School Sport

School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2 2005.

School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures Charles A. Maher, PsyD Editor School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2 2005.

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology™, Volume 21, Number 2 2005. © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The development, preparation, and publication of this work has been undertaken with great care. However, the publisher, employees, editors, and agents of The Haworth Press and all imprints of The Haworth Press, Inc., including The Haworth Medical Press® and Pharmaceutical Products Press®, are not responsible for any errors contained herein or for consequences that may ensue from use of materials or information contained in this work. With regard to case studies, identities and circumstances of individuals discussed herein have been changed to protect confidentiality. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, is entirely coincidental. The Haworth Press is committed to the dissemination of ideas and information according to the highest standards of intellectual freedom and the free exchange of ideas. Statements made and opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Publisher, Directors, management, or staff of The Haworth Press, Inc., or an endorsement by them. Cover design by Lora Wiggins

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data School sport psychology: perspectives, programs, and procedures/Charles A. Maher, editor p. cm. “School sport psychology: perspectives, programs, and procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2, 2005.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-1948-6 (hard cover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7890-1948-5 (hard cover: alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-1949-3 (soft cover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7890-1949-3 (soft cover: alk. paper) 1. School sports–United States. 2. Sports–United States–Psychological aspects. I. Journal of applied school psychology. II. Maher, Charles A., 1944GV346.S33 2005 796.04´2´019–dc22 2005023474

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures CONTENTS About the Contributors Framework for School Sport Psychology Charles A. Maher Sport Psychology Foundations, Organizations, and Related Resources Leonard Zaichkowsky Adam Naylor The School Psychologist and Sport: A Natural Interface to Promote Optimal Functioning Between Student-Athlete, Family, and School Personnel Marshall L. Mintz, PsyD Sport-Based Life Skills Programming in the Schools Steven J. Danish Tanya Forneris Ian Wallace

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Preventing Substance Use Among High School Athletes: The ATLAS and ATHENA Programs Linn Goldberg Diane L. Elliot

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Development and Implementation of a Sport Psychology Program in an Urban High School Michael Weissman

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Substance Use Among High School Athletes: Implications for Prevention Interventions Robert J. Pandina Valerie L. Johnson Leah M. Lagos Helene R. White A Review of Eating Disorders in Athletes: Recommendations for Secondary School Prevention and Intervention Programs Thomas B. Hildebrandt

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A School Psychologist’s Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology Jack J. Lesyk

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Index

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ABOUT THE EDITOR Charles A. Maher, PsyD, is Professor of Psychology at the Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology at Rutgers University’s New Brunswick/Piscataway campus, where he is also Director of the Sport Psychology Concentration and where he has developed a sport psychology program for student-athletes through the Division of Intercollegiate Athletics. He has worked for nearly 20 years as a sport psychologist for several professional sports teams and athletes, including the Cleveland Indians, Cleveland Cavaliers, and New York Jets, and for the IMG Academies, among other athletic organizations. Dr. Maher is Editor of the Journal of Applied School Psychology (Haworth) and Executive Editor of Haworth’s Sport and Sport Psychology Book Series. He has authored and/or edited numerous books on the applications of psychology to schools and related organizations, including program planning and evaluation, organization and systems analysis, and the enhancement of human performance and achievement.

About the Contributors Steven J. Danish is Director of the Life Skills Center and Professor of Psychology, Preventive Medicine and Community Health at Virginia Commonwealth University. Diane L. Elliot is Professor of Medicine at the Oregon Health & Science University, and a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and the American College of Sports Medicine. Tanya Forneris is a doctoral student in Counseling Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Linn Goldberg is Professor of Medicine and Head of the Division of Health Promotion & Sports Medicine at the Oregon Health & Science University, and a Fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine. Thomas B. Hildebrandt is a doctoral student in Clinical Psychology with a Sport Psychology concentration at the Graduate School of Applied Professional Psychology at Rutgers University. Valerie L. Johnson is Associate Professor at the Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies. Leah M. Lagos is a doctoral student in Clinical Psychology, with a sport psychology concentration, at the Rutgers University Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology. Jack J. Lesyk is Director of the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology and Adjunct Assistant Professor of Psychology at Cleveland State University. Marshall L. Mintz is a Licensed Psychologist, Certified School Psychologist, and Managing Partner of Springfield Associates, LLP, a multi-specialty psychological services group. Adam Naylor is the Coordinator and Sport Psychology Coach at the Boston University Athletic Enhancement Center and conducts a private practice out of SPORT-Rx Athletic Performance Systems facilities. Robert J. Pandina is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies.

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Ian Wallace is a doctoral student in Counseling Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Michael Weissman is School Administrator/School Psychologist in the Matawan Aberdeen, New Jersey, Regional School District. He holds a doctoral degree in professional psychology with a sport psychology concentration from the Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology, Rutgers University. Helene R. White is Professor at the Center of Alcohol Studies and the Sociology Department at Rutgers University.

Leonard Zaichkowsky is Professor and Head of the Sport and Exercise Psychology program at Boston University, and has a joint appointment in the School of Education (Counseling & Development) and the School of Medicine where he is Professor of Psychiatry and Professor of Graduate Medical Sciences (Mental Health & Behavioral Medicine).

Framework for School Sport Psychology

A RELEVANT CONTEXT Public schools and private schools in the United States and elsewhere are multi-purpose organizations. Therein, a range of individuals and groups are involved in a school’s educational mission, in diverse ways. Among others, these target audiences include students, teachers, parents, school psychologists and other relevant stakeholders, such as athletic coaches and boards of education. Clearly, many programs, services, and activities occur in schools–before, during, and after conventional school hours as well as on weekends. Participation in sports in schools is an integral part of the educational experiences of students in school systems. Such participation is especially the case at the secondary school level, but involvement in sports has been increasing at the elementary school level. Through sports in schools, student-athletes typically compete with counterparts from other educational institutions. Concomitantly, human and financial resources are invested in the implementation of these endeavors. Sports in schools can be explained and justified on educational grounds and particularly in relation to educational philosophy and educational goals. In this regard, the individuals who participate in sports in schools–that is, student-athletes–are said to benefit developmentally from their participation in the physical, mental, and emotional domains. These developmental benefits are reflected by student-athlete outcomes such as learning to discipline oneself to prepare to compete, [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Framework for School Sport Psychology.” Maher, Charles A. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 1-7; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 1-7. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_01

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becoming familiar with how to work as part of a team toward common goals, remaining composed in challenging competitive situations, learning to use results of one’s performance to make mental and technical adjustments, and knowing how to deal with less than expected performances. In contrast, sports in schools, if not properly designed and monitored in relation to an overarching educational mission, can lead to experiences that limit personal development of students. Such negative effects include ones such as increased stress and anxiety, frustration with one’s efforts, an inflated sense of accomplishment, and neglect of schoolwork. Sports in schools can be evaluated in many ways by local constituencies including by the dollars expended on them and by educational returns realized. For student-athletes, educational returns have to do with the personal development of the individual, his/her ability to manage schoolwork with teamwork, and development of mental, emotional, and physical skills that can be applied in the classroom and in life. EMERGENCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Sport psychology is an emerging field in the United States and indeed throughout the world. Sport psychology can be considered as a body of theory and empirical research and also the field can be viewed in relation to professional practice. During the past decade, sport psychology has been increasingly utilized at professional, elite, and collegiate levels by athletes and coaches to help enhance their performance and overall personal development. Within the contexts of public and private schools, though, sport psychology has been a lightly charted and a relatively undocumented area, especially at the level of professional practice. However, the application of sport psychology theory, research and principles can be a very promising one for student-athletes, teams, athletic departments, and school systems–and for development of the field of school psychology and for increasing the scope of influence made by school psychologists. AN OPPORTUNITY FOR SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Not unlike sport psychology, the field of school psychology, too, is a distinct body of knowledge and professional practice. School psychol-

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ogy, too, has to do with performance of students and with their overall personal development. Within their local educational and community settings, school psychologists provide services for many students and relevant stakeholders–including students who participate in sports. Moreover, school psychologists typically function in many roles from assessor, counselor, case manager, and consultant to that of program planner and program evaluator. This is the common situation for school psychologists both at the secondary school and elementary school levels. Thus, in their wide-ranging and very challenging roles, school psychologists are in positions to work with students who participate in sports. More specifically, school psychologists have the opportunities to make sure that students are provided with educational assistance and personal counseling that will be helpful to them, both as students and athletes. Given this opportunity for school psychologists, it is important to note here that such professional help would not be provided by the school psychologist representing him or herself as a sport psychologist. Rather, the intention of the school psychologist in relation to sports in schools is best considered as helping student-athletes with their overall personal development, including as it relates to sport. However, school psychologists who choose to become involved in continuing education and training in the field of sport psychology can become involved in more specific sport psychology roles. Sport psychology and school psychology are fields where collaboration can enhance both disciplines, with student-athletes, their parents, and coaches being primary beneficiaries, both in the classroom and in sporting venues. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN SCHOOLS If sport psychology theories, research, and procedures are going to be applied in a worthwhile manner for students in public and private schools, in conjunction with those of school psychology, then such an endeavor must be effectively integrated in school organizational routines. This effective integration requires identification of areas in which sport psychology concepts and procedures may be applied in schools. In addition, effective integration must emanate from an approach to professional practice that can deliver relevant programs and services to stu-

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dent-athletes, their parents, and other relevant stakeholders, including coaches and school administrators. In essence, this kind of framework must address four standards: 1. Practicality–Sport psychology perspectives, programs, and procedures applied in schools need to be implemented in ways that are not disruptive to others and that do not stifle existing educational routines. 2. Utility–Sport psychology applications must be offered only in ways where educational information is provided that can guide and direct the participants to become better students and not just better athletes. 3. Propriety–Sport psychology programs, procedures and services need to be provided by school-based professionals in ways that align with their professional education and expertise and in a manner that respects the rights of all people. 4. Technical Defensibility–Sport psychology programs, products, and services that are implemented need to be based upon evidence that has empirical support in psychology, education, and/or the sport sciences. A systems framework can be used to these ends. This kind of framework overarches the articles presented in this volume. It incorporates three constituent concepts: I. Levels of Intervention–the individuals, groups, and organizational units that are clients of programs and services. II. Process of Practice–the process of assessment, intervention, and evaluation in relation to each client, at each level of intervention. III. Content and Context–the programs and services that are relevant to particular levels and clients. THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL The student-athlete is the primary focus at this level, although the athletic coach or even parent typically can be considered clients. For instance, the student-athlete may benefit from any numbers of assessment and intervention services including: developing an increased personal awareness of where sports fit into their lives, learn-

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ing to balance sports with school work, deciding about college placements especially if athletic scholarships are involved, personal development counseling for positive lifestyles, and consultation for enhanced performance. The individual athletic coach may benefit from programs and services such as personal development counseling, time management training, and how to enhance communication with individual players. The parents of student-athletes may also benefit from the advice and counsel of school-based professionals about dealing with the demands of being a parent of an athlete. THE GROUP LEVEL At this level, groups of student-athletes may be beneficiaries of sport psychology related programs, especially from workshops, courses, and classroom based activities. At the group level, team development also may be an appropriate area of service, which could include consulting or working with a coach to make sure that players on the team are working together and interacting productively, both within the classroom and outside of those venues. THE ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL At this level, it is likely that the school principal or the athletic director can be a client who will benefit from services. Here, the athletic department may be the proper focus of assessment, intervention, and progress evaluation. At this level, psychological programs, products and services may include: leadership retreats with administrators to review athletic policies and procedures, as well as the design and implementation of sport psychology programs in particular schools. ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME The articles in this collection have been selected to describe perspectives, programs, and procedures having to do with sports in schools, within a systems framework, and that have relevance to school psychologists. Naturally, many other topics and issues could have been pre-

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sented; however, page limitation allows for but a small sampling of thematic content. The articles in this volume are authored by a range of individuals, many of whom are leaders in their respective fields–some in sport psychology, others from school psychology, and still others from clinical and community disciplines. All of these articles have been peer-reviewed by members of the journal’s editorial board as well as by outside consultants from the field of sport psychology. The initial article is authored by Len Zaichkowsky, someone who has been a historic figure in sport psychology’s development, along with co-author, Adam Naylor. The material in the article delineates a conceptual mapping of sport psychology and an historical overview of the field. The contents of this article will be informative to school psychologists as to basic parameters of sport psychology. Readers of the article are likely to see many parallels between the development of school psychology with how sport psychology has evolved. The second article is authored by Marshall Mintz, who is a licensed psychologist and a doctoral level school psychologist. In addition, Dr. Mintz also has extensive experience in sport psychology practice. In his piece, Dr. Mintz discusses practical interfaces between school psychology and sport psychology, with specific emphasis on parental and family involvement. The third article is authored by Steven Danish, Tanya Forneris, and Ian Wallace. It describes and illustrates one of Dr. Danish’s most well-known evidence-based sport psychology programs, the GOALS program, which has been implemented and adapted in various forms in schools and communities throughout the United States. This program meets all four standards delineated above. The authors of the fourth article are Linn Goldberg and Diane Elliot, both of whom are renowned physicians and researchers in the area of steroids. Therein, Drs. Goldberg and Elliot summarize aspects of their evidence-based ATLAS and ATHENA programs. These programs have been implemented widely in public schools, and they provide student-athletes with increased understanding of themselves in relation to steroids and other performance-enhancing substances and how to not become involved in these areas. The fifth article is authored by Michael Weissman, who is a school psychologist with formal education and training in sport psychology. Dr. Weissman presents a case study description of the design and initial implementation of a sport psychology program in an urban high school. This program, which was educational and consultative in nature, took

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place with selected coaches and teams as part of his role as a school psychologist in those settings. This program also aligns with the four standards noted above. The sixth article addresses a matter of utmost importance–use and abuse of alcohol and other drugs of abuse among high school student-athlete populations. It is written by Rob Pandina, Valerie Johnson, and Helene White, all noted prevention researchers in this area, along with Leah Lagos who is a doctoral student with concentrated study and training in sport psychology. This article considers what is known about alcohol and drug use/abuse patterns of high school student-athletes, including the implications of these trends for prevention in schools. Relatedly, the seventh article is authored by Thomas Hildebrandt who also has formal education and training in sport psychology and who has a specialty in the eating disorders area. Dr. Hildebrandt provides a seminal review of the literature in terms of eating disorders in high school student-athletes and describes what the current state of affairs means for secondary school prevention program development. The eighth article is authored by Jack Lesyk, who is a nationally known sport psychology practitioner and licensed psychologist. The article provides guidelines for school psychologists who desire to become educated and trained in sport psychology. INTENTIONS I hope that this introduction to the collection, coupled with the articles that appear in it, realizes the following intentions: First, I hope that the content provides some foundational information that can be used by practitioners for becoming involved in school sport psychology and its development. Second, I would be pleased if the material in the articles allows for professional discussion about the issues and considerations put forth therein as well as for identification of other matters. Third, I would find it satisfying if the volume serves as a springboard for future conceptualization and application endeavors in school sport psychology. As someone who has been fortunate to have been involved in school psychology and sport psychology–both for over 20 years–I am proud to have edited this publication, with these intentions in mind. Charles A. Maher Editor

Sport Psychology Foundations, Organizations, and Related Resources Leonard Zaichkowsky Adam Naylor Boston University

SUMMARY. The purpose of this article is to introduce psychologists and counselors who work in schools to the field of applied sport psychology. We begin with a brief history of how applied sport psychology developed in North America and other parts of the world. Landmark events such as the development of conferences, professional organizations and scholarly publications are described. This is followed by a discussion of the breadth of services that are typically provided by sport psychologists. The third section examines some of the current issues related to the training of sport psychologists. The final section introduces the reader to organizations, journals, texts, and on-line resources so they may learn more about the theory, research, and practice of sport psychology. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Sport psychology foundations, sport psychology organizations, sport psychology resources, sport psychology in schools, sport psychology training Address correspondence to: Leonard Zaichkowsky, Boston University, 2 Sherborn Street, Boston, MA 02215 (E-mail: [email protected]). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Sport Psychology Foundations, Organizations, and Related Resources.” Zaichkowsky, Leonard, and Adam Naylor. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 9-24; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 9-24. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_02

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Introducing the field of sport psychology is a positive noteworthy initiative on the part of the editor of the Journal of Applied School Psychology. Indeed, readers of this journal–professionals such as school psychologists, child psychologists, mental health professionals, social workers, and others interested in applying psychology in schools and community settings should become aware of the field of sport psychology because they deal with young children and adolescents on a daily basis and are in a position to positively influence their development through involvement in sport and exercise. The purpose of this article is to introduce applied psychology professionals to the field of sport (and exercise) psychology. We begin with a brief history of how applied sport psychology developed in North America and the rest of the world. Landmark events related to conferences, professional organizations, and scholarly publications will be emphasized. Section two provides a brief overview of some of the theory and research that has informed the development of applied sport psychology and how it is currently being defined by professionals in the field. The third section examines some of the current issues related to the training of sport psychologists. The final section introduces the reader to organizations, journals, texts, and on-line resources so they may learn more about the theory, research, and practice of sport psychology. Development of Applied Sport Psychology It is accurate to say that from a developmental perspective the field of sport psychology as a profession, in contrast with other psychology specializations, is probably at the stage of late childhood or early adolescence–ironically the age of the target population (school age) the Journal of Applied School Psychology (JAPPS) aims to serve. Indeed, the profession is relatively young, probably to the surprise of many readers. This section will not attempt to present a comprehensive history of sport psychology. Rather, we review some important historical events that have helped shape the field. Several excellent papers have been published that detail the history and evolution of sport psychology (Alderman, 1989; Hanin, 1979; Silva, 2001; Wiggins, 1984). The former Soviet Union had a large impact on the development of sport psychology. Sport was an important component of the “Soviet” way of life starting with Lenin and continuing until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989. Major Institutes for the Study of Sport and Physical Culture were established in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Moscow as early as 1919. Extensive research was conducted in all of the sport sci-

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ences, including sport psychology, so that the Soviets could better understand and develop elite athletic performance (Shteinbakh, 1987). The rest of the world, including North America, believed that part of the Soviet success in international sport was due to excellent applied sport psychology research and clinical applications to their national and Olympic programs. Other “Eastern-bloc” countries such as the former East Germany, Bulgaria, the former Czechoslovakia and, in fact, Cuba (Ucha, personal interview, November 26,1999) were influenced by the Soviet system, and these countries likewise prospered in international competition. This trend seems quite remarkable given their limited populations. The success of “Soviet-bloc” athletes at Olympic and world championship events was interpreted by American sport administrators as the result of systematic psychological preparation and intervention. The belief was that since the other sport sciences such as exercise physiology, biomechanics, and nutrition were being integrated into the preparation of elite athletes in the United States and sport psychology was not, then sport psychology must be the factor that separated Soviet trained athletes from the rest of the world. After the 1980 Moscow Olympics, the United States Olympic Committee established a task force to establish guidelines for providing sport psychology services to U.S. Olympic athletes in preparation for the 1984 Olympic games in Los Angeles. Western Europe, particularly Italy, West Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Scandinavian countries likewise took notice of developments in the Soviet Union. Sport psychology was present but mostly as an academic subject to study and like most North American universities, had a strong research component with an emphasis on the psychology of motor skill learning. Perhaps the most notable development in Europe was the formation of the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) at a meeting in Rome in 1965, organized by Ferrucciio Antonelli. A second congress was held in Washington, D.C. in 1968 and since that time ISSP has convened every four years. The 2005 conference will be held in Sydney, Australia. On a smaller scale, Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Korea) has developed their sport psychology programs in a similar vein to North America. Early programs were research based and housed in universities; however, applied work quickly came to the forefront. Australia, in fact, appointed a sport psychologist at the Australian Institute of Sport in 1982, six years before the United States Olympic Committee hired their first sport psychologist at Colorado Springs. Australia has also taken the lead in developing excellent training programs for sport

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psychologists. In 1991, Australia created a Board of Sport Psychologists within the Australian Psychological Society (APS), thereby establishing credibility and status within the psychology profession, and sport. Sport Psychology in North America Historians of sport psychology point to the fact that Triplett (1897) published a “sport psychology” paper over 100 years ago when he considered the role of spectators in facilitating or inhibiting cycling performance. That seemed to be the extent of scholarly sport psychology until Coleman Griffith, a professor at the University of Illinois, established the Athletic Research Laboratory in 1925. From his laboratory, Griffith published numerous research papers and books on coaching, sport psychology and motor learning (e.g., Griffith, 1926). He also consulted with the Chicago Cubs baseball team and conducted interviews with football greats Red Grange and Knute Rockne (Kroll & Lewis, 1970). Because of his work in the 1920s and 1930s, Coleman Griffith is often referred to as the “grandfather of sport psychology” in North America. The 1940s and 1950s did not produce much activity in the field. During the 1960s, however, researchers such as Franklin Henry at the University of California at Berkeley and John Lawther at Pennsylvania State University established motor learning laboratories that stimulated a great deal of interest in the psychological aspects of motor learning and performance. Bryant Cratty (1968) and Robert Singer (1968) were the first to publish textbooks on the topic of sport and psychology. These works were followed by a book authored by Cratty and Mirosolov Vanek, the leading sport psychologist in Czechoslovakia (Vanek, M. & Cratty, B.J., 1970). The North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) was formed in 1967, and in 1969 the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology was organized. These organizations reflect the close relationship between motor learning and sport psychology that was common in North American universities up to the mid 1980s. Through the 1970s, most of the sport psychology research and teaching was conducted by faculty members in departments of physical education; however, several “clinical psychologists” such as Bruce Ogilvie, Robert Nideffer, and Ron Smith made large contributions to the field. Ironically, perhaps the most influential “sport psychology” article published in the 1970s was a paper written by two educational psychologists at UCLA, Roland Tharp and Ron Gallimore. Tharp and Gallimore

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(1976) conducted an observational analysis of the legendary John Wooden, coach of the UCLA Bruins basketball team, hoping to better understand the process of teaching by studying a master coach. Because there were not many scholarly sport psychology journals at the time (only the IJSP), these authors chose to publish their now classic paper “Basketball’s John Wooden: What a coach can teach a teacher” in the popular magazine Psychology Today (Gallimore, personal communication, June 2003). A masterful update to that original paper was recently published (Gallimore & Tharp, 2004). During the early 1980s, many members of the American Psychological Association petitioned to have a Division in APA devoted to sport psychology rather than simply a “special interest group.” The request was approved in 1986 and today Division 47 (Sport & Exercise Psychology) is a thriving division within APA. Because of the move initiated by the United States Olympic Committee–to provide professional sport psychology services to athletes, as well as interest by numerous sport psychologists to provide professional services, NASPSPA was asked to address issues associated with credentialing sport psychologists. The association voted not to address the “professionalization” issue, i.e., certifying the professional practice of sport psychologists. As such, numerous disappointed NASPSPA members started a new association, the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP). AAASP held its first conference in 1986. Today, AAASP has a membership of 1073 from 27 different countries and is the largest sport psychology organization in the world (see resources section). Members of AAASP believed strongly in establishing standards of qualification for “sport psychologists” and began a certification program in 1992 with the senior author (LZ) as its chair. Certification of sport psychologists is still an on-going issue. However, the United States Olympic Committee has joined forces with AAASP in credentialing sport psychologists. The benefits of certification have been outlined elsewhere (Zizzi, Zaichkowsky, & Perna, 2002). Certification in sport psychology has led to modifying curricula requiring graduate students’ need to master concepts of sport science and psychology. At issue today is the matter of accrediting graduate training programs in sport psychology. FOUNDATIONS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY A commonly asked question is, “What does a sport psychologist do?” The answer to this question tends to be quite complicated in light of the

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fact that sport psychologists fulfill many roles in the lives of athletes, coaches, families, teams, and sports organizations. The breadth of the field of sport psychology was perhaps best depicted by Martens (1987) when showing the work of sport psychology on a continuum ranging from working with individuals suffering from mental illness (abnormal) to teams striving to fulfill the far reaches of their potential (super-normal). From looking at this continuum, it is clear that sport psychology services are both for those struggling with the stresses of sport and life, as well as those looking to create healthier and more successful approaches to sport and exercise performances (see Figure 1). The abnormal side sport psychology spectrum brings health and wellness issues to the forefront, with enhanced athletic performances being simply a by-product of sound mental health. Abnormal clinical issues in sport were highlighted in Beisser’s (1977) classic text The Madness in Sports. Throughout this work, Beisser illustrated how athletes and their behaviors paralleled clinically diagnosed mental illnesses. While an interesting read, clinical issues commonly treated by sport psychologists are not those mentioned by Beisser. Typically, clinical issues considered by sport psychologists include: eating disorders, body image issues, substance abuse, overtraining, severe anxiety, mild depression, and trauma. Due to the complex nature of these issues, it is most ethical and medically sound if these issues are treated by individuals with clinical training. It is not always necessary that these clinically trained resources specialize in sport psychology, but the counselor’s ability to understand the culture of sport and speak its language often helps the practitioner establish a working relationship with the client. There is no doubt that clinically significant psychology issues exist on the playing field, but the field of sport psychology has made tremendous efforts in the past decade to define itself as a resource for the “healthy,” rather than the “sick.” The stigma of psychological services being for those with illness has led many athletes, coaches, and organi-

FIGURE 1. Breadth of Applied Sport Psychology Services

Abnormal Adapted from Martens, 1987

Normal

Super-normal

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zations to avoid consulting sport psychology resources. With this in mind, the middle of the sport psychology resource continuum highlights the work that counselors, educators, and clinicians do to help athletes, coaches, and teams manage the challenges of athletic performance. The following are examples of this type of sport psychology applications: • • • • • • • • •

Assessment/profiling of strengths and weaknesses Performance anxiety Career transition issues Coach-athlete communication Threats to self-confidence Time management for the student-athlete Assistance in managing athletic injury Team building Initiation and maintenance of exercise behaviors

Beyond helping manage the stresses of training and competition, a significant amount of a sport psychology professional’s work is spent educating coaches, parents, athletic associations, and sport organizations. Common topics for educational seminars are motivation, developmental needs of athletes, building confidence, positive leadership behaviors, optimal sports environments, foundations of athletic excellence, and character development. On the most positive end of the sport psychology continuum is performance enhancement. That is taking an athlete from being a good performer to fulfilling his or her ultimate potential. Performance enhancement is a service that was once reserved only for Olympic and professional athletes, but is now embraced by collegiate, high school, youth, and even recreational adult athletes. Perhaps the best work in the area of youth sports is that conducted by University of Washington psychologists Ron Smith and Frank Smoll (Smith & Smoll, 2002). With the proliferation of competitive sporting opportunities at all levels, the importance of “strength training” for the mind is now readily embraced. At its most basic level, the “supernormal” end of sport psychology services involves teaching mental skills: goal setting, self-talk, emotional management, relaxation techniques, imagery, and distraction control skills. Just as Beisser’s writings epitomize the “abnormal” in sport psychology, Orlick’s In Pursuit of Excellence (2000) is a book that has been widely embraced that highlights the enhancement of positive behaviors that sport psychologists often advocate.

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Martin Seligman, noted psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania and former president of APA along with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi spearheaded a movement in the late 1990s they called “positive psychology,” a concept that intersects well with sport psychology. The aim of the positive psychology movement is to study the positive aspects of human experience rather than pathology, and examine human strengths that lead to an improved quality of life and the prevention of disease. Positive human strengths include, but are not limited to: hope, wisdom, creativity, courage, spirituality, responsibility, perseverance, laughter, and mental toughness. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi edited a special issue of the American Psychologist in January 2000 thus initiating the positive psychology movement. Since that time a positive psychology summit is held annually in Washington, D.C. and a number of books have also been written on the topic including a handbook by Peterson and Seligman (2003) that attempts to serve as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) for positive psychology. It is our belief that positive psychology will assist the development of sport and exercise psychology as an accepted applied field. ON BECOMING A SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST Given the relatively short history of the field of sport psychology, and the fact that its roots are in sport, psychology, education, and medicine, it is understandable that the “founders” of sport psychology in North America and in fact the world came from a variety of training backgrounds. In North America most academics, writers, and practitioners of sport psychology received training in departments of physical education/kinesiology/sport science. However, a perusal of the membership list of AAASP shows that a significant number of sport and exercise psychologists received their training in clinical/counseling psychology, organizational psychology, education, school psychology, and psychiatry (medicine). It is important to remember that courses in sport psychology at the graduate level did not exist until the 1970s and graduate specialties in sport psychology did not appear until at least the mid 1970s. Psychologists such as Bruce Ogilvie, Ron Smith, and Bob Nideffer took their extensive experience in sport and integrated it with their training in psychology. Early significant contributors trained in sport science such as Robert Singer, Rainer Martens, and Jack Cratty studied psychology exten-

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sively and integrated it with their expertise in sport and education. It became clear to the next generation of sport psychologists that sport psychology is very much an interdisciplinary field and as such, formal training is needed in psychology, the sport sciences, and education. When AAASP established its certification program in 1993, there was the hope that requirements for certification as an applied sport psychologist would have a strong impact on curricula established by graduate programs in sport psychology. For a variety of reasons, but usually departmental control and “turf battles,” curriculum reform for the interdisciplinary training of sport psychologists has been slow to evolve. An example of this integrated approach has been the training program at Boston University. Graduate training evolved from its original home in sport science (Human Movement) in the 1970s, to counseling psychology in the late 1980s, and recently to a collaborative program between counseling psychology and the Division of Graduate Medical Sciences in the School of Medicine. The program effectively integrates sport science with counseling psychology, school psychology, mental health and behavioral medicine, and research. This program includes supervised clinical experiences in applied sport psychology with the department of athletics at Boston University, local area schools, as well as more traditional clinical experiences in mental health at the Boston University Medical Center. The Medical Center is also able to provide rich research opportunities and support that are typically not available in small schools and colleges. Other models of training in sport psychology exist and can be reviewed in the directory of sport psychology edited by Burke et al. (2004). Students interested in doing graduate study should be mindful of the program philosophy of a particular institution. Questions that need to be asked include: Is the focus primarily research or applied in nature? Does the masters degree lead to credentialing such as “Licensed Mental Health Counselor?” Does the doctoral degree lead to being certified as a consultant by AAASP and USOC or “licensed as a psychologist” in a particular state or province? What kind of supervised clinical and applied experiences can be obtained and how many hours of practical experience are available? Individuals with a doctoral degree in psychology may wish to consult the Division 47 website and read about developing a “proficiency in sport psychology.”

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

SPORT PSYCHOLOGY RESOURCES Online Resources With the proliferation of the internet there is a plethora of information regarding sport psychology available for the lay public and psychology professionals’ consumption. This provides tremendous opportunities for education and application, yet at the same time yields occasions of misinformation and scientifically unsound advice because many of the postings are not peer reviewed. The best resources can be found at sport psychology professional association websites and through university sport psychology program websites. Beyond these web addresses there is good information online, but “buyer beware” is certainly a good warning to heed. The following are websites of major sport psychology professional organizations around the world: • Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology– www.aaasponline.org • North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity–www.naspspa.org • American Psychological Association-Division 47: Exercise and Sport Psychology–www.psyc.unt.edu/apadiv47/index.html • International Society of Sport Psychology–www.issponline.org Information regarding what sport psychology is and who practices it along with links to other valuable resources is available at all of these organization websites. Beyond websites, electronic bulletin boards are available in the field of sport psychology. The Sport Psychology Listserver, SPORTPSY, is one about exercise and sport psychology where members discuss recent developments in the field of sport psychology. This is an un-moderated discussion group that gives a fair sense of happenings in the sport psychology field. It is also a way in which an individual might find a competent sport psychology professional in their area. SPORTPSY can be found at LISTSERV.TEMPLE.EDU. Beyond these initial resources, many national sports organizations have good sport psychology information available on their websites. For example, at the USA Hockey website (www.usahockey.com) there is a PowerPoint presentation and other good information regarding parent education available for review. Similarly at the USA Tennis website

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(www.usatennis.org) many articles regarding mental preparation and the development of a tennis player can be found in the Health and Fitness section. Articles from national sports associations tend to be grounded in sound scientific research and have been successfully applied on the playing field. Most of these articles are written for coaches and/or parents, but they have information that is useful to anyone working with the growing athlete. Scientific Journals While not written for the lay reader, academic journals are excellent resources for up-to-date and scientifically sound information on the practice of sport psychology. A few journals are listed below. In this era of the internet, electronic versions are also available online for many of these resources. The Sport Psychologist. An excellent resource for academics and practitioners. Of all the journals to be mentioned The Sport Psychologist’s articles might have the most applied implications. This is evident from the large “Professional Practice” section in the journal. This section, based on sound research, reflects innovative application of psycho-educational and counseling principles in the field. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Different from The Sport Psychologist, this journal is steeped in scientific research. Some of the most controlled and intricate sport psychology research studies are published in this journal. The science is excellent and the topics are often quite specific to certain populations or precise applications. A unique feature of this sport psychology journal is the “Sport Psychologist’s Digest” section where brief summaries of some of the latest research is presented. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. This journal is the official journal of AAASP. The majority of the articles published in this journal are research studies with clear implications for application in the realms of performance enhancement, exercise adherence, and health and wellness programming. International Journal of Sport Psychology. While all of the sport psychology journals have a strong international presence in their authorships, the International Journal of Sport Psychology clearly reflects the worldwide interest and advancements in the field. Like the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, this journal is principally comprised of research studies with a strong applied focus.

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

Sport Psychology Conferences Attending and immersing one’s self in a sport psychology regional, national, or international conference can be a tremendous learning opportunity. After four or five days of lectures, workshops, and poster sessions it is fair to say that an astute student can learn as much as in a semester-long sport psychology course. One can learn about annual conferences by visiting major sport psychology organization websites. Information about regional and non-organization affiliated conferences can often be found on the bulletin board section of many academic journals. Regional conferences such as Springfield College’s (MA) Annual Athletic Counseling Conference are excellent places for the busy professional to make some good contacts and gain some initial insights into the psychology of sport and performance. Furthermore, regional conferences provide a less intimidating forum to those new to the field to present their ideas and research interests compared to national and international events. Sport Psychology Texts As with most applied scientific disciplines, texts in the field of sport psychology range from academic theory-based writings often sold in university bookstores to self-help texts. For a comprehensive, in-depth look at sport psychology and its research foundations, the Handbook of Sport Psychology, edited by Singer, Hausenblas, and Janelle (2001) is a strong resource. Each chapter in this text strives to provide all of the research and theoretical foundations of topics from sports skill acquisition to the role of physical activity on mental illness. Along similar lines, but written for an audience relatively new to sport psychology, Weinberg and Gould’s Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (2003) and Silva and Stevens’ Psychological Foundations of Sport (2001) are introductory textbooks with formats that have stood the test of time and are revised to stay current on a regular basis. The edited text by Van Raalte and Brewer (2002) is also an excellent comprehensive collection of articles on the broad field of sport and exercise psychology. Mostofsky and Zaichkowsky (2002) edited a text titled “Medical and Psychological Aspects of Sport and Exercise” that is devoted primarily to health and exercise psychology practitioners. There are many introductory and advanced sport psychology texts on the market. You can scan the table of contents of each text and determine if the topics covered fit the reader’s professional interests.

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Beyond academic texts, there are many resources written for coaches and a good number of “self help” texts on bookstore shelves. As one moves away from academic texts, the saying “buyer beware” becomes more relevant. Texts can range from motivational literature to practical exercises for embracing mentally tough competition and enjoying sport. Reviewing the author’s education background, applied experiences, and current expertise often gives a good sense of what type of book one is purchasing. Educating coaches on how to communicate with and build confidence in athletes is a large part of the work of sport psychologists. With this in mind there are many good coach education texts available. One of particular note is Successful Coaching, written by Martens (2004). This book provides theory-grounded insights that benefit all coaches. Types and quality of performance enhancement texts on book shelves vary widely. The recent trend in publication has been to publish sport-specific sport psychology texts. While each of these books are titled for a particular sport and the examples given within relate to this sport, a wise reader can easily apply most of the information in the book to the sport of his or her choice. For example, Ravizza and Hanson’s (1998) Head’s Up Baseball is written for baseball players and coaches, yet all of the self-awareness activities and goal setting worksheets can easily be applied to volleyball, soccer, or most any other sport. One text of particular note is Orlick’s (2000) In Pursuit of Excellence. This is a sport psychology book written with all athletes and exercisers in mind. It was first published in 1980, has been updated periodically since, and continues to be well read by athletes and sport psychology practitioners alike. This well-written sport psychology mental skills book can give the school psychologist many ideas on how mental skills might be used with their student-athletes. Finding Sport Psychology Resources in Your Community Beyond texts and online advice, a school psychologist might be interested in finding sport psychology professionals in their community with whom to collaborate. Two credible places to find competent sport psychology resources are local universities and through sport psychology professional associations. Many major universities have sport psychology graduate studies and/ or sport psychology resources for their intercollegiate athletes. With this in mind, placing a call to your local university or searching university websites for sport psychology services can lead you to many re-

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

sources. Graduate programs often have a handful of competent masters and doctoral level students hungry to develop their trade. Many Division I universities have a sport psychologist on staff or individuals in the community to whom they refer performance enhancement and health and wellness issues. A list of sport psychology graduate programs can be found in the Directory of Graduate Programs in Sport Psychology (Burke, Sachs, & Smisson, 2004). Many of the major sport psychology professional associations also provide a means to find sport psychology experts. A good example is the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology’s certified consultant list. By visiting their website, one can find a list of competent professionals in the field and their backgrounds. There are many people promoting themselves as sport psychology professionals. The training of these individuals varies from doctoral degrees to none at all. The experiences of these people extend from part-time practice in the field of sport psychology to those that specialize in the psychology of sport, making the majority of their living working with coaches, athletes, and sports associations. Lastly, the work of individuals promoting themselves as sport psychologists range from high-energy motivational speakers to clinicians specializing in abnormal behaviors. It can be difficult to find an educator that successfully fulfills your needs. The following are some basic tenets to consider before employing a sport psychology professional: • What is the educational training of the individual? What is the individual’s degree? Was a significant amount of their training spent studying the specialty of sport psychology? • Is this person experienced working in athletic settings such as your school population? Do they understand the developmental needs of your athletes (within and outside of sport)? • What is the individual’s philosophical background and does it match the programming ideas in which you are interested? Does the psychologist promise clinical talks, performance enhancement lectures, athlete counseling, and/or sport psychology curriculum development? There are many excellent sport psychology professionals available as resources around the country. Conversely, there are individuals promoting interventions with little scientific validity that ultimately lead to dissatisfied athletes, coaches, and athletic communities. To reap the many

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benefits of sport psychology services, find a professional that understands the needs of your athletes and is prepared with your school system to develop successful interventions. CONCLUSION Sport and exercise psychology as a science based specialization has recently evolved to advance a body of knowledge and professional services to children, adolescents, and adults interested in improving their quality of life through exercise or performance in sport. Schools and school personnel can contribute to the development of a more positive and healthier population–one that constantly strives to achieve excellence, by incorporating many of the empirically validated theories and interventions developed by sport and exercise psychologists. Quality interdisciplinary training programs are now appearing, thereby making sport psychology as a field of study more readily available for the next generation of applied psychologists. REFERENCES Alderman, R.B. (1980). Sports psychology: Past, present, and future dilemmas. In P. Klavora & K.A.W. Wipper (Eds.), Psychological and sociological factors in sport (pp. 3-19). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto. Beisser, A.R. (1977). The madness in sports. Charles Press. Burke, K.L., Sachs, J.L., & Smisson, C.P. (2004). Directory of graduate programs in applied sport psychology. (7th ed.). Morgantown, W.VA. Fitness Information Technology. Cratty, B.J. (1968). Psychology and physical activity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Cratty, B.J., & Vanek, M. (1970). Psychology and the superior athlete. New York: Macmillan. Gallimore, R. & Tharp, R. (2004). What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher, 1975-2004: Reflections and Reanalysis of John Wooden’s Teaching Practices. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 119-137. Griffith, C.R. (1926). Psychology of coaching. New York: Scribner. Hanin, Y.L. (1979). Applying sport psychology: Past, present, and future. In C.H. Nadeau, W.R. Halliwell, K.M. Newell, & G.C. Roberts (Eds.), Psychology of motor behavior and sport (pp. 37-48). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Kroll, W., & Lewis, G. (1970). America’s first sport psychologist. Quest, 13, 1-4. Martens, R. (1987). Coaches guide to sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Martens, R. (2004). Successful coaching. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Mostofsky, D., & Zaichkowsky, L. (2002). Medical and psychological aspects of sport & exercise. Morgantown, W.VA. FIT, Inc. Publishers.

