Learnerator’s SAT Evidence-Based Reading & Writing Review Guide
Copyright © 2015 by Learnerator Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Neither this book nor any portion thereof may be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission. Published in the United States of America.
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Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 4 About Us ..................................................................................................................................... 5 The 11 Things You Need to Know about the New 2016 SAT Exam ........................ 6 SAT vs. ACT .............................................................................................................................. 9 Determining Explicit Meaning in Passages ................................................................. 19 Determining Implicit Meanings ...................................................................................... 28 Analogical Reasoning ........................................................................................................... 39 Citing Textual Evidence ...................................................................................................... 50 Determining Main Ideas .................................................................................................... 59 Summarizing ........................................................................................................................... 72 Understanding Relationships ........................................................................................... 83 Interpreting Words and Phrases in Context .............................................................. 102 Analyzing Word Choice ................................................................................................... 110 Analyzing Overall Text Structure ................................................................................ 117 Analyzing Part-Whole Relationships .......................................................................... 139 Analyzing Point of View ................................................................................................. 156 Analyzing Claims and Counterclaims ........................................................................ 173 Assessing Reasoning ........................................................................................................ 184 Analyzing Evidence ........................................................................................................... 193 Analyzing Quantitative Information .......................................................................... 214 Development ....................................................................................................................... 221 Organization ........................................................................................................................ 231 Precision and Concision .................................................................................................. 243 Style and Tone .................................................................................................................... 248 Syntax ..................................................................................................................................... 260 Sentence Formation ........................................................................................................... 267 Shifts in Construction ...................................................................................................... 272 Pronouns ............................................................................................................................... 276 Possessive Determiners ................................................................................................... 284
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Grammatical Agreement ................................................................................................. 291 Frequently Confused Words .......................................................................................... 300 Logical Comparisons ........................................................................................................ 310 Conventional Expressions ............................................................................................... 315 Conventions of Punctuation ........................................................................................... 323 Sign up for Learnerator SAT Prep! ............................................................................... 340
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Introduction Hi there! We created this book to serve as an overview of all the major concepts that will be asked of you in the new SAT reading section. This is a conglomeration of a series of review posts we originally published on our blog. Whether you’re new to the SAT or a veteran, we hope you’ll find this book helpful in your preparation for the exam! -‐The Learnerator Team E-‐mail us at
[email protected] if you have any questions, comments, or suggestions.
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About Us Learnerator bridges the gap between learning and mastery by curating high quality practice materials for a variety of difficult academic subject areas. Our online test prep offers: •
Over 300 SAT Integrated Reading & Writing practice questions
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Over 300 SAT Math practice questions
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Hundreds of practice questions for SAT IIs: Biology, Chemistry, French, Literature, Math 1 & 2, Physics, US History, World History
•
Detailed personalized statistics based on your performance
•
A competitive online leaderboard to see how you stand compared to others
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Convenience with anytime access from an Internet-enabled device
Visit us at www.learnerator.com Use SAT2016 for 10% off any Learnerator SAT Subject Guide
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The 11 Things You Need to Know about the New 2016 SAT Exam It's been a while since the College Board has revamped its flagship exam, the SAT. You may be wondering what the new 2016 SAT exam will entail. Below are a list of key differences between the old exam and the one being introduced in Spring 2016: 1. Exam length. It's shorter (sort of)! The exam is being cut from a 3 hour, 45 minute exam to a 3 hour exam with an OPTIONAL "Essay" portion lasting 50 minutes. 2. Section reorganization. The "Writing" and "Critical Reading" sections have been morphed into "Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing" (EBR&W) with two subsections for reading and writing & language. 3. Vocab. Remember the days when you'd have to memorize endless flash cards with words like "adroit" and "celerity"? Probably not, but I do because I am getting old (I took the SAT in 2007!). Now, instead of focusing on rarely-‐used, arcane words, the new SAT focuses more on words that you'd actually use in college and in your career. An example would be "synergy", which is a common business word. 4. Essay. Since it is now optional, whether or not you take it will be based on the requirements of the colleges to which you apply. The essay is also no longer about expressing your views on an issue, but rather, analyzing a source text of another person's argument using evidence from the passage. 5. Reading passages. The passages will have more diversity, with the following weighting: 20% U.S. and World Literature, 40% History and Social Studies, and 40% Science and Math. Each passage or paired set will Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 6
7 be 500-‐750 words and the total length of all passages will be approximately 3,250 words. 6. Graphical representations. The Reading & Writing section is going to oriented around command of evidence in context (i.e., words in a history vs. a science context have different meanings). This also applies to graphical representations of facts, which is going to be emphasized more in this exam. 7. Historical documents. Each exam's Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing section will feature either a passage from an important U.S. historical document (like the Declaration of Independence), or from landmark speeches or arguments from important people like JFK, Martin Luther King, or Winston Churchill (they are not necessarily all Americans). This may present a disadvantage to international students; so if that is you, make sure to note this. Even though the College Board says no prior knowledge is needed to answer these questions, it certainly helps to have the context of the documents ahead of time. 8. The math section. The old math section of the SAT was a bit willy-‐nilly and spanned many areas. The new Math section is more narrowly defined and introduces a section called "Problem Solving and Data Analysis", which introduces some basic concepts of statistics. For more on this, go to our SAT Review page. 9. Calculator usage. There are now some portions of the new SAT that does not allow for the use of calculators. 10. Delivery. The SAT will be available in both digital as well as paper forms.
