Technology In The Development Of The Sakhalin II Project. SPE Paper 114805. Hewitt, M. (2007, June): Unconventional Oil, Dollar Daze, Vol 66. Retrieved October 31, 2010 from: http://dollardaze.org/blog/posts/2007/June/23/1/Orinoco.gif Infochem, (2010): Wax Precipitation. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from: http://www.infochemuk.com/index.php/product/cs/cs_waxes Joseph, D., Bai, R., Chen, K., & Rennardy, Y., (1997): Core-Annular Flows, Annual Review Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 29, 65-90. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.math.vt.edu/people/renardyy/Research/Publications/annurev.fluid.29.1.pdf Kentech News, June 2009. Kentech Sakhalin ENL maintenance project in full swing. Issue #15. Langevin, D., Poteau, S., Hénaut, I., & Argillier, J. (2004): Crude Oil Emulsions Properties and their Application to Heavy Oil Transportation. Oil &Gas Science and Technology, Rev. IFP, Vol. 59, No.5, 511-521. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.firp.ula.ve Makogon, Y.F. (1997): Hydrates of Hydrocarbons. Tulsa, U.S.: PennWell Books. Mokhatab,S., Poe, W.A., & Speight, J. G. (2006): Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing, USA: Elsevier. TPG4140 - Flow Assurance and Sour Gas in Natural Gas Production  

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Mokhatab, S., & Towler, B. (2009): Deepwater Technology: Wax Prevention and Remediation in Subsea Pipelines and Flowlines. World Oil Online, Vol. 230, No.11. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from: http://www.worldoil.com/November-2009-Waxprevention-and-remediation-in-subsea-pipelines-and-flowlines.html NOVOMET (n.d.): ESP Systems for Harsh Well Environments. Retrieved October 12, 2010 from: http://www.novomet.ru/eng/production/esp/esp-pic.jpg Peters, M. S. (1991): Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 910 pp. Petropars, Ltd. (2010): International Affairs & Business Development. Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.petropars.com/tabid/65/Default.aspx PRNewswire: Exxon and Pertamina Sign Natuna LNG Agreement to Progress World's Largest Offshore Gas Development Project. Retrieved November 16, 2010 from: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/EXXON+AND+PERTAMINA+SIGN+NATUNA+LNG+AG REEMENT+TO+PROGRESS+WORLD%27S...-a015874472 Ramirez, A., (2003, March): La Orimulsion: Propiedades y Problemática [Orimulsion: Properties and Issues]. Revista Ciencia.com. Retrieved October 11, 2010 from: http://www.revistaciencias.com/publicaciones/EpypAkkkAyrunwhdvP.php Rodriguez, C., (2005): Orimulsion is the best way to Monetize the Orinoco’s Bitumen. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.soberania.org/Articulos/articulo_1375.htm Sakhalin Energy Investment Company. At a glance. Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.sakhalinenergy.com/en/ataglance.asp Sakhalin Energy Investment Company. Explore Sakhalin-2 Project: Offshore pipelines. Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.sakhalinenergy.ru/en/project.asp?p=offshore_pipeline Sakhalin Energy Investment Company. Lun-A to OPF Multiphase Pipeline Brief: 2008. Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://rapidshare.com/#!index|deletefiles|3062967012488250376|432063549|7.ppt Sakhalin Energy Investment Company. Project Photos. Retrieved October 10, 2010 from: http://www.sakhalinenergy.ru/ru/imagegallery.asp Sandengen K. (2010): Injection and Processing. Presentation at NTNU. Retrieved October 12, 2010 from: http://www.ipt.ntnu.no/~jsg/undervisning/naturgass/lysark/LysarkSandengen2010.pdf Sandvik, T. E. (2010): LNG Technology. Presentation at Statoil.