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Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence, 3rd edition. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2003). The Values in Action (VIA) classification of strengths. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ravizza, K., & Hanson, T. (1998). Heads-up baseball: Playing the game one pitch at a time. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill. Seligman, M.E.P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. Shteinbakh, V. (1987). Soviet sport: The success story. Moscow: Raduga. Silva, J.M. (2001). The evolution of sport psychology. In J.M. Silva & D.E. Stevens (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Singer, R.N. (1968). Motor learning and human performance: An application to physical education skills. New York: Macmillan. Singer, R.N., Hausenblas, H.A., & Janelle, C.M. (2001). Handbook of sport psychology. New York: John Wiley. Smith, R. E., & Smoll, F. L. (2002). Youth sports as a behavior setting for psychosocial interventions. In J. Van Raalte & B. W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 341-371). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Tharp, R.G., & Gallimore, R. (1976). Basketball’s John Wooden: What a coach can teach a teacher. Psychology Today, 9 (8), 74-78. Triplett, N. (1897). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology, 2, 318-336. Van Raalte, J., & Brewer, B. (2002) Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Wann, D.L. (1996). Sport psychology. Pearson Education. Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wiggins, D.K. (1984). The history of sport psychology in North America. In J.M. Silva & R.S. Weinberg (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport (pp. 9-22). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Zizzi, S., Zaichkowsky, L., & Perna, F. (2002). Certification in sport and exercise psychology. In J.L. Van Raalte & B.W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology. (pp. 459-477) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The School Psychologist and Sport: A Natural Interface to Promote Optimal Functioning Between Student-Athlete, Family, and School Personnel Marshall L. Mintz Springfield Psychological Associates, LLP

SUMMARY. This article provides a background and logical explanation for school psychologists to feel justified in the pursuit of providing sport psychology services. This perspective is useful for the school psychologist or other school administrative personnel who may question or be questioned about the value or need for the provision of sport psychology services. In addition, issues surrounding sport psychology with interscholastic athletes and methods for providing these by school psychologists are considered. Finally, the school/family interview is discussed as a systems oriented method of school/sport psychology assessment and intervention. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

Address correspondence to: Marshall L. Mintz, PsyD, Springfield Psychological Associates, LLP, 675 Morris Avenue, Springfield, NJ 07081 (E-mail: Champ93@aol. com). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “The School Psychologist and Sport: A Natural Interface to Promote Optimal Functioning Between Student-Athlete, Family, and School Personnel.” Mintz, Marshall L. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 25-40; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 25-40. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_03

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KEYWORDS. Sport psychology, school psychologist, systems theory, families, athletes

I have organized this article in terms of several interrelated points. First, I discuss why individuals trained as school psychologists are well prepared, in their role and training, for working with interscholastic athletes, their families, and coaches. Throughout this article, I will use the term student-athlete and athlete synonymously. Second, I present the social, political and health reasons which support the use of school psychology resources for conducting sport psychology with student-athletes, including at the secondary level. Third, I will attempt to clarify some of the intricacies of working with student-athletes and their families in the role of a school/sport psychologist. In particular, an important distinction will be made between intervening with an athlete, family and coach around sport specific behaviors versus intervening on intrafamilial dynamics which impact an athlete’s mood, performance, and motivation. For clarification purposes, intrafamilial conflict is used to differentiate specific athletic issues from those involving family developmental transitions affecting parenting (divorce, separation, deaths, remarriage), or any parenting conflict, marital conflict, family violence, parental alcohol and drug addiction. The school/family interview will be discussed later in this article as a method for assessment and intervention with athletes’ families, particularly in secondary schools. The well executed timing of this special volume cannot be underestimated. The need as well as professional and social climate is timely for establishing school psychologists, as the school-based experts, able to provide sport psychology and performance enhancement services to students and personnel. Media and professional publications are consistently writing about sport related problems of violence by school age athletes and their out of control parents (Star Ledger, 2004; Brown, Sumner, & Nocera, R., 2002). The inadequate utilization of physical fitness and activity programs leading to health problems is well documented (Carlson, Tharinger, Bricklin, DeMers, & Paavola, 1996). This is compounded by the stress and dissatisfaction students experience in athletic programs (Weinberg & Gould, 2003), which leads to dropout and underperformance (Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989; Petlichkoff, 1993). Unfortunate and capable of being prevented and changed, these health and sport related problems highlight a thrust for adequate assessment and intervention which school psychologists can provide. These concerns dovetail nicely with the effort within school psychology, for sev-

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eral decades, to create a conceptual and practical means to expand its professional application (Bardon, 1983; Bardon, 1989, Carlson, Tharinger, Bricklin, DeMers, & Paavola, 1996). School psychologists are well placed to expand their role in order to develop the student-athlete, work with his/her coaches, and access the parents. School and Sport Psychology: A Good Fit Jack Bardon (1983), one of the developers of school psychology, wrote passionately about the unique skills and diverse applications of school psychology. His belief was that the profession could be used more powerfully to enhance learning and performance across diverse settings. Bardon wrote that school psychology had a diverse skill base and that the training of school psychologists allowed for flexibility in the types of settings for applying those skills. Dr. Bardon sought to change the unnecessarily narrow view of the school psychologist role as a cognitive/intelligence tester or advisor on special education. His writing lends strong support to school psychologists working with athletes in a nontraditional school psychology role. Bardon (1989) wrote, “school psychologists . . . learn to work in other people’s territories. School psychologists make their way in situations where the potential for being seen as foreign and different is always present. Learning to get along with others while being different from them and learning to know what others need and helping them get it while finding professional solace and identity outside of the workplace are special problems of school psychologists, which, if successfully resolved, become useful qualities that can carry over into other work settings.” Dr. Bardon was determined to clarify how school psychology differed from other human service providers and was a strong advocate of the movement to avoid having school psychology, and its setting for practice, too narrowly defined and focused. In his well developed call for diversified applications of school psychology along with touting the diverse skills of its practitioners, Bardon (1989) wrote, “School psychology is composed of a heterogeneous group of professionals. They use many theories, varied methods, and hold diverse views about the nature, purposes, and priorities of school psychology, seeking to reconcile its dual allegiance to education and to psychology, constrained by the setting of the school yet involved in figuring out how to solve problems with that setting without loss of integrity or professionalism.” This description of the school psychologist with the emphasis on diversity of

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skills, adaptability to varied work environments, and a focus on problem solving are all suited to their providing services to athletes in schools. In a wonderful paper on the history, role and practice of sport psychology, Andersen, Van Raalte, and Brewer (2001) unintentionally made a case for school psychologists as the most suitably trained and well placed practitioner to address sport/health/fitness issues with interscholastic athletes. The authors wrote, “because of its early roots in physical education, traditional sport psychology was seen as primarily offering performance enhancement and the teaching of psychological skills. Lately, however, the field has progressed beyond such a narrow definition to include personal counseling and even clinical issues for athletes and coaches.” School psychologists are experts in performance enhancement as it is applied to behavior in school settings and the classroom. Becoming familiar with the elements specific to sport does not require major retooling, although important additional skills are necessary for the school psychologist unfamiliar with sport psychology methods. Articles in this collection by Zaichkowsky and Naylor and another by Lesyk are excellent resources for the school psychologist interested in becoming sport psychology knowledgeable. Many of the psychological skills and methods utilized by traditionally trained sport psychologists (Singer, Hausenblas, & Janelle, 2001) have been understood and applied by school, clinical or counseling psychologists for decades. Although Andersen et al. (2001) refer to sport psychologists having counseling and clinical skills, these are not well developed skills in the training programs of non-clinical, school, or counseling psychology trained sport psychologists. Reconciling the dearth of clinical skills in non-psychology based sport psychology training is a major problem, but not an issue for discussion in this paper. School psychologists are also specifically trained and ideally positioned in their role to establish student focused relationships with the parents/families of the interscholastic athletes. The fit of skills (which this volume means to include sport psychology skills) and proximity of role for meeting the social/emotional needs of the athletes is unique to school psychology. The following quote can be read just as easily by replacing the term sport psychologist with school psychologist on each occasion. Andersen et al. (2001) have written, “For sport psychologists, the issues of practice settings, dual relationships, and confidentiality can pose professional challenges. For example, in regard to where practice occurs, sport psychology stands in contrast to the more traditional limits of time and space for psychotherapy and counseling. Many psychologists engage in a variety of nontraditional services

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(e.g., home visits for limited-mobility clients, telephone and E-mail consultations), and sport psychology service is another example of the expanding styles of delivery. Typically, however, encounters between psychologists and clients outside of the consultation or therapy time and place are usually chance meetings. For sport psychologists, the settings necessary for good service delivery may be locker rooms, playing fields, and even hotels at away games. Many psychologists embrace office settings, in part because they reduce the likelihood that multiple relationships may arise. The challenge for sport psychologists is that multiple-role relationship precursors are inherent in on-site, applied work. That is, applied sport psychologists work outside of the office to be available to athletes and to provide services where they are needed most” (p. 13). In a separate article, Andersen (2000) noted the unique style of system entry skills which are required of those conducting sport psychology consultations. He refers to this process as hanging out, and says, “Hanging out is not doing nothing. Hanging out is part of the process of entrance into service delivery, and becoming part of the scene, part of the furniture. Being there helps the athletes become comfortable with the presence of a sport psychologist . . . . Learning to hang out is a first, and often difficult, lesson to grasp” (p. 4). It is easy to see how the skills and process of conducting sport psychology consultation overlay those already utilized by most school psychologists, as the “hanging out” process is indigenous to good school psychology. As importantly, the school psychologist is already “in the system” and better positioned than if they were a total outsider. The assumption being that the school psychologist has been able to establish themselves as a trusted person, capable of keeping conversation confidential and avoidant of any dual relationships which compromise autonomy. In the preceding paragraphs, I have attempted to establish a rationale for school psychologists providing sport psychology services, which is based on the best interest of the profession’s utilization and its appropriateness for work in the interscholastic sport context. Let me speak about other social/professional factors encouraging the work of a school/sport psychologist, which coexist with the interest, intellectual desire, and skills needed to expand consultation into the sport context. A principal justification has been the growing mandate for school psychologists’ to improve the health, fitness and physical wellness of our youth in schools (Kolbe, Collins, & Cortese, 1997; Short & Talley, 1997). In their comprehensive article regarding improved health programming in the schools, Kolbe et al. (1997) were seeking the creation of an idealized

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notion referred to as school health centers. Within these centers, the provision of psychological/mental health services would naturally fall in the skill set of school psychologists. Although the creation of these school health centers is an ideal concept and unlikely to ever be fully formed, the authors state the role school psychologists can naturally fill as professionals best trained and positioned to strengthen the health, performance, and achievement motivation of school age youth. Trying to use the on site prevention model focused on health behavior of Kolbe et al. (1997) is consistent with the model of increasing the psychological competence of young people through enhanced social emotional learning and emotional intelligence SEL/EQ (Ross, Powell, & Elias, 2002). Elias and colleagues (Elias, Lantieri, Patti, Walberg, & Zins, 1999) have sought the development of thoughtful decision making, understanding signs of one’s own and other’s feelings, listening accurately, communicating effectively, and respecting differences. These skills are described by the authors as being taught in classroom-like, curriculum based settings. The opportunity and context for exposing and teaching students these skills already exists in the form of school based sport and recreational activities. The coaches and school personnel, not to mention parents, are in daily contact with athletes, often times for many months or years. This fertile context for the teaching and learning of adaptive and performance enhancing skills can be generalizable life skills, although initially introduced during sport activities. Oakland (2003) has advocated that school psychology can spearhead and function as one of the most powerful “portals” to access children. Oakland notes that the infrastructure exists in the schools for reaching children, and as mentioned, existing sport and activity programs provide a vehicle in which to assess and then introduce an array of psychologically valuable knowledge, skills, and interventions. Since an estimated 45 million children participate in sports in the United States (Weinberg & Gould, 2003), and a large number of those in school athletics, a natural opportunity exists for school psychologists. There is an ideal convergence of children’s and families needs (mental health/sport/fitness/health behavior) as they manifest themselves in the school environment, with the availability of professional skills and resources (particularly the school psychologist who can work in sport related contexts). Children’s health behaviors (including fitness motivation), performance enhancement, the acquisition of social learning and problem solving, along with the psychological needs of school personnel (coaches, trainers, nurses) and parents are in need of the re-

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sources school psychologists with sport psychology skills can offer at the individual and programmatic levels of change. CONCEPTUALIZING THE FAMILY/ATHLETE INTERACTION When working with interscholastic athletes, especially those in secondary schools, it is the position of this author that the athlete’s parents are an integral part of the assessment process. Even if the identified problem is highly sport specific, a well timed questioning of the family environment, and its emotional/interpersonal relationships, is the most comprehensive approach. Parents are less defensive and secretive when the discussion of content surrounding their child is done out of concern for improving athletic performance. This is less threatening and likely to activate defensiveness, which would close off discussion, if initially addressing purely clinical issues. Although the content of the discussion may focus on athletics or classroom performance, the underlying family structure and process issue can be identified. Once the information is gathered, along with any identified intrafamilial conflict, then the work on sport/athlete specific matters can proceed. However, if clinical content emerges during this period of exploratory questioning, the need to discuss outside clinical referrals may be necessary. When attempting to work with interscholastic athletes, one would be well served to be familiar with the family therapy models and techniques (Brown, 2001). School psychologists are typically systems thinkers, whether formally trained in the theory or not. Over the years, family therapy has included pure analytic theory applied to families (Bowen, 1978; Lederer & Jackson, 1968), interactional and structural theories of interaction (Minuchin, 1974; Boscolo, Cecchin, Hoffman, & Penn, 1987), and problem-solving approaches (Haley, 1973; Mirkin & Koman, 1985) to organize thinking about family systems. The systems thinking framework contrasts with that of non-clinical, school or counseling psychology trained sport psychologists who focus on an athlete’s performance in a linear thinking framework by viewing the problem “in the athlete,” “between the athlete and coach,” or “a function of parental performance demands and conflicts with the athlete and/or coach.” The sport psychology literature has not focused on the family as a complex emotional system which may send the athlete out into the interpersonal world with a developmentally delayed or impaired repertoire of emotional expectations and coping skills (Minuchin, Rosman, & Baker, 1978). The interactions which occur outside the family bound-

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aries with coaches and teammates are influenced by the training and programming which occurred in one’s family. Coaches may evoke a negative emotional response from a particular athlete, and then find they are helpless in trying to communicate directly with the athlete. Additionally, the coach may have no insight into why they are getting such a negative response to a coaching style used successfully with other athletes. A coach’s negative interactions with an athlete, as posited in this article, can only be fully understood by including the athlete’s family in the scope of explanation for the emotional disconnection. Conceptualizing the optimal depth and breath of the school/sport psychologist’s assessment to include non-sport related family dynamics can avoid blaming or stigmatizing a coach or athlete, drawing false causal assumptions and, most importantly, avoiding the athlete’s withdrawal or underperformance in their sport. The expansion of the school psychologist’s “unit of analysis” beyond the ubiquitous coach/athlete, parent/ athlete or athlete/parent frame allows for the inclusion of critical variables excluded in the narrower frame of assessment. The value of an intrafamilial/systemic perspective can insure a more thorough understanding of complex emotional factors affecting behavioral performance. Unfortunately, much of the information collected in the sport psychology literature reflects the athlete’s self-reported reasons for withdrawing or underperforming (Petlichkoff, 1993, Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989) and does not address the interpersonal process and factors impacting the decision, which may originate within the family. There is a significant body of literature devoted to factors influencing youth sport participation and withdrawal and loss of achievement motivation (see for example, Ryska, Hohensee, Cooley, & Jones, 2002; Gould, Feltz, Horn, & Weiss, 1982; Gould & Horn, 1984; Klint & Weiss, 1986; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989; Petlichkoff, 1993; Hayashi, 1999). Petlichkoff (1993) reported that over 70 million children and adolescents worldwide are involved in sports, but also cited upwards of 80% drop out by age 17 (State of Michigan, 1978). To account for this rate of attrition, which in the United States occurs at a reported rate of 35% annually (Gould, 1987), sport psychologists have been examining the dynamics affecting youth sport participation and withdrawal. The variables which have been uncovered include an overemphasis on winning, too much time required to play the sport, conflict of interest, work, injury, not having fun, skills not improving, or dislike of the coach (Klint & Weiss, 1986; Petlichkoff, 1993; Orlick, 1973). An important theme of this article has been that a school psychologist working with athletes can benefit from expanding the focus of assess-

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ment to include intrafamilial conflict. This is done in order to adequately understand an apparent rift between coach and athlete, which may seem unexplainable, or factors leading to drop-out, loss of motivation, or decreased competitive aspirations. When the athlete’s healthy autonomy and self-determination is fostered on and off sport context, the athlete can apply selective aggressiveness, persistence, and experience a positive sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977; Schunk, 1995) leading to optimized performance. Relating this to the athlete/coach relationship, Poczwardowski (1998) discussed the coach’s impact on the development of the athlete’s performance. How the athlete perceives the coach and whether the athlete’s autonomy is encouraged will feed into their performance motivation. As this pertains to the current article, the meaning the athlete attributes to the coach/athlete interaction is profoundly influenced by his/her history with authority figures. If family members have engaged in anxiety producing, uncontrolled, tension filled, and avoidance producing interactions, a perceptual template can be established through which the athlete will predict and anticipate relationships in other contexts. The most common context in which this happens is in the relationship between coach and athlete. The coach’s relationship to the athlete, the involved parents and its impact on motivation has received considerable attention (Ryska, Hohensee, Cooley, & Jones, 2002; Smoll, Smith, Barnett, & Everett, 1993; Smith & Smoll, 1990; Horn, 2002; Hellstedt, 1987). As the following examples of the literature reveal, the unit of analysis has excluded the study of intrafamilial conflict and its real time or predisposing effect on the athlete’s relationships. As defined earlier, intrafamilial conflict is differentiated from athletic issues and involves family developmental transitions affecting parenting, parenting conflict, marital conflict, family violence, parental alcohol, and drug addiction. The almost endless possibilities of helpless, avoidant, or defiant adaptations learned at home may surface in the coach/athlete interaction. The sport psychology literature has not studied or discussed the intrafamilial conflict dimension on an athlete’s performance (Mintz, 2003). Hellstedt (1987) has emphasized communication patterns which emerge between parent and athlete and between coach and athlete over who has control over the child’s training. Three types of parent/coach relationships are described, these being: over-involved, under-involved, and moderately involved. This progression of parental investment, energy expenditure and intrusion in to athlete and coaches practice and competition interactions is the thrust of this categorization. The moderately involved parent is believed to be the one who achieves a balance and

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allows for an optimal athlete/coach/parent relationship to develop. Why one or another parent is over or under involved may be answered through intrafamilial oriented family assessment. Hellstedt (1995), in follow-up work examining the parental side of the motivation equation, attempted to focus on the parental attitudes toward competition, sport, winning, and skill development. When attempting to focus on parental stress and pressure on the athlete in the home environment, the conceptual focus is on the level of analysis concerning how the “negative performance evaluation from parents has a major role in the development of high trait anxiety” (Hellstedt, 1995, p. 119). Separate research, Scanlan et al. (1991), identified family interactions harmful to motivation and performance such as performance criticism, pre-competition lectures, “backstabbing” other athletes’ parents, and guilt over spending money on training. Again, the factors being examined are specific to family functioning related to the athletic behaviors, not internal family conflict. Further studies, such as Smoll et al. (1993), classified parental involvement with athlete and coach into five subgroups; they are: disinterested, overcritical, those who scream behind the bench, sideline coaches and overprotective types. The disinterested parent is characterized by absence from team activities to the extent that the athlete is emotionally affected. The overcritical parents used scolding or berating their child in response to their performance. Parents who scream from behind the bench tend to be verbally abusive to the athlete, team members, opponents, coaches and officials. The sideline coach finds it hard to not take on the coaching role and intrude with instructions or disrupt the team. The overprotective parent is perceived by Smoll to most often be the athlete’s mother. Worrisome looks, fears over physical or emotional injury can lead to threats to withdraw the child from the sport. Smoll makes recommendations as to how coaches should interact with particular classifications of parent style. Discussion is devoted to how the coach can speak with parents displaying each of these characteristics, and how to possibly preempt them from occurring by establishing a preseason coach-parent meeting. This is a wonderful recommendation and can set the stage for further conferences should problems arise. Of course, these problems may not be observable or possible for the coach to uncover, let alone explore. The importance of having a consulting school psychologist with sport and counseling skills, as an integral part of an athlete’s scholastic training environment, is a natural solution to these complex athlete, parent,

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coach interactions. Imagine the value of the school/sport psychologist participation in preseason coach/parent meetings. Smoll et al. (1993) fails to explore how conflict in the family, particularly the athlete’s parents’ marital conflict, affects the athlete’s development. It can seem almost illogical to coaches, and outside naïve observers, that there is intrafamilial conflict when parents are actively involved with their athlete. Their involvement at the observable level may be consistent and appropriate, leaving little apparent concern for systemic variables impacting the athlete’s performance. According to the literature previously noted and including Hayashi (1999), family support and that of friends is integral for an athlete to maintain motivation and participation in sport. Looking solely at the quantity or quality of parental time or participation in the athlete’s activities may not yield enough explanatory information to account for performance problems. Relying on the assumptions in the literature regarding athlete, coach, parent interactions is too limited. This is where the school psychologist working in the sport context, with family therapy skills, would be invaluable. It is in the role of school psychologist, with access to athlete, parents and coach, that a unique and most helpful assessment and intervention can occur (Mintz, 2003). SCHOOL-BASED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY: THE FAMILY-SCHOOL INTERVIEW There has been a model developed for school-based consultation, including an athlete’s family, utilizing a systems theory framework. The work of Salvador Minuchin (1974) was adapted to a school-based problem by Aponte (1976). This seminal article in the application of family systems theory to school-based identified problems has not received the due recognition since its publication. The Aponte article describes the family-school interview as “an intervention with a child, family, school, taking into account the dynamics of each system in that ecological context and the structural relationships of these systems relative to the problem presented by the child. The family-school interview includes the child with their family and the personnel of the school who represent the organizational structure of the school” (p. 303). Working with interscholastic athletes will inevitably include the team coach or coaches, possibly trainers, and administrative/non-academic personnel. The administrative personnel might be included when problems are related to non-sport behavior that jeopardizes the athlete’s participation in sport. In this case,

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guidance staff, teachers, or members of the principal’s office might be included. The intent of the inclusive approach to the interview is to avoid identifying the athlete in an a priori way as the sole source and solution of the problem under examination. Aponte also makes the point that the systemic inclusion of all relevant parties helps to elicit a commitment of the family and school personnel to a joint problem-solving effort. The importance of getting a coach to “buy in” to the usefulness of this approach will have been preceded by the school psychologist having established a working relationship with the coach. Ample credibility will need to have been created in order for the coach to take the time to assist in this model of school-based sport psychology intervention. The experience of this author, whether based internally and externally as a consulting psychologist, is that coaches and others welcome a collaborative approach. Particularly appreciated is an approach that includes the family in a supportive, non-blaming fashion. The importance can not be overstated for the need to consider turf issues and sometimes needing to be explicit about the school/sport psychologist not trying to usurp the head coach role. It is suggested here that the consulting psychologist make explicit how they envision working with a team or particular athletes. The head coach is best to introduce the idea of a sport psychologist to the team and in a letter home to parents. When an athlete has been identified by the coaching staff or comes forward on their own, the first meeting in the school-family interview should be offered, to those involved parties, to serve as an instrument to learn about the presenting problem. Whether related to individual performance issues such as practice intensity and goals, the coach/athlete relationship, team relationships, or competition preparation and performance the group discussion will emphasize collaboration and teamwork. Parents, coaches and any school personnel who attend will be credited with possessing valuable information or perspectives which can assist in improving the presenting concerns. As Aponte (1976) noted, “the interview is used principally as a way to find solutions, rather than to dig for causes of trouble. The therapist’s (school psychologist) attempt to make the interview a practical experience in which family and school staff will recognize the relevance of their roles as agents of positive change. Although an effective diagnostic tool, the interview is built not on an exploratory, as much as a therapeutic model.” It is during this process that the school/sport psychologist, observing and noting process, can “begin” to assess the presence or not of meaningful intrafamilial conflict. However, the expectation that a separate interview may occur with subsets of the original meeting members is to

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be expressed to all those present. In that way, family assessment can be more thoroughly conducted without the family feeling a threat of observation from school/coaching staff, and school/coaching staff may verbalize material not comfortably shared in the larger system meeting. To paraphrase Aponte, the school psychologist is not a parent, a teacher, a coach or a school administrator but they must acknowledge the primacy of each member participating in their respective context while at the same time taking leadership of what is essentially a clinical interview. At the preliminary meeting, the school psychologist can determine some goals to present for the future direction of the effort to assist the athlete. These recommendations may include a referral to an outside clinical resource to address intrafamilial conflict. Also, a coach, family, athlete session may follow to establish mutual goal setting, parent/ coach parameters of control and training input, and clarification of performance expectations. This latter point is often critical in the motivation of school age athletes. As developmental issues begin to emerge related to autonomy seeking and eventually leaving home upon graduation, conflict and control struggles may become expressed around sport behavior. These include training intensity, competition performance, coach/athlete or athlete/parent relationships and communication, or even motivation to continue in the sport. Of course, the option of working individually with the athlete on personal areas of conflict, goals, motivation, or the array of possible mental skills is part of this decision making process. CONCLUSION The school psychologist who desires to employ sport psychology methods and strategies has strong justification for such a pursuit, especially with proper education and skills training in the sport psychology area. The professional technical and consulting skills, uniquely part of a school psychologist’s training, mesh well with the contextual demands of providing sport psychology services in schools. The pursuit of enhancing the fitness, health, and emotional needs of student-athletes is clearly a desired societal and governmental objective. Systems and family therapy theory and practice are part of the armamentarium many school psychologists’ possess or can be obtained as part of a larger thrust to provide school-based sport psychology to athletes, their families, and coaches.

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REFERENCES Andersen, M. B. (2000). Beginnings: Intakes and the initiation of relationships. In M.B. Andersen (Ed.), Doing sport psychology: Process and practice, 3-16. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Andersen, M.B., Van Raalte, J.L., & Brewer, B.W. (2001). Sport psychology service delivery: Staying ethical while keeping loose. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 12-18. Aponte, H. (1976). The family-school interview: An eco-structural approach. Family Process, 15, 303-311. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bardon, J.I. (1983). Psychology applied to education: A specialty in search of an identity. American Psychologist, 38, 185-196. Bardon, J.I. (1989). The school psychologist as an applied educational psychologist. In R.C. D’Amato & R.S. Dean (Eds.), The School Psychologist in the Nontraditional Settings (pp. 1-32). Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Boscolo, L., Cecchin, G., Hoffman, L., & Penn, P. (1987). Milan systemic family therapy. New York, NY: Basic Books. Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New York: Aronson. Brown, C.H. (2001). Clinical cross-training: Compatibility of sport and family systems. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32 (1), 19-26. Brown, T.J., Sumner, K.E., & Nocera, R. (2002). Understanding sexual aggression against women: An examination of the role of men’s athletic participation and related variables. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 937-952. Carlson, C.I., Tharinger, D.J., Bricklin, P.M., DeMers, S.T., & Paavola, J.C. (1996). Health care reform and psychological practice in schools. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 14-23. Elias, M.J., Lantieri, L., Patti, J., Walberg, H.J., & Zins, J.E. (1999). Looking past Columbine: Violence is preventable. Education Week, 18, 45-53. Gill, D.L. (1986). Psychological dynamics in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gould, D. (1987). Understanding attrition in children’s sport. In D. Gould & M.R. Weiss (Eds.), Advances in Pediatric Sport Sciences, Vol 2. Behavioral Issues, pp. 61-85. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gould, D., Feltz, D., Horn, T., & Weiss, M. R. (1982). Reasons for discontinuing involvement in competitive youth swimming. Journal of Sport Behavior, 5, 155-165. Haley, J. (1980). Leaving Home. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Haley, J. (1987). Problem solving therapy. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Hayashi, S. W. (1999). Understanding youth sport participation through perceived coaching behaviors, social support, anxiety, and coping. Dissertation Abstracts International. Vol. 59 (7-A), 2418. Hays, K. F. (1995). Putting sport psychology into (your) practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 26, 33-40. Hays, K. F., & Smith, R. J. (1996). Incorporating sport and exercise psychology into clinical practice. In J. L. Van Raalte & B. W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and ex-

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ercise psychology (pp. 413-429). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hellstedt, J. C. (1987). The coach/parent/athlete relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 151-160. Hellstedt, J. C. (1995). Invisible players: A family systems model. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), Sport psychology interventions, 117-147. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Horn, T. S. (2002). Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. In T.S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed.). pp. 309-354. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL. Klint, K.A., & Weiss, M.R. (1986). Dropping in and dropping out: Participation motives of current and former youth gymnasts. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 11, 106-114. Kolbe, L.J., Collins, J., & Cortese, P. (1997). Building the capacity of schools to improve the health of the nation. American Psychologist, 52, 256-265. Lederer, W.J., & Jackson, D.D. (1968). The Mirages of Marriage. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co. Mintz, M.L. (2003, Oct). A ghost in the gym: The invisible damage of family violence on the coach/athlete relationship. Paper presented at the USA Gymnastics World Congress Science Symposium, Anaheim, CA. Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. Minuchin, S., Rosman, B., & Baker, L. (1978). Psychosomatic families: Anorexia nervosa in context. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. Mirkin, M.P., & Koman, S.L. (1985). Handbook of adolescents and family therapy. New York, NY: Gardner Press. Oakland, T. (2003). International school psychology–Psychology’s worldwide portal to children and youth. American Psychologist, 58, 985-992. Orlick, T.D. (1973, Jan/Feb). Children’s sport–A revolution is coming. Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation Journal, pp. 12-124. Petlichkoff, L.M. (1993). Coaching children: Understanding the motivational process. Sport Science Review, 2, 48-61. Poczwardowski, A. (1998). Athletes and coaches: An exploration of their relationship and its meaning. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences & Engineering. Vol. 58 (10-B), Apr, 5701. Ross, M.R., Powell, S.R., & Elias, M.J. (2002). New roles for school psychologists: Addressing the emotional learning needs of students. School Psychology Review, 31, 43-52. Ryska, T.A., Hohensee, D., Cooley, D., & Jones, C. (2002). Participation motives in predicting sport dropout among Australian youth gymnasts. North American Journal of Psychology, 4, 199-210. Scanlan, T., Stein, G., & Ravizza, K. (1991). An in-depth study of former elite figure skaters: III. Sources of stress. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 103-119. Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy, motivation, and performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7, 112-137. Short, R.J., & Talley, R.C. (1997). Rethinking psychology and the schools: Applications of recent national policy. American Psychologist, 52, 234-240.

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Singer, R.N., Hausenblas, H.A., & Janelle, C.M. (2001). Handbook of Sport Psychology (2nd edition), John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Smith, R.E., & Smoll, F.L. (1990). Self-esteem and children’s reactions to youth sport coaching behaviors: A field study of self-enhancement processes. Developmental Psychology, 26, 987-993. Smoll, F.L., Smith, R.E., Barnett, N.P., & Everett, J. J. (1993). Enhancement of children’s self-esteem through social support training for youth sport coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 602-610. State of Michigan (1978). Joint Legislative Study on Youth Sports Programs–Phase III. Michigan State University, Youth Sport Institute, East Lansing. The Star Ledger (2004, February 24). Roxbury ordered to prevent sex crime. Newark, NJ. Weinberg, R.S., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Press. Weiss, M.R., & Petlichkoff, L.M. (1989). Children’s motivation for participation in and withdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links. Pediatric Exercise Science, 1, 195-211.

Sport-Based Life Skills Programming in the Schools Steven J. Danish Tanya Forneris Ian Wallace Life Skills Center Virginia Commonwealth University

SUMMARY. The philosophy of sport and physical activity being readily available for all youth has a long history. Research suggests that sport is a significant factor in the development of adolescents’ self-esteem, identity and feelings of competence. Using sport to promote competence in youth has tremendous benefits and risks. The greatest risk is the belief held by many that we can make a difference by just “throwing the ball and letting them play.” This paper will focus on the role that sport can play in facilitating positive youth development. We delineate the environments in which sport best contributes to positive youth development and the role schools, and the psychologists who work in these schools, can play in this process. In addition, we will provide examples of several sport-based programs designed to enhance positive development, the components that make these programs successful and issues related to the design, implementation and evaluation of these programs. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail Address correspondence to: Dr. Steven J. Danish, Life Skills Center, Williams House, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 West Franklin Street, P.O. Box 842018, Richmond, VA 23284-2018. [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Sport-Based Life Skills Programming in the Schools.” Danish, Steven J., Tanya Forneris, and Ian Wallace. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 41-62; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 41-62. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_04

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Life skills, adolescents, positive youth development, youth sport, program development

As the impact of sport on our society has grown, the interest in sport psychology among psychologists has grown as well. Psychologists, including school psychologists, want to be where the action is; where there are opportunities to make a difference; to have fun; and perhaps to relive their past glories. Additionally, there are data to suggest that sport is a significant factor in the development of adolescents’ self-esteem, identity, and feelings of competence (Danish, Petitpas & Hale, 1993, 1995; Fejgin, 1994; Fox, 1992; Kleiber & Kirshnit, 1991; Zaharopoulos & Hodge, 1991). The message that we hope to impart to the reader is that using sport to promote competence in youth has tremendous benefits and risks. The greatest risk is the belief held by many that we can make a difference by just “throwing the ball and letting them play.” We believe that teaching athletic skills without life skills sends the wrong message to adolescents. It reinforces the belief that their world can change if they become better athletes. For the overwhelming majority, this belief is not true. In this article our major premise is that the skills needed to enhance sport performance and to succeed in life are basically the same. Moreover, when skills are taught so that the learner understands that the skills are transferable and knows how to transfer the skills from one domain to another, the effect can be very powerful. There are several aims of this article. First, we will examine the status of sport at the beginning of the 21st century and its place in schools. As part of this examination, we will consider the role that sport can play in facilitating positive youth development. Second, because positive youth development is a term that is often misconstrued, especially by psychologists who spend a majority of their time dealing with “problem” youth, we will define what we mean by positive youth development. Third, we will delineate the environments in which sport best contributes to positive youth development and the role schools, and the psychologists who work in these schools, can play in this process. Fourth, we will provide examples of several sport-based programs designed to enhance positive development and the components that make

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these programs successful. Fifth, and finally, we will present various issues relating to the design, implementation and evaluation of these programs including the conditions under which the programs should be implemented and the role of the coach and/or psychologist. THE PRESENT STATUS OF SPORT AND ITS PLACE IN THE SCHOOLS The philosophy of sport and physical activity being readily available for all youth has a long history (US President’s Council on Physical Fitness & Sports Report, 1997). In the 1990s, Ewing, Seefeldt, and Brown (1996) estimated that there were 48,374,000 children and adolescents in the 5-17 age range participating in sport in the U.S. Of this number, 451,000 participated in intramural sports in middle, junior and senior high school, and 12% of the total number played interscholastic sports. More recently, Pate, Trost, Levin, and Dowda (2000) used a cross-sectional design to examine data from the 1997 CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey. They sampled 14,221 U.S. high school students. Of those students playing sport (70% of the male students and 53% of the female students), approximately half (51.5%) participated in school team sports or a combination of school and non-school sports teams. A recent study conducted by America Sports Data Inc. (2004) provides vital statistics for understanding current trends in this area. Despite the vast dedication and interest in sport, these statistics show that participation in school-based sports is on the decline, especially for major team sports: baseball, softball, basketball, tackle football, and soccer. Of the 48 million youth aged 6-17 in the United States, the large majority (74%) played at least one of 18 team sports in the year 2000. Of these participants, 54% of them participated in “organized” team sports as compared to pick-up or semi-organized play. Baseball (46%), soccer (45%), and football (62%) had the largest percentages of players engaged in organized play while basketball had the smallest percentage (36%) (America Sports Data Inc., 2004). Despite some generally encouraging statistics, the raw number of youth participating in team sport has decreased on the whole. In 2000, the total youth population (5-17 years old) increased to 51.4 million as compared to 45 million in 1987. However, participation in team sports decreased. Baseball participants decreased from 15.1 million in 1987 to 10.9 in 2001. Softball decreased from 31 to 19.7 million. Touch football decreased from 20.3 to 15.5 million. Volleyball decreased from 36 to

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

22.9 million. Soccer increased from 15.4 to 17.7 million. Basketball increased from 35.7 to 37.6 million (America Sports Data Inc., 2004). Even as the general youth population increased over the course of 13 years, the number of team sport participants has decreased overall. A number of reasons may account for this trend. First, since the 1990s, “extreme” sports have seen a marked increase in youth sport participation. Skateboarding (11.6 million), snowboarding (7.2), wakeboarding (3.6), and paintball (7.1) have all increased. The most popular “extreme” sport, in-line skating, has seen its participation rates increase six-fold (29 million) since 1990 (4.7 million) (America Sports Data Inc., 2004). This recent trend poses a threat to school-based team sport participation as most “extreme” sports are individual sports and generally not included in school sport programs. A second factor that contributes to the decline in school sports participation is the increase among all adolescents in community-based programs, especially youth sport leagues. Accompanying the trend toward participation in youth sport leagues is a movement toward specialization in a specific sport at a younger age. Youth as young as 12 years old play on “travel teams.” During any one season, it is possible to play more baseball, basketball, soccer or ice hockey games than their collegiate or professional counterparts. As youth sport league participation has risen, schools have tried to make sports more attractive to students. One consequence is a decrease in intramural sports programming. As indicated above, less than 1% of those students involved in sports participated in intramurals. The focus of sport participation in the schools is now on interscholastic competition. Schools travel nationally to play each other; many games are televised; and newspapers have national polls ranking schools on their performance in a number of sports. The increasing specialization occurring earlier in a child’s sport career, has contributed to the statistical decline in all team sport participation. Of the organized sport participants, the average player plays 1.96 sports. Yet, the majority of players (44%) play only one sport, 30% play two, 17% play three, while 9% play four or more (America Sports Data Inc., 2004). These statistics are corroborated by parental attitudes toward sport that indicate a vast majority (69%) of parents desire their child to participate in only one sport (America Sports Data Inc., 2004). This percentage is even higher (76%) in parents with young children (6-8). While parental attitudes toward sport participation are generally derived from concern for their child’s health (e.g., less risk of injury), they can often have the opposite effect (American Sports Data Inc.,

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2004). The specialization of one sport often leads to excessive commitments of time, exercise, and mental energy that can lead to injury, in particular overuse injuries (Williams & Anderson, 1998). Organized school-based sports programs are not the only casualty of the changing sporting environment. School-based physical education classes have been cut back significantly by school systems. Currently, only one state requires physical education from K through 12 and two states do not mandate physical education at any level (Reed, 2004). In sum, the opportunity to participate in school-based physical activities are dwindling either as a result of the other demands that schools must attend to, a lack of financial resources, the perceived indifference of parents and their children, or all of the above. This decrease in sport participation is not without cost. Children who play sports learn unique life skills such as cooperation, teamwork, goal setting, time management and communication skills. The decrease in school sport participation has minimized the exposure children have to acquiring the skills learned through sport. If schools provide classes in physical education, art, music, and opportunities to participate in intramural and interscholastic sports, no matter how limited these opportunities are, there is an implicit assumption that their mission is to educate the “whole child” and not just provide the traditional “3R’s.” Consequently, it is important for psychologists working in schools to clarify what constitutes positive youth development and to work to achieve such a goal. UNDERSTANDING POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT In 2002, the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2002) identified 28 personal and social assets that facilitate positive youth development. They identified these assets across four domains: physical development, intellectual development, psychological and emotional development, and social development. The 28 assets delineated in the four domains expanded on and paralleled the desired adolescent developmental outcomes identified in a series of reports by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989; 1995). The assets and competencies can be delineated succinctly as: to work well, play well, love well, think well, serve well and be well (Bloom, 2000; Danish, 2000). Together, these lists of competencies and assets comprise what other researchers consider as the basis of character edu-