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8 11. Scoring. Hooray! No more guessing penalty! You will be given points for correct answers, but blank and incorrect answers will not earn you any deductions. The scoring returns to 400-‐1600, from the current 600-‐2400 range. You are also going to get separate test scores and subscores, shown below:
Summary: It
is interesting to note that 2013 was the first year that the ACT
surpassed the SAT in terms of the number of exams taken. The ACT has become viewed as more representative of the skills necessary for college and career success, and this new SAT is the College Board's response. The result is an SAT that is closer to the ACT with perhaps an even greater emphasis on the ability to analyze sources, which is also where the CB is taking their AP exams.
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SAT vs. ACT Among the Internet’s most oft-‐Googled questions is: “What is the difference between the ACT and the SAT?” Now that the SAT is changing, the answer will no doubt become more nuanced. Below is a table summarizing the differences and similarities between the two tests. Read on for a more detailed explanation of what’s in the table.
ACT
SAT
LOGISTICS
*Offered 6x/year
*Offered 5x/year
*$38.00 without essay
*$52.50 now (may change)
*$54.50 with essay ACHIEVEMENT v.
*Measures what you've
*Measures how well you
APTITUDE
learned in school
are likely to do in school in the future
ENGLISH
*75 multiple-‐choice
*44 multiple-‐choice
questions, 4 answer
questions, 4 answer
choices per question.
choices per question.
*How much have you
*How good are your
learned about
grammar/rhetoric skills?
grammar/usage?
*Called “Writing and Language,” integrated with reading
READING
*40 multiple-‐choice
*52 multiple-‐choice
questions, 4 answer
questions, 4 answer
choices per question
choices per question
*4-‐8 passages about
*4-‐6 passages about
science, humanities,
history/social studies,
history/social studies,
science, literature.
literature*Measures
*Measures reading
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10 reading comprehension
comprehension *Contains charts, graphs, visuals
SCIENCE
*40 multiple-‐choice
N/A
questions *Data Representation, Research Summaries, and Conflicting Viewpoints. *Charts/graph/visual analysis MATH
*60 questions, 5 answer
*57 questions, 4 answer
choices*All multiple choice choices
ESSAY
*Pre-‐algebra and Plane
*12 grid-‐ins
Geometry most heavily
*Algebra most heavily
represented
represented
*Can use calculator on
*Can use calculator on
whole test
most of test
*Optional
*Optional
*Give your opinion on a
*Analyze someone else’s
topic*Scored out of 12
opinion on a topic *Scored out of 8
SCORING
*Scored out of 36 (average *Scored out of 1600 (adds of all sections)
both area scores)
*7 subscores
*7 subscores
The SAT’s redesign is due to a number of factors, including the fact that the ACT is now slightly more popular and – many say – more fair, or at least a more accurate predictor of college and career readiness. But even with the redesign, there are
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11 some key differences – and some new key similarities.