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Scandpower Risk Management. (2004): An Assessment of Safety, Risks and Costs Associated with Subsea Pipeline Disposals. Report no. 32.701.001/R1. Schenk, C., Cook, T., Charpentier, R., Pollastro, R., Klett, T., Tennyson, M., Kirschbaum, M., Brownfield, M., & Pitman, J. (2009): An Estimate of Recoverable Heavy Oil Resources of the Orinoco Oil Belt, Venezuela: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2009–3028. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs-2009/3028/pdf/_FS09-3028.pdf Schlumberger. (2010): Oilfield Glossary. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from: http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/DisplayImage.cfm?ID=611 Suhartanto, A.H.T. & Green, M.L.H. (2002): Possible Utilization of CO2 on Natuna’s Gas Field Using Dry Reforming of Methane to Syngas (CO & H2). SPE Paper 77926. Tender-Indonesia: Split Natuna D Alpha Has not been Decided. Retrieved October 22, 2010 from: http://www.tender-indonesia.com/tender_home/innerNews2.php?id=6376&cat=CT0008 Terry, R. (2001): Enhanced Oil Recovery. In Meyers, R., (ed.). Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (3rd ed.), Vol. 18, 503-518. Academic Press. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from: http://www.firp.ula.ve Turton R., Richard C. Bailie, Wallace B. Whiting, Joseph A. Shaeiwitz. Analysis, Synthesis, and Design of Chemical Processes, Third Edition. Prentice Hall, 2008, pp. 1088. U.S. Energy Information Administration: (2008). Sakhalin Island. . Retrieved September 15, 2010 from: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/Sakhalin/pdf.pdf Veil, J. & Quinn, J. (2008): Water Issues Associated with Heavy Oil Production. Retrieved September 12, 2010 from: http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/ANL_EVS_2321_heavyoilreport.pdf. Vergara, M.A. & Foucart, N. (2007): The MEG (Monoethylene) Injection Gas Dehydration Process Evaluation for the Margarita Field Development. SPE paper 107292. Wikipedia: Natural Gas Condensate. Retrieved October 12, 2010 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_condensate

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9 Tables Table 2.1 - Technologies Commonly Used for CO2 Removal (Forde, 2010)

Table 3.1 – Multiphase Pipelines Characteristic (Sakhalin Energy, 2010) Total Length 21108 m

Offshore length 14045 m

Onshore length 7063 m

Internal diameter 762mm

Maximum flow 900 MMSCFD

Table 3.2 – Main Parts of MEG System (Scandpower, 2004) Pipe diameter 4’’-12’’ 16’’-24’’

Pipe length 150 10

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Avg. cost ($/mile) 377,000 461,000

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Table 3.3 – Investment in Equipment and Initial MEG Component

Rich MEG Storage Tank T5601 (2755 m3) Lean MEG Tank T-5602 (1458 m3) Pipeline (4’’@21108 m) Pump P5602-A MEG Regeneration Unit (15.6 m3/h) Initial MEG Total Fixed capital investment

Amount Fixed capital investment 1

Total Cost, mln. $

1

2

1 2 3

8 0.2 1.35

3048.54 m3

9.46 24.01

Operating cost per year MEG replacement 421.2 m3 Labor cost 13 Total Operating cost per year Total Capital investments per 30 years

3

1.3 1.3 2.6 102.01

Table 4.1 - Comparison among Venezuelan Crude Conventional Oils and Heavy Oils (Crude Oil Specifications, 2010) Characteristic Gravity Sulphur Kinematic viscosity at 100ºF Vanadium Neutralization number

Units ºAPI %wt cSt

Mesa 30.5 0.85 7.29

ppm mg KOH/g

38 0.03

Venezuelan crude oil name Furrial Merey 16 28.5 16 1.1 2.45 11.9 513

68 0.1

262 0.69

Morichal 12.2 2.78 145

274 2.83

Morichal is a commercial blend used to obtain very good asphalt. Merey 16 is a blend of extra-heavy oil and light oil which is commercialized in the international market.