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

cation, social-emotional learning, life skills and/or emotional intelligence. An obvious example of where sport can enhance one of these competencies is our society’s increasing concern with the health of our youth. As opportunities to participate in sport have decreased for all but the best athletes, obesity, the incidence of Type 2 diabetes, and poor physical fitness have become more prevalent. Yet, despite these negative statistics, there is a growing interest in the role that physical activity and sport can play in an adolescent’s health as indicated by two recently released national polls that show remarkable agreement between parents and teachers on what schools should do to help stop the epidemic of childhood obesity (NCPPA, 2004). More than 90 percent of parents and teachers surveyed favored converting the contents of vending machines in schools to healthy foods and beverages. And more than 80 percent of parents and teachers believed students should be required to take physical education every day at every grade level (NCPPA, 2004). Regular participation in physical activity has been strongly promoted as it provides physical and mental health benefits. It is believed that children should accumulate 30 minutes or more of moderate intensity physical activity most days of the week as it is important for the development and health of muscles, bones and joints (ACSM, 1988; US Surgeon General Report, 1996). In addition to reducing the risk of developing chronic illnesses, there is mounting evidence that vigorous and frequent physical activity plays an important role in the process of growth and development. For example, there is some evidence that patterns of physical activity during childhood and adolescence may affect the incidence and morbidity of disease (e.g., coronary artery disease) later in life (Cooper, 1996). Regular physical activity is also important for the development of motor skill acquisition (Fagard, 1996) and bone mass (Bailey, 1996) in the developing child. If physical activity for children and adolescents is to affect health beneficially, the most likely means is by initiating exercise habits that will be maintained throughout life (ACSM, 1988; Blair, Clark, Cureton, & Powell, 1989). The development of these habits usually begins with activities that the participating child or adolescent finds enjoyable. These activities often involve participating in sport. However, just focusing on reducing the incidents of health-compromising behaviors or defining everything in terms of problem reduction is limiting. While we believe that reducing or eliminating health-compromising behaviors such as obesity, substance use, bullying and vio-

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lent behavior and inappropriate sexual behavior is clearly important, it is equally important to assess youth not in terms of their problems, or lack of problems, but in terms of their potential and their strengths. Being problem-free is not the same as being competent or successful. Therefore, we must define and teach youth the skills, values, attitudes, and knowledge necessary to succeed with the same intensity as we work to teach the prevention of certain health-compromising behaviors and attitudes. Sport has the potential to benefit not only adolescents’ physical development but their psychosocial development as well. There are many reasons young athletes give for their decision to participate in sport: having fun, seeking affiliation, demonstrating power, improving skills, pursuing excellence, exhibiting aggression, having something to do, experiencing thrills or excitement, being independent, receiving rewards, fulfilling parental expectations, and winning. However, while there are multiple motives, the most common motives mentioned are to improve skills (i.e., develop physical competency); to have fun; and to be with friends/make new friends (i.e., develop social competency through peer relations) (Athletic Footwear Association, 1990; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989). We believe that sport participation within the school can be an attractive activity for youth and for schools. In other words, such participation can provide opportunities for competency building and enjoyment for adolescents as well as contribute to the educational mission of the schools. It can meet this objective by enabling each individual to reach his or her personal goals and derive satisfaction from doing so (Danish, Petitpas & Hale, 1993; Danish, Nellen, & Owens, 1996; Hodge, 1994a,b). Successful and satisfying goal accomplishment is a powerful mediator of psychosocial development. One of the advantages of using sport examples to signify goal accomplishment is that the goals in sport are typically tangible, short-term and easily measured. This gives an individual a better opportunity to see the value in goal setting and to experience success in setting and achieving goals (Bandura, 1995). If sport is integrated into the school curriculum, rather than seen as an extracurricular activity for the very talented, then this success in setting and achieving goals can be applied to other educational pursuits. The result should be that students will be more successful academically. However, it is not the game itself that facilitates development. There is nothing magical about a ball, racket, or a sport venue for transmitting these lessons. Both positive and negative skills and attitudes can be

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

taught in the sport setting by coaches, teammates, and parents and can be learned by young athletes (Hodge & Danish, 1999; Miracle & Rees, 1994). We must carefully delineate what sport can teach, how it can be taught, and where it can best be taught. In this section we focus on what are the optimal conditions for teaching sport. FEATURES OF A POSITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL SETTING The National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2002) identified eight features of a positive developmental setting. They are: physical and psychological safety, clear and consistent structure, and appropriate adult supervision, supportive relationships, opportunities to belong, positive social norms, support for efficacy and mattering, opportunities for skill building, and integration of family, school, and community efforts. Previous research has shown that individually these eight characteristics relate to positive developmental outcomes. Although there seems to be some overlap in the components that constitute these settings, it is evident to us that schools have the potential for being an ideal environment. Many of these characteristics naturally exist in schools, and they can be enhanced by the participation of a psychologist. Some of the actions a psychologist can take to enhance the school as a setting that can facilitate positive growth are to: (1) Communicate to teachers, coaches and participants that being supportive of each other will increase everyone’s self-esteem, make the experience more positive and result in fewer drop-outs; (2) Assist in the development of a clear and consistent structure where all participants know the rules and expectations of how one is to behave and play; (3) Promote a sense of belonging, feeling valued and connected among participants to the group and the activity, particularly since some evidence exists that involvement in sports activities increases participants ‘connectedness to the school environment’ (Eccles & Barber, 1999); (4) Encourage coaches and teachers to have high expectations for prosocial behavior; (5) Expect all participants to improve both athletically, academically, and personally and expect their teachers and coaches to facilitate this improvement; (6) Provide opportunities for participants to develop and improve both their athletic and life skills. Methods for providing these opportunities will be detailed in the next section; and (7) Marshall the resources of the various environments in which participants live (family, school, com-

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munity) and link them together so that participants receive a consistent message from all three settings and benefit from their cooperation. SPORT-BASED PROGRAMS TO ENHANCE POSITIVE DEVELOPMENT To use sport to promote personal growth, we first must recognize that the activity is a metaphor for enhancing competence, not an end in itself. In other words, the lasting value of a sport experience lies in the application of the principles learned through participation and then transferred to other areas. Of the millions of youth who play sports, only a tiny fraction of a percentage will become involved in sport as a career. For the rest, growing up means further defining their identity, discovering other skills and interests, and, it is our hope, applying some of the valuable principles learned during sport participation to their adult pursuits. These transferable behaviors and attitudes are what we call life skills. Life skills are those skills that enable students to succeed in the different environments in which they live, such as school, home, and in their neighborhoods. Life skills can be behavioral (communicating effectively with peers and adults); cognitive (making effective decisions); interpersonal (being assertive), or intrapersonal (setting goals). Environments vary from individual to individual, and thus the definition of what it means to succeed will differ across individuals, as well as across environments. Individuals in the same environment are likely to be dissimilar from each other as a result of the life skills they have already mastered, their other resources, and their opportunities, real or perceived. For this reason, the needed life skills are likely to be different for individuals of different ages, ethnic and/or racial groups, or economic status. While it is necessary to be sensitive to these differences, it is also important to recognize that there is a core set of life skills that all individuals need to know and that many individuals can also effectively apply life skills learned in one environment to other environments as appropriate (Danish, 1997). Although there are an increasing number of programs that purport to teach life skills, few of them are sport-based. In this section, two programs are described. The first program is Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity (Hellison, 1995). The program was developed for teachers and coaches to teach responsibility through physical activity. Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity was developed in Chicago but has been implemented elsewhere (Hellison,

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Cutforth, Kallusky, Martinek, Parker, & Stiehl, 2000). The model consists of five levels of what it means for students to be responsible and what they need to be responsible for: (a) respecting the rights and feelings of others; (b) understanding the role of effort in improving oneself in physical activity and life; (c) being self-directed and responsible for one’s own well-being; (d) being sensitive and responsible for the well-being of others; and (e) applying what you have learned in different non-physical activity/sport settings. Cummings (1997) examined the impact of the program on school attendance, grades and dropout rates. She found that the control group had a 34% school dropout rate as compared to none in the program group. No differences were found between the groups with respect to school attendance or grades. The second program is SUPER (Sports United to Promote Education and Recreation) (Danish, 2002b). SUPER is a sports-based program that takes advantage of the clearly defined, contingency-dependent, closed environment of sport and uses it as a “training ground” for life. Participants are taught to use a variety of skills to improve their athletic performance, some physical and some mental, to recognize situations both in and out of sports requiring these skills, and then to apply them in sport and non-sport settings. The goals of the SUPER Program are that each participant leave the program with the understanding that: (1) there is a relationship between performance excellence in sport and personal excellence in life; (2) mental skills can enhance both sport performance and personal performance; and (3) it is important to set and attain goals in sport and life; (4) roadblocks to goals can be overcome; and (5) effective participation in sport requires being healthy and physically fit. SUPER is patterned after the nationally known, award-winning Going for the Goal (GOAL) program (Danish, 2002a). GOAL is the 1996 winner of the Lela Rowland Prevention Award given by the National Mental Health Association. It has also been honored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as part of its Freedom from Fear Campaign and received an honorable mention by the Points of Light Foundation. SUPER is a peer-led series of 18 modules taught like sports clinics. Participants are involved in three sets of activities: learning the physical skills related to a specific sport; learning life skills related to sports in general; and playing the sport. A description of the 18 modules is in Table 1. Each module or workshop is approximately 30 minutes in length. For an extended discussion of the conceptual framework for SUPER, readers are referred to Danish, Fazio, Nellen, and Owens (2002).

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TABLE 1. Summary of SUPER Workshops Workshop 1

Developing a Team–The program and the peer leaders are introduced. Participants engage in several team-building activities designed to enhance communication and understand each other’s strengths and weaknesses.

Workshop 2

Dare to Dream–Participants learn about and discuss the importance of having dreams for the future. They then identify career/school and sport dreams they have for 10 years in the future. The peer leaders share some of their dreams.

Workshop 3

Setting Goals (Part 1)–Participants learn the difference between dreams and goals and how to turn a dream into a goal. They identify people who support them in achieving their goals (Goal Keepers) and people who may prevent them from achieving their goals (Goal Busters).

Workshop 4

Setting Goals (Part 2)–Participants learn the four characteristics of a reachable goal (positively stated, specific, important to the goal setter and under the goal setter’s control). They practice distinguishing goals that are important to the goal setter and goals that are positively stated.

Workshop 5

Setting Goals (Part 3)–Participants practice distinguishing goals that are specific from ones that are not specific and goals that are under their control from those that are not.

Workshop 6

Making Your Goal Reachable–Participants apply the four characteristics of a reachable goal to their own goals. They set two six-week goals; one for sport and a personal goal.

Workshop 7

Making a Goal Ladder–Participants learn the importance of developing plans to reach goals (called a Goal Ladder) and make plans to reach the two goals they have set. Making a ladder involves placing the goal at the top of the ladder and identifying six steps to reach their goal.

Workshop 8

Identifying and Overcoming Roadblocks to Reaching Goals–Participants learn how different roadblocks (e.g., using drugs, getting into fights, lack of confidence) can prevent them from reaching their goals. They identify possible roadblocks and learn and practice a problem solving strategy called STAR to help them overcome the roadblocks.

Workshop 9

Seeking Help From Other–Participants learn the importance of seeking social support when working on goals. They identify people in their lives, a Dream Team, who can provide doing and/or caring help to assist them in achieving their goals.

Workshop 10 Using Positive Self-Talk–Participants learn the importance of identifying their self-talk, how to distinguish positive from negative self-talk and how to identify key positive self-talk statements related to their goals. They then practice making positive self-talk statements. Workshop 11 Learning to Relax–Participants learn the importance of relaxation to reduce tension and how to focus and breathe as a means to help them relax. Workshop 12 Managing Emotions–Participants learn that managing their emotions, both in sport and life, is learning to be smart. They learn and practice a procedure, the 4 R’s (Replay, Relax, Redo, Ready), to help them play smart both inside and outside sport.

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures TABLE 1 (continued)

Workshop 13 Developing a Healthy Lifestyle–Participants develop an understanding of the importance of being healthy in all areas of their lives. They also learn how to make changes to insure they are living a healthy lifestyle and are asked to make a commitment to such a lifestyle. Workshop 14 Appreciating Differences–Participants identify differences among individuals in the group and determine which ones are important and which ones are insignificant in reaching goals. Workshop 15 Having Confidence and Courage–Participants understand the importance of believing in themselves and learn how to develop more self-confidence. Workshop 16 Learning to Focus on Your Personal Performance–Participants learn what it means to compete against oneself and understand that competing against oneself to attain personal excellence can enhance performance. Workshop 17 Identifying and Building on Your Strengths–Participants identify personal strengths and learn how to use the skills associated with these strengths and the skills learned in the program in other areas of their lives. Workshop 18 Goal Setting for Life–Participants learn that goal setting is a lifetime activity and they set two goals to attain over the next three months. One goal is school related; the other relates to home or community. They assess whether the goals meet the four characteristics of a reachable goal and develop a goal ladder for each goal.

The SUPER Program has been implemented in conjunction with several sports including basketball, soccer, golf, rugby, and volleyball. Hodge, Heke, and McCarroll (2000) applied the SUPER model in the development of the Rugby Advantage Program (RAP) in New Zealand. Danish and his colleagues (Danish, 2001; Brunelle, Danish, & Taylor, in preparation) applied the program to golf, and Papacharisis, Goudas, Danish, and Theodorakis (in press) applied the program to soccer and volleyball. College student-athletes are trained in a service-learning course (Giles & Eyler, 1998) to serve as leaders and to coach and teach the program to middle and high school-aged students. When peers teach other peers, they become part of what Seidman and Rappaport (1974) called an educational pyramid. Such a pyramid starts with the Life Skills Center staff who train community professionals (school psychologists, guidance counselors and/or coaches/teachers) how to select and train SUPER leaders. These SUPER student-athlete leaders then implement the program. The training for the leaders ranges from between 10 and 15 hours.

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There are a number of advantages to this implementation strategy. First, by using older peers there is a potential for choosing natural, indigenous leaders to serve as role models. Successful high school students serve as concrete images of what younger adolescents can become. Because these high school students have grown up in the same neighborhoods, attended the same schools, and confronted similar roadblocks, they serve as important role models and thus are in an ideal position to be effective teachers (Danish, 1997). Second, there has been an increasing awareness of the mutual benefits to the peer leaders and the younger students. Riessman (1976) identified what he called the “helper therapy principle.” He noted that the “helper” gained a sense of power, control, and being needed through the helping process. More recently, Hogan (2000) found that peer leaders reported that teaching a health-oriented life skills program improved their perception of their leadership skills. They also improved their understanding of what is required to set and attain goals. This latter finding by Hogan is consistent with the beliefs held by educational psychologists who have long concluded that teaching is one of the best ways of learning. Peer teaching, then, provides the peer teacher with benefits of both a psychological and content nature. By teaching others how to succeed, the peer teacher’s ability to succeed is enhanced. As part of the SUPER Program, student-athlete leaders are also taught how to use the Sport Observation System (SOS). The SOS involves focusing on how youth participate and not just on how well they perform. Understanding “how” provides information on the mental skills participants have in dealing with coaching/teaching and is likely to be indicative of how they will respond to other forms of instruction such as school and job training. The SOS is presented in Table 2. SUPER student-athlete leaders are asked to speak to the members of their team about what they observed. A “life skills report card” is given to each participant at the end of the program. The report card provides feedback to the participants on the “how” and “how well” they have done. IMPLEMENTING AND EVALUATING SPORT-BASED LIFE SKILLS PROGRAMS IN SCHOOLS Program Implementation. Developing a positive relationship with the administration, teachers, coaches and other relevant personnel is essential for effective implementation. Schools have multiple agendas

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures TABLE 2. The Sport Observation System The Sport Observation System

1. How attentive are participants when given instructions or observing demonstration? 2. What happens when participants cannot perform an activity to their expectations? 3. Do participants initiate questions when they do not understand something, or do they wait for someone else to talk first? 4. Do participants initiate conversation with others, or do they wait for someone else to talk first? 5. How do participants respond when they have a good or a bad performance? 6. How do participants respond when others have a good or a bad performance? 7. How do participants respond when someone gives them praise or criticism? 8. Do participants give up when they don’t do well, or do they persist? 9. Do participants compete or cooperate with teammates?

and not everyone agrees on a school’s mission. Positive support and open communication among all personnel involved facilitates effective coordination and encourages a positive infrastructure for the implementation of the program. When communication is open and positive differences in priorities are more easily resolved. Differences can arise around such issues as the recruitment and training of student-athlete leaders; where, when and how to implement the intervention; and how to evaluate its effect. Sport-based life skills programs implemented in schools are designed to help the student learn both sport and life skills. Therefore, what is learned in the sport must be able to be transferred to nonsport settings. In the case of sport-based life skills programs, the similarity between teaching sport skills and life skills provides an immediate advantage. Both sets of skills must be taught, not caught. It is also important to remember that students are active individuals. Their life experiences suggest they learn best by doing rather than by talking. A Chinese proverb best describes the ideal teaching process–I listen– and forget, I see–and remember, I do–and understand. There are a number of strategies involved in implementation that can enhance the transfer of skills. These include: designing conditions that enhance transfer of the skill at the beginning of the activity; creating similarities between the environment of the activity and the environ-

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ment where the transfer is to occur; providing opportunities to practice transferring the skill during the activity; providing opportunities to reflect on the experiences; involving peers who have successfully completed the activity; and providing follow-up experiences to reinforce learning (Gass, 1985). We have developed the following instructional design that reflects the strategies that enable successful transfer of skills. First, we teach the general concept of the skill. As part of the instruction we emphasize that successful athletes need to improve both their “below the neck” (physical skills) and “above the neck” (mental skills) abilities. Further, we explain and provide examples through activities for how both physical and mental skills can be practiced and improved in sport settings and how the mental skills can be practiced and improved in non-sport settings. Opportunities are then made available to apply and practice the skill in the sport venue. We also have the students apply the skill to other areas of their lives and help them develop a plan to practice the skill in these other domains. Finally, we have the students report successes and failures in applying the skill in both contexts, both during the session and at the next session. Sport-based life skills programs need to be carefully designed and implemented to maintain the reliability of the program and flexible to effectively adapt the program within various school settings. One of the key aspects in maintaining the balance between structure and flexibility is the training of individuals responsible for implementing the program. The training of individuals implementing sport-based life skills programs needs to encompass a number of skills apart from learning the actual material of the program. This is especially true when the implementers are peers. First, it is important that leaders are trained to be able to effectively lead and manage groups, gain respect from participants, create a positive learning environment and effectively deal with problems that may occur in the group. Second, it is important for the leaders to understand how various types of communication can have an impact on the participants in the program. The leaders are educated about nonverbal communication and the ways in which it may impact the leaders’ interaction with the group. The leaders are also taught how to give effective feedback and educated about how it may influence the success of the program being implemented. Third, the leaders are taught how to teach skills effectively. Leaders are taught that teaching skills is different from teaching facts and information. It requires the ability to name and describe the skill being taught, understand and communicate the impor-

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tance of the skill being taught and effectively demonstrate and practice the new skill with the participants of the program. Because in both SUPER and our other life skills programs, older peers serve as leaders, selection and training become especially important. We have chosen a peer leadership model because we have found that older peers can be especially effective at teaching skills because they are able to use their own experiences and successes as an example and because they serve as role models for the younger students (Danish, 2000). However, in terms of training, an additional skill that must be taught is how to lead and teach and still be a peer. If the peer-leaders become too much like an adult in their teaching style, they lose some of their effectiveness. On the other hand, if they act too much like a friend, they lose their ability to communicate their message and maintain the control necessary to teach effectively. Program Evaluation. Newly-developed school based programs in general, struggle to gain acceptance and wide spread adoption. There are two main reasons why this is true. First, there is a lack of rigorous evaluation. Researchers who develop programs want to evaluate the programs they implement. However, research conducted is not always done well, and even when it is, is not always relevant. Second, if the program is evaluated it often overlooks the importance of bridging the gap between science and practice. Researchers rarely take the time and effort to work with organizations to translate the findings into practice. This is especially true within the field of education (Whitehurst, 2003). The first step toward rectifying this situation is to reinforce those involved about the importance of program evaluation and how they can incorporate the results of evidence-based strategies or practices into their schools. When we conduct the training for implementing the program we involve individuals from the schools so that they gain an understanding of the program and can build on the learning that has taken place for the program participants. A second step is for researchers and program developers to redouble efforts to conduct evidence-based research and communicate the results in ways that will help schools better understand the impact of the program and how the school can continue to develop. Often when there are evidence-based results, researchers are focused on writing up the results for publication, rather than ensuring the results are both relevant and applicable for use by the school. Furthermore, there is even less of an effort to ensure that the research has utility across settings; in other words, that it has applicability at other similar schools. For example, researchers can provide reports that outline the major findings and how these

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findings specifically impact the school and provide examples of how the school can continue to implement the program effectively. Researchers and practitioners must work together to reduce the gap between research and practice. One step is to help teachers and educators understand and incorporate the results of evidence-based strategies or practices into their daily curriculum. The SUPER program described provides opportunities to involve teachers so that they gain an understanding of the program and can build on the learning that has taken place for the students. For example, students can place the goal they set on their desks or somewhere in the classroom so that the teacher can continually monitor the progress of the students. When students are having difficulty reaching their goals, teachers are able to help them overcome the obstacles they are facing. Teachers familiar with the program will also be able to help students use effective problem solving strategies (STAR) and help-seeking behaviors (developing a Dream Team). The result is that teachers become part of students’ Dream Teams and are better able to connect with the students when teaching. As a result of forming a partnership between educators and social scientists, researchers can conduct rigorous and relevant research with the aim of enhancing student learning through the application of the research findings. Another important aspect of program evaluation is process evaluation. When schools are considering implementing a program, it is not only important to implement a program that will be effective but it is also important that the program is implemented accurately and successfully (Graczyk, Weissberg, Payton, Elias, Greenberg, & Zins, 2000). Researchers often are most interested in whether the program implemented results in changes in attitudes, behavior and/or knowledge. As a result the only evaluation that takes place is outcome evaluation. However, process evaluation is a valuable tool that can enhance understanding of results from the outcome evaluation (Graczyk et al., 2000). The purpose of process evaluation is to monitor the implementation process and the degree to which the program is being implemented as it was originally designed, to identify and address problems so that the quality of implementation can be maintained at a high level, and to document the implementation process to help in the interpretation of results from the outcome evaluation (Graczyk et al., 2000). If a program is implemented and the outcome evaluation shows weak support on various outcomes, without a process evaluation it is difficult to determine whether the program overall is ineffective or if the implementation of the

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program was ineffective. Therefore the level and quality of implementation should be examined with a process evaluation. In evaluating the programs implemented in the schools, process evaluation can take on a number of forms. For example, having independent observers randomly observe sessions, having instructors complete surveys after each session has been taught, tracking the number of participants and conditions under which the program is implemented (e.g., is the school cooperative in providing enough time and space needed to effectively implement the program). To determine whether a program is effective both the implementation and evaluation are critical. Psychologists interested in implementing programs must ensure that they have the resources and support necessary for a high quality implementation, in other words, being able to implement the program as it is designed to be implemented and to effectively evaluate the program by including both an outcome evaluation and a process evaluation. THE ROLE OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS IN TEACHING SPORT AND LIFE SKILLS Much of the education and training school psychologists have had will prove valuable in teaching sport and life skills to youth. Key to their work in teaching these skills is the ability to assist adolescents in setting and attaining goals, a proficiency in identifying and transferring acquired physical and mental skills from one domain to another domain, an understanding of adolescence and the physical, cognitive, affective, and social/interpersonal changes taking place during this period, redesigning the life skills to be learned to fit their setting, and the ability to supervise and train peer leaders. The process of teaching goal setting is a critical one. Several points about teaching goal setting need to be emphasized. First, we are defining goals as task behaviors, not outcome behaviors. In other words, goals are actions undertaken to reach some desired end, not the end itself. Second, having participants “set goals for themselves” is critical. If the goal is more important to others than it is to the individual, it is unlikely it will be achieved. Unimportant goals are rarely accomplished. Therefore, to increase the likelihood that energy will be invested in goal attainment, it is important to help participants ascertain that the goal is important to them. Third, when goals are identified but not achieved, there are several better explanations other than “lack of motivation” for

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why the goal has not been attained. Reviewing the goal ladder and the rebounding workshops are important places to begin. To be an effective life skills educator, developing some counseling skills will assist in implementing these programs effectively. CONCLUSION Adolescents today are taking more risks with their health, lives, and future than ever before. There is a lot of concern about what to do but few answers and even fewer efforts to find a solution. Using sport to teach life skills is not the answer, nothing is. However, reaching adolescents where they are and want to be (on the playgrounds and gymnasiums) and having peers they respect teach them how to succeed is one small, but important step. Although less exciting, the future of our country is much more dependent on helping our youth reach their goals than it is on helping elite athletes win gold. REFERENCES ACSM (1988). American College of Sports Medicine opinion statement on physical fitness in children and youth. Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise, 20, 422-423. American Sports Data, Inc. (2004, January). A study of organized youth team sport participation in the U.S. Hartsdale, NY. Athletic Footwear Association (1990). American youth and sports participation. North Palm Beach, FL. Bailey, D. (1996). The role of physical activity in the regulation of bone mass during growth. In O. Bar-Or (Ed.), The Child and Adolescent Athlete: Volume VI of the Encylopaedia of Sports Medicine (pp. 138-152). Oxford: Blackwell Science. Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blair, S., Clark, D., Cureton, K., & Powell, K. (1989). Exercise and fitness in childhood: Implications for a lifetime of health. In C. Gisolfi & D. Lamb (Eds.), Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Youth, Exercise, and Sport (pp. 401-430). Indianapolis: Benchmark. Bloom, M. (2000). The uses of theory in primary prevention practice: Evolving thoughts on sports and after-school activities as influences of social competence. In Danish, S.J. & Gullotta, T. (Eds.), Developing competent youth and strong communities through after-school programming. Washington, DC: CWLA Press. Brunelle, J., Danish, S.J., & Forneris, T. (2004). The Impact of a Sport-Based Life Skills Program on Adolescent Prosocial Values. Unpublished Manuscript.

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Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1995). Great Transitions: Preparing Adolescents for a New Century. Reports of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Waldorf, MD. Carnegie Corporation of New York. (1989). Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century. Reports of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Waldorf, MD. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1997). CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey. www.cdc.gov. Accessed June, 2004. Cooper, D. (1996). Cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses to exercise: Maturation and growth. In O. Bar-Or (Ed.), The Child and Adolescent Athlete: Volume VI of the Encylopaedia of Sports Medicine (pp. 54-73). Oxford: Blackwell Science. Cummings, T. (1997). Testing the effectiveness of Hellison’s Personal and Social Responsibility Model. Unpublished Master’s thesis; California State University, Chico. Danish, S. (2002a). Going for the Goal: Leader Manual. (4th Edition) Richmond, VA: Life Skills Associates. Danish, S. (2002b). SUPER (Sports United to Promote Education and Recreation) Program: Leader Manual (Third Edition). Richmond, VA: Life Skills Center, Virginia Commonwealth University. Danish, S.J. (2001). The First Tee: Teaching youth to succeed in golf and life. In P.R. Thomas (Ed.), Optimising performance in golf (pp. 67-74). Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press. Danish, S., Fazio, R., Nellen, V., & Owens, S. (2001). Teaching life skills through sport: Community-based programs to enhance adolescent development. In J. Van Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd Ed.) (pp. 205-225). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Danish, S.J. (2000). Youth and community development: How after-school programming can make a difference. In Danish, S.J. & Gullotta, T. (Eds.), Developing competent youth and strong communities through after-school programming. Washington, DC: CWLA Press. Danish, S. (1997). Going for the Goal: A life skills program for adolescents. In Gullotta, T. & Albee, G. (Eds.), Primary Prevention Works (pp. 291-312). Newbury Park: Sage. Danish, S., Nellen, V., & Owens, S. (1996). Community-based life skills programs: Using sports to teach life skills to adolescents. In Van Raalte, J. & B. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring Sports and Exercise Psychology (pp. 205-225). Washington: APA Books. Danish, S.J., Petitpas, A.J., & Hale, B.D. (1993). Life development intervention for athletes: Life skills through sports. The Counseling Psychologist (Major contribution) 21 (3), 352-385. Danish, S., Petitpas, A., & Hale, B. (1995). Psychological interventions: A life development model. In S. Murphy (Ed.), Sport Psychology Interventions (pp. 19-28). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. Eccles, J.S., & Barber, B.L. (1999). Student council, volunteering, basketball, or marching band: What kind of extracurricular involvement matters? Journal of Adolescent Research, 14 (1), 10-43.

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Ewing, M., Seefeldt, V., & Brown, T. (1996). The role of organized sport in the education and health of American children and youth. Unpublished paper commissioned by the Carnegie Corporation (New York). Fagard, J. (1996). Skill acquisition in children: A historical perspective. In O. Bar-Or (Ed.), The child and adolescent athlete: Volume VI of the encylopaedia of sports medicine (pp. 74-91). Oxford: Blackwell Science. Fejgin, N. (1994). Participation in high school sports: A subversion of school mission or contribution to academic goals? Sociology of Sport Journal, 11, 211-230. Fox, K. (1992). The complexities of self-esteem promotion in physical education and sport. In T. Williams, L. Almond, & A. Sparkes (Eds.), Sport and physical activity: Moving towards excellence (pp. 383-389). London: E & F. N. Spon. Gass, M. (1985). Programming the transfer of learning in adventure education. Journal of Experimental Education, 8, 18-24. Giles, D.E., & Eyler, J. (1994). The theoretical roots of service-learning in John Dewey: Towards a theory of service learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 1, 77-85. Graczyk, P.A., Weissberg, R.P., Payton, J.W., Elias, M.J., Greenberg, M.T., & Zins, J.E. (2000). Criteria for evaluating the quality of school-based social and emotional learning programs. In R. Bar-On & J. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace. (pp. 391-410). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Hellison, D. (1995). Teaching responsibility through physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Hellison, D., Cutforth, N., Kallusky, J., Martinek, T., Parker, M., & Stiehl, J. (2000). Youth development and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Hodge, K. P. (1994a). Mental toughness in sport: Lessons for life. Journal of Physical Education New Zealand, 27, 12-16. Hodge, K. P. (1994b). Sport motivation: Training your mind for peak performance. Auckland, NZ: Reed. Hodge, K., & Danish, S. (1999). Promoting life skills for adolescent males through sport. In A. Horne & M. Kiselica (Eds.), Handbook of counselling boys and adolescent males (pp. 55-71). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hodge, K., Heke, J.I., & McCarroll, N. (2000). The Rugby Advantage Program (RAP). Unpublished manuscript, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Hogan, C. (2000). The impact of a peer led program on the peer leader’s leadership-related skills. Unpublished master’s thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond. Kleiber, D.A., & Kirshnit, C.E. (1991). Sport involvement and identity formation. In L. Diamant (Ed.), Mind-body maturity: Psychological approaches to sports, exercise, and fitness (pp. 193-211). New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. Miracle, A.W., & Rees, C.R. (1994). Lesson of the locker room: The myth of school sports. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2002). Community programs to promote youth development: Committee on community-level programs for youth. Board of Children, Youth, and Families, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

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NCPPA (2004). National Coalition for Promoting Physical Activity. http://www.ncppa.org. Accessed July, 2004. Papacharisis, V., Goudas, M., Danish, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (in press). The effectiveness of teaching a life skills program in a school-based sport context. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. Pate, R.R., Trost, S.G., Levin, S., & Dowda, M. (2000). Sports participation and healthrelated behaviors among US youth. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159 (9), 904-911. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sport. (1997, May). Physical activity and sport in the lives of girls: Physical and mental health dimensions from an interdisciplinary approach. Washington, DC. Reed, K. (2004, February 1). Elitism in youth sports yields physical fatness. The New York Times, pp. 15, section 8. Riessman, F. (1976). How does self-help work? Social Policy, 7, 41-45. Seidman, E., & Rappaport, J. (1974). The educational pyramid: A paradigm for training, research, and manpower utilization in community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology 2, 119-130. US Surgeon General Report (1996). Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington D.C. Weiss, M., & Petlichkoff, L. (1989). Children’s motivation for participation in and withdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links. Pediatric Exercise Science, 1, 195-211. Whitehurst, G.J. (December, 2003). Rigor, relevance, and utilization. Observer, 16, pp. 1 & 25-26. Williams, J. M., & Anderson, M. B. (1998). Psychosocial antecedents of sports injury: Review and critique of the stress and injury model. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10, 5-25. Zaharopoulos, E., & Hodge, K. (1991). Self-concept and sports participation. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 20, 12-16.

Preventing Substance Use Among High School Athletes: The ATLAS and ATHENA Programs Linn Goldberg Diane L. Elliot Oregon Health & Science University

SUMMARY. This article will provide information about two worthwhile programs that deal with education of high school athletes about use and abuse of steroids and other areas. Based on rationale and expressed need, program descriptions will be provided including summaries of relevant program results. Guidelines for what practitioners need to consider when deciding to implement one or both of these programs in public schools also will be discussed. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.] Address correspondence to: Linn Goldberg, MD, Oregon Health & Science University CR110, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239-3098 (E-mail: [email protected]). This project was funded by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse 5R01 DA07356, with assistance from PHS Grant 5 M01 RR000334. Conflict of Interest Statement: OHSU and Drs. Goldberg and Elliot have a significant financial interest from the commercial sale of technologies used in this research. This potential conflict of interest has been reviewed and managed by the OHSU Conflict of Interest in Research Committee. [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Preventing Substance Use Among High School Athletes: The ATLAS and ATHENA Programs.” Goldberg, Linn, and Diane L. Elliot. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 63-87; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 63-87. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800- HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: docdelivery@haworthpress. com].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_05

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KEYWORDS. Anabolic steroids, drug prevention, adolescent athlete, health promotion, health behavior

Substance use and abuse is more pervasive in the United States than in any other industrialized nation. It is responsible for 500,000 preventable deaths each year, and results in extensive societal costs (AMA News & CASA, 1994; Blum, 1987; Gunby, 1987; Johnston, 2002; Johnston, 2004; Kandel, 1997; Skiba, 2004; Spotlight, 2000). Although better understanding of its etiology (Blake, 2001; Catalano, 2002; Drug Strategies, 1999; Dusenbury, 1995; Dusenbury, 1997; NIDA, 1997; Tobler, 1986; Tobler, 1997) may be responsible for the decline in substance use over the past several years, drug and alcohol use remains unacceptably high (Johnston, 2004). However, one group of substances, performance enhancing drugs (primarily anabolic-androgenic hormones) has continued to rise over the past eight years, despite the reductions of other substances of abuse (Johnston, 2004). HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ SUBSTANCE USE High school students rank drugs as the single most important problem facing them and their peers (CASA Back to School, 1998). Based on current prevalence data, the lifetime use of any illicit drug more than doubles between the 8th and 12th grade (Johnston, 2002; Johnston, 2004). Adolescents in those years are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of alcohol and drug use (Blum, 1987; CDC, 2001; Center on Addictions, 2003; Gunby, 1987; Kandel, 1980; Kandel, 1997; Lowry, 1994) and more likely to progress to adult drug abuse (NIDA, 1997). Despite the increased prevalence, the high school years represent a critical window of opportunity for alcohol and drug use prevention. Youth who remain alcohol and drug free in late adolescence have a lifetime reduction in alcohol, tobacco and other drug use (NIDA, 1997). Unfortunately, the early initiation of positive effects of drug use prevention programs among younger children often decay over time, such that alcohol and drug prevention programs’ delivery to younger students may not persist during the high school years (Bell & Ellickson, 1993; Ellickson, 1993; Shope, 1998). This leaves older adolescents relatively unprotected at a time that they are particularly vulnerable to the risks of drug and alcohol use initiation, including progression to adult

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substance abuse and other associated harmful activities (e.g., driving while intoxicated) (Bell et al., 1993; Peterson et al., 2000; Shope et al., 1998). Although programs to prevent middle school students’ substance use, and interventions directed to high-risk groups of older adolescents can be efficacious, there are few programs available to deter high school students’ use of alcohol and illicit drugs (Blake, 2001; DHHS, 2001; Dusenbury, 1997; Thompson, 1997; Tobler, 1986; Tobler, 1997). Two distinct factors may contribute to the diminished effects of traditional classroom-based prevention programs among high school students: (1) greater influence from peers and less from authority figures (e.g., parental and teacher effects) and (2) new gender specific influences (Beman, 1995; Dinges, 1993; Lifrak, 1997; Razzino, 2004; Swadi, 1992). Lack of available effective universal programming in high school may be one reason why many superintendents would implement a drug prevention program in their district, even knowing the strategy had not been shown to be effective in reducing substance use (Thombs, 2001). Substance Use and Peer Influences Studies of the social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggest the powerful behavioral influence of peers, which becomes prominent during adolescence. This effect occurs through perceived normative behaviors, peer tolerance of activities and modeling (Barnes & Welte, 1986; Brook et al., 1990; Evans, 1995; Kandel & Andrews, 1987; Lau, 1990; MacKinnon, 1991; Newcomb & Bentler, 1986). An adolescent’s affiliation with deviant peers may lead to more tolerant attitudes toward the behaviors and adoption of activities, such as alcohol, drug use and associated activities (Akers, Krohn, Lanza-Kaduce, & Radosevich, 1979; Eggert, 1994). Friends’ substance use is a powerful predictor of use among adolescents, and alternatively, lack of peers’ substance use is an important protective factor (Barnes et al., 1986; Brook et al., 1990; Kandel & Andrews, 1987; Newcomb et al., 1986). Substance Use and Gender Although gender differences are small or nonexistent at lower grades, at puberty, differences emerge in the substance use risk and protective factors that affect male and female adolescents (DHHS, 1997; Roberts

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et al., 1995). Findings from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, from the laboratory through observational field studies, indicate that gender differences are present in “virtually all areas of drug research including prevention and treatment” (Leshner, 1998; Leshner, 1999). In addition, adolescents are more comfortable discussing drug use and other personal issues among same-sex peers, rather than a mixed gender setting (DHHS, 1997). Despite some shared risk and protective factors, older adolescents’ substance abuse prevention may be optimized by tailoring the intervention for each gender (DHHS, 1997; Kandel, 1998). Substance Use and Other Factors Other domains relating to drug use, in addition to gender and peer effects, are individual factors, non-peer effects and environmental influences. For example, drug use is promoted by the absence of substance abuse policies, the lack of school bonding and media and societal pressures (Hawkins et al., 1992; King et al., 1998; Sanchez et al., 2000). Individual characteristics can be subdivided into biological factors, knowledge, skills and attitudes, as well as personality states/traits (Murray et al., 1985; NIDA, 2003). While some factors are not amenable to intervention, drug use is highly correlated with individuals’ perception of their personal risk, with greater substance abuse associated with lower personal perceived adverse effects (NIDA, 2003). Individual protective abilities include increasing self-esteem, reducing anxiety and depression, and enhancing problem solving, social/communication, and decision-making skills (CSAP, 1999; Collingwood, 2000; Hawkins, 1992; Morgan, 1979; NIDA, 2003; Trujillo, 1983). Other factors shown to influence substance use include shy, aggressive and impulsive personality traits, and lack of knowledge and skills (e.g., resistance to drug offers, social skills), a low level of school bonding and media messages (CSAP, 1999; Hawkins, 1992; King et al., 1998; Moore, 1993; Myers et al., 1992; Nasser, 1988; NIDA, 2003; Rodin, 1993; Sanchez et al., 2001). Substance Use Among Adolescent Athletes More than 50% of male and female high school students are in school-sponsored athletics (DHHS, 1996; Pate et al., 2000). Based on data from the National Federation of State High School Associations, participation for the 2003-04 school year increased by 58,456 students,

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to 6,903,552 participants, with increases among both males and females (NFHS, 2004). Contrary to popular belief, these young athletes are not protected from drug use and other harmful behaviors (Aaron et al., 1995; Faulkner et al., 1990; Kokotailo, 1996; Middleman et al., 1995; Mottram, 1996; Yesalis et al., 1993). For adolescent females, the social influence toward becoming thin may be compounded by similar influences of their sport, resulting in more prevalent disordered eating behaviors and body-shaping drug use (tobacco, diet pills, diuretics, laxatives, amphetamines and anabolic steroids) (ACSM, 1997; Byrne et al., 2001). For young male athletes, there may be unrealistic expectations for their future as professional athletes and attempts to use performance-enhancing drugs (Pate et al., 2000). In addition, in a large study of more than 3600 middle school students, and research among older adolescents found that those participating in sports were more likely to demonstrate certain risk-taking behaviors, including use of alcohol and binge-drinking, when compared with non-sports participants (Garry, 2000; Kokotailo, 1996; Rainey et al., 1996; Sun, 2000). High school athletes are an important group for health promotion and substance abuse prevention. Athletes can be role models and opinion leaders for other students because of an elevated social status among their peers (Thirer, 1984). While an athlete’s drug use could influence some to initiate substance use, their abstinence has the potential to deter use. Recognizing this potential, athletes have been used to facilitate drug prevention interventions among younger children (Danish, 1990). Anabolic Steroid Use and High School Students Anabolic steroids are derivatives of the predominant male hormone testosterone. These hormones are used by athletes to enhance muscle mass and strength (Bahrke & Yesalis, 2002; Perry et al., 1990; Yesalis, 2000). Although they promote the growth of skeletal muscle (anabolic effects) and the development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effects), their use is associated with many adverse physical and emotional outcomes, including height stunting, testicular atrophy, males’ female breast enlargement, clitoral enlargement and voice deepening among females, early coronary heart disease, enhanced blood clotting, liver cysts and cancer and psychological and mood disorders (Bagberi, 1974; Goldberg, 1996; Haupt, 1993; Hurley, 1984; Kennedy et al., 1993; Kutscher et al., 2002; McNutt, 1988; Pope et al., 1988; Turani, 1983; Yoshida, 1994). There are a number of signs and symptoms of adolescent use/abuse for males and females (Table 1).