LOGISTICS: Timing Both tests can be taken more than once, in either junior or senior year. The ACT is administered six times a year in the United States (in September, October, December, February, April, and June), while the SAT is administered 5 times (in December, January, March, May, and June). The new SAT will be administered for the first time in 2016. For both the ACT and the SAT, you can take the test in your junior and senior year. (In fact, we recommend taking the test twice if you’re not thrilled with your original junior-‐year score, as ACT Math covers typical 12th-‐grade topics and SAT Integrated Reading and Writing will include some college-‐level passages – so it will be helpful to go into the test feeling more confident and prepared!) Costs The ACT costs $38.00 without the writing portion and $54.50 with the writing. Currently, the SAT costs $52.50, though this might change now that the new SAT’s Writing portion is optional. OK, BUT WHAT’S THE REAL DIFFERENCE? The common answer to this is that the SAT measures aptitude while the ACT measures achievement. Aptitude Aptitude tests measure how well you are likely to perform a task based on the skills you already have, or have developed over 12 years of formal education. “Aptitude”
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12 has been compared to talent or intelligence, and aptitude tests ask questions that measure how you reason or think. (Of course, there are multiple ways to be talented and intelligent, and multiple ways to nurture and extend these qualities – which is one reason that the SAT, which measures and privileges only a few types of aptitude, has drawn so much criticism.) Achievement On the other hand, achievement tests, like the ACT, measure how well you can already perform certain tasks based on what you have already learned over 12 years of formal education. They measure skills or knowledge, and as such have been called a more accurate predictor of whether students are ready for college and the workplace. However, now that the SAT is changing, it will have much more in common with the ACT than it did previously. The debate over aptitude versus achievement is a hot topic in education, and well beyond the scope of this post. The essential thing to keep in mind is this: if you work hard in school and out of it, you can and will learn the skills that are essential to succeeding on both the SAT and the ACT, as well as in college, the workplace, and life.
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13 OK, BUT WHAT DOES THIS ACTUALLY MEAN FOR ME? Unlike the new SAT, which is divided into two mandatory and one optional section, the ACT is separated into four mandatory portions and one optional section. Those portions are: ACT ENGLISH which features 75 questions about a variety of strategically “messed up” passages to measure a student’s ability to recognize, diagnose, and correct problems of grammar and usage, punctuation, sentence structure, strategy, organization, and style. In other words, the ACT English test measures how much you’ve learned about the conventions of the English language and strategies for good writing. There are four answer choices per question. ACT READING uses four to eight passages and forty questions to measure your ability to comprehend main ideas, significant details, implied and stated ideas, specific vocabulary words, and text structures like comparison and sequence of events. The passages might be single, long selections or paired, short selections. The test promises that this is “the type of reading required in first year college courses,” and the topics center on social studies, humanities, natural sciences, and literary narratives. In other words, ACT Reading measures how well you have learned to read a diverse array of texts over the past 11 years. There are four answer choices per question. Now that the SAT has collapsed its Reading and Writing sections into one integrated section (“Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing”) its structure is remarkably similar to ACT English and ACT Reading. SAT Evidence-‐Based Reading and Writing is now comprised of 44 Writing and Language questions and 52 Reading questions about 4-‐6 passages (most long, but with some paired shorter selections) across topics in history and social studies, science, and US and world literature. SAT EBRW measures your understanding of words in context (no more of those pesky “SAT words” like “adamantine” or “vitreous”), your command of evidence, and your Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 13
14 ability to analyze text structure, assess implied and explicit meanings, and understand purpose. The new SAT EBRW section will now have four answer choices per question instead of five. Notably, the new SAT EBRW section will include charts and graphs; understanding and analyzing visuals is a type of literacy, or reading, too! The ACT Reading section does not offer charts or graphs, because there is a whole section dedicated almost exclusively to visual data. ACT Science is its own 40-‐ question section, comprised of Data Representation, Research Summaries, and Conflicting Viewpoints. This section doesn’t actually measure how much you know about science. Instead, it measures how well you can understand, analyze, and synthesize scientific data – how well you can read a chart or a graph, how deeply you understand two different ideas about scientific concepts, whether or not you can think critically and make an inference about the data in front of you. Each answer has four options. Last, ACT Math has sixty questions with five options each (not four like on all the other sections of the test) about topics that range from pre-‐Algebra through Trigonometry. The most heavily represented subjects on the test are Pre-‐Algebra and Plane Geometry. The ACT measures your mathematical reasoning skills as well as much you’ve absorbed in your math classes over the past 12 years. You will be able to use a calculator on every question on the test. The SAT Math section has 57 questions total, 45 with four answer choices and 12 “Student-‐Produced Responses” (i.e. “grid-‐ins”), one of which involves showing your work and demonstrating your thinking in response to a word problem. Of the four content domains (“Heart of Algebra,” “Passport to Advanced Math,” “Problem Data Analysis,” and “Additional Topics”), Heart of Algebra is the biggest, so make sure you know your algebra before you take this test. Also, the new SAT will now present “item sets” – a group of related questions that ask you to respond to the same set of data/graphs/stimuli. You won’t be able to use your calculator for 20 questions on Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 14
15 the SAT Math test. Perhaps the biggest difference between the two tests is the Optional Essay. The ACT will give you two perspectives on a common topic relevant to high school students (such as curfews and drivers’ licenses) and ask you to contribute your opinion. You will have to demonstrate that you understand both perspectives, that your opinion is based in evidence and reasoning, and that your writing conforms to standard English conventions. The SAT’s optional essay will ask you to analyze a “source text” (which will have very little to do with common topics relevant to high school students) and figure out what the writer is saying and how s/he builds an argument. You will have to prove that you understand how a writer constructs an effective argument, using evidence from the text. The SAT is NOT looking for your opinion, but for how adroitly you marshal and cite evidence, and how fluently you write. These are very different types of essays, so be sure you have plenty of practice for both.