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10 Figures

Figure 2.1 – Structure of Polyhedron Forming Gas Hydrate (Gudmundsson, 2010)

Figure 2.2 – Hydrate Phase Diagram (Sandengen, 2010)

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Figure 2.3 - Hydrocarbon Phase Envelope (Schulumberger, 2010)

Figure 2.4 - Wax Precipitation Curve (Infochem, 2010)

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Figure 2.5 - Pressure Pulse Measurement (Gudmundsson et al., 1999)

Figure 2.6 – Mechanical Scraper or a “Pig” (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

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Figure 2.7 – Electric Heating Tracer (Economy Engineering Corporation, 2010)

Figure 2.8 – Steam Heat Tracer (Kentech News, 2009)

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A

B

C

A – PA-B and PA-A platforms, B – OPF and Lun-A, C – LNG plant and oil export terminal.

Figure 3.1 – Sakhalin-2 Project Overview (Gunningham et al., 2008)

Gas

Aqueous phase

Condensate

Figure 3.2 – Multiphase Pipeline (Sakhalin Energy, 2010)

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8m

8m Ǿ22m Rich MEG Storage Tank T-5601 (2755 m3) m3)

Ǿ16m Lean MEG Tank T-5602 (1458

Figure 3.3 – MEG Storage Tanks (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

Figure 3.4 – MEG Storage and Pumping to Lun-A (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

Figure 3.5 – MEG Distribution on Lun-A Platform (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

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Figure 3.6 – The Parking Loop (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

Figure 4.1 - Network of Horizontal Wells (Clark, 2007)

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1st. Stage: Steam Injection

2nd. Stage: Soak Phase

3rd. Stage: Production

Figure 4.2 - Sketch of Cycle Steam Stimulation (Aular & Amariscua, 2008). Firstly, the steam is injected. Then the steam and the condensed water heat the viscous oil. Finally, the water and oil and pumped together.

Figure 5.1 - Location Map for the Natuna Field (Fenter & Hadiatno, 1996)

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11 Appendix 11.1 Appendix A – History and Projections for Energy Consumption

The graph shows that the consumption of natural gas will significantly increase in future. Flow assurance issues will be still very important to satisfy world demands in natural gas.

Figure A1 – Forecast of the World Energy Consumption (EIA International Energy Outlook, 2010)

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11.2 Appendix B – Platform Luna-A and OPF

On these photos you can see platform Lun-A in the Sea of Okhotsk and Onshore Processing Facilities (OPF).

Figure B1 – Platform Lun-A (Sakhalin Energy, 2010)

Figure B2 – Onshore Processing Facilities (Sakhalin Energy, 2010)

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11.3 Appendix C – Multiphase Pipelines Profile and MEG Injection Graph

There are two parallel multiphase pipelines between Lun-A and OPF. Their profile is shown in the Figure C1.

70

OPF

Elevation (m)

50 30

LUN-A

10 -10 -30

Onshore

Offshore -50 0

5

10

15

20

25

Length (km)

Figure C1 – Pipeline’s Profile (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

PL MEG inj rate (m3/hr)

7 Too much liquids in the pipeline. Risk to flood the inlet facilities during ramp-up.

6 5 4 3

Under inhibition of pipeline fluids.

2 1

Note: upper limit needs to be confirmed Upper limit = 25% above target value and smaller than 6 m3/hr

0 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Pipeline flow rate (MMscfd) Lower Limit

Higher Limit

Figure C2 – MEG Injection Flow Rate (Sakhalin Energy, 2008)

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11.4 Appendix D - Overview of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt (The Faja)

Figure D1 - Location of Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, the Faja (Hewitt, 2007)

Figure D2 - Different Blocks of the Faja (Petropars Ltd., 2010)

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11.5 Appendix E - Pumping Systems Applied in Venezuela

Figure E1 - Progressing Cavity Pump (Aular & Amariscua, 2008)

Figure E2 - Electrical Submersible Pumping System (NOVOMET, n.d.)

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11.6 Appendix F - Orimulsion

Figure F1 - Viscosity of Oil/Water Emulsions at Different Shear Rates. Source: (Langevin et al., 2004)

Figure F2 - Bitumen Droplets in Orimulsion (Gomez-Bueno, 2004)

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Figure F3 - Orimulsion Production Facilities and Infrastructure (Rodriguez, 2005 and http://www.soberania.org)

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