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Despite most news reports discussing collegiate, Olympic and professional anabolic-androgenic steroid use, the use of these substances by adolescents has been characterized as a growing problem of extensive proportions (Bagatell & Bremer, 1996; Yesalis, 1993). With the recent publicity about and availability of steroid precursors (e.g., androstenedione, boldione), these steroids are more accessible than in the past, and studies suggest that use of anabolic-androgenic steroids has increased among teens since 1996 (Johnston, 2004). Many regional and national studies in the United States have assessed anabolic steroid use, with varied sample sizes, age ranges, time periods and populations; together these findings suggest that use is between 3.5 to 12%, with the highest use among adolescent males, especially those who are student-athletes (Johnston, 2004; Yesalis, Bahrke, Kopstein, & Barsukiewicz, 2000). The Centers for Disease Control (Centers for Disease Control, 2004) found that nationwide, 6.1% of students had taken anabolic-androgenic steroid pills or shots without a physician’s prescription one or more times in their lifetime. In this large sample, the largest subgroup of self-reported users was found to be 9th grade females, with 7.3% use, while overall use among 12th grade males was 6.4%. Importantly, anabolic steroids are not an isolated drug of abuse, and their use frequency is directly related to use of other substances, including cocaine, amphetamines, heroin, cigarettes, and alcohol (Aaron, Dearwater & Anderson, 1995; DuRant, Escobedo, & Heath, 1995; Kokotailo et al., 1996; Meilman, 1995). Yesalis et al. (1993) found that anabolic steroid use also was associated with health harming and antisocial behaviors, including crimes against property and aggressive behavior. TABLE 1. Potential Signs of Adolescent Anabolic Steroid Use • Rapid weight gain • Preoccupation with strength training & size • Increase in aggressive behavior/anger • Acne • Male pattern baldness (usually late finding) • Testicular atrophy (male) • Gynecomastia (female breast enlargement [male]) • Facial hair/voice deepening/clitoral enlargement (female)

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TEAM-CENTERED EDUCATION Team-centered learning has been used to facilitate education and productivity in education and the workplace (Bouton et al., 1983; Michaelson et al., 2002; Seidel et al., 2001; Watson et al., 1991; West, 1996). In those settings, teams do not come ready-made, but are formed through a “team building process” (Tuckman, 1965): (1) forming (orienting); (2) storming (organization, conflict resolution); (3) norming (establishing consensus, processes and commitment); and (4) performing (autonomy, task focus, achievement), with each stage bridging to the next by enhancing comfort, believing in collective efforts and developing confidence in the process. Although a team or cohesive group model has elements of a social cognitive scheme (Bandura, 1977), it has the added dimension of a bonded group’s ability to further enhance its members’ motivation for change through team commitment, collective judgments, and mutual accountability (Tuckman, 1965). The effect of a cohesive team may be sustained beyond the “life” of the team, as members will be reflective and pleased with their achievements and remain to be influenced (Tuckman et al., 1977). Sport Teams for Health Promotion and Drug Use Prevention A school’s sport team has the potential to be a natural setting for behavior change. School sport teams are ready-made, non-stigmatizing and gender specific, wherein students of different ages interact. Furthermore these athletes can have longitudinal contact with teammates and coaches for several years, and more interactions than occurs during a typical high school class. The team can form a sphere of influence on the individual student-athlete (Klepp et al., 1986). The model (Figure 1) suggests that individual learning (such as the adoption of healthy behaviors and avoidance of unhealthy behaviors), would be due to healthy interactions, peer teaching and interaction with their own group members and the other learning groups (shown as a “Team”) within the overall sport team structure (Bandura, 1977; Goldberg et al., 1996, a; Michaelson, 2002). THE ATLAS AND ATHENA PROGRAMS The ATLAS (Adolescents Training & Learning to Avoid Steroids) and ATHENA (Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise & Nutrition Alter-

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures FIGURE 1. Prevention Intervention Model

Nonpeer Mediators parent rules & tolerance, family support, school admin & teachers rules & tolerance, community, media, society

Peer Influences friends’ use, friends’ tolerance, normative behaviors, modeling

impulsivity risk taking body image TEAM

Team Member

body image weight concerns depression self-esteem

Team Member

TEAM

Individual age, gender, SES, GPA, race, ethnicity, perceived personal vulnerability, self-efficacy, rules observence, resistance, decision making, goal setting, knowledge, and beliefs TEAM

Team Member

Vicarious Learning & Modeling

Personal Consequences of Substance Use/ Unhealthy Behaviors

TEAM ENVIRONMENT

Less intent to Use Drugs/ Planning Healthy Behaviors

Less Experimental Drug Use/ Inhibition of Health Behaviors

Team Cohesion, Mutual Accountability

Prevention of Regular Drug Use/More Healthy Behaviors

Team Member

TEAM

Social Structure & Reward System

Personal Consequences of Alternatives/Healthy Behaviors

Team Bonding. Commitment, Shared Goals

Major mediator domains are (1) peers, (2) nonpeers and (3) the individual.

natives) programs have been developed over more than 15 years of research in randomized control trials with funding by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Elliot et al., 1998; Elliot et al., 2002; Elliot et al., 2004; Goldberg et al., 1991; Goldberg et al., 1996a; Goldberg et al., 1996b; Goldberg et al., 2000; Moe et al., 2002). Critical components in this new

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format are (1) the “team,” (2) single gender of participants, (3) the efficacy peer teachers, and (4) an influential coach or coaching staff (Katzenbach, 1993; Michaelson, 2002; Prince, 1995; Rosenfeld, 1997; Scholtes, 1996; Tuckman, 1965; U.S. Dept. of Health, 1997). Although there are similarities in both programs’ delivery (Table 2), they differ in their curriculum’s scope and sequence and features (Table 3). The ATLAS (Athletes Training & Learning to Avoid Steroids) Prevention Program Although participation in school sponsored sports can benefit adolescents, it does not protect youth from alcohol and drug use (Aaron, 1995; Faulkner, 1990; Kokatilo, Yesalis, & Kennedy, 1993; Middleman et al., 1995; Mottram, 1996; Skolnick, 1993). Alcohol use, especially binge drinking, is higher among adolescent male athletes, along with other high-risk behaviors, including use of performance enhancing drugs (Aaron, 1995; Faulkner, 1990; Kokatilo, Yesalis, & Kennedy, 1993; Skolnick, 1993). ATLAS was designed as a multi-component health promotion and substance use prevention program for male high school athletes, providing healthy sports nutrition and strength-training as alternatives to use of athletic-enhancing drugs, while reducing risk and promoting protective factors to prevent alcohol and illicit drugs (Goldberg et al., 1996 a). Because certain supplements (e.g., creatine, androstenedione) were believed to be “gateway” substances for performance enhancing drugs, the intervention was designed to reduce use of these over-the-counter sport aids as well (Moe, 2002).

TABLE 2. ATLAS and ATHENA Program Delivery • Team-centered • Peer athlete-delivered • Coach facilitated • Targets general & gender specific risk & protective factors • Interactive format • Stresses social competency skills, peer norms & attitudes • Uses healthy alternatives (nutrition & training) to athletic-enhancing, physique altering drugs and supplements

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures TABLE 3. ATLAS vs ATHENA Examples of Curriculum Differences PROGRAM FOCUS

ATLAS

ATHENA

Nutrition

Protein and Calories

Protein and Calcium

Risk Factors

DecisionMaking/Impulsivity

Depression Prevention

Protective Factors

Debunk Win-At-All Costs

Enhance Self-Esteem

Media

Debunk Muscle Building Supplement Advertisements

Debunk Women’s Magazine Advertisements re: thin & substance use

ATLAS was studied among a large group of male high school athletes of diverse ethnic, suburban/urban locations and socio-economic status (Goldberg et al., 1996b; Goldberg et al., 2000). To date, it has been implemented in over 20 states. Peer teammates provide a majority of the intervention in small learning groups of five to eight students within the structure of the full team, while coaches facilitate the process. Ten classroom sessions include role-plays, student-created campaigns and instructional, interactive games, with out of school goal setting and self-monitoring of nutrition behaviors. Strength training and sport nutrition alternatives to ergogenic (athletic enhancing) supplement and drug use were used to provide students with dietary and exercise skills to improve nutrition and weight-lifting self-efficacy. Nutrition goals were practiced with homework assignments. Skills to refuse an offer of anabolic steroids and other illicit drugs were practiced in class. Anti-drug media messages were developed and presented by students using video productions, brief theatrical presentations, songs, posters, and simulated radio announcements. Instructional aids include a sports menu containing content areas of sports nutrition, an evaluation of vitamins, minerals and sport supplements and the effects of a variety of alcohol and illicit drug use in sport. An exercise guide with strength training regimes and workout schedules is provided. The 10-session workbook includes all of the classroom curricular sessions. There are up to 6 activities per each 45-minute classroom session. All activities are heavily scripted to enhance fidelity to the intervention, and most are led by the peer (squad) leader of each small group or squad. The squad leader uses a manual that has the 10-session intervention,

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which mirrors the coach’s copy of the material, to better coordinate instruction responsibilities. The intervention features learning about the impact of alcohol and illicit drugs on sports performance, the potential benefits and risks of anabolic steroids and sport supplements, skills to resist drug offers, team ethics and drug free commitment, drug use norms, personal vulnerability to drug effects, debunking media images that promote substance use, parent, coach and team intolerance of substance use and goal setting. A one-day training for coaches and students was initially used to promote enthusiasm and enhance fidelity. This was later reduced to a 90-minute squad leader training and a 60-minute refresher one on one coach training period. The contents of the booklets and aims of the intervention included dietary recommendations for adolescent athletes: low fat (below 30% of total calories), high protein (one gram of protein/pound of body weight), and adequate calories to promote strength and development depending on their weight and body composition. Healthy food choices at the supermarket and at fast food restaurants were provided. The athletic enhancing effects of many advertised supplements with unsubstantiated claims (e.g., protein powders, amino acid powders, and pills) were debunked. The weight training booklet explained several techniques of strength conditioning, which could be individualized for student-athletes’ desired outcome. ATLAS Research Studies Both a feasibility trial and a large randomized control trial determined outcomes of the intervention. Program effects were estimated with the conditional regression model for individual and school as unit of analysis. The follow-up measures were used as the dependent variables, while pre-intervention measures and program exposure were independent variables. Program effects were the difference between control and the experimental groups at follow-up, adjusted for the pre-intervention assessment. Because ethnicity and father’s education differed between groups at the baseline assessment, all analyses were repeated with ethnicity and father’s education used as covariates in the regression model. School level effects were analyzed, since participants were clustered within each school. Whether or not the subject was a senior was a covariate in the long-term follow-up analyses to control for the difference in measurement time. Seniors (12th grade students) were given the post-questionnaire at the end of the school year, approxi-

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mately 10 weeks before the returning students (grades 9-11), as these graduating students would not be available for evaluation surveys at the beginning of the subsequent school year. Cohorts 1 and 2 were combined for the long-term effects as one-year follow-up data (Goldberg et al., 2000). The feasibility trial initially was performed with two urban high schools (Goldberg et al., 1996a) and to assess the potential efficacy of the intervention. The results showed that those who completed the ATLAS program had less desire to use AS, even if their friends used them, were less likely to believe that AS use was a good idea, believed steroids were more dangerous, improved their body image, had a greater understanding of alternatives to athletic enhancing drug use, and had less belief that dietary supplements were beneficial. Thirty-one high schools were involved in the prospective, randomized full study (Goldberg et al., 2000). Over 3200 high school athletes in 3 successive annual cohorts were assessed. Results at the season’s end and 1 year after the intervention results were reported. Importantly, all schools were retained in the follow-up period, with students having an expected attrition rate without differences between control and those taking part in ATLAS. Table 4 shows the positive effects of the ATLAS intervention at the end of the season and at one year at the subject level. Besides impacting on risk and protective factors, behaviors were significantly improved. ATLAS was shown to reduce alcohol and illicit drug use, intake of supplements and reductions in drinking and driving occurrences. In addition, healthy nutrition practices were found, along with improvement in student-athlete beliefs in their athletic abilities and skills to reduce drug offers. However, although cumulative steroid use was significant at the end of the sport season (p < 0.04), in part to lower use prevalence, differences between ATLAS trained athletes was at borderline significance (p < 0.08) at one year, despite greater than 50% reduction in new users found among those in the program when compared to those in the control schools. Other effects included an evaluation of anthropometrics. One year after the treatment, the experimental group athletes improved their height and weight, decreased triceps skin-folds, and computed body fat, and lifted more weight (bench press) compared to the control group (Miller et al., 1998). Mediator analyses indicated that ATLAS trained athletes to reduce their intentions to use steroids and improve their exercise self-efficacy and dietary behavior (MacKinnon et al., 2001). ATLAS appeared to work, in part, by changing team norms and unlike prevention of other drugs, improved knowledge

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TABLE 4. Selected ATLAS Athlete Changes Risk, Protective Factors & Behaviors

Long-Term Effects

Improved drug use knowledge

√

Decreased intentions to use anabolic steroids

√

Improved strength training self-efficacy

√

Greater use of the school gym

√

Higher perception of athletic competence

√

Greater ability to turn down drug offers

√

Less belief in media advertisements

√

Greater belief in the team as an information source

√

Greater belief in peers as information sources

√

Greater perceived coach intolerance to steroid use

√

Increased belief in the harm of steroid use

√

Increased personal susceptibility to harms of steroid use

√

Reasons for not using steroids

√

Improved healthy nutrition behaviors

√

Lower cumulative use of sport supplements

√

Less Illicit drug use (marijuana, amphetamines, narcotics)

√

Less Illicit drug and alcohol use

√

Reduced cumulative drinking & driving occurrences

√

and perceived severity of adverse effects were mediators of ATLAS program effects. The ATHENA (Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise & Nutrition Alternatives) Prevention Program ATHENA is a program for young female athletes, which parallels ATLAS in its educational process and emphasis on healthy nutrition and effective exercise training (Goldberg et al., 1996a; Goldberg et al., 1996b; Goldberg et al., 2000). While both ATHENA and ATLAS targeted alcohol and other drug use, they each also had a unique connection to the sport team setting by an athlete associated ‘hook.’ For

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ATLAS that link was through anabolic steroids as an ergogenic drug. Although anabolic steroids are a growing problem among women athletes, the ‘hook’ used with ATHENA was the recognized connection between female sports and disordered eating and body shaping drug use. During a sport season, ATHENA teams meet for eight 45-minute sessions, which are incorporated into a team’s other training activities. Coaches decided on the specifics of scheduling, usually spacing the sessions at weekly intervals. During those meetings, team members are organized into stable learning groups of approximately six students. The coach assigns students to these groups, rather than allowing team members to self-select groups, which might perpetuate social cliques or stratify students by grade point average. One student per group becomes the squad leader, who is responsible for leading most activities. The coach or other team staff begin the session, keep students on task and conclude activities. Both the coach and squad leaders used scripted lesson plans and other students used programmed workbooks. All participants also receive an Athletes Guide, which contains information on nutrition, strength training and the diary pages used with the depression prevention component. ATHENA’s curriculum is based on identified features of effective prevention programs (Making the Grade, 1999; NIDA, 2003), sex-specific correlates of drug use and disordered eating behaviors (Polivy et al., 2002; Tomori et al., 2000) and our prior identifications of factors relating to higher intentions toward these health-harming practices (Elliot et al., 1996; Moe et al., 2002). Topics include a balanced presentation concerning the consequences of substance use and other unhealthy behaviors and the beneficial effects of appropriate sport nutrition and effective exercise training. The nutrition content focuses on classifying the major nutrients in foods, the need for carbohydrates as muscle ‘fuel’ for intense exercise and achieving adequate protein and calcium intake. Unlike the ATLAS program for young male athletes, caloric intake goals are not presented. Depression is more common among females, and a low mood is a risk for women’s disordered eating and drug use (Stice et al., 2002). To address this factor, ATHENA incorporates a depression prevention program with established efficacy (Clarke et al., 1995), using sequenced cognitive restructuring tasks adapted for the sport team setting. The curriculum counters media influences by including deconstructing and remaking magazine advertisements. Students also practice relevant refusal skills, and healthy norms are reinforced as student groups create

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and present to their teammates public service campaigns designed to discourage drug use and disordered eating practices. In addition, at each session participants receive a specific short-term health goal, such as eating breakfast daily and recording their calcium intake for 24-hours, to complete before the next session. ATHENA Research Studies ATHENA was assessed in a prospective randomized trial involving 18 high schools and 928 students from 40 participating sport teams (Elliot et al., 2004). Their average age was 15.4 years, and 92 percent were white. The control teams were offered preprinted pamphlets concerning disordered eating, drug use and sports nutrition. We assessed participants by confidential questionnaire prior to and immediately following their sport season and determined program effects using an ANCOVA-based approach within the Generalized Estimating Equation framework. Experimental athletes reported significantly less ongoing and new use of diet pills and less new use of athletic enhancing substances (amphetamines, anabolic steroids and sport supplements) (p < 0.05 for each). Other health-harming actions also were reduced (less riding with a drinking driver [p < 0.05], more seatbelt use [p < 0.05] and less new sexual activity [p < 0.05]). ATHENA athletes had coincident positive changes in strength training self-efficacy (p < 0.005) and healthy eating behaviors (p < 0.001). Reductions occurred in intentions toward future use of diet pills (p < 0.05), vomiting to lose weight (p < 0.05) and use of tobacco (p < 0.05) and muscle building supplements (p < 0.005). The program’s curriculum components were altered appropriately (controlling mood [p < 0.005], refusal skills [p < 0.05], belief in the media [p < 0.001] and perceptions of peers’ body-shaping drug use [p < 0.001]). Replication Issues Implementing the ATLAS and ATHENA programs is enhanced by several factors, as features that allowed a high degree of fidelity during their study, provides for greater feasibility and consistency in their more widespread use. Essential background information regarding drug prevention, sports nutrition and exercise training is provided for program facilitators in the Instructor’s materials. An initial informational document with background material has been field tested with high school coaches. A step-by-step instructor’s 90-minute peer leader training ses-

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sion presents criteria for selecting and training peer leaders. Because of the scripted lessons, ATLAS and ATHENA can be implemented without the need for on-site training, although that is available when requested. The explicit scripting of the ATLAS intervention for instructor(s) and peer leaders allows a high degree of program fidelity. The intervention emphasizes educational activities that are germane toward improved sport performance by enhancing athletic abilities through healthy sports nutrition and exercise training, while avoiding substances that could harm an adolescent athlete (e.g., drugs and alcohol), consistent with their team’s goals. Because curriculum content is geared toward the individual’s and team’s athletic success, the sessions and booklets are highly regarded, increasing acceptability of the program. Furthermore, the weekly curriculum sessions fit within the school’s athletic season. Highlights precede each 45-minute interactive period to signify the most important aspects of the lesson. Program implementation is provided by an influential coaching staff and prominent team leaders. These peers, known as squad leaders, are bonded to other team members in a pro-social activity, with similar goals for success. The strength of the team venue with established leadership and adherence to rules aids in social learning. Recruitment of students is simplified by membership in the school’s sport team. The level of sport involvement in high school is significant, and the intervention emphasizes activities that are germane toward improved sport performance by enhancing the athlete’s abilities through healthy sports nutrition and exercise training, a goal of the individual athlete and team. CONCLUSION More than half of all high school students participate in a school’s extracurricular sports programs (NFHS, 2004; Pate, 2000). Although high school sports can have significant benefits, substance use and abuse, disordered eating practices and other problem behaviors have been reported among these student-athletes, and a number of these problems appear gender related (Aaron et al., 1995; ACSM, 1997; DHHS, 1997; Faulkner et al., 1990; Kandel, 1998; Kokotailo, 1996; Middleman et al., 1995; Mottram, 1996; Yesalis et al., 1993). The potential adverse consequences of being an adolescent athlete suggest that school-based sports may not always be health enhancing (Miracle & Rees, 1994).

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Thus, there is a need to implement programs to reduce substance use and enhance other healthy behaviors among this group. The two NIDA sponsored randomized control trials involving peerdelivered, sport team centered and coach facilitated ATLAS and ATHENA programs reveal that use of the athletic venue can be effective in promoting healthy lifestyles and deterring harmful behaviors, as the theoretical underpinnings suggest. Reduced new use of alcohol, illicit drugs, and athletic supplements occurred among the male athletes in the ATLAS program, with reductions in drinking and driving occurrences and adoption of healthier eating habits. ATHENA trained athletes showed significant positive effects after the season-long intervention with reductions of diet pills and athletic enhancing supplements and drugs. In addition, there was a reduced incidence of riding with a drinking driver, greater use of seatbelts, and less new sexual activity. Similar to ATLAS, ATHENA athletes improved their eating behaviors. Sports teams are a natural setting wherein single-sex, non-deviant bonded peer groups share common goals and have prominent influential adults (e.g., coaches) that can influence students up to an entire fouryear period. Role modeling by older athletes and reinforcement of behaviors during the practice time and competition may complement the actual curriculum intervention time periods. Incorporating peer-led drug use prevention and health promotion curricula into these settings appear to augment sports’ health-enhancing potential. Other health behavior interventions should take advantage of this favorable environment. REFERENCES Aaron, D.J., Dearwater, S.R., Anderson, R., Olsen, T., Kriska, A.M., & LaPorte, R.E. (1995). Physical activity and the initiation of high-risk health behaviors in adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1639-1642. Akers, R.L., Krohn, M.D., Lanza-Kaduce, L., & Radosevich, M. (1979). Social learning and deviant behavior: A specific test of a general theory. American Sociological Review, 44: 635-655. American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (1997). Position Stand on the Female Athlete Triad. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, i-ix. American Medical News (1998). Drunk drivers: AMA Summit addresses DUI reporting (vol. 41, no. 21, pp. 47-50). American Medical News. Bagatell, C.J., & Bremner, W.J. (1996). Drug Therapy: Androgens in Men–Uses and Abuses. New England Journal of Medicine, 334 (11), 707-714.

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Bagberi, S. (1974). Peliosis hepatic associated with anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy. A severe form of hepatic injury. Annals of Internal Medicine, 81, 610-618. Bahrke, M.S., & Yesalis, C.D. (2002) (Eds.). Performance Enhancing Substances in Sport and Exercise. Human Kinetics. Champaign, IL. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Barnes, G.M., & Welte, J.W. (1986). Patterns and predictors of alcohol use among 7-12 grade students in New York State. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 53-62. Bell, R.M., Ellickson, P.L., & Harrison, E.R. (1993). Do drug prevention effects persist into high school? How Project Alert did with ninth graders. Preventive Medicine, 22 (4), 463-483. Beman, D.S. (Spring 1995). Risk factors leading to adolescent substance abuse. Adolescence. 30 (117), 201-208. Blake, S.M., Amaro, H., Schwartz, P.M., & Flinchbaugh, L.J. (2001). A review of substance abuse prevention interventions for young adolescent girls. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 21 (3), 294-324. Blum, R. (1987). Contemporary threats to adolescent health in the United States. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 257 (24), 3390-3395. Bouton, C., & Garth, R.Y. (1983) (Eds). Learning in Groups. New Directions for Teaching and Learning Series, No. 14. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Brook, J.S., Cohen, P., Whiteman, M., & Gordon, A.S. (1992). Psycho-social risk factors in the transition from moderate to heavy use or abuse of drugs. In M. Glants & R. Pickens (Eds.). Vulnerability to drug abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Byrne, S., & McLean, N. (2001). Eating disorders in athletes: A review of the literature. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4 (2), 145-159. CASA, The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (1994). The cost of substance abuse to America’s health care system; Report 2: Medicare hospital costs. New York, NY: CASA Publication. Catalano, R.F., Hawkins, J.D., Berglund, M.L., Pollard, J.A., & Arthur, M.W. (2002). Prevention science and positive youth development: Competitive or cooperative frameworks? Journal of Adolescent Health, 31 (6 Suppl), 230-239. Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, US Department of Health and Human Services (2001). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System. Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Atlanta, GA: Center for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/yrbs/2001/youth01online.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Surveillance Summaries (2004). Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report, May 21, 53, 15. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/ SS/SS5302.pdf Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) (1999). Understanding substance abuse prevention. Toward the 21st century: A primer on effective programs. DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 99-3301. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Center for Substance Abuse Prevention. Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (September 1998). 1998 Back to School Teen Survey. New York, NY: The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse.

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Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (February 2003). The Formative Years: Pathways to substance abuse among girls and young women ages 8-22. New York, NY: The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. Clarke, G.N., Hawkins, W. et al. (1995). Targeted prevention of unipolar depressive disorder in an at-risk sample of high school adolescents: A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 312-321. Collingwood, T.R, Sunderlin, J., Reynolds, R., & Kohl, H.W. III (2000). Physical training as a substance abuse prevention intervention for youth. Journal of Drug Education, 30 (4), 435-451. Danish, S.J. (1990). Athletes coaching teen (ACT) for substance abuse prevention. ERIC Model Programs Inventory Project, No. HE0241164, 141. Department of Health & Human Services (1997). Selected findings in prevention: A decade of results from the center for substance abuse prevention (CSAP). DHHS Publication No. (SMA) 97-3143, 31-33. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Dinges, M.M., & Oetting, E.R. (Summer 1993). Similarity in drug use patterns between adolescents and their friends. Adolescence, 28 (110), 253-66. DuRant, R.H., Escobedo, L.G., & Heath, G.W. (1995). Anabolic-steroid use, strength training, and multiple drug use among adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics, 96 (1), 23-28. DuRant, R.H., Rickert, V.I., Ashworth, C., Newman, C., & Slavens, G. (1993). Use of multiple drugs among adolescents who use anabolic steroids. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 922-926. Dusenbury, L., & Falco, M. (1995). Eleven components of effective drug abuse prevention curricula. The Journal of School Health, 65 (10), 420-425. Dusenbury, L., Falco, M., & Lake, A. (1997). A review of the evaluation of 47 drug abuse prevention curricula available nationally. The Journal of School Health, 67 (4), 127-132. Eggert, L.L., Thompson, E.A., Herting, J.R., Nicholas, L.J., & Dicker, B.G. (January-February 1994). Preventing adolescent drug abuse and high school dropout through an intensive school-based social network development program. American Journal of Health Promotion, 8 (3), 202-215. Ellickson, P.L., Bell, R.M., & McGuigan, K. (June 1993). Preventing adolescent drug use: Long-term results of a junior high program. American Journal of Public Health, 83 (6), 856-861. Elliot, D., Goldberg, L., Moe, E. et al. (1996). The ATHENA (Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives) Program: Characterizing those predisposed to drug use & eating disorders. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28, S155.

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Elliot, D., Goldberg, L., Moe, E., Duncan, T., DeFrancesco, C., & Durham, M. (2002). ATHENA: Deterring drug use and disordered eating. The Journal of Medical Investigation, 50. Elliot, D.L., Goldberg, L., Moe, E.L., DeFrancesco, C.A., Durham, M.B., & Hix-Small, H. (2004). Preventing Substance Use and Disordered Eating: Initial Outcomes of the ATHENA (Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise & Nutrition Alternatives) Program. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 158, 1043-1049. Elliot, D.L., Goldberg, L., Wolf, S.L., & Moe, E.L. (1998). High school coaches underestimate female athletes’ drug use and disordered eating. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, 31-34. Evans, N., Gilpin, E., Farkas, A.J., Shenassa, E., & Pierce, J.P. (1995). Adolescents’ perception of their peers’ health norms. American Journal of Public Health, 85 (8), 1064-1069. Faulkner, R.A., & Slattery, C.M. (1990). The relationship of physical activity to alcohol consumption in youth. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 81, 168-169. Fisher, M., Juszczak, L., & Friedman, S.B. (May 1996). Sports participation in an urban high school: Academic and psychologic correlates. Journal of Adolescent Health, 18 (5), 329-334. Garry, J.P., & Morrissey, S.L. (July 2000). Team sports participation and risk-taking behaviors among a biracial middle school population. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 10 (3), 185-190. Goldberg, L. (1996). Adverse effects of anabolic steroids. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 257. Goldberg, L., Bents, R., Bosworth, E., Trevisan, L., & Elliot, D.L. (1991). Anabolic steroid education and adolescents: Do scare tactics work? Pediatrics, 87, 283-286. Goldberg, L., Elliot, D., Clarke, G.N., MacKinnon, D.P., Moe, E., Zoref, L., Green, C., Wolf, S.L., Greffrath, E., Miller, D.J., & Lapin, A. (1996b). Effects of a multidimensional anabolic steroid prevention intervention. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 1555-1562. Goldberg, L., Elliot, D.L., Clarke, G.N., MacKinnon, D.P., Zoref, L., Moe, E., Green, C., & Wolf, S.L. (1996a). The adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids (ATLAS) prevention program. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 150, 713-721. Goldberg, L., MacKinnon, D.P., Elliot, D.L., Moe, E.L., Clarke, G., & Cheong, J. (2000). The adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids program: Prevention drug use and promoting health behaviors. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 154, 332-338. Gunby, P. (1987). Nation’s expenditures for alcohol, other drugs in terms of therapy and prevention now exceed $1.6 billion. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 258, 2023. Haupt, H.A. (1993). Anabolic steroids and growth hormone. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 21 (3), 468-474. Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.F., & Miller, J.Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112 (1), 64-105.

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Hurley, B.F., Seals, D.R., Hagberg, J.M., Goldberg, A.C., Ostrove, S.M., Holloszy, J.O., Wiest, W.G., & Goldberg, A.P. (1984). High-density-lipoprotein cholesterol in bodybuilders v powerlifters: Negative effects of androgen use. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 252, 507-513. Johnston, L.D., O’Malley, P.M., & Bachman, J.G. (2002). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2002. NIH Publication No. 02-5105. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Johnston, L.D., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2004). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2003. Volume I: Secondary school students. NIH Publication No. 04-5507. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Kandel, D., Chen, K., Warner, L.A., Kessler, R.C., & Grant, B. (1997). Prevalence and demographic correlates of symptoms of last year dependence on alcohol, nicotine, marijuana and cocaine in the U.S. population. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 44 (1), 11-29. Kandel, D.B. (1980). Drug and drinking behavior among youth. Annual Review of Sociology, 6, 235-285. Kandel, D.B. (April 1998). Epidemiology of drug use and abuse among women. In C.L. Wetherington & A.B. Roman (Eds.) (April 1998). Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women (Executive Summary) (pp. 39-42). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse. Kandel, D.B., & Andrews, K. (1987). Processes of adolescent socialization by parents and peers. The International Journal of the Addictions, 22, 319-342. Katzenbach, J.R., & Smith, D.K. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Kennedy, M.C., & Lawrence, C. (1993). Anabolic steroid abuse and cardiac death. The Medical Journal of Australia, 158, 346-348. King, C. III, Siegel, M., Celebucki, C., & Connolly, G.N. (1998). Adolescent exposure to cigarette advertising in magazines: An evaluation of brand-specific advertising in relation to youth readership. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 516-520. Klepp, K.I., Halper, A., & Perry, C.L. (1986). The efficacy of peer leaders in drug abuse prevention. Journal of School Health, 56 (9), 407-411. Kokotailo, P.K. (1996). Substance use and other health risk behaviors in collegiate athletes. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 6, 183-189. Kutscher, E.C., Lund, B.C., & Perry, P.J. (2002). Anabolic steroids: A review for the clinician. Sports Medicine, 32, 285-296. Lau, R.R., Quandrel, M.J., & Hartman, K.A. (1990). Development and change of young adults preventive health beliefs and behavior: Influence from parents and peers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 240-259. Leshner, A. (April 1998). Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women. In C. L. Wetherington & A. B. Roman (Eds.) (April 1998). Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women (Executive Summary) (pp. iii). Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health & Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse.

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Leshner, A. (1999). Sixth Triennial Report to Congress: 25 years of discovery to advance the health of the public (pp. 45-82). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse. Lifrak, P.D., McKay, J.R., Rostain, A., Alterman, A.I., & O’Brien, C.P. (1997). Relationship of perceived competencies, perceived social support, and gender to substance use in young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36 (7), 933-940. Lowry, R., Holtzman, D., Truman, B.I., Kann, L., Collins, J.L., & Kolbe, L.J. (1994). Substance use and HIV-related sexual behaviors among U.S. high school students: Are they related? American Journal of Public Health, 84 (7), 1116-1120. MacKinnon, D.P., Goldberg, L., Clarke, G.N., Elliot, D.L., Cheong, J., Lapin, A., Moe, E.L., & Krull, J.L. (2001). Mediating mechanisms in a program to use anabolic steroids and improve exercise self-efficacy and dietary behavior. Prevention Science, 2, 15-28. MacKinnon, D.P., Johnson, C.A., Pentz, M.A. et al. (1991). Mediating mechanisms in a school-based drug prevention program: First-year effects of the Midwestern prevention project. Health Psychology, 10 (3), 164-172. Making the Grade: A Guide to School Drug Prevention Programs (1999). Washington, DC: Drug Strategies. McNutt, R.A., Ferenchick, G.S., Kirlin, P.C., & Hamlin, N.J. (1988). Acute myocardial infarction in a 22-year-old world class weight lifter using anabolic steroids. The American Journal of Cardiology, 62, 164. Meilman, P.W., Crace, R.K., Presley, C.A., & Lyerla, R. (1995). Beyond performance enhancement: Polypharmacy among collegiate users of steroids. Journal of American College Health, 44, 98-104. Michaelsen, L.K., Knight, A.B., & Fink, L.D. (2002) (Eds.), Team-Based Learning: A Transformative Use of Small Groups. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Middleman, A. B., Faulker, A. H., Woods, E. R., Emans, S. J., & DuRant, R. H. (1995). High-risk behaviors among high school students in Massachusetts who use anabolic steroids. Pediatrics, 96, 268-272. Miller, D. et al. (1998). The ATLAS program: Effects on body composition and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, S241. Miracle, A.W., & Rees, R. (1994). Lessons of the Locker Room: The Myth of School Sports. Buffalo, NY: Promethius Books. Moe, E.L., Elliot, D. L., Duncan, T.E., & Goldberg, L. (2002). Disordered eating and drug use: Defining a model and identifying components for a prevention curriculum. The Journal of Medical Investigation, 50, 94A. Moe, E.L., Goldberg, L., MacKinnon, D., Elliot, D., Cheong, J., & Yoon, M. (2002). Nutritional supplements: Are they precursors to anabolic steroid and other substance use? Presentation: Society for Prevention Research National Meeting. Seattle, WA: Prevention Research. Moore, D.C. (1993). Body image and eating behaviors in adolescents. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 12 (5), 505-510. Morgan, W. (1979). Anxiety reduction following acute physical activity. Psychiatric Annals, 9, 141-147. Mottram, D. R. (1996). Drugs in Sports. London, UK: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall.

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Sanchez, L., Sanchez, S., Goldberg, A., & Goldberg, A. (2000). Tobacco and alcohol advertisements in magazines: Are young readers being targeted? The Journal of the American Medical Association, 283 (16), 2106-2107. Scholtes, P.R., Joiner, B.L., & Streibel, B.J. (1996). The Team Handbook. 2nd Edition. Madison, WI: Joiner Associates. Seidel, C.L., & Richards, B.F. (May 2001). Application of team learning in a medical physiology course. Academic Medicine, 76 (5), 533-534. Shope, J.T., Copeland, L.A., Kamp, M.E., & Lang, S.W. (1998). Twelfth grade follow-up of the effectiveness of a middle school-based substance abuse prevention program. Journal of Drug Education, 28 (3), 185-197. Skiba, D., Monroe, J., & Wodarski, J.S. (2004). Adolescent substance use: Reviewing the effectiveness of prevention strategies. Social Work, 49 (3), 343-353. Skolnick, A.A. (1993). Studies raise doubts about benefit of athletics in reducing unhealthy behavior among adolescents. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 270 (7), 798-799. Sportlight on Depiction: Of health and social issues (2000). Drug, Alcohol and Tobacco Use and Addiction. 3rd ed. vol. 1. Reston, VA: Entertainment Industries Council, Inc. Stice, E., Presnell, K., & Spangler, D. (2002). Risk factors for binge eating onset in adolescent girls: A 2-year prospective investigation. Health Psychology, 21 (2), 131-138. Sun, C., Dyck, D., & Guillory, V. V. (2000). The impact of school-organized sport activities on the priority youth health-risk behaviors. Annals of Epidemiology, 10 (7), 451-452. Swadi, H. (1992). Relative risk factors in detecting adolescent drug abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 29 (3), 253-254. Thombs, D.L., & Ray-Tomasek, J. (2001). Superintendents’ intentions toward DARE: Results from a statewide survey. American Journal of Health Education, 32 (5), 267-274. Thompson, E.A., Horn, M., Herting, J.R., & Eggert, L.L. (1997). Enhancing outcomes in an indicated drug prevention program for high-risk youth. Journal of Drug Education, 27 (1), 19-41. Tobler, N. (1986). Meta-analysis of 143 adolescent drug prevention programs: Qualitative outcome results of program participants compared to a control or comparison group. Journal of Drug Issues, 16 (4), 537-567. Tobler, N., & Stratton, H. (1997). Effectiveness of school based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71-128. Tomori, M., & Rus-Makovel, M. (2000). Eating behavior, depression, and self-esteem in high school students. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 26 (5), 361-367. Trujillo, C.M. (1983). The effect of weight training and running exercise intervention programs on the self-esteem of college women. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 14, 162-173. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-389.

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Development and Implementation of a Sport Psychology Program in an Urban High School Michael Weissman Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District

SUMMARY. This article is based on a dissertation of the author that was centered on the process of developing a sport psychology program at the high school level. The program was developed to address academic, mental, social, and emotional needs of student-athletes and coaches. This sport psychology program, which was developed in the Linden Public School District, a large urban district in New Jersey, may be the first such program documented on a national level. In this dissertation, the author, who was a school psychologist in the district, utilized a particular program planning and evaluation framework, with attention to the first two phases–clarification and design–to develop and implement a sport psychology program. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

Address correspondence to: Dr. Michael Weissman, Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District, Department of Special Services, One Crest Way, Matawan, NJ 07747 (E-mail: [email protected]). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Development and Implementation of a Sport Psychology Program in an Urban High School.” Weissman, Michael. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 89-113; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 89-113. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_06

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KEYWORDS. Program planning and evaluation, sport psychology programs, urban education, high school interventions, school psychology

The design and implementation of special education services and programs for students in the public school setting has been a prominent role of the psychologist (Maher, 1978, 1981; Maher & Bennett, 1984). Psychologists and those professionals who are certified to work specifically as “school psychologist” interact with students, teachers, administrators, and parents in the school setting to perform a range of services. The role of the psychologist in the public school setting has been expanding over the years to address a variety of needs including educational consultation for teachers, student-focused interventions, organizational development, and consultation/support for school administrators. School-based psychologists, as well as other psychologists who consult with schools, are expanding their roles from traditional (psychological testing and placement in special education programs) to some nontraditional roles (program development, consultation, and program evaluation). In this way, school psychologists are contributing to their professional development and assisting in the psychological, educational, and social-emotional development of students, teachers, parents, and administrators. The role of the psychologist within the school setting has expanded to include the participation and even leadership in the development of “human services programs” including program design, implementation, and evaluation with various populations. To develop these human services programs, it is first necessary for the practitioner, along with other school-based professionals, to identify the needs of potential target populations. Maher (1996) has developed a framework for developing human services programs to help address human needs based on a program planning and evaluation approach. There are four phases to this approach– (1) Clarification of the target population’s needs and the context within which they occur, (2) Program Design, (3) Program Implementation, and (4) Program Evaluation (Maher, 1996). Included in Maher’s approach are detailed steps for conducting needs assessment, analyzing the data, applying this data in the development of a program, and analyzing the results to gain a greater understanding of a group of people and to meet the unique needs of target populations.