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16 HOW WILL MY TEST BE SCORED? SAT Scoring The SAT is going back to its original 1600-‐point scale (#oldschool), which means that the highest score you can earn is a 1600 (composite) with an 800 EBRW score (area score) and an 800 Math (area score). However, it gets a little more complicated after this: You get 3 test scores (from 10-‐40) for (1) Reading, (2) Writing and Language, and (3) Math. You get 2 cross-‐test score (from 10-‐40) for (1) Analysis in Science and (2) Analysis in History/Social Studies. You get 7 subscores (from 1-‐15) for (1) Command of Evidence and (2) Relevant Words in Context (Reading), (3) Expression of Ideas and (4) Standard English Conventions (Writing and Language), (5) Heart of Algebra, (6) Problem Solving and Data Analysis, and (7) Passport to Advanced Math. Essays are scored from 2-‐8, with two readers who will assign you a score of 1-‐4. ACT Scoring On the ACT, you will receive a Composite Score (out of 36) that averages each of your four test scores in Math, English, Reading, and Science. The highest score you can receive on each section as well as on the test itself is a 36. You will receive seven subscores: (1) Usage and Mechanics, (2) Rhetorical Skills, (3) Pre-‐Algebra and Elementary Algebra, (4) Intermediate Algebra/Coordinate Geometry, (5) Plane Geometry/Trigonometry, (6) Social Studies/Natural Sciences reading skills, and (7) Arts/Literature reading skills. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 16
17 These are scored from 1-‐18, and have no mathematical bearing on your composite score. Your essay is scored out of 12, with two readers giving you a score between 1-‐6.
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18
Part I: Information & Ideas (Reading)
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19
Determining Explicit Meaning in Passages “Determining explicit meanings” is the College Board’s highfalutin’ way of saying, “reading the text closely and understanding what it says.” All the SAT wants you to do is: 1) Pay
attention to detail, and
2) Understand
all the information that is already there.
This applies both to the passage and to the question and all of the answer choices. The beauty of the multiple-choice test is that all the answers are already there; you just have to know where to look. This means you have to consider every scrap of information the College Board gives you. The little blurb before each passage is crucial – they are giving you free information about
the passage, which will help you understand the passage better
and answer questions about it. There are two equally important ways to go about this.
1. Annotate the text. Underline, star, or make notes next to all the information that seems like it might be relevant. For example, take the blurb and the first paragraph of this passage, taken directly from the SAT website: This passage is adapted from a novel written by a woman in 1899. The novel was banned in many places because of its unconventional point of view:
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It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an excellent humor, in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who was in bed and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her anecdotes and bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his trousers pockets he took a fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin, which he piled on the bureau indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and whatever else happened to be in his pockets. She was overcome with sleep, and answered him with little half utterances.
The first thing you’ll want to do is circle all the important information:
a)
This is a novel (ok, so fiction – that means you’ll have to be prepared for
questions on characterization, plot, literary devices…) b)
Written by a woman in 1899 (ok, so old-fashioned, probably – be prepared for
some old-fashioned language) c)
Banned in many places for being unconventional (which undoubtedly means
there will be a question about something related to this because the College Board wouldn’t drop that juicy morsel unless it had a reason – so this might contain themes considered “unconventional” in 1899) See how much information you can glean just from the little blurb? Now turn your attention to the passage. Take note of:
1)
What time it was when Mr. P came home (pretty late! 11pm, and his wife was
fast asleep!) 2)
Where Mr. P was coming from (a hotel… why was he at a hotel at 11 pm
without his wife? Work event? Party?) 3) Mr.