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Meeting the unique psychological and educational needs of all students is one goal of a human services program (Maher, 1996). A human services program “is designed to assist the individual, group, or organization to meet a specific need” (Maher & Bennett, 1984, p. 4). Another goal of a human services program is to provide information or to answer questions about a program and/or groups of individuals who share commonalities such as age, grade, cognitive development, physical ability, etc. This article is based on a dissertation of the author that was centered on the process of developing a sport psychology program at the high school level (Weissman, 2003). The project in which the dissertation occurred attempted to address both of these aforementioned goals by: (1) developing a sport psychology program designed to meet the unique needs of a group of high school coaches and athletes and (2) exploring the development of that sport psychology program in relation to the experiences that those coaches and athletes had with the sport psychology program. Throughout this project, a sport psychologist who has over 20 years of experience in the field supervised the author. Additionally, the author was part of a concentrated course of studies and fieldwork in sport psychology as part of his doctoral education. Based on a review of the literature within the field of applied sport psychology and other related areas, it appears as if there is virtually no published material related to the design and implementation of sport psychology programs within the high school context. With that in mind, issues were explored regarding whether or not designing and implementing a sport psychology program is practical, useful, ethical, and technically defensible within a public high school setting. Although numerous sport psychology techniques and interventions have been utilized at professional, collegiate, amateur, and elite amateur levels of competition, there does not appear to be documentation that this has ever been done at the high school level. Furthermore, although this author suspects that it is possible that sport psychology work has been done with high school athletes and coaches, there is no evidence that this occurred in a systematic or scientific manner as reflected in a journal, article, research project, or other literary publication. Recently, Lawrence (2002) designed and implemented a sport psychology program with a collegiate tennis team. He evaluated the effectiveness that sport psychology consultation had with these collegiate athletes. Overall, he found that, “consultants may benefit from applying the program planning and evaluation framework or a similar approach when working with athletes and teams” (Lawrence, 2002, p. 238). In

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addition, related to the significant effectiveness of a sport psychology program and exposure to interventions, Lawrence states, “support for this conclusion comes from the results of the program evaluation in which most of the players and coaches indicated that they were satisfied with the consultation services” (Lawrence, 2002, p. 238). This was the first study of the consultation process applied to a sport psychology program. While the work of Lawrence was directly applied with collegiate athletes, this author believes that a sport psychology consultation process can also be successful with high school athletes and coaches. In another study by Andrason (1999), the program planning and evaluation approach was applied to a sport psychology program with a collegiate soccer team. Andrason designed and implemented an educational program to address the performance-based needs of soccer players. This was the first time a program planning and evaluation framework applied to a sport psychology program was documented and evaluated. Players and coaches rated their experiences with the sport psychology consultant very positively. THE PROGRAM PLANNING AND EVALUATION FRAMEWORK A main intent of this author’s work, including but not limited to his dissertation, was to determine the extent to which the program planning and evaluation approach could be used to design and implement a program that addressed the educational, personal, and performance-based needs of high school athletes and coaches. As such, a program guide was developed within the Linden Public Schools, entitled, “The Linden Sport Psychology Program Guide,” which included the program’s purpose, procedures, policies, eligibility criteria, and a referral system (Copies of this guide are available for a fee from Dr. Michael Weissman. E-mail address: [email protected]). While aspects of this sport psychology program guide were implemented in order to gain feedback regarding the program’s worth, the project focus was on the development of the program. In this regard, one of the most important criteria for determining the potential usefulness of this approach with coaches and student-athletes was their satisfaction and understanding of the “Linden Sport Psychology Program Guide” as well as their satisfaction with the consultation services provided by the sport psychology consultant. Other relevant stakeholders within the school context as well including the athletic director, upper

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administration, and parents of student-athletes provided additional information regarding satisfaction with the sport psychology program and were provided with opportunity to give input that would aid in the development of this program. In developing a sport psychology program within the Linden Public School District, the consultant, who is employed as a full-time school psychologist in the district, conducted a series of activities, which followed a program planning and evaluation framework. However, emphasis was placed on the first two steps of this framework, (1) Clarification and (2) Design. In the first phase, the needs and context assessment, the consultant identified educational, personal, and performance-based concerns that the athletic director had regarding coaches and student-athletes. We also discussed contextual factors, which he felt might affect the consultation process. Additionally, the consultant attempted to assess the amount of resources (time, money, people, and technology) available to conduct the program. This information was used to design, develop, and implement a yearlong, district-wide program based on the specific needs of the coaches and student-athletes. Given that there were numerous teams in the district, three separate seasons, and a wide variety of psychological and educational needs, there were several separate services and interventions instituted throughout the course of the year. The program guide was modified continuously as well in order to adapt to these needs and to remain practical within the school setting. These programs included team educational sessions, team interventions, individual sessions, individual consultations with coaches, and on-field consultations. Each of these programs was developed with the goal of increasing coaches’ and student-athletes’ knowledge, skills, and abilities related to their particular sport. Student-athletes also received some basic educational information regarding performance enhancement techniques. A significant amount of time was spent by the consultant introducing coaches, student-athletes, and parents to the field of sport psychology. This information was presented to coaches, student-athletes, and parents at practices and games. As part of the program design, coaches had the option of referring individuals or groups of students to work directly with the sport psychologist with informed parental consent. In addition, the consultant observed individuals while they played or practiced, and when appropriate he provided them with feedback and suggestions. Finally, at the end of the school year, the consultant conducted semi-structured interviews with the athletic director, upper administra-

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tion, the director of special services, coaches, parents, student-athletes, and community members regarding their understanding of the “Linden Sport Psychology Program Guide” as well as their satisfaction with the program. The purpose of this feedback was to provide the consultant with information that would help him to further develop this program. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY CONSULTATION AND PROGRAMMATIC APPROACHES Sport psychology consultants, including properly trained school psychologists, can provide a number of services to athletes and coaches including individual session, team workshops, and written feedback. Areas in which sport psychology consultants can assist include, but are not limited to: difficulties concentrating or focusing in pressure situations, lack of motivation, communication difficulties, anxiety during competitions, or to develop performance goals. Gardner (1995) identified some other areas including: improving the communication and relationships amongst athletes and coaches, enhancing team cohesion, and assisting with the process of selecting athletes and personnel for the team. There are a number of obstacles for a consultant within the sport psychology context. Sport psychologists have to cope with time constraints, trust issues, expectations of the athletes and coaches, as well as expectations of sports team management (Gould, Murphy, Tammen, & May, 1991). Sport psychologists also deal with ethical related issues including confidentiality, which are unique to the sport setting and are often not dealt with in the formal training of the psychologist. Sport psychology consultants possess certain skills and/or traits, which lead to greater success within the consultation process such as the ability to establish a rapport and trust with athletes and coaches (Orlick & Partington, 1987). Coaches have also noted that they prefer to work with sport psychologists who are able to observe athletes during practices and competition, and who are willing to design custom programs for players (Orlick & Partington, 1987). Gould, Tammen, Murphy, and May (1989) also suggest that the success of the consultant is dependent on the ability to fit in with the team, provide concrete and clear suggestions and supports to coaches and players. Also, showing coaches how to draw on their athletes’ strengths and weaknesses was also rated as a favorable skill. Knowledge of the particular sport, the ability to clarify their role within the team or organization, and the degree to which they

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make it clear what services can be offered are traits which can increase the credibility of the sport psychology consultant. THE ROLE OF THE SPORT PSYCHOLOGY CONSULTANT AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL There does not appear to be much, if any, written documentation in any scholarly and published literature that describes the role of a sport psychology consultant within a public school setting or that provides a model for such a role. As such, other models of sport psychology consultation as well as models of school-based consultation were utilized and adapted by this author to design and implement this program. This project used a combination of educational and clinical sport psychology consultant models (Perna, Neyer, Murphy, Ogilvie, & Murphy, 1995) as a delivery vehicle along with the Program Planning and Evaluation Framework applied to a sport psychology context as a means of systematic program development (Maher, 1978; Andrason; 1999; Lawrence, 2002). Another key component that the author developed as part of a secondary school sport psychology consultation model (see Table 1) is a “Collaborative Secondary School Sport Psychology Consultation Approach” (Weissman, 2003). This model is rooted in the “collaborative consultation” approach often used by school psychologists in their more traditional roles (Reyes & Jason, 1993; West & Idol, 1993). As summarized in Table 1, it is important for all relevant stakeholders (i.e., coaches, parents, and student-athletes, etc.) within the secondary school sport context to work together, in a collaborative process, along with the sport psychology consultant in order for the consultative process to be successful. It is also crucial, prior to the actual implementation of any intervention, for the consultant, along with other stakeholders, to determine the nature, scope, and type of consultation that will be used. In the school context, the main types of consultation that can be used are either educational or clinical. This collaborative process will both help to clarify for the coach and the student-athlete, the nature of their relationship with the sport psychology consultant as well as insuring that relevant needs are met. This model was useful for the author to clarify for relevant stakeholders (Athletic Director & Assistant Superintendent) how the sport psychology consultant would function in the Linden Public Schools. The collaborative approach is much less threatening, involves stakeholders more in the process of problem-solving, and empowers the

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TABLE 1. The Secondary School Sport Psychology Consultant Model–Collaborative Approach

Consultant Coach Student-Athlete Athletic Director Parents Educational

Clinical

consultee to handle future problems more skillfully. According to Murphy and Murphy (1992), sport psychology consultants function more effectively when they work collaboratively. This way, the coach and athlete is more actively involved in the process and develops skills for future use. As such, the collaborative consultation process that has been successfully used by psychologists in a school context to work with teachers was also used by the author within the school context to work with coaches and administrators. THE COLLABORATORS In order to develop and implement this sport psychology program it was first necessary to identify who would be collaborating with the consultant on this program. Also, gaining the approval of those collaborators was essential as well. The collaborators within the context of the development and implementation of the sport psychology program in Linden were: • • • • • • • •

Superintendent of Schools Assistant Superintendent Athletic Director Director of Special Services Members of the Board of Education Parents in the Community Coaches Student-Athletes

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DEVELOPMENT OF DOCUMENTS FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS USING A PROGRAM PLANNING AND EVALUATION APPROACH TO GAIN APPROVAL FOR THE PROGRAM A range of documents, including a “Description of a Sport Psychology Program Based Within the Context of the Linden School District,” “Clarification Memorandum for the Assistant Superintendent,” as well as a “Linden Public Schools Sport Psychology Program Guide” were developed, written, and submitted to relevant collaborators or stakeholders. (Copies of these documents are available from the author as well). These documents were developed in order to explain and describe the purpose of this project as well as what the sport psychology program would look like, how the author would implement the program, the hours necessary to run the program, as well as the supports necessary. The formal program proposal broadly explained the purpose of this dissertation project as well as other aspects of the sport psychology program to relevant stakeholders. The Linden Sport Psychology Program Guide, which is explained in greater detail in the full text of the actual dissertation, explains the purpose, goals, eligibility criteria, methods and techniques, and policies and procedures, as well as a referral system and informed parental consent form. These documents explained to relevant stakeholders the purpose of this project as well as describing what a fully developed sport psychology program would look like in the Linden Public Schools. PRACTICAL ISSUES OF A SPORT PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL For the project, there were several issues addressed regarding the development and implementation of a sport psychology program at the secondary school level, especially since there was no documentation that this had ever been done before. Some of these issues included concerns surrounding professional liability, the process by which students would be referred, time constraints and other factors related to the author’s ability to implement the program, the way in which the author would communicate and meet with coaches, the timing and location of meetings, issues surrounding confidentiality, and record keeping. These

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ideas are addressed directly in the Linden Sport Psychology Program Design. THE UTILITY OF A SPORT PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL The author perceives numerous benefits of having a sport psychology program at the secondary school level with various relevant stakeholders as beneficiaries. These benefits were shared individually and communicated in conversations with the Athletic Director, the Assistant Superintendent, the Superintendent, and the Director of Special Services prior to approval for the design and implementation of the program. The purpose of detailing this information was to show the relevant stakeholders how this program could potentially benefit them. These benefits are detailed below. This served as motivation to stakeholders for supporting and ensuring the success of this program. Benefits for the Athletic Director Include: 1. Feedback from a consultant who is trained regarding the psychological needs of student-athletes and coaches. 2. Support in the way of sport psychology techniques and actual interventions with student-athletes and coaches. 3. Opportunity to develop the athletic department to meet the psychological and emotional needs of student-athletes including education and prevention of substance abuse (i.e., steroids and other performance enhancing drugs). Benefits for Coaches Include: 1. Collaborative consultation and feedback regarding student-athletes with behavior problems. 2. The implementation of strategies and techniques in areas of performance enhancement (meditation, visualization, goal-setting, etc.). 3. Greater satisfaction both on and off the field with coaching as a result of consultations pertaining to perspective taking, team development, and realistic goal-setting. 4. Professional development in areas related to sport psychology and youth in sport.

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Benefits for Student-Athletes: 1. Improved satisfaction with sport participation as a result of a more balanced perspective with school and sport. 2. Improved performance as a result of better sport coping mechanisms. 3. Higher levels of motivation. 4. Heightened awareness of the importance of the mental aspects of sport. Benefits for Parents: 1. Greater awareness and more realistic expectations for their child’s participation in sport. 2. Improved relationship with coaches and greater understanding of their personal impact on their child’s participation in sport. Benefits for Upper Administration: 1. Support for an innovative and progressive program that addresses the psychological and emotional needs of coaches and student-athletes. 2. Greater sense of satisfaction that student-athletes are getting their needs met and that they are living up to their full potential. 3. Greater sense from the community that the administration supports program that addresses the psychological needs of students. 4. Serves as a bridge, closing the gap between special education and general education. Assists special education and general education students all under one program. 5. Non-discriminatory in terms of services offered. Male and female athletes have equal opportunity to access the program. 6. Addresses the needs of the “total-athlete.” 7. Not only are performance related goals addressed but also, the personal and developmental needs of student-athletes are addressed by this program as well. Benefits to the Community: 1. Recognition for designing and implementing the first sport psychology program of its kind on a national level in written format. 2. A greater sense of support for the athletic programs in the community including its student athletes and coaches.

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3. Improved sense that the focus in the community is on the emotional and developmental needs of the student-athletes as opposed to winning. NEEDS ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES Needs assessment activities occurred between the consultant and the Athletic Director to determine the degree to which he was interested in participating in the development of a sport psychology program in Linden. Initially, an informal interview occurred between the author and the Athletic Director. During this interview, the consultant described the kinds of services that he could provide to coaches and student-athletes in Linden. As a result of this interview with the Athletic Director, the consultant identified several areas of need. Most of these needs related to players’ and coaches’ mental performances. The following performance domains were identified as potential areas of programmatic development with student-athletes and coaches by the consultant within the context of the Athletic Department in Linden including: affective, cognitive, social, and academic. PERFORMANCE DOMAINS RELATED TO HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS Affective Domain The Athletic Director stated that several athletes over the years have been suspended and/or ejected from games for inappropriate behaviors including cursing, throwing equipments, arguing with umpires and referees over calls, fighting with opponents, and cursing at teammates or fans in the stands. It was clear in our discussion that student-athletes often do not have the ability to control their emotions or they lack the skills and knowledge regarding how to develop the appropriate coping mechanisms. This was identified as an important area to target when working with student-athletes as well as helping coaches to understand how they can help their athletes to develop in this area.

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Social Domain The Athletic Director noted that student-athletes often do not “unite” as a team. Numerous coaches had complained over the years that they had a difficult time getting their athletes to respect one another, communicate, and interact positively both on and off the field. One of the primary goals of a high school athletic program is to socially bring students together. Despite the fact that many student-athletes report participating in an after-school sport for the “social benefits,” there still seems to be a great deal of segmentation or grouping within the team structure. Getting all of the athletes on one team to work together and get along was something that the Athletic Director had a strong interest in helping his coaches to accomplish. Academic Domain The Athletic Director noted that every year there are issues with students struggling to maintain their eligibility to play. The district policy is that a student must be passing every subject in order to maintain eligibility on a sport team. Helping students to maintain a healthy balance between school and sport was important to the Athletic Director. Cognitive Domain The Athletic Director recognized that many student-athletes experience a great deal of difficulty in stressful situations, particularly during competitions that demand a high level of performance. Under pressure situations, many student-athletes experience negative thoughts about their ability and will often inaccurately judge their performance. This has a negative impact on their future performances, attitudes, and perceptions of the sport in general. As a result of this, their motivation, focus, and desire to participate can be negatively affected. The Athletic Director expressed an interest in assisting both student-athletes and coaches in this area. The Athletic Director reported that coaches often struggle to maintain perspective as well as athletes, especially when they are coaching a losing team. Helping coaches to focus on the process of what they were doing instead of the results (winning or losing) was a heavy emphasis of this program.

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FALL SEASON COACHES ORIENTATION In the beginning of the school year the consultant met with all of the fall season coaches for the Athletic Directors “Coach Orientation.” During this orientation, the program design as well as Maher’s (1997) 12 Mental Skills Domains relevant to sport psychology were distributed to coaches. Additionally, the consultant spent several minutes discussing the purpose of the program and the various services that he could offer. The consultant discussed that he could offer: (1) individual discussion and/or consultation with coaches, (2) group and team meetings, (3) practice of mental skills techniques, (4) educational sessions, (5) guidance and personal counseling of the individual athlete, (6) meetings with parents, (7) observations of practices, and (8) observations of games. The consultant then began the work of conducting needs assessment activities with coaches. This was primarily done by showing up at practice locations and speaking with the coach informally about the progress of the team. Three teams were primarily involved in sport psychology interventions: (1) Boys’ Varsity Soccer, (2) Girls’ Varsity Basketball, and (3) Boys’ Varsity Baseball. Below is a description of the program content, by team and season, for each of these teams. TEAM, INDIVIDUAL STUDENT-ATHLETE, AND COACH CASE STUDIES–PROGRAM CONTENT–BY SEASON (FALL, WINTER, AND SPRING) Case Study # 1-Boys’ Varsity Soccer Team (Fall Season) Team Orientation, Needs Assessment, and Introduction This workshop lasted approximately 10-15 minutes. The consultant began this first session by introducing himself to the players and coaches. The consultant described himself regarding his work as a school psychologist as well as his role as a sport psychology consultant. He also explained the purpose of the program and what he intended to accomplish. During this orientation, the consultant discussed the possible benefits of participating in the program–that they would receive information and instruction about the mental side of the game of soccer.

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Educational Session # 1-Managing Emotions During a Game Introduction-a definition of composure The consultant began the second session by presenting participants with an explanation about “composure” and how an athlete uses his emotions during a performance. Case Study # 2-Girls’ Varsity Basketball Team (Winter Season) Team Orientation, Needs Assessment, and Introduction This workshop lasted approximately 10 minutes. The consultant began this first session by introducing himself to the players and coaches. The consultant described himself regarding his work as a school psychologist as well as his role as a sport psychology consultant. He also explained the purpose of the program and what he intended to accomplish. During this orientation, the consultant discussed the possible benefits of participating in the program–that they would receive information and instruction about the mental side of the game of basketball. Case Study # 3-Boys’ Varsity Baseball Team (Spring Season) The initial consultation with the baseball team came as the result of a request by the coach to learn more about sport psychology and the ways in which it could help his team. The Head Coach was concerned primarily with the performance of two of his players in particular. The consultant’s first activity involved contact with a pitcher on the team and then with the second baseman. These contacts came about at the request of the Head Coach. Informed parental consent was obtained by the consultant prior to having individual contact with both of these studentathletes. The pitcher was a starter for the baseball team. The coach reported that he was experiencing difficulty maintaining composure on the mound and that he was quick to lose focus. Further, he often failed to take accountability for his actions. The second baseman was having trouble with his focus and became easily distracted. He was also having difficulty maintaining composure in the field.

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The two student-athletes’ individual sessions followed the following framework: Session 1 & 2Session 3Session 4Session 5Session 6-

Assessment Problem Identification Strategy/Techniques Monitored Use of These Techniques Reviewed Performance Following a Game

TEAM-BASED CONSULTATIONS As a result of the above mentioned individual interventions, the consultant established a solid rapport with the Head Coach of the Boys’ Varsity Baseball Team who agreed to allow the consultant to work as the “Team Psychologist.” As the Team Psychologist, the consultant worked by attending practices and games and had informal discussions with the coach about various issued surrounding the team. As a result of ongoing discussions with the Head Coach, it was determined by the consultant that it might be helpful for the Coach to develop a “team handbook,” which would specify, for all of the players: (1) the team rules, (2) coaches’ philosophy, (3) policies, (4) procedures, and (5) guidelines for being on the team. This handbook is entitled, “The Linden Tigers Varsity Baseball Handbook.” During a team session the handbook was distributed to every player on the team. The consultant explained the handbook along with the coach and described each of Maher’s 12 Sport Psychology Mental Skills Domains in relation to baseball. The team was encouraged to read the information on their own time and think about the ways in which they could apply these skills while they played. In addition to the development of the handbook, the consultant provided players with on-field consultations during practices and games. He offered feedback and suggestions to athletes while they played baseball. His suggestions to athletes often took the form of cue words or reminders that were designed to help players focus their attention on a specific aspect of the game. Additionally, at the end of a practice or a game, the consultant would meet with players individually in order to help them evaluate their performances and identify mental strengths and weaknesses. These on-field consultations provided the consultant the opportunity to assess players’ technical and physical skills, and then identify their strengths and weaknesses within each of these areas.

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OTHER RELEVANT PRODUCTS PRODUCED BY THE CONSULTANT DURING THE SPRING SEASON The head coach was also provided with written feedback based on the consultant’s observations during practices and games as well. These post-observation write-ups were perceived to be extremely valuable to the coach. The written guidelines and feedback that were developed by the consultant were provided to the head coach for the purpose of showing him how sport psychology could assist his team to perform at their fullest potential. As a final activity for the Spring Season, the consultant developed a “Spring Season Status Report” for the Athletic Director and the Assistant Superintendent. The purpose of this document was to inform these stakeholders of the sport psychology program’s progress as well as plans for the following school year, should they decide to continue the program. FEEDBACK REGARDING THE PROGRAM The author posed three questions that, when answered, enabled the consultant and others to determine the extent to which the program planning and evaluation framework may be successfully applied in a school athletic context. Answers to these questions were derived from various coaches, parents, and administrators’ responses to semi-structured interviews. To what extent did this secondary school sport psychology program design adhere to the following (1) Practicality, (2) Utility, (3) Legal/ Ethical Issues, and (4) Accuracy? Qualitative responses from coaches, parents, and administrators regarding the practicality, usefulness, ethics, and accuracy of the program design and implementation revealed substantial evidence of the potential value of this school sport psychology program. It was noted on several occasions that it is believed by several stakeholders that this program has the potential to positively impact a great number of students with a variety of needs. Coaches stated that the program fit well into their organizational structure and routines and that there was no significant interference with practice schedules or games. The consultant was able to be present at

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the practice site, making it convenient for coaches to speak with the consultant. Also, the consultant made it easy for the coach to contact the consultant through various means including a referral system, e-mail, and telephone. Coaches also noted that the program design was clear and effective in explaining the purpose, goals, procedures, eligibility, and methods of the sport psychology program. Administrators and coaches seemed to agree that it would be necessary to continue to “in-service” and/or train coaches regarding the purpose and goals of the sport psychology program in order for it to spread to a greater number of coaches. Coaches expressed an interest in more direct work on the part of the consultant with student athletes within the team context. None of the coaches, parents, or administrators who were interviewed appeared to be morally or ethically offended by any aspect of this program. In fact, those interviewed revealed that they were quite comfortable with all aspects of the program design as well as its components and implementation. Relevant procedures, eligibility criteria, and issues of confidentiality as well as record keeping procedures were detailed in the program design. Further, informed parental consent was required by parents prior to any form of direct contact between the program consultant and a student-athlete. Ongoing feedback was solicited informally by the program consultant throughout the course of the year in conjunction with relevant stakeholder to continuously improve the program design and its implementation. The program consultant also worked throughout the year on informally and naturalistically evoking feedback from parents, coaches, and administrators in order to develop the program in such a way that it would continue to meet its objective of assisting student-athletes and coaches. To what degree was the sport psychology program implemented as designed? In determining the degree to which the sport psychology program was implemented as designed, the author followed through with program development activities as explained above. The observations from and products emanating from these program development activities revealed that the sport psychology program was, in fact, implemented as designed. The coaches who were involved in the program noted a high level of satisfaction with the goals of the program

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and identified some very specific ways in which they believed that the program consultant addressed these goals. For example, coaches reported that they were very satisfied with the educational sessions that took place with teams and that they desired to have the consultant do more of this type of work. Since the intent of this programmatic initiative was on the design and development of a sport psychology program in a public school, it was difficult to implement all the aspects of this program with a significant number of teams and individuals. Therefore, the focus was on one team per season. The consultant spent a majority of his time on program developmental aspects including: gaining approval for the program from relevant stakeholders, clarifying the role of the sport psychology consultant, defining the kinds of services that could be offered to coaches and student-athletes, establishing rapport with coaches, and designing a written program with clear policies, procedures, and other relevant programmatic information. The consultant was successful in all of these programmatic activities. This allowed the consultant entry into the organization as a sport psychology consultant and enabled him to work directly with coaches and teams. The program consultant also spent time educating coaches and student-athletes regarding sport psychology techniques and utilized a sport psychology framework to convey to coaches and student-athletes the importance of the mental side of sport. This framework or secondary school sport psychology model was developed by the consultant over the course of the year to be tailored to meet the unique needs of coaches and student-athletes within this particular setting. To this end, Maher’s (1996) program planning and evaluation framework was particularly useful. The feedback that was provided by coaches, parents, and administrators regarding the development of the sport psychology program was useful in understanding the degree to which the sport psychology program was implemented as designed. These results qualitatively indicated that this program was perceived to be potentially beneficial to a number of stakeholders. There were several comments from coaches that this program should get more support and should be allowed more time to develop. Also, there was interest on the part of coaches to learn more about ways in which the program could assist them as well as sport psychology concepts, theories, and interventions in general. Despite the recognition that change takes time and that some people are resistant to new ideas with which they are unfamiliar, upper administra-

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tors seemed to favor training coaches and staff to understand and utilize this “new technology” to their advantage. Program development information also provided the consultant with valuable information as to the ways in which the program might be improved for future use. Data indicated that coaches would like to see the consultant segment teams into smaller groups of student-athletes that are motivated and interested in voluntarily participating. The idea here is that those who do not have a stake or interest in learning about sport psychology will not deter those students who might be interested from accessing this information. Also, large groups of high school students may well be challenging to work with, especially if there are no consequences for inappropriate behavior. To resolve this dilemma, the consultant might be able to develop a set of consequences with the coach for when student-athletes become disruptive or inattentive during team sessions. Also, instead of a few long sessions, numerous and consistent brief sessions (10 minutes) seem to work best in maintaining a high school athlete’s attention to a topic. Coaches also reported that they would like to learn more about performance-based skills and interventions such as visualization, goal-setting, and meditation. These are the more widely known and popular sport psychology interventions. What factors inhibited or facilitated this sport psychology program to be implemented? Limiting Factors The most profound limiting factor to this project was time. This was validated by coaches’ responses to questions related to their satisfaction with the program during program development activities. It was very difficult for the consultant to manage needs assessment activities, program design activities, program implementation activities, and program development activities as a full time employee of the district. Additionally, since there were in excess of ten teams per season, the consultant had to deal with issues of “spreading himself out too thinly.” To avoid this, the consultant limited his target population to one team per season. Another way in which time became a factor was the issue of working around team schedules. Practices and games were frequently cancelled without notice and this required a great deal of effort on the part of the consultant to reschedule sessions and activities. Also, practice times were often cut down because of various factors and this limited the

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amount of time that could be spent on physical conditioning. Most coaches were unwilling to give up workout time to sport psychology activities. Another major inhibiting factor was resistance to sport psychology interventions on the part of coaches as well as a lack of understanding regarding the program. As mentioned earlier, numerous coaches cited that they would like more professional development or in-service training in the way of workshops to help them better understand sport psychology, clarification in terms of the ways in which it could benefit them, and an overall better understanding of the program in general. It was stated by administrators that ‘change’ would take time. Workshops and professional development for coaches might be one way to help coaches shift their perspective. Finally, some student-athletes appeared to be resistant during educational sessions. This might have been because they did not clearly understand the benefits to them. Also, there were few incentives for investing time and attention to this information. This would probably be more successful if coaches understood the potential benefits and made it clear to their players that it was important for them to participate. More success was attained with student-athletes in smaller group settings. Facilitating Factors The Superintendent’s interest and the Athletic Director’s interest in sport psychology and mental skills training were facilitating factors. This is because these stakeholders had the ability to get the program approved by the Board of Education and enabled the consultant to conduct all aspects of this project. Moreover, the head coaches of the three teams that participated in the program were a facilitating factor. These coaches had three traits in common with each other that contributed to their high level of interest in this program: (1) youth–openness to new ideas, (2) background and educational training in psychology, child development, and education, and (3) experience and confidence in collaborative activities within the school setting. These coaches allowed the consultant access to them and their team during practices and games and welcomed suggestions that were made by the consultant. The interest of these coaches in this project was expressed through their involvement with the consultant in discussing student-athletes, developing interventions, and incorporating

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suggestions made by the consultant into the teams’ daily routines and rituals. The commitment of some coaches to the continuous improvement of their student-athletes was the greatest facilitating factor for this program. Without this commitment on the part of the coaches, this program would not have been able to be implemented. ISSUES IN SPORT PSYCHOLOGY The number of student-athletes who participate in an after school sport on an annual basis is estimated to be in the millions (Singer, Hausenblas, & Janelle, 2001). Based on the sheer number of studentathletes, the implications and opportunities for sport psychologists and those who are trained and credentialed to work in this area are endless. Although sport psychology has not yet been established as a bona fide domain within the public school system, this author believes that it is only a matter of time until this becomes a reality. What is clear is that the psychological and mental needs of student-athletes is an area lacking in attention. While the physical and technical development of student-athletes might be getting a significant amount of attention by coaches across the country, it is not clear, the degree to which the mental side of sport is being taught and attended to by school athletic programs. However, in order for young athletes to fully develop, three areas must be focused on with student-athletes including: (1) physical skill development, (2) technical skill development, and (3) mental skill development. These three areas of skill development are what contribute to the development of the “total athlete.” The “total athlete” is one who is successful both on and off the playing field and venues. It has not yet been established the degree to which the latter (mental skill development) of these three areas is being addressed within the public school system. High rates of burnout, poor motivation, anger, frustration, and a lack of behavioral control displayed by high school athletes may account for the lack of attention that is spent on the mental side of sport. These types of negative behaviors amongst student-athletes are common when they become overwhelmed, anxious, or challenged beyond their skill level within a school sport context. This project makes a case that customized secondary school sport psychology programs, such as the ones currently being utilized at the colle-

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giate, elite-amateur, and professional levels of sport, could provide a valuable service for public school athletic programs. Meeting the psychological, developmental, and emotional needs of student-athletes is an important, yet missing component, especially at the high school level. ISSUES IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Given the continually changing role of the school psychologist, it is becoming increasingly more important that professionals in this area learn to develop more “non-traditional” skills, services, and roles within the public school setting. With the federal government now focusing on finding ways to “include” all students, even those with disabilities, within the regular education setting, the role of the “traditional” school psychologist is becoming more obsolete. Two areas that may hold significant promise and potential for school psychologists are those related to program design and evaluation as well as sport psychology. School psychologists may wish to apply their skills providing consultation services to student-athletes and coaches. As a result of the “inclusion” model, schools are required to address the behavioral needs of students in after-school activities, especially within a sport context. School psychologists who are familiar with cognitive-behavioral techniques such as visualization, behavioral routines, and relaxation techniques may be prepared to offer these types of services within the school setting as an after-school program. Professional development and curriculum design are other areas in which school psychologists could be extremely helpful to coaches and student-athletes. In order to implement sport psychology programs and interventions it would be helpful to have an approved curriculum in place that mirrors what is being taught. A sport psychology curriculum at the secondary level could provide a guide for coaches and consultants in working with student-athletes as well as a set of widely accepted goals and objectives for the community. Professional development of coaches in areas related to the mental side of sport as well as sport psychology might be viewed as valuable learning opportunities to arm coaches with tools that will enable them to assist their student-athletes achieve their full potential, not only as athletes but also as students and as community members.

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WISHING TO APPLY SPORT PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SETTING The results of this project may provide prospective secondary school sport psychology consultants with some useful information and suggestions as to how to design and implement effective programs for student-athletes and coaches. First, individuals who have an interest in providing consultation services to teams should ensure that they have an adequate background in psychology and/or exercise science. Consultants should become familiar with the literature in both areas and have had some experience providing consultation services to athletes while under the direct supervision of a sport psychologist. Those wishing to provide sport psychology consultation should also have a strong background in cognitive-behavioral techniques. It is also important, for those who wish to work in this capacity, to receive direct training and supervision from someone who is licensed, certified, and experienced in working with athletes and coaches. In order to maximize the effectiveness of their consultation services, these individuals should apply a model, much like Maher’s (1996) Program Planning and Evaluation Framework to guide their interactions with student-athletes and coaches. When working with school sport teams, consultants should identify the client, target population, and their needs, as well as the relevant context in which those needs occur. It is important for the consultant to carefully analyze contextual factors that might either facilitate or hinder the process. Working with teams is difficult as opposed to working with individuals; therefore, it is important to look closely at those factors that might enable the consultation to succeed. Consultants need to be willing to be patient in establishing rapport with coaches as this is a new field and will require time to become recognized for its value. Consultant should also focus on only working with those coaches who are motivated to accept new ideas, are willing to change, and who understand that the mental side of sport is equally as important as the physical and technical sides. REFERENCES Andrason, R. (1999). Utilizing the program planning and evaluation framework for providing sport psychology consultation with a collegiate soccer team. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-The State University of New Jersey. Gardner, F. (1995). The coach and the team psychologist: An integrated organizational model. In S. Murphy (Ed.), Sport psychology interventions (pp. 147-175). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Gould, D., Tammen, V., Murphy, S., & May, J. (1989). An examination of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultants and the services they provide. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 300-312. Gould, D., Murphy, S., Tammen, V., & May, J. (1991). An evaluation of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultant effectiveness. Sport Psychologist, 5, 111-127. Lawrence, M.J. (2002). A case study in sport psychology consultation: Utilizing a program planning and evaluation framework with a collegiate tennis team. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-The State University of New Jersey. Maher, C. (1978). A synoptic framework for school program evaluation. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 322-333. Maher, C. (1981). Program evaluation and school psychology: Perspectives, principles, procedures. In T.R. Kratochwill (Ed.), Advances in school psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 169-216). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Maher, C. (1996). Resource guide: Planning and evaluation of human services programs. Unpublished Manuscript. Maher, C. (1997). Player mental criteria. Unpublished Manuscript. Maher, C. & Bennett, R.E. (1984). Planning and evaluating special education services. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Murphy, S.M., & Murphy, A.I. (1992, August). Sport Psychology: Performance enhancement for athletes. Workshop presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Partington, J., & Orlick, T. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches’ views. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 95-102. Perna, F., Neyer, M., Murphy, S.M., Ogilvie, B.C., & Murphy, A. (1995). Consultations with sport organizations: A cognitive-behavioral model. In S.M. Murphy (Ed.), Sport psychology interventions (pp. 235-252). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Reyes, O., & Jason, L.A. (1993). Collaborating with the community. In J.E. Ains, T.R. Kratochwill, & S.E. Elliot (Eds.), Handbook of consultation services for children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Singer, R.N., Hausenblas, H.A., & Janelle, C.M. (Ed.). (2001) Handbook of Sport Psychology (Second Edition), New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Weissman, M.E. (2003). Sport psychology services in public schools: Breaking new ground through program development and support for student-athletes and coaches. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University-The State University of New Jersey. West, J.F., & Idol, L. (1993). The counselor as a consultant in a collaborative school. Journal of Counseling & Development, 71, 673-683.

Substance Use Among High School Athletes: Implications for Prevention Interventions Robert J. Pandina Valerie L. Johnson Leah M. Lagos Helene R. White Center of Alcohol Studies Rutgers University

SUMMARY. During the past two decades, prevention specialists have responded to concerns about youthful substance use by developing a variety of programs. The most effective of these programs have been based upon our understanding of the risk and protective factors involved. While student-athletes generally share the same level of risk as other high school students, as a group, they may have other characteristics that can be considered. In addition, the special socializing experience of participating in athletics may present special opportunities for prevention. We suggest that it is prudent to build upon important lessons in designing programs for student athletes and we provide, as a starting point, an overview of twelve key processes with demonstrated impact. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.] Address correspondence to: Dr. Robert J. Pandina, 607 Allison Road, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854 (E-mail: [email protected]). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Substance Use Among High School Athletes: Implications for Prevention Interventions.” Pandina, Robert J. et al. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 115-143; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 115-143. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800- HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_07

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KEYWORDS. Drug use, prevention, students, athletes, risk factors

BACKGROUND Exposure to alcohol and popular drugs of abuse such as tobacco, marijuana, cocaine and club drugs among adolescents and young adults in high school, college and the work force is a common, though disturbing, phenomenon. Such exposure is often viewed as “normative” (both statistically and developmentally) even though the contact carries with it potentially serious and even life-threatening consequences. The most prevalent experience among adolescents and emerging adults is with beverage alcohol though exposure rates to street drugs such as marijuana and ecstasy remain significant (Johnston & O’Malley, 2001). Heavy drinking and experimenting with other drug use have been viewed as “rites of passage” for many students not only in college (Vicary & Karshin, 2002) but also those transiting the high school years (Weschler et al., 2001). Alcohol use patterns, including those indicative of serious problems, which emerge in early adolescence (i.e., the high school years) may continue for some youths through early adulthood (Baer et al., 2001; Weingardt et al., 1998) during their college years or during their transition from high school to the workforce (Berkowitz & Perkins, 1986; Baer, Kivlahan, & Marlatt, 1995). Emerging evidence indicates that use of other substances follows a similar course. Many individuals who engage in what can be considered “dangerous” or excessive use during these developmental periods may abandon such practices as they enter adulthood. However, for some, these problematic behaviors will endure a lifetime (O’Neill et al., 2001). Hence, given the universality of this phenomenon, coping with potential situations where exposure occurs may be considered an important developmental challenge for youths from a wide variety of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. A large number of putative “risk and protective” factors have been associated with various forms of substance use behavior (Hawkins et al., 1992; Petraitis et al., 1995; Pandina, 1998). These factors are drawn from a broad range of biological, psychological and socio-environmental factors and conditions. To date, no set of factors has been demonstrated to account satisfactorily for the wide range of use behaviors and outcomes observed among the general population or within specific sub-populations. This observation is valid even when examining a narrow range of use behaviors or outcomes (e.g., use initiation; problematic use; abstinence) or when examining a narrow segment of the

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youthful population who might be considered at either heightened risk (e.g., children of alcoholics) or who may be purportedly at reduced risk. During the past two decades, prevention scientists have attempted to respond to concerns about substance use behaviors of American youth by developing and testing a variety of programs designed to block use initiation and reduce or eliminate use escalation in those who have experimented with substances. The most effective of these programs, considered to be evidenced based and empirically tested, have been based upon our understanding of the etiological risk and protective factors and putative major mediating factors. While significant advances have been made in prevention efforts, substance use remains a serious threat to biological, psychological and social growth and the potential of many young people. The focus of this article is to examine the risk status of a specific sub-set of youths who, during their teen years in high school, choose to engage in organized sponsored athletic activities. With approximately 6.9 million high school students participating in school-sponsored athletics (National Federation of High School Associations, 2004), adolescence represents a window of opportunity for prevention for this interesting aggregation of adolescents. Here, we focus on several core questions. Do student-athletes differ from their high school age-related peers in their use patterns? Are there specific risk and protective factor profiles and mediating factors that may affect use patterns and status of student-athletes differentially? What are the implications of these questions for the design and implementation of potentially effective prevention intervention strategies specifically targeting student-athletes? DRUG USE AMONG ADOLESCENTS Recent results of the Monitoring the Future Survey (Johnston et al., 2001), a nationwide assessment of use behavior of a representative sample of students from over 120 high schools across the United States, indicate that, among 8th graders, 22% had used alcohol in the past month. This percentage increased to 41% among 10th graders and to 50% among high school seniors. The proportions for monthly marijuana use were reported as 9% in 8th grade, 19% in 10th grade, and 21% in 12th grade. The proportions for the use of any other illicit drug were reported as 5%, 8% and 10%, for 8th, 10th, and 12th graders, respectively. Recent statewide surveys conducted by SAMHSA (e.g., Wright & Davis, 2001) essentially have replicated these results. By and

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large, both the Monitoring the Future Survey and the SAMHSA investigators found significant increases in youthful illicit drug use from 19921996. A third population based study, the National Household Survey, found that drug use remained relatively steady between 1998-1999, except for the use of MDMA (ecstasy) which increased among those in the 10th-12th grades. Interestingly, recent studies indicate use of steroids (and related supplements) was reported by as many as 5% to 10% of high school students. The extent of use of these types of substances by younger adolescents appears to be a rather recent phenomenon (see also, Buckley et al., 1988; Pandina & Hendrin, 1999). Substance use has resulted in serious consequences for youths and major problems for secondary schools throughout the United States. In addition to documenting the extent of drug use among adolescents, the SAMHSA survey also found that students reported a variety of problems associated with the use of drugs, such as recovering from the effects of the drug, the propensity to use in larger amounts, development of tolerance to the drug, impaired activity level due to the effects of drug use, emotional or psychological problems, health problems, and efforts to try to cut down the use of drugs. These consequences have all been cited as indicators of abusive consumption. In spite of the fluctuations in use patterns during the past decade, results of these national and state-wide surveys, along with those from more local and regional derived samples, lead to the conclusion that use initiation, escalation and serious consequences related to use behaviors represent a continuing threat to adolescent development. This brief overview supports several conclusions. First, substance use behaviors appear to escalate during mid-adolescence with a rather dramatic increase in incidence and prevalence during the period of transition to high school. Second, substance use results in serious negative consequences for both youths and schools. Third, use initiation, escalation and consequences related to use behaviors represent a continuing threat to adolescent development. Finally, schools continue to face the serious challenge of coping with substance use and its consequences among students from a wide range of social, economic, and ethnic backgrounds. ARE ATHLETES DIFFERENT? Early research (e.g., Straus, 1953) speculated that athletes would be more likely to maintain physical fitness and would thus be less likely to

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drink than non-athletes. These early investigations, of course, did not and could not anticipate the dramatic changes in “recreational” (though far from benign) drug use that began in the late 1960s and escalated in the 1970s that swept across the American scene. Hence, more recent research efforts paint a significantly different, though not an altogether consistent or definitive, picture of alcohol and drug use among athletes. Given the significant social changes that have occurred since these earlier observations and the evolution of athletics (including the professional, collegiate, elite and high school levels), it is not surprising that the picture has become more complex. It should also be noted that, in spite of the growing concern and extensive public attention about alcohol and drug abuse and use of performance enhancing substances among professional, elite and, more recently, amateur athletes, the scientific literature on this important topic is sparse and provides at best sketchy speculative profiles of use among serious athletes at all levels. The most frequently studied athletes are those attending colleges and universities and the focus has often been upon alcohol use or performance enhancing substances. Hence, it may be instructive to review some of these findings, especially as many high school athletes go on to some level of competition at higher levels and because, arguably, collegiate athletics (in all of its aspects) may serve to set patterns for those who aspire to continue beyond high school. Overall, the literature would suggest that student athletes drink more frequently and in greater quantities than non-athletes (Hildebrand et al., 2001; Leichliter et al., 1998; Nattiv & Puffer, 1991; Selby et al., 1990; Wechsler et al., 1997). For example, Wechsler et al. (2001) found that college students who were current athletes and those who were former athletes (in high school) drank alcohol more frequently and in greater quantities, had earlier onset of alcohol use, and engaged in alcohol-related risk behaviors (e.g., engaged in sexual intercourse, driven a car) more frequently than students who had never been athletes. There were few significant differences between former and current athletes in drinking patterns suggesting that these patterns are established in high school. On the other hand, the college athletes engaged in significantly more alcoholrelated risk behaviors than the former athletes suggesting that the “best” athletes may see themselves as most invisible or may be the highest sensation seekers/risk takers. Nattiv and Puffer (1991) also found that college athletes engage in risky behaviors more often than non-athletes. Further, athletes compared to non-athletes have been found to be more likely to experience negative consequences of alcohol and drug use (Presley et al., 2002) suggesting greater levels of use or, alterna-

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tively, greater vulnerability to use resulting, perhaps, from greater performance demands and stress placed upon student-athletes. Thombs (2000), however, argues that a stress-coping perspective has not been supported for college athletes. Rather it is more likely that the same forces that shape drinking among other students, such as drinking norms and a permissive campus culture, influence drinking among athletes. Wechsler et al. (1997) found that similar variables predict heavier drinking for athletes than for non-athletes. Furthermore, the fact that athletes are able to modify their drinking during their competitive season suggests that they are adaptive in their behavior and that proactive policies and programs can have a positive effect on their drinking behavior (Thombs, 2000). Wechsler et al. (1997) argue the fact that college athletes are less likely to smoke cigarettes than their peers suggests that they may be amenable to prevention approaches that demonstrate the potential negative effects of other drugs on athletic performance. The results of the few empirical studies drawing from high school age samples suggest a picture similar to that speculative picture emerging from studies of college athletes. For example, Aaron et al. (1995) conducted a study on alcohol use among athletes in grades 7-9 and found that males in competitive athletics were more likely to report alcohol use than those who did not play sports. Likewise, Carr and colleagues (1990) studied students in a large suburban high school and noted that 50% of male athletes reported using alcohol more than once a month compared to 41% of male non-athletes. Naylor et al. (2001) found that athletes were less likely than classmates to use cocaine and psychedelics, but more likely to use creatine. Melnick et al. (2001), in a study of more than 16,000 high school students, found that athletes were less likely to smoke tobacco, but more likely to chew tobacco than their non-athlete counterparts. While regional (Shields, 1995) and gender (Ewing, 1998) differences can be inferred, researchers have found that there are commonalities associated with substance use among youth, regardless of athletic participation, including motivations for use (Green, 1995). What can we conclude about the high school athletes’ alcohol and drug use risk from the sparse data available? From a strictly scientific perspective, it would be premature to draw any definitive conclusions about the heightened or reduced risk that might be engendered by a youth’s status as a high school student-athlete. The most reasonable position (besides arguing for additional studies on this important topic) is to work from the viewpoint that student-athletes are a reasonably rep-

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resentative sample drawn from high school students in general. As such they also share the same level of risk as other high school students, which, as we have seen, are significant. What may also be worth considering, especially within the context of potential prevention programming, is the fact that, as a group, they may have characteristics that can and should be considered in the design of such programs. In addition, the special socializing experience of participating in high school athletics may present special opportunities for prevention. Next, we turn to several factors that define, in part, the high school athletic experience that are important to consider when thinking about prevention programming for this special group. In this regard, we will not focus on the physical strains and stresses of competition but rather on the psychological and social challenges accompanying athletics and what these suggest about prevention activities. RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS: IMPORTANCE FOR PREVENTION PROGRAMMING A significant and extensive literature has evolved during the past quarter century that characterizes and links a multitude of risk and protective factors to trajectories of use and the development of problematic outcomes (for reviews see Hawkins et al., 1992; Petraitis et al., 1995; Pandina, 1998). Many findings from the risk and protective factor literature have had a profound impact upon prevention programming (Ammerman et al., 1999; Scheier, 2001). In addition, converging lines of evidence have indicated that the development of psychological self-regulation spans the period from birth to early adulthood (Stuss, 1992), and that abilities associated with self-regulation are integral components of the risk (or protection) for substance use in adolescence (Mezzich et al., 1997). Having an intervention that is theoretically and empirically tied to a set of known risk and protective factors increases the likelihood of its efficacy (Brown & Liao, 1999). Most importantly, it is considered axiomatic that effective prevention programming must be anchored in an understanding of risk and protective factors and the developmental trajectories of problem behavior including drug abuse (Coie et al., 1993; Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994; Labouvie et al., 1991; Pandina, 1998; Tobler, 1992; Tobler & Stratton, 1997; Sloboda & David, 1997). Differences in individual responses to developmental transitions or tasks result from the balance of the risk and protective factors that these

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adolescents have at their disposal. Hence, a key focus in prevention programming has been the identification of risk (and protective) factors within specific developmental periods that appear to be linked to the transition (or absence of transition) to problematic outcomes and the design of intervention programs targeted at reducing risk profiles and enhancing protective factors. Protective factors can help to safeguard youth from substance use. Many youth growing up in presumably high-risk families and environments emerge relatively problem free. Protective factors balance and buffer risk factors (Hawkins et al., 1992). Protective factors decrease the likelihood of an adolescent’s engaging in problem behaviors by providing personal and/or social controls (Nettles et al., 2000). Risk-focused programming, which has been the mainstay of contemporary prevention efforts, has recently come under re-appraisal. While focusing only on risk factors, program elements concentrate on the negative elements of an individual’s life, rather than the strengths. Building on and enhancing protective factors within a healthy lifestyle model is hypothesized to be a more promising approach (Brown, 2001). The program of research proposed in this application embraces this need to focus on health promotion and protective factors as a means of drug use prevention. A thorough review of these factors (by one count over 100 putative factors that have received empirical support!) and their dynamic relationship to various substance use behaviors and outcomes is beyond the scope of this article. However, several core factors and domains have been consistently linked to increased risk for, or conversely, to protection from substance use and abuse that may be especially salient for consideration in prevention program development. These core factors include: peer group dynamics and peer norms (real and perceived) related to substance use; quality and quantity of parental monitoring and supervision (and that of “other significant adults” such as coaches or teacher-mentors); nature and strength of attachment to school and other pro-social environments and activities (including opportunities for engagement); propensity toward sensation seeking and risk taking; level of competence in a variety of life skills, including conflict negotiation as well as anger (and other strong emotional states), stress and time management. Obviously, these factors would be relevant for athletes and non-athletes alike. There may be other factors (or variants of the core factors) that are likely to be especially salient for student athletes above and beyond those relevant for the typical teenager because of the special circumstances of this group and because of potential “stressors” not

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experienced in the same manner by non-athlete peers (Pinkerton, Hinz, & Barrow, 1989). It is important to note that these factors should be considered as speculative in that strong empirical investigation into the relationships between these factors and their unique contribution to substance abuse and student-athletes is lacking. Nonetheless, consideration of these factors makes theoretical sense and fits with the experience of many professionals who have worked with athletes. These factors include: identity development and expression, social isolation, athletic injury, and performance stress. We will discuss briefly each of these factors. Identity formation. The early work of Nelson (1983) suggests the potential impact of identity and role diffusion on the development of the adolescent athlete. Athletic ability correlates with strong peer acceptance and athletes are often among the most visible and admired people at school, especially in school environments that place high value on athletic success. Potential problems may arise when an athlete defines their capabilities (and their personal sense of self) in terms of athletic skills and neglects the development of other vocational and social identities. Athletes who demonstrate such overidentification with athletic talent may experience identity confusion in later adolescence. Social isolation. Many athletes may become functionally isolated from their non-athlete peers. Long hours of practice can be compounded by travel to athletic events (Pinkerton et al., 1989). Athletes who are also serious students divide time between sports and pursuit of academics, thereby limiting opportunity to socialize with non-athlete peers. Additionally, athletes’ tendency to aggregate with other studentathletes outside of practice may perpetuate their emphasis on their athletic identity in competition with academic identity. This strong emphasis on the athlete role may lead to maladaptive thinking and behavior (Andersen, 1996). Athletic injury. In many instances, high school athletes participate in sports with the aspiration of earning a college-athletic scholarship. For students who sustain career-ending injuries, the sudden loss of dreams and identity can leave them susceptible to severe adjustment problems and depression (Brewer, 1993; Kleiber & Brock, 1992). As a result, the transition out of sports can be stressful. Coping with performance stress. A major reason many adolescents use drugs is to cope with negative affect (that is, strong often chronically experienced negative emotions). Athletes encounter a complicated struggle between balancing realistic and idealistic goals and meeting the real and perceived performance goals relative to athletic

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prowess and performance. Athletes must satisfy their own demands as well as attend to objectives set forth by parents, peers, coaches, and teachers. Further, their performance is typically “public” and subject to scrutiny, praise and criticism some of which is likely modeled after that given to professional athletes. Green and Burke (1995) found that high school athletes that identified feeling angry also reported increased alcohol consumption as compared to their non-athlete peers. Further, athletes who suffer from low self-esteem are more likely to engage in substance use than athletes with high self-esteem (McGuire, 1990; Roberts-Wilbur, 1987). Presumably esteem may be a reflection of performance competence. SCHOOL BASED PREVENTION PROGRAMMING Before considering the possible special needs of and models for programming for student-athletes, it is instructive to review briefly the status of prevention programs for their age related peers. Currently, prevention programs reach less than half of the nation’s school children and many of the programs are focused on elementary or middle school students (Durlak, 1995). Overviews of the multiple and varied school based programs can be found in publications distributed by Drug Strategies (1996), the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (1999) and others. Classifying prevention programs as either universal, selective or indicated (in some circles, referred to as “targeted”) is a recent adoption by the National Institute on Drug Abuse. These school based prevention programs vary widely in terms of type, age of the student at implementation, and style of material delivery. Most school based prevention programs have typically been universal, very structured, curriculum driven, and teacher to student communicated (Ennett et al., 2003; Shin, 2001). In general, programs have exhibited small effect sizes (Foxcroft et al., 1997; Gorman, 1998; Moskowitz, 1993; Tobler, 1996). Few schools offer interventions that involve changing the school environment or integrating prevention efforts into existing school based activities. A handful of studies have compared the effectiveness of universal prevention activities for groups that differed according to their level of use at baseline (e.g., Bell et al., 1993; Ellickson & Bell, 1990) and found that universal programs designed to prevent initiation may have no effect for the most at-risk population. Indeed, many students may have initiated use behaviors prior to their entering high school. Therefore, while selective and indicated pro-

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grams may be costly, they may prove to be the most cost effective because they reach students who could potentially benefit the most from the intervention. Gottfredson and Wilson (2003) argue that an understanding of the elements of effective prevention programming for high-risk youth is essential in order to develop and test such programs. Emerging evidence suggests that comprehensive school based prevention approaches that appear to be effective are due to the synergistic combination of social influence and competence enhancement processes thought to mediate or moderate outcomes (Epstein et al., 2002; Scheier et al., 1997) including norm setting (Kumar et al., 2002), refusal skills, self-management skills, and general social skills. Others have found a positive effect in reducing substance use by combining social competence enhancement with information dissemination (Caplan et al., 1992). However, other investigators have found that the combination of social influence resistance training and promoting norms against use has produced only modest effects in reducing onset and prevalence (Ellickson & Bell, 1990; Hansen et al., 1988). Table 1, which is adapted from Hansen (1992), describes the mediating processes that successful programs have incorporated. These processes include those needed to enhance a sense of school attachment and a kinship to other prosocial peers and provide skills necessary to make informed decisions, resist negative influences, set realistic goals, manage anger and stress and develop a belief system consistent with an achievement orientation. Tobler and Stratton (1997) performed a meta-analysis of 120 school based prevention programs and found that interactive programs reported better outcomes than non-interactive programs. This meta analysis also demonstrated support for a youth involvement approach, which seeks to promote protective mediators such as self-empowerment, leadership, planning, decision-making, opportunities for success, and team building skills. Wilson et al. (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 165 school based prevention practices. Beyond the general agreement that “something” works, there is much uncertainty about the specific magnitude of the effects, as well as the specific components of the program and specific segments of the population with which prevention works. Generally speaking, Wilson and colleagues found that instructional techniques that do not use cognitive behavioral or behavioral instructional strategies such as mentoring, tutoring, work study programs and recreational programs are not effective. Self-control or social competency promotion instruction using cognitive behavioral and behavioral instructional methods, and non-instructional programs also using these

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures TABLE 1. Twelve Mediators to Target in Prevention Interventions

Curriculum Content

Target

Mediating Processes

1. Information

Knowledge and beliefs about the consequences of use

Increased belief in the possibility of experiencing harm and decreased belief of positive effects

2. Decision making

Learn procedures about making rational decisions

Application of rational processes for dealing with problem situations

3. Public commitment to prosocial goals

Emphasis on moral reasons for remaining drug free

Development of a personal pledge to abstain

4. Values clarification

Assist individuals in identifying Developing beliefs that values positive or prosocial values are essential in choice and use is inconsistent with life objectives

5. Goal setting

Skills for attaining goals and an achievement orientation

Develop motivation for achievement orientation and skills for setting life goals

6. Stress management

Strategies to reduce stress and develop alternative coping

Increase self-efficacy for coping and reduction in perceived stress

7. Self-esteem

Developing individual feelings Level of improvement in of self-worth self-esteem

8. Life skills

Communication and conflict resolution skills

9. Resistance skills

Identify and resist pressure to Develop skills to refuse use use and enhance self-efficacy

10. Norm setting

Correcting erroneous perceptions of use

Lower expectations about prevalence and acceptability of use

11. Prosocial bonding

Emphasis on making a positive school environment

Providing social support and attachment to peer group

12. Alternative programs

Provide activities that are incompatible with use

Reducing the time of exposure to at-risk situations and provide activities that run counter to use

Improve skills for social acceptance and resolving interpersonal problems

methods, or environmentally focused programs, were all particularly effective. In addition, the concept of peer leadership in drug abuse prevention has been utilized in prevention programs for more than 25 years (e.g., Capone et al., 1973; Lawler, 1971; Smart et al., 1976). By and large, research on early programs demonstrated that these interventions could

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impact upon the level of information known about drug use, as well as facilitate friendships, develop individual responsibility and instill confidence, but raised concerns in as much as significant drug using behavior change could not be detected. Programs showing some promise of success exhibited a common ingredient–student involvement in decision-making. More recent evidence indicates that the use of peer leaders from the student population to share in the transference of the substance abuse prevention curriculum is more effective than teacher-led conditions (Bell et al., 1993; Botvin et al., 1990; Gottfredson & Wilson, 2003; Midford et al., 2002). From the perspective of communication theory, the effectiveness of the use of peers as influentials is more easily understood. Source credibility is one of the most potent, if not the most potent, means of persuasion (Dahnke & Clastterbuck, 1990). Cuijpers (2002), in a meta-analytic comparison of a dozen peer led and adult led school based drug prevention programs, concluded that effectiveness of these programs is determined by many factors, including content, number of regular and booster sessions and the degree of interaction between students during the program. Such peer-led programs have been found promising in helping to change student social norms (DeJong & Langford, 2002). However, adequate evaluations of these programs are rare and hence, these kinds of programs remain an empirically unproven strategy for reducing drug use. Hence, use of peers and peer leaders, while a promising and potentially powerful approach, requires greater validation. PROGRAMS FOR STUDENT ATHLETES By and large, there have been relatively few empirically tested and validated programs that focus upon student athletes at either the high school or collegiate level. Moreover, relatively few programs have been formally evaluated for effects on drug use (Larimer & Cronce, 2002; Grossman & Smiley, 1999) and those that have been evaluated have demonstrated limited efficacy particularly when they employ an educational approach without additional components. For example, a program implemented by the American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs (1988) that relied upon use of authoritative educational materials on drug abuse in athletes focusing primarily upon the adverse consequences and limited value of steroid use, was largely un-

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successful. The intervention failed to increase student-athletes’ belief of negative consequences of anabolic steroids (Ferrante & Etzel, 1991). Significant effects in drug prevention focusing upon steroid use have been found in limited pilot research sponsored by the National Institute of Drug Abuse that employed an enhanced educational approach. The research included 70 male high school football players who participated in an Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) program. The objective of this intervention was to test a team-based, educational intervention designed to reduce adolescent athletes’ intent to use anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). Despite the relatively small sample, findings associated constructs central to the intervention with: (1) improved body image, (2) developed more realistic norms regarding steroid use, (3) improved understanding of alternatives to steroids, and (4) decreased participants’ reliance on supplement powder and pills. A potential strength of the program was that it was delivered by the coach and peer leaders in the high school setting (Goldberg et al., 1996). A parallel program for adolescent females, ATHENA, has been developed but has not yet received a thorough evaluation. (See also the article by Goldberg and Elliot in this issue). Surveillance for drug use employing a random drug-testing model is currently receiving significant attention and consideration by high school administrators and public officials. In fact, random drug testing has been implemented in a number of school districts for students engaged in extra curricular activities and is being considered for use with general student bodies. It is not surprising that use of drug testing is being considered as a prevention tool with student-athletes inasmuch as both the NCAA and many professional sports employ this methodology. Further, many if not all NCAA Division 1 university athletic programs employ random drug testing at some level in response to concerns about drug use among collegiate athletes and because of potential NCAA sanctions for drug test failures. Hence, high school athletic programs are giving increased consideration to such surveillance programs. These programs are typically viewed as an aid to deter and to detect use. The efficacy of this tool has yet to be thoroughly evaluated. Results to date have been at best equivocal with assessments both providing modest support for efficacy and indicating no effects. (A more comprehensive assessment of surveillance efficacy is currently being completed). One limited, though interesting, evaluation of the effects of drug testing on adolescent drug use has been reported in the literature. The SATURN (Student Athlete Testing Using Random Notification) project was designed to evaluate whether a nonpunitive, compulsory, ran-

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dom, suspicionless drug testing policy deterred drug and alcohol use among high school student athletes in two Oregon schools. Participation was required for all students and was a mandatory prerequisite for athletic participation. Results showed that a policy of random drug testing surveillance significantly reduced self-reports of recent performance enhancing substances and, to a lesser extent, common drugs of abuse but did not produce long-term changes in substance use and associated high-risk behaviors use among adolescent athletes (Goldberg et al., 2003). Further, neither tobacco or alcohol use was altered. This result suggests at least limited efficacy when targeting a specific drug class (steroids) that may be associated with well-documented harm potential to student-athletes. The authors of the investigation caution against over interpretation of results suggesting efficacy of testing as an adequate intervention. It should be noted that drug surveillance protocols have a limited range of sensitivity for drugs of abuse, that is, detection windows are limited in time. Albeit for some common drugs of abuse such as marijuana, those limits are relatively large (e.g., 14 to 21 days depending upon usage patterns) whereas for other drugs (e.g., cocaine) the detection windows are quite limited. Further, many common protocols (drug screen panels) available from commercial vendors are limited to a small number of drugs (e.g., 8 common drugs of abuse) and may not detect drugs that have become popular with adolescents (e.g., newer club drugs). Finally, drug testing has at best limited utility for detecting alcohol use and abuse, given use patterns of most adolescents. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A MODEL PROGRAM In spite of the concern and attention of school administrators, teachers, coaches and parents regarding alcohol and drug abuse among student-athletes in high school, there appears to be a paucity of empirical research that would help to guide the development of evidenced based targeted prevention programs. What literature is available has led some researchers to conclude that separate programs may not be warranted (e.g., Thombs, 2000; Wechsler et al., 1997). Others have opined that the unique challenges faced by student-athletes (e.g., balancing academic work with competitive demands, maintaining self-motivation and self discipline, dealing with attention and demands from peers, coaches, and parents, coping with physical challenges including injury, and competing for the attention of college recruiters) suggest the need for specially

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tailored programs (Danish et al., 1993; Andersen, 1996; Pinkerton et al., 1989; Spence & Gauvin, 1996; NCAA, 2001; Goldberg et al., 2003). In any event, it appears clear that high school aged student athletes are arguably at least at the same, if not greater, level of risk as their age related peers to some forms of use behaviors and related negative outcomes. Further, there are probably a unique set of challenges that face student athletes that may distinguish them that could, and should, be considered if the decision is made to offer separate programming for this interesting target population. Finally, it is likely that school administrators and coaches will continue to experience pressure to offer such special attention and will want to choose programs that have the greatest likelihood of impacting alcohol and drug abuse among these individuals. It is also certain that concerned individuals cannot and will not wait for large scale prevention studies to be available before initiating programs. What guidance, then, can we offer to concerned individuals who choose to move ahead with targeted programs? Given the state of prevention programming for student-athletes, it is probably prudent to build upon the important lessons obtained from over two decades of research into prevention programming with school attending adolescents. In this regard, we revisit Table 1 and the twelve key processes demonstrated to have an impact in prevention programming as a starting point. Note that for each of the twelve core processes identified in Table 1, generic curriculum and target activities are identified. We would recommend that the generic curriculum be used as a template upon which to tailor specialized programs. Further, we would recommend that the activities and information be mapped upon and modified for what we anticipate to be salient issues for athletes. Below, we give examples of what could be important focal points for modification of the twelve generic curriculum content areas. At the same time, we offer the caveat that empirical support for such accommodations has not been developed and that modifications are suggested that have theoretical meaning and fit with the experience we have had in dealing with young athletes. We also suggest strongly that such modifications could be used as starting points for a practical research agenda. 1. Information about drugs and use consequences. It is likely that information about performance enhancing substances (including so-called nutritional supplements) will be more salient for athletes and could act as a catalyst for discussion about use in general. Typical information protocols for high school students do not include such information. Likewise, discussion of tobacco use, es-

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pecially for males, should include an emphasis upon smokeless tobacco use, given its putative prevalence in athletes and its portrayal in professional sports. Further, focusing on direct impact of dangerous use practices (e.g., heavy episodic drinking, hangover effects) as well as on chronic use not only on “game day performance” but also on more routine conditioning, training and practice helps to place use consequences into the context of the daily routine and commitment of athletics. Stressing the special tasks associated with conditioning, training, and practice can be used to reinforce the incompatibility of any substance use with goals implied in the decision to engage in athletics. Focusing upon problems related to drug use encountered by professional and elite athletes would also likely help stimulate discussion. Unfortunately, there appears to be a relatively steady stream of media reports focusing upon the problems of such athletes. It would also be appropriate to identify positive role models among this target group. These emphases can also serve to reinforce other target mediators (e.g., values clarification, goal setting, norm setting, prosocial bonding). To the extent possible, it would be appropriate to mix didactic presentations with more interactive (e.g., discussion, experience sharing) formats. This interactive style theme is one that would be appropriately applied for all content area presentations given the action oriented personal style that characterizes athletically oriented adolescents. As discussed earlier, the use of peers to help present this material might enhance effectiveness. 2. Decision-making regarding use. Emphasis can be placed upon the fact that the decision to use or not to use is in fact an active choice. This can be placed within the context of the active and motivated choice and commitment each student has made to participate in athletic programs. This decision-making regarding use can be placed within the general context of making informed, conscious and non-destructive choices. In this regard, the fact that studentathletes presumably share a focused commitment can be used to advantage. Focus should be given to the incompatibility of the decisions and commitments involved in athletics (e.g., not only game day but expanded to conditioning, training and practice), along with the active decision to be substance free and the expectation that drug free and athletes should go together. This emphasis can be cast in the context of the athlete’s decision balance. It would also seem advisable to outline highly likely scenarios that high school athletes may experience where opportunities to use

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will occur. It may be useful to begin such discussions with “starter scenarios” (e.g., “you’ve just won/lost the big/rivalry game and are invited to a party where alcohol/drugs might be available”), moving on to scenarios generated by students themselves. The discussions should include the kinds of decisions people can and do make and the pros, cons and consequences of choices. Again, a guided interactive format would seem useful. 3. Public commitment to prosocial goals. Here again, the fact that there are explicit and implicit goals associated with the student’s decision and commitment to athletic program involvement can be used to advantage. It would seem salient, appropriate and potentially efficacious to discuss what it means to be part of an athletic program and to ask students to consider committing to the “public” or in this case more specifically a “shared group norm” of an alcohol and drug free life style as part of a shared goal of athletic participation. Commitment to an alcohol and drug free life style can be couched in terms of its compatibility with pursuit of personal challenge and achievement and, in the case of team sports, the importance of shared goals and commitments. Discussion of the desirability of such a potentially shared commitment may lead to disclosure and discussion of potential ambivalences and set the stage for values clarification and goal setting. 4. Values clarification regarding the place of an alcohol and drug free life style in the student athlete. As with the previous targeted process, there are expressed and implied values ascribed to by students who choose to engage in athletic activities. These may often go unidentified or unexpressed until an event that appears to breach an implied value (e.g., failure of a drug test; loss of academic eligibility; poor practice habits). Values clarification has been viewed as a somewhat “weaker” (that is, less potent) component in more generic prevention activities. However, within the context of the potentially “shared values” of an athletic team or program, where values can be explicitly expressed and expected, it is plausible that identification and acceptance of a more well defined value structure provides an intervention opportunity. A discussion of values associated with a drug free life style can be interwoven with exercises and discussions regarding decisionmaking and commitment. 5. Strategies for setting and attaining goals. Ability to be forward looking, sustain motivation to plan for future prosocial involvement, and delay immediate gratification for future gains (which,

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taken together, could be characterized as “positive planfulness”) appear to be part of the profile of young people who seem to be “protected” from negative alcohol and drug related outcomes. Involvement in sports would seem to provide an excellent opportunity to shape and reinforce these characteristics inasmuch as responding to the challenges of athletic participation require these qualities. In the case of this potential mediator, the influence may be more indirect, that is, a focus upon specific substance abuse content may be secondary. On the other hand, it is probably worth infusing the idea that the ability of the aspiring athlete to achieve goals will be blunted by, and incompatible with, substance use involvement. Consideration of this potential protective element highlights another important aspect of prevention activities. Namely, opportunities to infuse a “prevention message” in activities that the target audience (in this case developing athletes) are invested in should be capitalized upon whenever possible. Often, these opportunities occur outside of formal programming such as classroom sessions. Maximizing potential effectiveness requires that individuals such as coaches should be sensitized to such “teachable” moments and are prepared to use these occasions. 6. Stress management. Management of the variety of demands placed upon the high school student requires skills that need to be mastered well before adulthood. High school athletes must not only learn ways to organize academic responsibilities, but must also be able to organize their time around conditioning, training, practice and participating in their sporting event. In addition, demands from many individuals (teachers, parents, coaches, teammates) add to the stress of an already busy, if not, turbulent adolescent life. Instruction in how to tap positive coping methods (including help seeking, cognitive reappraisal, distraction) and recognition of the pitfalls of negative coping methods (including substance use, anger outbursts and aggression) should be made available on an ongoing basis. Coping with stress should be viewed as a routine aspect of the athlete’s experience and students need to understand that it is acceptable to reach out for assistance without stigma. 7. Development of a sense of self-esteem and self worth. The self-esteem construct has had an equivocal place in the history of substance abuse prevention programming. Once again, the potency of this construct like values clarification has been questioned. Most

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recently, the concept has evolved to focus upon aspects of esteem that relate to the importance of developing self-efficacy, the sense that one can be effective in directing important and highly valued aspects of one’s life. In this regard, improvement in self-efficacy has been related to increases in self-esteem. Clearly, athletic competition has the capacity to focus upon and strengthen the capacity of individual effort in shaping progress toward important goals. As was the case with goal setting, this influence would appear to be approachable indirectly with content about the incompatibility of drug use infused with the self-directed achievement message. It is probably worth recognizing, however, the importance of tempering the importance of the self-efficacy message with the knowledge that high school athletes may vary considerably in physical skills. Hence, it is important to emphasize the value and importance of academic and social skill development. It is not insignificant to note that for those high school athletes who do go on to higher levels of competition (e.g., college programs), athletic skills are not enough to be competitive; a balance of academic, mental and social skills are also important tools that should be emphasized. 8. Development of core life skills. Building the capacity to successfully negotiate conflict and improve communication with parents and other adults (including teachers and coaches) can help athletes to confront and resolve successfully interpersonal problems and situations that occur on a daily basis and to feel comfortable and competent in expressing feelings and ideas. Learning to deal with adults who are not parents is another important developmental milestone for the adolescent. This is another area where influences are likely to be indirect versus direct and where skills developed in working with coaches in athletic activities can be expected to transfer to “substance use opportunities” in which the student athlete must use interpersonal skills to resist pressures to engage in drug use. 9. Development of resistance skills. Building the capacity to adequately identify and repel interpersonal pressures to engage in a problem behavior (here, substance use) has been a mainstay of prevention programming. Activities to build resistance skills typically focus on role playing, using concepts of negotiation, as well as straight talk and refusal “sound bites” in getting the student to feel comfortable with confronting others who seek to persuade. As indicated above in the section upon life skills development,

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many of the skills practiced in conflict negotiation and communication with adults can transfer to situations where peer contact may lead to opportunities to use. Development of resistance skills can be enhanced through realistic simulations where students are exposed to “high risk situations” and “practice” responses. In adapting these “high risk” use opportunity scenarios for the student athlete, rely upon the students themselves to characterize the situation. Further, as indicated above in the section on decision-making, students should be given the opportunity to discuss pros, cons and consequences of attempts to resist use. It would also be instructive for coaches to participate in such exercises in order to understand the pressures and situations imposing on students. 10. Norm setting. High school students may perceive that drinking and drug use are normative behaviors among teenage students that are simply part of the experience of “growing up.” In fact, many young people perceive that substance use is more universal (“normative”), occurs with greater intensity (“more severe”) among more individuals and that some forms of use are more benign (“less harmful”) than is actually the case. In addition, many students inappropriately develop positive alcohol and drug use expectancies based upon their observations of both adults in their immediate environment, perceptions of popular role models (e.g., sports figures) and portrayals of use behavior in the mass media. Providing accurate feedback on the extent of a teen’s own personal risk, actual risks and potential outcomes associated with use of specific substances, inaccurate expectancies about the use experience, and assessment of actual use (or heightened propensity or desire to use) in relationship to objective facts can and does reshape personal beliefs about use behaviors, modifies perceptions regarding use, modifies actual use behaviors and blunts propensity to escalate any drinking and drug taking behaviors (Larimer & Cronce, 2002). Thus, developing individual profiles for students (“taking their use inventory”) provides the opportunity to reshape inappropriate norms about use and provides a backdrop for establishing appropriate norms about use. This process can be accomplished in an individual or group setting. Given the nature of the athletic experience (e.g., team cohesiveness and identity), we believe this process can be an effective method in developing positive team norms and can act to shape the team environment surrounding the substance use issue.

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11. Prosocial bonding and peer attachment. For the student athlete, both the school and their team athletic experience provide an important, focused, and often intense socialization environment during their high school tenure. In many ways, affiliation and identification with the athletic program becomes a defining and enduring feature of the high school years. Achieving and maintaining an attachment to the identity of both student and athlete is an important developmental task and presents possibly a unique opportunity to influence decisions about use. Many youth experience a weakened feeling of connection to the school environment during the teenage years. Sub-groups such as student athletes often rely upon “local group norms” for guiding behavior. Hence, it becomes important for coaches and others who would shape positive behaviors to expose students to norm shaping experiences. Athletes can learn to connect and relate with prosocial, health conscious features of their team as well as to prosocial features of their school as a whole. In respect to substance use this means placing programming about substance abuse high on the priority list for discussion. 12. Participation in alternative programs incompatible with substance use. There is no question that one of the important hurdles for prevention programmers, including school psychologists, working with adolescents is the lack of prosocial extracurricular activities that can engage and hold student interest. In fact, given the difficult economic situations of many, if not all, high schools have significantly curtailed non-academic and extracurricular activities. One of the few areas that remain viable is participation in athletic and related programs (e.g., band, student trainers). Hence, the athletic venue remains a particularly important environment that promotes prosocial and often highly valued participation. Obviously, we believe that individuals who choose to participate in athletics are not immune from risk of substance use and abuse and related negative outcomes. As can be observed from our comments regarding mediators, we believe that there is a variety of prevention strategies that build upon the natural ecology of the athletic experience and that can be integrated within that experience. Further, we believe that many of the recommended prevention activities have the potential of enhancing the value of athletic participation by reducing risk and inducing protection. Finally, many of the recommended prevention activities are not only compatible with athletic participation but may act to maximize the benefit of athletics

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for students well beyond that derived from competition and well beyond the high school years. PERSPECTIVES ON DRUG TESTING AND SURVEILLANCE Note that we have not recommended a role for surveillance using drug testing in our discussions of prevention strategies. We do anticipate that many administrators and coaches may wish to include drug testing as an element in their overall approach to prevention. As discussed above, the scientific jury is still out as regards the utility of drug testing especially considering the economic and potential psychological and social costs. More comprehensive assessments are currently underway. Clearly, there may be an added benefit in that testing may provide a deterrence that can suppress, at least for a time and in some circumstances and individuals, some forms of drug use. Recall, however, that most protocols are time limited in sensitivity, are limited in types of drugs detected, and do not typically include alcohol (the most commonly used substance by adolescents). In addition, such protocols must be carefully administered to achieve maximum benefit. Further, such surveillance may serve to detect breaches of abstinence within the physical limits of testing protocols. In those cases, programs must assume the responsibility of providing appropriate treatment interventions for violators. It is our recommendation that programs that choose to include drug testing seek appropriate consultation and work through the benefits and limitations of testing. Finally, we believe that drug testing, as a stand-alone intervention, is unlikely to provide a satisfactory prevention experience for either coaches or student athletes. We believe that drug testing, when employed, should be included as one element of a more comprehensive program that employs one or more of the many strategies we discuss above. FINAL COMMENTS Administrators, coaches and school psychologists seeking to develop solid evidenced based substance abuse programming for student athletes may be somewhat (if not completely!) overwhelmed by the comprehensive nature of program activities anticipated by our discussion of mediators and the myriad of potential activities that can be included in a prevention program. We have presented a wide range of possible

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strategies that can be adopted by and adapted to the high school athletic environment. Obviously, we subscribe to the view that the more comprehensive a program (that is, one including elements and activities from all mediator domains), the more likely it is that the largest number of student athletes can be reached in the most efficacious manner. However, we recognize that many school environments may not have the resources required to implement fully a comprehensive program. We would encourage program developers and implementers to view our recommendations as a conceptual menu, a suggested series of components, from which they can choose those that map closely with their school environment and for which they can commit necessary resources. Further, we would recommend when they have implemented the “basic core” that they consider adding new components, as resources become available. Finally, we have not provided a detailed map of specific manuals or procedures, nor endorsed particular commercially available curricula that can be used to conduct programs. However, we have provided references to access such resources and, hopefully, some guidance as to how to choose elements that will help meet programming needs. Our last suggestion is that program developers and implementers avail themselves of the many resources available at the local, state and national level to guide in the selection and implementation of a program (e.g., NIDA, 2004; SAMHSA, 2003). REFERENCES Aaron, D.J., Dearwater, S.R., Anderson, R., Olsen, T., Kriska, A.N., & Laporte, R.E. (1995). Physical activity and the initiation of high-risk health behaviors in adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1639-1645. Ammerman, R.T., Ott, P.J., Tarter, R.E., & Blackson, T.C. (1999). Critical issues in prevention of substance abuse. In R.T. Ammerman, P.J. Ott, & R.E. Tarter (Eds.), Prevention and societal impact of drug and alcohol abuse (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Andersen, M.B. (1996). Working with college student-athletes. In J.L. Van Raalte, & B.W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (pp. 317-334). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Baer, J.S., Kivlahan, D.R., & Marlatt, G.A. (1995). High-risk drinking across the transition from high school to college. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19 (1), 54-61. Baer, J.S., Kivlahan, D.R., Blume, A.W., McKnight, P., & Marlatt, G.A. (2001). Brief intervention for heavy drinking college students: Four-year follow-up and natural history. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1310-1316.

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A Review of Eating Disorders in Athletes: Recommendations for Secondary School Prevention and Intervention Programs Thomas B. Hildebrandt Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

SUMMARY. The current review aims to evaluate the literature on eating disorders and athletes with the purpose of making recommendations for sport psychologists and other relevant personnel on how to proceed in identifying, managing, and preventing eating disorders in school settings. Whereas the intention of this review is to make recommendations for secondary educational settings, research on other populations such as collegiate and young adult athletes was also reviewed where helpful or where information on adolescent athletes was not available. Recommendations for prevention and intervention include ongoing education of athletes and coaches regarding nutrition, body composition, and performance, using appropriate screening to detect eating disorders, and use of a sport management team to aid in athlete recovery. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

Address correspondence to: Thomas B. Hildebrandt, Graduate School of Applied Professional Psychology, 152 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854 (E-mail: [email protected]). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “A Review of Eating Disorders in Athletes: Recommendations for Secondary School Prevention and Intervention Programs.” Hildebrandt, Thomas B. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 145-167; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 145-167. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800- HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: docdelivery@haworthpress. com].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_08

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KEYWORDS. Eating disorders, female athlete triad, anorexia athletica, adolescent, athlete, sport, prevention, treatment

INTRODUCTION The following review addresses several key issues related to adolescent athletes with eating disorders and includes discussions of definitions of eating disorders, methods and issues of identifying eating disorders in athletes, risk and protective factors for eating disorders in athletes, and treatment and intervention strategies. In many instances, research on eating disorders among athletes is not specific to adolescents, so research on collegiate athletes was also reviewed. However, there are likely important differences between these high school and collegiate aged athletes along competitive, social, psychological, and developmental dimensions. The issues addressed in this review are by no means exhaustive, and there are likely other areas outside the scope of this review not addressed here. Nonetheless, the purpose of this review is to cover what is known about several key issues related to athletes with eating disorders and to provide recommendations based on these issues for those who may be in a position to intervene or prevent eating disorders in a secondary school athletic setting. DEFINING EATING DISORDERS In order to identify, treat, and prevent eating disorders at a programmatic level, interested parties should first understand what defines an eating disorder and in what ways eating disorders are experienced by athletes. Often, sport personnel are not familiar with eating disorders and thus this understanding is vital to appropriate planning for intervention and prevention within athletic environments. Those wishing to provide services in this area are encouraged to use appropriate knowledge about eating disorders to proceed with appropriate identification within their own athletic environment. Eating disorders include a range of eating and weight disturbances that affect mainly females (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), although rates of males with eating disorders appear to be on the rise (Braun, Sunday, Huang, & Halmi, 1999). Eating disorders are associated with increased morbidity and mortality (Sullivan, 2002) and are potentially chronic conditions associated with a range of medical, psy-

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chological, and psychosocial consequences (Hay, 2004; Pomeroy & Mitchell, 2002). With regard to athletes, anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), the female athlete triad (FAT), and anorexia athletica (AA) are well documented. Binge eating disorder (BED) has not been well studied in athletic populations. The definition of BED consists of the presence of binge eating in the absence of purging or compensatory behavior, with at least three of the following associated features: (a) eating more rapidly than normal, (b) eating until uncomfortably full, (c) binge eating when not physically hungry, (d) eating alone due to embarrassment over amount of food eating, and (e) feeling disgusted, depressed, or guilty after binge eating. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria for AN and BN are described in Table 1 and definitions of FAT according to the American College of Sports Medicine (Otis, Drinkwater, Johnson, Loucks, & Wilmore, 1997) and AA according to Sundgot-Borgen (1993) are provided in Table 2. The distinctions between AN, BN, FAT, and AA are important because they are each associated with different symptoms, medical consequences, and longterm outcomes. Eating disorders by definition include some form of eating disturbance. These disturbances often involve binge eating, defined as eating a unusually large amount of food in a circumscribed period of time and feeling a sense of loss of control (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Fairburn & Wilson, 1993), or excessive dietary restraint, which may be defined by a range of self-imposed attempts at restricting amount or type of food intake (Lowe, 2002). Often, athletes are asked to diet or lose weight or initiate dieting on their own in order to obtain either the ideal athletic body or appearance. Dieting in conjunction with intense exercise may lead to other symptoms associated with eating disorders including osteoporosis, osteopenia, amenorrhea, and micronutrient deficiencies (Beals, Brey, & Gonyou, 1999; Cobb et al., 2003). Because of the imposed need for weight control in many sports (e.g., gymnastics or wrestling), dieting and intense exercise may be part of the normal routine for many athletes and therefore may be confused with desirable features of competitive athletes (Thompson & Sherman, 1999). Purging methods are also often used by athletes with eating disorders (Oppliger, Nelson-Steen, & Scott, 2003; Rosen & Hough, 1988; Rosen, McKeag, Hough, & Curley, 1986). These methods include vomiting, laxative or enema use, diuretic use, and diet pill or thermogenic drug use. Purging typically occurs in response to episodes of binge eating, as prevention strategies for weight gain, or in attempts to lose weight. Al-

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1. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above minimally normal weight for age and height (< 85% ideal body weight). 2. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat despite being underweight. 3. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of weight or shape on self-evaluation, or denial of the seriousness of current low body weight. 4. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhea, i.e., the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles or menstruation only occurs following hormone administration. Specific Types:

Binge-Eating/Purging Type: during course of AN, the person regularly engages in binge-eating or purging behavior. Restricting Type: during course of AN, the person has not regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior. Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

1. Recurrent episodes of binge eating (1) eating in a discrete period an amount that is definitely larger than most people would eat during a similar period. (2) a sense of subjective loss of control over eating during the episode. 2. Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise. 3. Binge eating and compensatory behavior occurs at least 2 times per week over a 3 month period. 4. Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by shape and weight. 5. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of AN. Specific Types:

Nonpurging Type: during course of BN, the person has used inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as fasting or excessive exercise, but has not regularly engaged in purging behavior. Purging Type: during course of BN, the person has regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas.

Note. DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV.

though a formal discussion is not provided here, there are many side effects associated with use of these purging methods that impact upon performance (see Pomeroy & Mitchell, 2002; Beals, 2004). Given the rapid growth of the nutritional supplement industry, the use of pharmacological purging and weight control methods must be monitored closely due to potential toxicity and other serious side effects including, in rare

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TABLE 2. Partial Syndrome Eating Disorders Recognized in Athletes Female Athlete Triad (FAT) 1. Disordered eating: extreme or harmful methods of weight control including binge-eating and purging and restricting food intake 2. Amenorrhea: Primary amenhorrea defined as the absence of menstruation in a girl by age 16 with secondary sex characteristics; Secondary amenorrhea defined as the absence of 3 consecutive menstrual cycles after menarche. 3. Osteoporosis: Bone mineral density more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean for young adults. Anorexia Athletica (AA) Required Criteria

At Least One Criteria Required

1. Weight loss (> 5% of expected body weight) 1. Delayed puberty (Primary Amenorrhea) 2. Gastrointestinal complaints

2. Disturbance in body image (as defined in DSM-IV)

3. Absence of medical illness or affective disorder explaining weight reduction

3. Use of purging methods

4. Excessive fear of becoming obese

4. Binge eating (as defined in DSM-IV)

5. Restriction of caloric intake (e.g., < 1200 calories/day)

5. Compulsive Exercising (as defined in DSM-IV) 6. Menstrual dysfunction (primary or secondary amenorrhea, or oligomenorrhea)

Note. DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV.

cases, death (Roerig et al., 2003). Nutritional supplements are readily available and some have suggested they have the potential to be used even with knowledge of serious health risks (Kanayama, Gruber, Pope, Borowiecki, & Hudson, 2001). Thus, sport and school personnel should make efforts to be aware of what supplements athletes are using and provide relevant safety information regarding their use as well as clear guidelines as to acceptable and unacceptable supplement use. In addition to the core eating disturbances, Polivy and Herman (2002) have suggested that psychological and social variables related to eating disorders include low self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, negative affect, lack of social support, peer and media influences, and familial enmeshment and criticism. In athletic populations, few of these variables have been explored in great detail. Nonetheless, these variables

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are important features of eating disorders that must be understood to identify, treat, or prevent eating disorders in athletes. Self-esteem is particularly relevant to athletes as there is evidence that low self-esteem predicts greater disordered eating behaviors and attitudes in athletes (Engel et al., 2003). In addition, self-esteem in athletes may inordinately depend on sport performance (Johnson, 1994) which ultimately places athletes at greater risk for eating disordered behavior. However, it is worthy to note that sport participation is generally associated with increased self-esteem and psychological functioning in women (Marten-DiBartolo & Shaffer, 2004; Sands, Ticker, Sherman, Armantas, & Maschette, 1997). Thus, it appears that athletic participation may be a protective factor for some individuals against low self-esteem. Body dissatisfaction and overconcern with shape and weight appear highly related to self-esteem and motivations for exercise (Furnham, Badmin, & Sneade, 2002) as well as being a mediator of the relationship between antecedent performance anxiety, negative social influence, negative self and eating disorder symptoms (Williamson et al., 1995). Measures of body dissatisfaction, however, have provided inconsistent results in comparisons between athletes and non-athletes (Garner, Rosen, & Barry, 1998) and it remains unclear as to whether athletes are actually more dissatisfied with their bodies than their peers. Others have also observed a moderate positive relationship between depressive symptomology and disordered eating in female collegiate athletes, although the same positive relationship was not observed for men (Bravata, Storch, & Storch, 2003). Due to the important role of negative affect in the development and maintenance of bulimia (Stice, 2001), these initial findings should be replicated and expanded upon in order to determine the emotional impact of disordered eating in athletes. Of the psychological variables associated with eating disorders, self-esteem, concerns about appearance, and the experience of negative emotions have been studied in athletes. In the only study of its kind, Williamson et al. (1995) attempted to explain the relationship between these variables and found that overconcern with shape and weight accounted for the relationship between risk factors and actual eating disorder symptomology. Clearly more studies of this nature are necessary to determine the roles of different psychological variables in the development and maintenance of eating disorders in athletes. Personality is also an important variable in eating disorders, although somewhat controversial. Research on personality traits, or the common ways in which we think, behave, and feel across different environments, has suggested eating disorders are associated with several problematic

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personality characteristics. Evidence indicates that AN is associated with perfectionism whereas BN is associated with impulsivity and narcissism (Wonderlich, 2002). Thompson and Sherman (1999a) argue that the perfectionism found in AN not only occurs often among athletes, but also accounts for some degree of their success. Thompson and Sherman (1999b) suggested that the primary overlap between athletes with disordered eating and non-athletes with eating disorders is primarily behavioral and not psychopathological. However, when comparing elite athlete eating disordered patients with non-athletic eating disordered controls, Davis (2001) found no differences in measures of personality or other psychopathology. In a study of high school athletes and non-athletic controls, perfectionism was not found to significantly differ between groups, although perfectionism was associated with higher risk for eating disorders among athletes overall (Fulkerson, Keel, Leon, & Dorr, 1999). There are some concerns as to defining eating disorders in athletes and adolescents, especially with regard to the necessity of amenorrhea for diagnosis of AN (Watson & Andersen, 2003) and usefulness of the DSM-IV criteria in adolescents (Nicholls, Chater, & Lask, 2000). Debates such as these are important to guiding those responsible for identifying and allocating resources to treat athletes with eating disorders. Amenorrhea in particular may be a problematic indicator of an eating disorder, especially for those who are already at or below the cutoff for clinically underweight (85% ideal body weight) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Watson and Andersen (2003) compared women with AN to women who were not below 85% ideal body weight or had some menstrual functioning but met other criteria for AN and found little differences in treatment response, bone density, or comorbid psychopathology. Eating disturbances that do not meet full DSM-IV criteria should not be automatically assumed to be less severe, and these types of eating disorder cases should receive equal attention as those meeting full criteria (Dancyger & Garfinkel, 1995; le Grange, Loeb, Van Orman, & Jellar, 2004). Partial syndrome eating disorders, defined by meeting only two of the DSM-IV criteria, are also much more prevalent in adolescents than full criteria eating disorders with rates of partial syndrome of eating disorders, ranging from 3% to 5% in adolescent populations (Johnson-Sabine, Wood, Patton, Mann, & Wakeling, 1988; Patton, Selzer, Coffey, Carlin, & Wolfe, 1999). Partial syndrome eating disorders often appear as FAT or AA in adolescent athletes, although these disorders challenge conventional eating disorder diagnoses. The constellation of disordered eating, osteoporo-

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sis, and amenorrhea, termed the “female athlete triad” (Yeager, Agostini, Nattiv, & Drinkwater, 1993), has been declared a major health risk for athletes by the American College of Sports Medicine (Otis et al., 1997). Of particular concern in athletes with FAT is bone loss; some evidence suggests that bone loss accrued in individuals with FAT is irreversible and presents a significant long-term health problem (Drinkwater, Bruemner, & Chestnut III, 1990). Identifying bone loss, however, is difficult. The World Health Organization defines osteoporosis as bone mineral density (BMD) of more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean for young adults, whereas osteopenia is a BMD between 1 and 2.5 standard deviations below the mean. Osteoporosis can only be diagnosed through adequate measures of BMD, although a history of stress fractures and presence of amenorrhea present adequate signs for appropriate evaluation. Techniques suggested for BMD evaluation include ultrasonography, quantitative CT, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and single-energy X-ray absorptiometry (Greydanus & Patel, 2002). Evidence, however, for the presence of osteoporosis is rare and has led to the recommendation that osteoporosis should be replaced with osteopenia in classification of FAT (Khan et al., 2002). Anorexia athletica has been described by Sundgot-Borgen (1993) and consists of 11 criteria that overlap with anorexia, bulimia, and FAT but represent a necessary modification of existing criteria to account for the environmental differences for athletes vs. non-athletes with regard to such factors of training, eating patterns, extreme dieting, food restriction, and psychopathological profiles. As suggested by Thompson and Sherman (1999), the athletic environment may appear psychopathological but actually be a reflection of traits associated with athlete success. Evidence suggests that AA occurs in as much as 8% of elite female athletes (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994), and has been suggested as a precursor for AN in athletes (Matejek et al., 1999; Sundgot-Borgen, 1993). IDENTIFICATION OF EATING DISORDERS Identification of eating disorders in athletic populations poses an important challenge for sport and school personnel. Sherman and Thompson (2001) recently identified four potential factors that may interfere with proper identification and referral of athletes to appropriate treatment. These factors include body stereotypes for athletes, athletes need to please, overlap between symptoms and desired characteristics, and

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gender issues. Sherman and Thompson argue that extreme body types (muscular or thin) are idealized and normative within respective sports, often obscuring an intense desire to obtain these bodies and placing greater pressure on the athletes to obtain them. The sport environment also offers extra pressure to please coaches as well as parents and friends and may lead to more reluctance to seek help for an eating disorder because of feared negative contingencies related to playing time or letting teammates down. Symptom overlap often prevents others from identifying disorders and Thompson and Sherman (1999a) have argued that these symptoms may initially lead to success in sport, although at the cost of physical and psychological health. Finally, Sherman and Thompson argue that eating disorders are often considered female disorders and will often lead to a lack of attention to males by sport personnel, and greater efforts by males to conceal symptoms in order to avoid being labeled as having a female disorder. Several methods have been recommended for screening athletes for eating disorders. Garner, Rosen, and Barry (1998) recommend the use of validated eating disorder questionnaires including the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT; Garner, Olmstead, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982) and Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2; Garner, 1991). The Female Athletic Screening Tool (FAST) has also been validated as a tool to help discriminate between true eating disorders and potential non-pathological overlap in eating disordered behaviors (McNulty, Adams, Anderson, & Affenito, 2001). However, questionnaires should only be used as screening devices and not used to diagnose true eating disorders (Garner et al., 1998). In fact, several authors have noted that clinical interviews are necessary to define true eating disorders in athletes (Beals & Manore, 1994; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). There are other limitations to identification in athletes using both interviews and questionnaires. The degree of confidentiality of screening instruments has been argued to greatly affect the rate of eating disorder diagnoses (Byrne & McLean, 2001; Garner et al., 1998; Sherman & Thompson, 2001). Athletes will likely falsify self-report in instances where confidentiality is not protected in order to prevent consequences such as suspension from sport participation. Thus, Garner et al. suggest using self-report only if it is clear to athletes that they will not lose team position due to their answers and it is clear exactly who will have access to the results. This practice is recommended not only to increase validity but also for ethical reasons of self-disclosure among adolescents. Garner et al. also suggests that under these circumstances, any athlete

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that endorses significant eating disordered symptomology is clearly indicating a need for help from school and sport personnel. Other evaluation tools for eating disorder identification have been designed for use during medical exams (Drinkwater et al., 1990; Powers & Johnson, 1996; Shangold, Rebar, Wentz, & Schiff, 1990). Several authors have developed a screening instrument for medical personnel as part of preseason medical exams which provides the advantage of assessing physical as well as psychological variables relevant to eating disorders (Lo, Hebert, & McClean, 2003; Van de Loo & Johnson, 1995). The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has also developed a series of checklists for athletes, parents, and sport personnel with regard to identification of disordered eating (National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2004). These materials are developed for collegiate athletic programs, but may be adapted for use in high school programs as well. At minimum, coaches or other relevant sport personnel should be aware of the presence of amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea, or delayed onset of menstruation, history of stress fractures, height and weight, dietary practices (i.e., dieting to lose weight), exercise regimens, and use of dietary supplements. More detailed recommendations for physicians are provided elsewhere (White & Hergenroeder, 1990). Much of this information is likely assessed already, although by different sport personnel, but should be consolidated so as to make informed decisions about the status of individual athletes. For example, information regarding changes in weight gathered by trainers or coaches should be added to previously collected information so that weight changes may be viewed over time. PREVALENCE OF EATING DISORDERS IN ATHLETES As discussed, defining and identifying eating disorders is difficult, and there are still many unresolved issues in both of these domains. These issues contribute to the large amount of variability in prevalence rates of eating disorders reported among athletes. Of particular concern is the lack of control groups, small sample sizes, differing levels of competitiveness, and reliance upon self-report questionnaires (Byrne & McLean, 2001). There is limited data on the true prevalence of eating disorders among high school athletes. Depending on the population sampled and measures used, eating disorders occur in athletes from 1.0% for AN to 30% for BN (Buckes-Miller & Black, 1988; Byrne & McLean, 2002; Rosen et al., 1986; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Sundgot-

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Borgen et al., 2004; Walberg & Johnston, 1991; Wilmore, 1991). In a recent meta-analysis, Smolak, Murnen, and Ruble (2000) found that there were no differences in eating disorder symptomology between athletes and non-athletes when restricting studies to high school populations. However, Smolak et al. found that dancers were more at risk independent of age or competitive level. There have been several large scale studies that include both men and women, sample across sports, and report on FAT and AA as well as BN and AN (Byrne & McLean, 2001; Johnson, Powers, & Dick, 1999; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). The most methodologically sound study to date by Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveit (2004) reported rates for Norwegian elite female athletes of 42% in aesthetic sports, 24% in endurance sports, 17% in technical sports, and 16% in ballgame sports. In the same study, the authors reported rates for male athletes of 22% in antigravitation sports, 9% in endurance sports, and 5% in ballgame sports. Overall, Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveit (2004) reported a greater risk for eating disorders than population controls which was also found in a similar Australian sample (Byrne & McLean, 2001). A large scale prevalence study of eating disorders in Division I college athletes suggested much lower rates of eating disorders in the United States, with prevalence ranging from 0% for AN to 1.1% for BN in females (Johnson et al., 1999). However, the same study reported higher rates of eating disordered and weight control behaviors among athletes indicative of the higher rates of partial syndrome eating disorders reported by both international studies. In summary, it is likely that there is a higher rate of eating disorders in elite athletes when including diagnoses such as FAT and AA. However, the variability in competition and greater sample heterogeneity at the high school level may account for the lack of differences observed between high school athletes and non-athletes. Nonetheless, the greater prevalence of partial syndrome eating disorders in athletes is consistent with population studies of adolescents (Patton et al., 1999), and thus athletic settings are appropriate environments for prevention and treatment strategies to be developed. RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN EATING DISORDERS Research on risk factors for eating disorders suggest that AN and BN are associated with different risk factors (Crago, Shisslak, & Ruble, 2001; Stice, 2001; Streigel-Moore, 1997). These factors include ge-

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netic, sociocultural, personality, and family factors (Schmidt, 2002). However, other factors have been identified specifically for athletic populations. Williamson et al. (1995) discussed three broad risk factors for the development of eating disorders in athletes. These factors included social influence defined by pressure from coaches or teammates to be thin, performance anxiety, and a self-appraisal defined by presence of positive regard for athletic achievement. Williamson et al. found that overconcern for body size and shape mediated the relationship between these risk factors and eating disorder symptoms in college athletes. Engel et al. (2003) identified several variables that were significant predictors of eating disordered behavior and attitudes. The best predictors of eating pathology were sex, low self-esteem, and sport. The sports with the strongest predictive power were wrestling for males and gymnastics for females, explaining 39.6% and 7.2% of the variance in restrictive eating respectively. Engel et al. also suggested that perceptions of teammate engagement in eating disordered behavior and attitudes explained a small portion of eating disordered attitudes and behavior, even when other risk factors were controlled. Protective factors against the development of eating disorders in athletes is poorly researched and in need of further attention by researchers (Powers, 1999). There is some evidence that a person centered coaching style may protect against eating disorders and that a negative performance focused coaching style may increase vulnerability to eating and weight disturbances (Biesecker & Martz, 1999). Others have also stressed the importance of information exchange regarding weight and its influence on eating disordered behavior and attitudes (Benson & Taub, 1993; Taub & Blinde, 1992). In addition, there is some evidence that participation in a refereed sport may decrease body dissatisfaction and concern suggesting the structure of individual sports may be a protective factor (Zucker, Womble, Williamson, & Perrin, 1999). Overall, risk and protective factor research suffers from methodological flaws. These include the reliance on cross-sectional data, samples drawn from different sports, use of self-report measures of eating disorder pathology, and small sample sizes. Future research should concentrate on prospective designs and target variables of relevance to athletes such as coaching style, information exchange about weight, and peer/ teammate relationships.

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PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF EATING DISORDERS IN ATHLETES As discussed by Byrne (2002), there is little or no evidence for prevention or treatment strategies for athletes with eating disorders, adolescents with eating disorders, or adolescent athletes with eating disorders. However, several authors have discussed programs and treatment and prevention strategies that are relevant for athletic populations (Beals, 2004; Clark, 1998; Katzman, 1999; Powers et al., 1996; Ryan, 1993; Thompson, 1989; Thompson & Sherman, 1993a; Thompson & Sherman, 1993b; Vinci, 1998). Prevention strategies can be divided into educational programs and early identification programs. Intervention strategies include appropriate referral to psychological and medical professionals, management of eating disorders after referral, and successful reinstatement of athlete to athletic environment. Figure 1 describes a basic prevention and intervention strategy appropriate for secondary school settings. The program outlined in Figure 1 is only to serve as a basic starting point and should be adjusted based on the variables relevant to a specific school and athletic environment. Thompson and Sherman (1993) discussed both educational and intervention strategies for reducing the development of eating disorders among athletes. The authors suggested that first athletes should be made aware of healthy ways to achieve better performance. Information regarding pathogenic weight strategies may be misused by this FIGURE 1. A basic model of a prevention and intervention strategy for early identification and treatment management of athletes with eating disorders

All High School Athletes

Screening Procedures

Coach, Staff, Teammate, or Self Identification

At Risk Athletes Receive Further Evaluation Group Education About Nutrition, Body Composition, and Performance

Healthy Athletic Competition

Sport Management Team Develops Plan Counseling

Monitored Healthy Athletic Competition

Removal From Further Competition

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population, so Thompson and Sherman argue for detailed education about nutrition, body composition, and performance as the first step in prevention strategies, without specific information about extreme weight loss strategies. Similarly, Thompson and Sherman suggest that coaches be made aware of information regarding eating disorders, menstrual functioning, and sensitivity to weight of female adolescents. The distribution of this information is also relevant to other sport personnel including athletic trainers, school administration, and monitoring physicians. Nutritional education also plays an important role in the education of coaches and athletes (Clark, 1998; Manore, 1999; Vinci, 1998). Both Clark (1998) and Vinci (1998) stress the incorporation of nutritional information into programs for adolescent athletes as well as the importance of de-emphasizing the low body fat equals high performance assumption that many coaches and athletes maintain. Specific guidelines and nutritional information regarding menstrual dysfunction (see Manore, 2002 and Beals, 2004) should also be incorporated into education about nutrition and performance. Basic recommendations for nutritional education include information of optimal calorie ranges, education about micronutrient content of foods, and guidelines for appropriate pre- and post-competition nutrition and hydration. Prevention strategies in addition to basic education should target several key areas within the athletic setting including information exchange about eating disorder symptoms and weight, proper early identification, and appropriate referral options. Specifically, Thompson and Sherman (1993b) suggest de-emphasizing weight through elimination of group weigh-ins, measuring weight only when necessary, and adjusting coaching attitudes towards weight by clearly communicating acceptance of healthy weight control and prohibition of extreme weight control methods by coaches and sport personnel. Beals (2004) suggests that only trained personnel (e.g., team physician) should monitor weight, so appropriate feedback may be given. A team approach is recommended for prevention which includes appropriate athletic and school personnel. Depending upon the resources available in the school setting, the team may include athletic trainers, coaches, team physicians, nutritionists, school psychologists, sport psychologists, physical therapists, and other athletic personnel. Sherman and Thompson (2001) recommend including at minimum coaches and athletic trainers to a management team. Regular team meetings between relevant personnel should aid in accelerated identification and appropriate intervention for athletes, especially since certain personnel such as trainers are likely to

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learn of warning signs or receive requests for help from athletes with eating disturbances first (Sherman & Thompson, 2001). However, these meetings are best structured around specific communication goals such as physical status. Athletes should be aware of these meetings and their purpose for both ethical and practical reasons. Athletes deserve the same rights to privacy as other individuals, thus clear guidelines should be created as to what information would be exchanged at these meetings and consent to disclose information obtained where necessary (e.g., use of psychotropic medications). Confidentiality is of particular importance within school settings, although athletics may present difficult challenges to this necessity. Thompson and Sherman (1993a) discuss confidentiality concerns and stress the importance of respecting the privacy of medical information regarding individual athletes. For example, a sport psychologist should not discuss the treatment, status, or recovery of an athlete with an eating disorder with other sport team members or other personnel without proper consent. Thompson and Sherman also suggest that consent should be sought in all instances of disclosure and individual differences in an athlete’s desire to have other sport personnel involved respected by athletic personnel due to the potentially coercive nature of athletic environments. Given the minority status of high school athletes, parents have the right to information regarding treatment of their child. However, information exchanged between sport personnel and parents should occur with the athlete present so he or she knows exactly what information is exchanged. Teammates also pose significant challenges to confidentiality as they can be considered like family members in some athletic environments. Sherman and Thompson (2001) recommend declaring the athlete “injured” and treating the situation as if the athlete had received a physical injury that would prevent him or her from being able to participate. Other confidentiality and legality issues may specifically arise for medical personnel in treating athletes. For a discussion of these issues refer to Loubert (1999). There are no empirically supported intervention programs in adolescent athlete populations. However, Powers and Johnson (1996) have described several prevention strategies that have shown success including programs to train coaches about mental and physical health of athletes (e.g., Talent Opportunity Program; USA Gymnastics, 2004), recognition of FAT through educational sessions at various levels of competitive gymnastics, and others. Programmatic intervention and prevention efforts should follow sound program planning, design, implementation, and evaluation procedures. Detailed discussion of suc-

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cessful programs implemented at the collegiate level may be found elsewhere (Beals, 2004; Ryan, 1992). Beals (2004) details several key steps for establishing prevention programs. These steps include (a) identifying key predisposing factors that are able to be changed (e.g., gender is a predisposing factor that cannot be changed, but inaccurate information about how weight affects performance is changeable), (b) develop appropriate programs that are specific to these changeable factors, and (c) create goals related to these programs that can be evaluated. A successful prevention program also should use information from ongoing evaluation to adapt the prevention planning and goals so as to continually improve the quality of the prevention effort. Often appropriate education strategies will aid in early identification and set the stage for successful treatment. Educated coaches and sport personnel are better equipped to recognize warning signs, especially in a setting where relevant health information is exchanged as part of sport management team. Ryan (1992) suggests that once an athlete has been identified as having an eating disorder, a plan should be developed by the sport management team for referral. Thompson and Sherman (1993a) recommend referral to an eating disorder specialist and a physician familiar with management of eating disorder complications. Together, the management team in conjunction with the therapist and physician should create a plan for recovery and potential return to competition. The athlete should be made aware of this plan and included in the development of the plan where possible. Those involved must also keep in mind that the recovery of the athlete supersedes return to competition. In some cases, it may be necessary for an athlete not to return to competition because of an inability to maintain health in the athletic environment (e.g., refusal to maintain weight). Specific treatment recommendations are beyond the scope of this paper; however, Thompson and Sherman (1993a), Sherman and Thompson (2001), and Thompson (1987) all provide excellent descriptions of issues related to treatment of athletes with eating disorders. Generally, psychotherapy referrals should be to therapists trained in efficacious treatment of eating disorders such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and to therapists familiar with athletic environments (Sherman & Thompson, 1991). Other resources are available (see Table 3), and should be utilized in the treatment, recovery, and return to competition of an athlete with an eating disorder.

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TABLE 3. Additional Resources About Eating Disorder Eating Disorder Organizations Anorexia Nervosa & Related Eating Disorders (ANRED) PO Box 5102 Eugene, OR 97405 503/344-1144 www.anred.com American College of Sports Medicine 401 W. Michigan St. Indianapolis, IN 46202 317/637-9200 www.acsm.org National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders Box 7 Highland Park, IL 60035 708/831-3438 www.anad.org The National Collegiate Athletic Association 6291 College Blvd. Overland Park, KS 66211-2422 913/339-1906 www.ncaa.org Eating Disorder Websites www.edreferral.com www.somethingfishy.org Further Reading About Eating Disorders Beals, K. (2004). Disordered Eating Among Athletes: A Comprehensive Guide for Health Care Professionals. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Brownell, K., Rodin, J., & Wilmore, J. (1992). Eating, Body Weight, and Performance in Athletes: Disorders of a Modern Society. Philadelphia: Lea & Febinger. Fairburn, C., & Brownell, K. (2002). Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press Fairburn, C. (1995). Overcoming Binge Eating. New York: Guilford Press Thompson, R., & Sherman, R. (1993). Helping Athletes with Eating Disorders. Champaign,IL: Human Kinetics Publishers

CONCLUSIONS Proper understanding and early identification of eating disorders is essential for programmatic prevention and interventions for eating disorders in high school athletes. Both the female athlete triad and anorexia athletica should be treated as true eating disorders in high school athletes as both are associated with long-term health risks for athletes. Identification should involve questionnaire screening as well as presea-

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son medical examination while taking special precautions to discuss the purpose of such questionnaires and include screening with other forms of general health evaluation. All high school athletes should receive education about nutrition, body composition, and performance to help establish clear guidelines on what constitutes the best way to improve health and performance. Prevention and intervention strategies are not well studied in athletic populations but should be focused on identified risk and protective factors such as self-esteem, negative affect, and overconcern with shape and weight. In addition, it is recommended that management of eating disorders occur through a sport management team that can plan appropriately for treatment and healthy return to athletic competition. However, in all situations regarding the medical and psychological status of an athlete, proper ethics regarding confidentiality should be followed, and the athlete should be involved in the decision-making process regarding recovery and return to athletics when appropriate. REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press. Beals, K. (2004). Disordered Eating Among Athletes: A Comprehensive Guide for Health Care Professionals. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Beals, K. A., Brey, R. A., & Gonyou, J. B. (1999). Understanding the female athlete triad: Eating disorders, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. Journal of School Health, 69, 337-340. Beals, K. A., & Manore, M. M. (1994). The prevalence and consequences of subclinical eating disorders in female athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 4, 175-195. Benson, R., & Taub, D. E. (1993). Using the PRECEDE model for causal analysis of bulimic tendencies among elite women swimmers. Journal of Health Education, 24, 360-368. Biesecker, A. C., & Martz, D. M. (1999). Impact of coaching style on vulnerability for eating disorders: An analogue study. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 7, 235-244. Braun, D. L., Sunday, S. R., Huang, A., & Halmi, K. A. (1999). More males seek treatment for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 415-424. Bravata, E. A., Storch, E. A., & Storch, J. B. (2003). Correlations among symptoms of depression and problematic eating patterns in intercollegiate athletes. Psychological Reports, 93, 1243-1246. Buckes-Miller, M. E., & Black, D. R. (1988). Male and female college athletes: Prevalence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Athletic Training, 23, 140.

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Byrne, S., & McLean, N. (2001). Eating disorders in athletes: A review of the literature. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4, 145-159. Byrne, S., & McLean, N. (2002). Elite athletes: Effects of the pressure to be thin. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 5, 80-94. Clark, N. (1998). Nutrition support programs for young adult athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8, 416-425. Cobb, K. L., Bachrach, L. K., Greendale, G., Marcus, R., Neer, R. M., Nieves, J. et al. (2003). Disordered eating, menstrual irregularity, and bone mineral density in female runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35, 711-719. Crago, M., Shisslak, C. M., & Ruble, A. E. (2001). Protective factors in the development of eating disorders. In R.H. Streigel-Moore & L. Smolak (Eds.), Eating Disorders: Innovative Directions in Research and Practice (pp. 75-89). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Dancyger, I., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1995). Relationship of partial syndrome eating disorders to anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 25, 10191025. Davis, C. (2001). Elite female athletes with eating disorders: A study of psychopathological characteristics. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 23, 245-253. Drinkwater, B., Bruemner, B., & Chestnut III, C. H. (1990). Menstrual history as a determinant of current bone density in young athletes. JAMA, 263, 545-548. Engel, S. G., Johnson, C., Powers, P. S., Crosby, R. D., Wonderlich, S. A., Wittrock, D. A. et al. (2003). Predictors of disordered eating in a sample of elite Division I college athletes. Eating Behaviors, 4, 333-343. Fairburn, C. G., & Wilson, G. T. (1993). Binge Eating: Definition and Treatment. In C.G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge Eating: Nature, Assessment, and Treatment (pp. 3-14). New York: Guilford Press. Fulkerson, J. A., Keel, P. K., Leon, G. R., & Dorr, T. (1999). Eating-disordered behaviors and personality characteristics of high school athletes and nonathletes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 73-79. Furnham, A., Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body image dissatisfaction: Gender differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise. The Journal of Psychology, 136, 581-596. Garner, D. M. (1991). The Eating Disorder Inventory-2 Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871-878. Garner, D. M., Rosen, L. W., & Barry, D. (1998). Eating disorders among athletes: Research and recommendations. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 839-856. Greydanus, D. E. & Patel, D. R. (2002). The female athlete: Before and beyond puberty. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 49, 553-80, vi. Hay, P. (2004). Quality of life and bulimic eating disorder behaviors: Findings from a community-based sample. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 434- 442.

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Johnson, C., Powers, P. S., & Dick, R. (1999). Athletes and eating disorders: The National Collegiate Athletic Association study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 179-188. Johnson, M. D. (1994). Disordered eating in active and athletic women. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 13, 355-369. Johnson-Sabine, E., Wood, K., Patton, G., Mann, A., & Wakeling, A. (1988). Abnormal eating attitudes in London school girls–A prospective epidemiological study: Factors associated with abnormal response on screening questionnaires. Psychological Medicine, 18, 615-622. Kanayama, G., Gruber, A. J., Pope, H. G., Borowiecki, J. J., & Hudson, J. I. (2001). Over-the-counter drug use in gymnasiums: An underrecognized substance abuse problem? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 70, 137-140. Katzman, D. K. (1999). Prevention of Medical Complications in Children and Adolescents With Eating Disorders. In N. Piran, M. P. Levine, & C. Steiner-Adir (Eds.), Preventing Eating Disorders: A Handbook of Interventions and Special Challenges (pp. 304-318). Ann Arbor, MI: Brunner/Mazel. Khan, K. M., Liu-Ambrose, T., Sran, M. M., Ashe, M. C., Donaldson, M. G., & Wark, J. D. (2002). New criteria for female athlete triad syndrome? As osteoporosis is rare, should osteopenia be among the criteria for defining the female athlete triad syndrome? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, 10-13. le Grange, D., Loeb, K. L., Van Orman, S., & Jellar, C. C. (2004). Bulimia nervosa in adolescents. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 158, 478-482. Lo, B. P., Hebert, C., & McClean, A. (2003). The female athlete triad no pain, no gain? Clinical Pediatrics (Philadelphia), 42, 573-580. Loubert, P. V. (1999). Ethical Perspectives in Counseling. In R. Ray & D. M. Wiese-Bjornstal (Eds.), Counseling in Sports Medicine (pp. 161-176). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Lowe, M. R. (2002). Dietary Restraint and Overeating. In C.G. Fairburn & K. D. Brownell (Eds.), Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 88-92). New York: Guilford Press. Manore, M. M. (1999). Nutritional needs of the female athlete. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18, 549-563. Manore, M. M. (2002). Dietary recommendations and athletic menstrual dysfunction. Sports Medicine, 32, 887-901. Marten-DiBartolo, P., & Shaffer, C. (2004). A comparison of female college athletes and nonathletes: Eating disorder symptomology and psychological well-being. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 24, 33-41. Matejek, N., Weimann, E., Witzel, C., Molenkamp, G., Schwidergall, S., & Bohles, H. (1999). Hypoleptinaemia in patients with anorexia nervosa and in elite gymnasts with anorexia athletica. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 451-456. McNulty, K. Y., Adams, C. H., Anderson, J. M., & Affenito, S. G. (2001). Development and validation of a screening tool to identify eating disorders in female athletes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101, 886-892. National Collegiate Athletic Association (2004). Nutrition and Performance. National Collegiate Athletic Association [On-line]. Available: www.ncaa.org/ nutritionandperformance.html

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Nicholls, D., Chater, R., & Lask, B. (2000). Children into SDM don’t go: A comparison of classification systems for eating disorders in childhood and early adolescence. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 317-324. Oppliger, R. A., Nelson-Steen, S. A., & Scott, J. R. (2003). Weight loss practices of college wrestlers. International Journal of Sport Nutrition & Exercise Metabolism, 13, 29-34. Otis, C. L., Drinkwater, B., Johnson, M., Loucks, A., & Wilmore, J. (1997). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. The Female Athlete Triad. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 29, i-ix. Patton, G. C., Selzer, R., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., & Wolfe, R. (1999). Onset of adolescent eating disorders: Population-based cohort study over 3 years. British Medical Journal, 318, 765-768. Pomeroy, P., & Mitchell, J. E. (2002). Medical Complications of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. In C.G. Fairburn & K. D. Brownell (Eds.), Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 278-285). New York: Guilford Press. Powers, P. S. (1999). The last word: Athletes and eating disorders. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 7, 249-255. Powers, P. S., & Johnson, C. (1996). Small victories: Prevention of eating disorders among athletes. Eating Disorders, 4, 364-377. Roerig, J. L., Mitchell, J. E., de Zwaan, M., Wonderlich, S. A., Kamran, S., Engbloom, S. et al. (2003). The eating disorders medicine cabinet revisited: A clinician’s guide to appetite suppressants and diuretics. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 443-457. Rosen, L. W., & Hough, D. O. (1988). Pathogenic weight-control behaviors of female college gymnasts. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 16, 141-146. Rosen, L. W., McKeag, D. B., Hough, D. O., & Curley, V. (1986). Pathogenic weight control behavior in female athletes. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 14, 79. Ryan, R. (1993). Management of Eating Problems in Athletic Settings. In K.D. Brownell, J. Rodin, & J. Wilmore (Eds.), Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes: Disorders of a Modern Society (pp. 344-362). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febinger. Sands, R., Ticker, J., Sherman, C., Armantas, C., & Maschette, W. (1997). Disordered eating patterns, body image, self-esteem, and physical activity in pre-adolescent school children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 21, 159-166. Schmidt, U. (2002). Risk Factors for Eating Disorders. In C.G. Fairburn & K. D. Brownell (Eds.), Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 247-250). New York: Guilford Press. Shangold, M., Rebar, R. W., Wentz, A. C., & Schiff, I. (1990). Evaluation and management of menstrual dysfunction in female athletes. JAMA, 263, 1665-1669. Sherman, R., & Thompson, R. A. (2001). Athletes and disordered eating: Four major issues for the professional psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 27-33. Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Ruble, A. E. (2000). Female athletes and eating problems: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 371-380.

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Stice, E. (2001). Risk factors for eating pathology: Recent advances and future directions. In R. Striegel-Moore & L. Smolak (Eds.), Eating Disorders Innovative Directions in Research and Practice (pp. 51-73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Streigel-Moore, R. H. (1997). Risk factors for eating disorders. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 817, 98-109. Sullivan, P. F. (2002). Course and Outcome of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. In C.G. Fairburn & K. D. Brownell (Eds.), Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook (2nd ed., pp. 226-230). New York: Guilford Press. Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1993). Prevalence of eating disorders in elite female athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 3, 9-40. Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1994). Risk and trigger factors for the development of eating disorders in female elite athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26, 414-419. Sundgot-Borgen, J., & Torstveit, M. K. (2004). Prevalence of eating disorders in elite athletes is higher than in the general population. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 14, 25-32. Taub, D. E., & Blinde, E. M. (1992). Eating disorders among adolescent athletes: Influence of athletic participation and sport team membership. Adolescence, 27, 833-848. Thompson, R. A. (1989). Management of the athlete with an eating disorder: Implications for the sport management team. Sport Psychologist, 1, 114-126. Thompson, R. A., & Sherman, R. (1993a). Helping Athletes With Eating Disorders. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing. Thompson, R. A., & Sherman, R. (1993b). Reducing the risk of eating disorders in athletes. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 1, 65-78. Thompson, R. A., & Sherman, R. (1999). “Good athlete” traits and characteristics of anorexia nervosa: Are they similar? Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 7, 387-393. USA Gymnastics. (2004). Treatment Opportunity Program. USA Gymnastics [On-line]. Available: www.usa-gymnastics.org/women/tops/tops.html. Van de Loo, D. A., & Johnson, M. D. (1995). The young female athlete. Clinical Sports Medicine, 14, 687-707. Vinci, D. M. (1998). Effective nutrition support programs for college athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8, 308-320. Walberg, J. L., & Johnston, C. S. (1991). Menstrual function and eating behavior in female recreation weight lifters and competitive body builders. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 23, 30-36. Watson, T. L., & Andersen, A. E. (2003). A critical examination of the amenorrhea and weight criteria for diagnosing anorexia nervosa. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108, 175-182. White, C. M., & Hergenroeder, A. C. (1990). Amenorrhea, osteopenia, and the female athlete. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 37, 1125-1141. Williamson, D., Netemeyer, R., Jackman, L., Anderson, D. A., Funcsch, C., & Rabalais, J. (1995). Structural equation modeling of risk factors for the development of eating disorder symptoms in female athletes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 387-393.

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A School Psychologist’s Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology Jack J. Lesyk Ohio Center for Sport Psychology

SUMMARY. School psychologists may find the field of sport psychology beneficial to them in extending their skills and effectiveness. As trained psychologists, they are likely to already have some of the knowledge and skills necessary for working in the area of sport psychology. However, without additional training, this may not be sufficient for ethical and effective practice. This article enumerates the necessary knowledge and skills for working in sport psychology according to APA’s recent proficiency standards. It then details a plethora of available resources and methods for entering into the domain of sport psychology. The article emphasizes self-study while continuing to practice ethically within the “boundaries of one’s competence.” [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Sport psychology, ethics, “boundaries of one’s competence”

Address correspondence to: Jack J. Lesyk, Ohio Center for Sport Psychology, 21625 Chagrin Boulevard, Suite 200, Beachwood, OH 44122 (E-mail: jjlesyk@SportPsych. org). [Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “A School Psychologist’s Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology.” Lesyk, Jack J. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 169-185; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 169-185. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800- HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: docdelivery@haworthpress. com].

Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J008v21n02_09

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This is a good time for school psychologists to look toward the field of sport psychology for acquiring additional paradigms, modalities and techniques to incorporate into their work. Sports and its ramifications have become a major part of our culture and a major part of young people’s life in many respects. More hours of television are given to sports programming, more tickets are being sold to athletic events at all levels, and more people are participating in sports than ever before, especially: youth, elderly, women, and athletes with disabilities. As our everyday lives become increasingly complicated, we turn our interest to sports which give the appearance of simplicity. In sports, the goals are clear, the resources enumerated, the rules are apparent, there is a beginning and an end, rewards and penalties are known, and, at the end of the day, you know how good you are. Not so in everyday life. Two prominent factors make sports and sport psychology especially appealing to the school psychologist. First, because of its popularity, sports can provide an excellent modality for relating, communicating, and establishing rapport with today’s youth. And secondly, sport participation among young people can provide an excellent modality through which important life skills can be learned (Danish, Petitpas, and Hale, 1995). Mere participation, however, without good adult leadership and good values doesn’t guarantee favorable influences and learnings. In fact, as Murphy (1999) documents, youth sports can produce a very positive or very negative impact on the young participant. School psychologists, with sport psychology knowledge, can be influential in helping to ensure that the sport experience contributes positively to the students’ moral development, self-concept, and the acquisition of positive values and healthy coping skills. I envision three particular areas in which the sport psychology knowledge can be useful to the school psychologist. First, in providing counseling services to youngsters for whom sport participation is an important part of their lives. The sport psychology research and applied literature provides information that can be helpful in understanding and relating to the seriously committed athlete. Second, knowledge and experience of tools and techniques of “performance enhancement” or “mental skills training” can enable the trained school psychologist to help young athletes to improve their sports mental skills such as relaxing under pressure, managing their emotions, choosing a positive attitude, etc. Although learned in the sports context, these are the same life skills necessary for success in other goal-oriented environments. And finally, the school psychologist can play an educational role with administrators, parents, teachers, and coaches to ensure that the school

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based sport experience promotes the positive developmental values of the school and of the community. THE SPECIALIZATION OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Although the practice of sport psychology requires special knowledge and skills, as an applied area of psychology, its theoretical and applied underpinnings are derived from the basic principles of psychology, as well as from those of clinical, counseling, and educational psychology (Lesyk, 1998). Thus, the professional with a graduate psychology degree in specialties such as these may already possess many of the competencies necessary to expand into the practice of applied sport psychology. While necessary, however, these competencies alone are not sufficient. Additional sport and sport psychology knowledge and skills are necessary in order to ethically and competently enter into this new domain. So exactly what are these competencies? Until recently there was no clear or agreed upon answer to this question. The domain of sport psychology was defined by each researcher, author, and practitioner, according to his or her own experiences and biases. In February 2003, this changed when the American Psychological Association’s Council of Representatives approved a proposal for a proficiency in sport psychology, prepared by Division 47, Sport and Exercise Psychology. This designation, as with other proficiencies, means that the defined area is characterized by a distinctive body of knowledge and skills that go beyond those typically acquired in graduate programs. Defining an area of practice is essential in order for practitioners to remain in compliance with APA’s Ethical Principals of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association, 2002), specifically: 2.01 (a) Boundaries of Competence: Psychologists provide services, teach, and conduct research with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, consultation, study, or professional experience. 2.01 (c) Psychologists planning to provide services, teach, or conduct research involving populations, areas, techniques, or technologies new to them undertake relevant education, training, supervised experience, consultation, or study.

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2.03. Maintaining Competence: Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and maintain their competence. If we now consider the specific competencies of a sport psychologist, the abstract of the proficiency defines four distinct categories: specialized knowledge, persons and groups served, problems and challenges, and procedure of practice. To quote directly from the abstract (American Psychological Association, 2004), consider the following: Specialized Knowledge Required for the Proficiency In addition to the foundation of competencies required for licensure, it is recommended that psychologists who desire to gain this proficiency obtain sport-specific educational experiences in the following areas: • a knowledge of theory and research in social, historical, cultural, and developmental foundations of sport psychology • the principles and practices of applied sport psychology, including issues and techniques of sport-specific psychological assessment and mental skills training for performance enhancement and satisfaction with participation • clinical and counseling issues with athletes • organizational and systemic aspects of sport consulting • an understanding of the developmental and social issues related to sport participation • and knowledge of the biobehavioral bases of sport and exercise (e.g., exercise physiology, motor learning, sports medicine) Persons and Groups Served by the Proficiency Those who are served by the proficiency in Sport Psychology include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Youth/junior sport participants and organizations High school athletes and athletic departments Intercollegiate athletes and athletic departments Professional athletes, teams, and leagues Masters/seniors sport participants and organizations Injured athletes Elite athletes and sports organizations (e.g., Olympic athletes and National Governing Bodies) 8. Recreational athletes

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9. Athletes with permanent disabilities 10. People who are involved with, but not directly participating in, sports (families, coaches, administrators, officials) Problems and Challenges Addressed by the Proficiency The proficiency in Sport Psychology addresses two critical challenges in the field. First, it provides protection to the public. Uniform standards for a proficiency in this area, including both an examination to demonstrate knowledge in the field and extensive supervision, help to insure that those seeking services are receiving them from qualified individuals. Athletes, coaches, parents, administrators and others will be able to turn to a recognized set of standards to evaluate the training of psychologists offering services in sport psychology. The second problem addressed by the proficiency is to assist current psychologists and those in training who are interested in the field, in obtaining proper training and experience to practice sport psychology. As a recognized proficiency within psychology, the Sport Psychology proficiency provides a model for appropriate training in the field. Procedures of Practice Employed Many strategies and procedures exist within the field of sport psychology for addressing the problems faced by athletes and sports participants. Some of the principal areas include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

psychological skills training for athletes goal-setting and performance profiling for athletes visualization and performance planning for athletes enhancing self-confidence for athletes cognitive-behavioral self-regulation techniques for athletes concentration and attentional control strategies for athletes poise and emotion management training for athletes attribution interpretations and self-assessment in sport eating disorders and weight management interventions for athletes substance abuse interventions for athletes dealing with the use of ergogenic aids to athletic performance grief, depression, loss and suicide counseling for athletes overtraining and burnout counseling sexual identity issues in sport counseling aggression and violence counseling in sports

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• • • • • • • •

athletic injury and rehabilitation career transitions and identity foreclosure in sports team cohesion training team building leadership training consultation skills for sports organizations and systems moral and character development in sports, and sportsmanship cognitive and emotional developmental issues and talent development in sport • athletic motivation counseling • development of self-confidence, self-esteem and competence in sports • interventions to address parental and familial needs involved in youth sports participation The declaration of a proficiency in sport psychology is a first step in a longer process. The concept of proficiency has two purposes, according to the approved proposal: (1) assist the general public in recognizing the appropriate services and skills of psychologists who describe themselves as “Sport Psychologists”; (2) assist psychologists in recognizing and understanding the knowledge and skills considered appropriate for psychologists practicing in this particular area of expertise. With these competencies now enumerated, one consequence that can be expected is that these standards will influence the future curriculum and course content of graduate schools who offer courses and degrees in sport psychology. In time to come, it is expected that an examination will be developed and that individual psychologists may voluntarily take the exam to become certified as proficient in sport psychology. It is important to bear in mind that this is a voluntary process, desired by some, but not required by law or even professional ethics. In other words, an individual having a proficiency in sport psychology would be more likely to be presumed to be practicing within the limits of his competency than one without. Nevertheless there certainly are and will be alternate ways of demonstrating one’s knowledge, skills, and experience in sport psychology. The proficiency, however, does provide us with a standard with which we can measure ourselves as we enter this area. The above lists are inclusive and comprehensive. They set a high standard. In my opinion, I would not expect every practitioner of sport psychology to be fully knowledgeable in each and every one of these points. So in what respects should the practitioner be fully competent? Clearly in those areas where they are actually or intending to practice.

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Again the criterion of “practicing within the boundaries of one’s competence” holds. The above lists can be used as a convenient self-assessment. As you contemplate expanding your professional activities into the area of sport psychology, I suggest that you go through the list and: (a) scratch out those which are irrelevant to your present or future activities. (b) check those in which you are already well qualified in terms of education, training, and experience. (c) circle those which are relevant for you, but in which you do not yet have appropriate knowledge, skills, or experience. These circled items can then be prioritized and listed as a set of self-education goals for yourself. Once you have selected your self-study goals, you will need resources that will enable you to reach these goals. The remainder of this article is an enumeration of a multitude of such resources, as well as a guide to using them effectively. RESOURCES FOR SELF-LEARNING Reading Selective reading is one of the most effective means for educating yourself in sport psychology. In addition to the Selected Reading List at the end of the chapter, there are several journals that I recommend that specialize in applied sport psychology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, founded in 1989. The official publication of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP), subscription is included with membership. This journal publishes articles on applied research as well as professional practice. Published by Taylor & Francis, subscription information can be obtained by calling their offices at (215) 625-8900. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, founded in 1979. This journal is the official publication of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA). Published by Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., P.O. Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61825-5076. In addition to basic and applied research articles, this journal contains book reviews and a regular feature, the “Sport Psychologist’s Digest,” a collection of short, useful summaries of articles appearing in other journals.

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The Sport Psychologist, founded in 1987. Also published by Human Kinetics Publishers. In addition to applied research, this journal publishes articles pertinent to professional practice issues. It is also a good source of book reviews. The “Bulletin Board’’ which appears in each issue provides useful news information, announcements of upcoming events and conferences, as well as availability of new books and other resources in sport psychology. Two book publishers are especially worthy of note due to the number of titles they offer in the area of sport psychology. I would suggest contacting each and obtaining their most recent catalog. Fitness Information Technology P.O. Box 4425, University Avenue Morgantown, WV 26504-4425 (800) 477-4348 www.fitinfotech.com Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. P.O. Box 5076 Champaign, IL 61825-5076 (800) 747-4457 www.humankinetics.com Professional Organizations There are two applied sport psychology professional organizations that can be helpful to you in expanding your knowledge and competencies in sport psychology. Each provides you with access to newsletters, journals, workshops, and conferences that can facilitate your self-study. In addition to receiving current information about the field, joining such an organization will demonstrate your interest and commitment to the field of sport psychology, an important part of establishing your credentials and expanding your “boundaries of competence.” Through these organizations and their publications and conferences, you will be able to stay abreast of current issues pertaining to ethics, credentials, accreditation, research, and applied techniques. American Psychological Association, Division 47, Sport and Exercise Psychology. Founded in 1987. If you are already a member of APA, it’s easy to join this division. For membership informa-

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tion contact Keith Cooke, Manager, APA Division Services at (202) 336-6013, e-mail: [email protected]. Abundant information about the division, as well as about sport psychology in general can be found on the division’s website: www.psyc.unt.edu/apadiv47. Division 47 has approximately 950 members and addresses research, practice, and professional issues in sport psychology. The division publishes a newsletter and meets annually at the time of the APA convention, usually in August. Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP). Founded in 1985. For membership information contact Mary Fry, AAASP Secretary-Treasurer, (901) 678-4986 or e-mail [email protected]. AAASP is an multidisciplinary organization of approximately 1300 members, devoted to research and application of applied sport psychology. Members come from such disciplines as psychology, sport sciences, kinesiology, social work, and psychiary. It is organized into three topical areas: health psychology, intervention-performance enhancement, and social psychology. The organization holds its annual meeting in September or October. Additional information about AAASP and sport psychology can be found on their website: www.aaasponline.org. Conferences, Workshops, and Seminars Both AAASP and Divison 47 have annual conferences, as mentioned above, which provide excellent opportunities for compressing significant learning into a small amount of time. Learning opportunities are both formal and informal. In addition to attending scheduled programs, some of which offer C.E.U.’s, these conferences provide opportunities for informal discussions and meeting colleagues for future networking. Sport psychology is a relatively small discipline, so you may find few or even no colleagues with this specialty in your geographic area. Thus, networking with distant colleagues is important for professional growth and maintaining your interest and motivation. Both APA, Div. 47 and AAASP have intensive pre-conference, continuing education workshops and seminars that often deal with development of professional skills and practice development. Attending these conferences and earn-

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ing continuing education credits will be helpful in establishing your credentials and qualifications. On a personal note, I have had particularly positive experiences attending annual meeting of both of these organizations. On the whole sport psychologists are a very enthusiastic, upbeat group of people who are eager to share their experiences with others who have the same interest. Although the majority of members of both of these organizations are university-based, as I am a private practitioner, I have always felt accepted and respected by members of these organizations. In fact, I would say that they welcome non-academics who have a plethora of practical, real world, hands on experiences. Graduate students, who are in great abundance at these conferences, are especially eager to learn practical skill from those outside of academia. Additional workshops and seminars are conducted periodically by universities and other organizations. These are often announced in the journals and newsletters of the organizations listed above. If you purchase sport psychology books by mail, subscribe to one of the journals, or join one of the organizations; you’ll soon find yourself on the mailing list for conferences as well as other sport psychology products. The Ohio Center for Sport Psychology offers one or two intensive two-day workshops each year specifically designed for helping psychologists and related professionals develop knowledge, skills, and credentials in sport psychology. Check the website for information on these workshops at www.SportPsych.org. In addition to workshops and seminars promoted within the domain of sport psychology, there are other workshops and seminars that may be of value to you in expanding your knowledge and skills. Depending on your interests, needs, and background, you may benefit by increasing your knowledge in such areas as stress management, imagery, psychological aspects of injury and recovery, and eating disorders. Such workshops, not specifically labeled as sport psychology, are offered by a wide variety of educational and professional organizations. Professional Contacts: Mentoring, Consultation, and Study Groups Although reading books and journals and attending the occasional conference will be invaluable in your acquisition of knowledge and skills in sport psychology, such experiences will probably not be totally sufficient. There is no substitute for regular professional interaction, either on a mentoring or collegial level. Such contact provides stimula-

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tion, cross-fertilization of ideas, feedback, and sharing of experiences. Often these contacts are via telephone or e-mail. If sport psychology and its content areas are a substantial departure from your professional education and experience, you might consider developing a mentoring relationship with someone who is already recognized in the field. The AAASP website contains a list of Certified Consultants who are available for providing mentoring and supervision. If the person is an AAASP Certified Consultant or listed on the U.S. Olympic’s Committee’s Sport Psychology Registry, you can be certain that they have met a high set of standards. However, there are other well-qualified individuals who may not appear on these lists for a variety of reasons. Since a mentor is likely to be a high level profession, expect to pay for his or her time. I would suggest a contract specifying your learning objectives, their method of helping you achieve your objectives, frequency of meetings, duration of contact, and agreement on fees. Another alternative would be to find a mentor who is interested in conducting a group mentoring experience for you and several other professionals who have similar learning needs. The group modality could be intellectually stimulating as well as efficient in terms of time and expense. If a mentor is unnecessary or impossible for you, you may wish, at the very least, to develop a list of qualified sport psychologists whom you can call upon on an “as needed’’ consultant basis. Several times over the years, as I was preparing to develop sport-specific workshops, e.g., for equestrians, I contacted several of the well-known sport psychologists who had considerable experience with these particular sport populations. I was, in most cases, pleasantly surprised at their returning phone calls to me, and their willingness to share experiences and advice. Mindful of the importance of their time, in each instance, I had done considerable background preparation before contacting them and had tentative ideas and plans to present to them for their feedback and suggestions. If you have a solid professional education and experience in concepts and applications close to that of sport psychology, you may not need as intense an experience as that described above. Or you simply may not be able to obtain a qualified professional in your area who is willing and able to mentor. Another alternative would be to form a study group of professionals like yourself who share an interest in developing their knowledge and skills in sport psychology. Such a group would meet on a regular basis,

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establish learning objectives, and share reading, discussion, presentations, and case studies with one another. On occasion, the group might contract an experienced, well qualified sport psychologist to consult with them on special topics, or to review or present case studies. The Internet The Internet is an excellent resource for obtaining information and communicating with other professionals in sport psychology. As indicated previously, the major organizations, AAASP and Division 47, both have websites with abundant information, as well as links to other sites. With the modality of e-mail, I maintain daily contact with sport psychology colleagues from all over the world and continue my informal professional education and development. Perhaps the best Internet resource for sport psychologists is the Sportpsychology Listserver Bulletin Board, hosted by Temple University. By posting an e-mail to this list, your message is automatically sent to approximately one thousand list subscribers throughout the world. These subscribers are an interesting mixture of sport psychologists, students, athletes, coaches, parents of athletes, etc. Postings range from requests for help on a specific topic, to serious discussions of ethical issues, case problems, philosophy, to the sometimes trivial. Many users simply read the messages that they receive and refrain from posting to the list. But, for me, the greatest value has come from soliciting and offering help, advice, and opinions. Through the Sport Psychology Listserver, you also may identify individuals with sufficient information or interest in a given topic for you to communicate extensively with “off list’’ or through conventional e-mail communications. To sign onto the list, simply send an email message to [email protected], leaving the subject heading blank. The test of the message should read “SUB SPORTPSY your name.” If this fails, contact the listmaster, Michael Sachs at MSACHS@ NIMBUS.TEMPLE. EDU. Once enrolled on the list, you will receive instructions for posting. This is useful when you wish to solicit information about a particular subject, solicit opinions or advice, or make an announcement. QUALIFICATIONS AND CREDENTIALS As you begin to expand your practice into new areas of sport psychology, ever mindful of the ethical and legal mandates that require

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you to practice within the limits of your competence, it is important that you be able to demonstrate your qualifications, if ever challenged. Qualifications You must be able to answer the question posed by potential clients, the public, and whatever licensing board that governs your discipline, “How are you qualified to do what you’re doing?” Unless you return to the university and obtain a degree in sport psychology, you are responsible for obtaining and documenting your qualifications. If you’ve been carrying out self-directed educational activities such as those suggested in this article, it would be helpful for you to keep a record of these activities. Especially in your early ventures, when your experience is limited, you might wish to keep a log of books read, consultations with other professionals, and attendance at conferences and workshops. Some workshops and seminars will provide you with certificates of completion and continuing education credits. Many of these activities will make important additions to your vitae. Less formally, but of no less significance, develop important qualifications by presenting your thinking and your work to those who are knowledgeable and who are in a position to challenge or endorse what you’re doing. There are two different types of groups here. The first are groups that you may already belong to, e.g., your local, state, or national professional organizations, or any of the sport psychological organizations referred to earlier. Second are groups within the athletic community, who in a similar manner, may challenge or endorse your work. For example, if you’re working with figure skaters and believe that you’ve developed appropriate qualifications, give a presentation to a meeting of figure skating coaches. This is a good learning opportunity to validate what you’ve been doing and obtain useful feedback for further improvement. In the end, qualification is an ongoing process, not an end result. For each activity, for each client, for each sport, for each intervention, one can legitimately raise the question, “to what extent am I qualified to do this?” In an applied discipline such as sport psychology, professional development often follows a “leapfrogging” process. Learning leads to new application, then more learning, then more new application. Doing this in a gradual manner, with appropriate feedback from colleagues, is a relatively safe and effective means of expanding one’s professional skills into new areas.

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REFERENCES American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principle of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060-1073. American Psychological Association. (2004). Summary: Sport psychology–a proficiency in professional psychology. Retrieved May 28, 2004 from http://www. apa.org/crsppp/archsportpsych.html. Danish, S., Petitpas, A., & Hale, B. (1995). Psychological interventions: A life development model. In S. Murphy (Ed.), Sport Psychology Interventions, Chap. 2 (pp. 19-38). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Lesyk, J. J. (1998). Developing sport psychology within your clinical practice: A practical guide for mental health professionals. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Murphy, S. (1999). The cheers and the tears: A healthy alternative to the dark side of youth sports. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

SELECTED READING LIST Introduction and Overview of Sport Psychology Anderson, M. B. (2000). Doing sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gill, D. L. (1986). Psychological dynamics of sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Granito, V. J., Jr., & Wenz, B. J. (1995). Reading list for professional issues in applied sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 96-103. Hays, K., & Smith, R. (1996). Incorporating sport and exercise psychology into clinical practice. In J. L. Van Raalte, and B.W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (pp. 413-429). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Hays, K. F. (1995). Putting sport psychology into (Your) practice. Professional psychology: Research and practice, 26 (1), 33-40. Horn, T. (1992). Advances in sport psychology. Champaign: IL: Human Kinetics. Lesyk, J. J. (1998). Developing sport psychology within your clinical practice: A practical guide for mental health professionals. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Murphy, S. M. (Ed.). (2005). The sport psychology handbook: A complete guide to today’s best mental training techniques. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Murphy, S. M. (Ed.). (1995). Sport psychology interventions. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Singer, R. N., Murphy, M., & Tennant, K. (Eds.). (1993). Handbook of research on sport psychology. New York: McMillan. Tenenbaum, G. (Ed.) (2001). The practice of sport psychology. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Informations Technology. Van Raalte, J. L., & Brewer, B. W. (Eds). (2002). Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Whelan, J. P., Meyers, A. M., & Elkin, T. D. (1996). Ethics in sport and exercise psychology. In J. L. Van Raalte and B. W. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology, 2nd ed. (pp. 503-523). Washington: American Psychological Association. Williams, J. M. (1993). Applied sport psychology. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publication Co.

Performance Enhancement Techniques Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Dalloway, M. (1992). Visualization: The master skill in mental training. Phoenix, AZ: Optimal Performance Institute. Dalloway, M. (1993). Concentration: Focus your mind, power your game. Phoenix, AZ: Optimal Performance Institute. Dalloway, M. (1993). Drive and determination. Phoenix, AZ: Optimal Performance Institute. Dalloway, M. (1993). Risk taking: Performing your best during critical times. Phoenix, AZ: Optimal Performance Institute. Jackson, S. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Flow in sports: The keys to optimal experiences and performances. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Murphy, S. (Ed.) (1995). Sport psychology interventions. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Nideffer, R. M. (1985). Athlete’s guide to mental training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Nideffer, R. M. (1992). Psyched to win: How to master mental skills to improve your physical performance. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Orlick, T. (1998). Embracing your potential: Steps to self-discovery, balance, and success in sports, work, and life. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Orlick, T. (1986). Psyching for sport: Mental training for athletes. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental training (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Porter, K., & Foster, J. (1986). The mental athlete: Inner training for peak performance. New York: Ballantine. Porter, K., & Foster, J. (1990). Visual athletics: Visualizations for peak sports performance. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. Ungerleider, S. (1996). Mental training for peak performance: Top athletes reveal the mind exercises they use to excel. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

Youth Sports American Sport Education Program. (1994). Sport parent. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Benson, P., Galbreath, M., & Espeland, P. (1995). What kids need to succeed. Minneapolis: Free Spirit.

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Burnette, D. (1991). The art of being a successful youth-league manager-coach (baseball/softball). Laguna Niguel, CA: Funagain Press. Burnette, D. (1993). Youth, Sports, and self-esteem: A guide for parents. Indianapolis: Masters Press. Durbin, B. (1992). Portrait of an athlete. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Fine, A. H., & Sachs, M. L. (1997). The total sports experience for kids: A parents’ guide to success in youth sports. South Bend, IN: Diamond Communications, Inc. Fortanasce, V. (1995). Life lessons from Little League: A guide for parents and coaches. New York, NY: Image Books/Doubleday. Griffin, R. S. (1998). Sports in the lives of children and adolescents: Success on the field and in life. Westport, CT: Praeger. Hogg, J. M. (1997). Mental skills for young athletes. Edmonton, AB, Canada: Sport Excel Publishing Inc. Marra, R. (1991). The quality of effort: Integrity in sport and life for student-athletes, parents and coaches. New York: From the Heart. Martens, R., Christina, R. W., Harvery, J., & Sharkey, B. Coaching young athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Murphy, C. (1983). A parents’ guide to teaching kids to play. New York: Leisure Press. Murphy, S. (1999). The cheers and the tears: A healthy alternative to the dark side of youth sports. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Orlick, T. (1992). Nice on my feelings. Sacramento, CA: ITA Publications. Orlick, T. (1993). Free to feel great: Teaching children to excel at living. Ontario: Creative Bound. Orlick, T. (1995). Feeling great: Highlight book (2nd ed.). Ottawa, Ont.: Feeling Great. Orlick, T. (1995). Nice on my feelings: Nurturing the best in children and parents. Carp, Ontario: Creative Bound. Rotella, R., & Bunker, L. (1987). Parenting your superstar: How to help your child get the most out of sports. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Shields, D., & Bredemeier, B. (1995). Character development and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Smoll, F. L., & Smith, R. E. (1996). Children and youth in sport: A biosocial perspective. Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill. Tofler, I. R. (1998). Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Vol. 7, No. 4, Oct. 1998). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. Wolf, R. (1998). The Training Camp guide to sports parenting: Encouraging your kids on and off the field. New York: Pocket Books.

Counseling Athletes Division of Counseling: American Psychological Association. (1993). Special issue: Sport psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 21 (3). Petitpas, A. J. (1996). Counseling interventions in applied sport psychology. In J. L. Van Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (pp. 189-204). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Taylor, J., & Schneider, B. (1992). The sport-clinical protocol: A comprehensive interviewing instrument for applied sport psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and practice, 4, 318-325.

Sports Injuries Brewer, B., Van Raalte, J., & Linder, D. (1991). Role of the sport psychologist in treating injured athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 3, 183-190. Heil, J. (1993). Psychology of sport injury. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pargman, D. (1993). Psychological basis of sport injuries. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Drug Abuse and Eating Disorders Thompson, R. A., & Sherman, R. T. (1993). Helping athletes with eating disorders. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wadler, G., & Hainline, B. (1989). Drugs and the athlete. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co.

Index Adolescents alcohol abuse, 117 eating disorders, 151 life skills, 64 substance abuse, 64,117 Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) anthropometrics, 74 behavior modification, 74 debunking media, 72 design and goals, 71 nutrition focus, 72 perceived changes, 75 prevention program, 63,73,128 research studies, 73 Alcohol abuse adolescents, 64 athletes vs. non-athletes, 120 norm setting, 135 Amenorrhea, eating disorders, 151 American College of Sports Medicine, 147,161 American Medical Association (AMA), 127 American Psychiatric Association, 146 American Psychological Association, 18,171,176 American Psychologist, 16 American Sports Data, 43 Anabolic steroids antisocial behavior, 68 female athletes, 76 growing problem, 68 health risks, 67 high school athletes, 67 prevention programs, 128 signs and symptoms, 68

Androgenic steroids, 68,128 Androstenedione, 68 Anorexia adolescents, 151 athletes, 147,149 perfectionism, 151 prevalence, 155 risk factors, 155 Anorexia athletica, 147,152 Aponte, H., 35 Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, 13,18,175 Athletes anabolic steroids, 67 counseling, 184 eating disorders, 145,154 educational programs, 63 self-esteem, 150 sport psychology, 145 substance abuse, 63 see also High school athletes Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA) debunking media, 72 design and goals, 71 female athletes, 75-78 high schools, 128 nutrition focus, 72 replication issues, 77 research studies, 77 substance abuse, 63,75 team sessions, 76 Athletic directors, sport psychology, 98 Athletic Research Laboratory (University of Illinois), 12

© 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Australasia, sport psychology, 11 Australia, eating disorders, 155 Australian Institute of Sport, 11 Australian Psychological Society, 12

Bardon, J., 27 Baseball team, case study, 103 Basketball team, case study, 105 Beals, K., 161 Beisser, A. R., 14 Binge eating, 147,161 Board of Sports Psychologists (Australia), 12 Body image, eating disorders, 150,156 Bone mineral density (BMD), 152 Boston University, 9,17 Brownell, K., 161 Bulgaria, sport psychology, 11 Bulimia impulsivity, 151 prevalence, 155 prevention, 147,150 risk factors, 155 Burke, K. L., 22

Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology, 12 Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 45 Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, 124 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 43,68 Chewing tobacco, 120 Chicago Cubs, 12 Clinical psychologists, 12 Coaches and coaching athlete relationship, 33 case studies, 102-104 eating disorders, 158 educating, 21 life skills, 49 orientation, 102

program feedback, 105 sport psychology, 98,102 Cocaine, 120 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), 160 College athletes alcohol abuse, 119 leaders and coaches, 52 sport psychology, 21,91 Community resources, 21,99 Counseling athletes, 17,184 Cratty, B., 16 Creatine, 71, 120 Czechslovakia, sport psychology, 11

Danish, S. J., 41, 50 Davis, T. R., 117 Depression, female athletes, 76 Diet, eating disorders, 147 Directory of Graduate Programs in Applied Sport Psychology (Burke), 22 Disordered Eating Among Athletes (Beals), 161 Drug testing, 124,137

East Germany, sport psychology, 11 Eating Attitudes Test (EAT), 153 Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes (Brownell), 161 Eating disorders adolescents, 151 amenorrhea, 151 athletes, 145,154 clinical interviews, 153 confidentiality, 159 defining, 146-152 diagnostic criteria, 148 diet and exercise, 147 early identification, 152,157 educational programs, 157 evaluation tools, 154 features, 147 female athletes, 76,146

Index intervention, 157 large-scale studies, 155 male and female, 153 organizations, 161 osteoporosis, 152 partial syndrome, 149 peer pressure, 156 prevalence, 154 prevention, 145,157 protective factors, 156 psychopathology, 152 psychosocial variables, 149 psychotherapy, 160 purging methods, 147 questionnaires, 153 reading list, 185 referral options, 158 resources, 161 secondary schools, 145 sport psychology, 145 risk factors, 155 treatment, 157-160 types, 147 weight loss, 151 Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook (Fairburn and Brownell), 161 Elliot, D. L., 63 Emotional intelligence, 30 Exercise, eating disorders, 147

Fairburn, C., 161 Family coach relationship, 33 interview, 35 involvement, 34 motivation, 34 school psychologist, 25,31 student athlete, 25,31 therapy models, 31 Female athlete triad (FAT) adolescents, 151 eating disorder, 147 prevalence, 155

189

Female athletes anabolic steroids, 76 ATHENA program, 75-78 Australia, 155 depression, 76 eating disorders, 146,149 Norway, 155 substance abuse, 75 underweight, 157 Female Athletic Screening Total (FAST), 153 Fitness Information Technology, 176 Forneris, T., 41 Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (Weinberg and Gould), 20

Gallimore, R., 12 Going for the Goal, 50 Goldberg, L., 63,74 Gould, D., 20 Grange, R., 12 G riffith, C., 12 Gymnastics, eating disorders, 156

Handbook of Sport Psychology (Singer), 20 Hanson, T., 21 Head’s Up Baseball (Ravizza and Hanson), 21 Health and wellness physical education, 46 sport psychology, 14 Hellison, D., 49 Helping Athletes with Eating Disorders (Thompson and Sherman), 161 Henry, F., 12 High school athletes academic issues, 101 alcohol abuse, 119 anabolic steroids, 67 cognitive domain, 101 eating disorders, 154 educational programs, 63

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

performance domains, 100 social problems, 101 sport psychology, 115,124 substance abuse, 63,115,124 Hildebrandt, T. B., 145 Human Kinetics Publishers, 176 Human movement, sport science, 17 Human services, school psychologists, 90

Identity formation, substance abuse, 123 Impulsivity, bulimia, 151 In Pursuit of Excellence (Orlick), 15,21 International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19 International Society of Sport Psychology, 18

Johnson, V. L., 115 Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10,175 Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 19,175

Lagos, L. M., 115 Lawrence, M. J., 91 Lawther, J., 12 Lesyk, J. J., 169 Life skills communicating, 56 defining, 49 dropout rates, 50 evaluating programs, 53 helper therapy, 53 instruction, 55 older peers, 56 physical and mental, 55 research and practice, 57 school programs, 41,49 sport-based, 41,53 training leaders, 55 substance abuse, 134 Linden (New Jersey) Public School District, 92

Madness of Sports, The (Beisser), 14 Maher, C. A., 7,90 Martens, R., 16,21 Medical centers, sport psychology, 17 Medical and Psychological Aspects of Sport and Exercise (Mostofsky and Zaichkowsky), 20 Mentoring, sport psychology, 178 Middle schools college leaders, 52 substance abuse, 65 Mintz, M. L., 25 Monitoring the Future, 117 Moscow Olympics (1980), 11 Mostofsy, D., 20 Motivation, parental, 34 Motor learning, research, 12

National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders, 161 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 128,154,161 National Federation of State High School Associations, 66 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 117 National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), 66,70,124 National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 45 Naylor, A., 9 Nideffer, R., 12,16 North America, sport psychology, 12 North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, 12,175 Norway, eating disorders, 155 Nutrition eating disorders, 158 substance abuse, 72 Nutritional supplements, health risks, 149

Index Ogilvie, B., 12,16 Ohio Center for Sport Psychology, 169 Olympic programs, sport psychology, 11,17 Orlick, T., 15,21 Oregon Health and Science University, 63 Osteoporosis, eating disorders, 152 Overcoming Binge Eating (Fairburn), 161

Pandina, R. J., 115 Parents feedback, 105-110 motivation, 34 sport psychology, 99 Peer attachment, substance abuse, 136 Pennsylvania State University, 12 Perfectionism, anorexia, 151 Performance enhancement, 15,183 high school athletes, 100 reading list, 183 sport psychology, 15 substance abuse, 123 Personality, eating disorders, 150 Physical education program cutbacks, 45 youth development, 46 Positive psychology, 16 President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 43 Private schools, sport psychology, 1 Professional associations, 21 Prosocial bonding, substance abuse, 136 Psycheledic drugs, 120 Psychological Foundations of Sport (Silva and Stevens), 20 Psychology Today, 13 Public schools. See High school athletes Purging methods, eating disorders, 147

Ravizza, K., 21 Rockne, K., 12 Rutgers University, 115,145

Sachs, M., 180 Scandinavia, sport psychology, 11 School administrators program feedback, 105-110 sport psychology, 97,99 School psychologists expanding role, 90 family and teachers, 25,31 human services, 90 life skills, 58 positive actions, 48 self-study guide, 169 special education, 90 sport-based, 25,35,169 student athletes, 25,31 training, 16,28 youth fitness, 29 School psychology current issues, 111 opportunity, 2 systems theory, 31,35 Schools evaluating programs, 53-58 family interview, 35 health centers, 30 life skills, 41,49,53 positive programs, 49-53 present status, 43 seasonal sports, 102-104 sport programs, 41,49,110 sport psychology, 1,19 see also High school athletes Secondary schools eating disorders, 145 family interaction, 31 practical issues, 97 sport psychology, 97-100 Self-esteem eating disorders, 150 substance abuse, 133 Self-learning reading list, 175 resources, 175-180 sport psychology, 175 study guide, 169

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

Seligman, M., 16 Sherman, R., 160 Silva, J. M., 20 Singer, R. N., 16,20 Smith, R., 12, 15 Smoll, F., 15 Soccer team, case study, 92,102 Social emotional learning, 30 Social isolation, substance abuse, 123 Social learning theory, 65 Soviet Union, sport psychology, 10 Special education, public schools, 90 Sport Psychologist, The, 19,176 Sport psychologists certification, 13 competence, 171 confidentiality, 159 eating disorders, 159 entry skills, 29 ethics and conduct, 171 knowledge required, 172 proficiency, 172 qualifications, 22 Sport psychology abnormal and supernormal, 14 applications, 15 benefits, 98 clinical issues, 14 collaborative model, 96 colleges and universities, 21 community resources, 21 conferences, 20,177 consultant role, 94,178 current issues, 110 curriculum, 111 defining, 171 degree programs, 17 designing programs, 91,106 development, 10,27 documents, 97 eating disorders, 145,159 education role, 15 emergence, 2 facilitating factors, 109 family and teachers, 31

foundations, 9,13 framework, 1,4 gaining approval, 97 graduate programs, 22 health and wellness, 14 high school athletes, 115,124 history and practice, 28 individual and group, 4 Internet resources, 180 legal and ethical issues, 105 limiting factors, 108 mental skills, 109 mentoring, 178 needs assessment, 14 North America, 12 obstacles, 94 organizations, 9,18,176 orientation, 102 performance enhancement, 15 planning and evaluation, 92,97 positive concept, 16 practical issues, 97,105 problems and challenges, 173 procedures, 173 program feedback, 105-110 public schools, 112 qualifications, 180 reading list, 175,182 resources, 175-180 school administrators, 97 schools, 1,3,25,35 scientific journals, 19 secondary schools, 97,145 self-help books, 21 self-learning, 175-180 seminars, 177 services offered, 14 Soviet Union, 10 specialization, 171 stakeholders, 95 standards and concepts, 4 student athletes, 31 study guides, 92,169,178 substance abuse, 115,124 systems theory, 3,31

Index

193

team meetings, 104 sport psychology, 99,102 textbooks, 20 substance abuse, 127-129 turf battles, 17 violence, 26 urban high schools, 89 withdrawal, 32 Web sites, 18 see also High school athletes workshops, 177 Substance abuse Sport Psychology ListServer, 18 adolescents, 66 Sports anabolic steroids, 67 benefits and risks, 42 athletic injury, 123 community-based, 44 behavior and outcome, 116,122 evaluating programs, 53-58 body image, 67 health and fitness, 46 cognitive learning, 69 injuries, 45,123,185 core factors, 122 life skills, 41,49,53 current programs, 124,136 participation, 1,30,43 curriculum and target, 126 personal goals, 47, 49 decision-making, 131 philosophy, 43 educational programs, 63,127 positive programs, 45-53 family and environment, 122 psychosocial development, 47 female athletes, 75 school, 30,41,49,59 gender factor, 65 self-esteem, 42 high school athletes, 63,115,124 youth leagues, 44 identity formation, 123 see also Team sports incidence, 64 Sports Observation System (SOS), 54 information programs, 130 Sports United to Promote Education and intervention issues, 72 Recreation (SUPER) key factors, 66 goals and models, 50 life skills, 134 implementation, 52 lifestyle factor, 134 workshop summary, 51 mediation, 126 Springfield College, 20 model program, 129-136 Steroids. See Anabolic steroids monitoring, 122 Stevens, D. E., 20 norm setting, 135 Strength training, 15,72 peer influences, 68,122,126,136 Stress management, substance abuse, 133 performance stress, 123 Student Athlete Testing Using Random personality traits, 66 Notification (SATURN), 128 prevention programs, 65,115,121 Student athletes prosocial goals, 132,136 case studies, 102-104 protective factors, 116,121 coach relationship, 33 public commitment, 132 communication, 33 random testing, 128,137 reading list, 185 drug testing, 128,137 resistance skills, 134 family and teachers, 25,31 risk factors, 116,121 program feedback, 105-110 school programs, 124-127 psychological needs, 110 self-esteem, 133 school psychologists, 25,31

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School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures

self-regulation, 121 setting goals, 132 social isolation, 123 sport psychology, 115 state estimates, 117 stress management, 133 student athletes, 127 surveillance methods, 128,137 team programs, 69 Successful Coaching (Martens), 21

Talent Opportunity Program, 159 Teachers life skills, 49 school psychologists, 25 student athletes, 25 Teaching Responsibility Through Physical Activity (Hellison), 49 Team sports case studies, 102-104 consultations, 104 health promotion, 69 participation, 43 substance abuse, 69 Temple University, 180 Tennis, sport psychology, 19,91 Tharp, R., 12 Thompson, R. A., 160 Tobacco use, information programs, 130

United States Olympic Committee (USOC), 11,17,179 University of California (Berkeley), 12 University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), 12

University of Illinois, 12 University of Pennsylvania, 16 University of Washington, 15 Urban high schools, sports psychology, 89

Vanek, M., 12 Virginia University, 41

Wallace, I., 41 Weinberg, R., 20 Weissman, M., 89 Western Europe, sport psychology, 11 White, H. R., 115 Wooden, J., 13 World Health Organization (WHO), 152 Wrestling, eating disorders, 156 Wright, D., 117

Youth exercise habits, 46 fitness, 29 positive development, 42,45 reading list, 183 school psychologists, 29 self-esteem, 42 sport programs, 49-53 see also High school athletes Youth Risk Behavior Study, 43

Zaichkowsky, L., 9,20