P’s mood (clearly good – something good must have happened. Take
special note of this because the SAT loves to ask about tone and mood!) 4) Other
thoughts: so his wife is in bed asleep at 11 pm but he decides this is the
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21 time to tell her about “anecdotes and bits of news and gossip”? Take note of how she is reacting to him, too. Annotations aren’t the only way to record your observations of the text. It’s also crucial that you adopt a second strategy:
2. Translate the text. This won’t always be necessary, but the more complex, old-fashioned, or specialized a passage is, the more likely you will need to translate at least parts of it into plain English. You can do this while you annotate, to save time. Let’s look at the passage again, this time with some translations and annotations in red:
It was eleven o'clock that night when Mr. Pontellier returned from Klein's hotel. He was in an excellent humor (good mood), in high spirits, and very talkative. His entrance awoke his wife, who was in bed and fast asleep when he came in. He talked to her while he undressed, telling her anecdotes (stories) and bits of news and gossip that he had gathered during the day. From his trousers pockets he took a fistful of crumpled bank notes and a good deal of silver coin (lots of money), which he piled on the bureau indiscriminately with keys, knife, handkerchief, and whatever else happened to be in his pockets (piling all of his stuff up – so he’s messy). She was overcome with sleep (tired), and answered him with little half utterances (halfsentences/incoherent).
When it comes to translating the text, sometimes you’ll just get stuck on a word. Say you didn’t know “anecdotes” in the fourth line. You probably know “bits of news and gossip,” though, so it’s possible to figure out from context that he’s giving her a very chatty, thorough account of his day. You won’t need to know what every word means to figure out a general picture from the text, or even to do a translation. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 21
22 Now that you’ve annotated and translated the text, you’ll want to turn your attention to the question, and do the same, making sure you understand completely what is being asked. Question: “Mr. Pontellier’s conduct in this passage could most likely be described as…” A) Generous B) Good-natured C) Passionate D) Self-centered
Remember to annotate and/or translate. What is the question asking you? “Mr. Pontellier’s conduct (behavior) in this passage could most likely be described as…” So they’re asking about his behavior. Based on the few things we know about him – he got home late, he’s very chatty though his wife is asleep, he’s in a good mood – it’s pretty easy to answer this question, so let’s consider each answer choice. Option A, Generous.
Is there any evidence to support this?
Yes, there’s mention of the money in his pockets, which may serve to distract you, but the passage doesn’t say anything about him giving away or otherwise doing anything with that money. Cross out A. Option B, Good-natured.
Well, he is in “an excellent humor,” (good mood) but that
doesn’t necessarily make him good-natured. And remember – the question asks
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23 about his behavior that evening, not his general personality. This isn’t a terrible choice, but leave it for now and consider the others. Option C, Passionate.
Is there any evidence that he’s being passionate? Certainly he
seems happy and excited, but there’s little evidence of passion – especially as passion generally tends to be directed towards something or someone, whereas a good mood is general. Cross that one off, and then move on to the last answer. Option D, Self-centered.
Remember that the question is asking about how heacted that
night. Think back to all the actions you noted when you were reading the text: he came in late, woke his sleeping wife with his chatter, and piled all his stuff everywhere in their shared room. Though he may befeeling good-natured (B), he’s acting pretty self-centered. Clearly, that is the only correct answer to what the College Board is asking here. All you need to do is pay attention to detail. -------------That’s a fairly simple passage, though, so let’s do this once more with a slightly harder passage. The following passage is from the same book. An indescribable oppression, which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness, filled her whole being with a vague anguish. It was like a shadow, like a mist passing across her soul's summer day. It was strange and unfamiliar; it was a mood. She did not sit there inwardly upbraiding her husband, lamenting at Fate, which had directed her footsteps to the path, which they had taken. She was just having a good cry all to herself. The mosquitoes made merry over her, biting her firm, round arms and nipping at her bare insteps.
The little stinging, buzzing imps succeeded in dispelling a mood which might have held her there in the darkness half a night longer.
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24 Again, let’s start annotating and translating:
An indescribable oppression (really bad feeling), which seemed to generate (come from) in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness (unfamiliar part of her consciousness – so she doesn’t know why she’s unhappy, or where the unhappiness is coming from… maybe her subconscious?), filled her whole being with a vague anguish.(She was sad) It was like a shadow, like a mist passing across her soul's summer day. (Imagery/sadness) It was strange and unfamiliar; it was a mood. She did not sit there inwardly upbraiding (criticizing) her husband, lamenting (being sad at) at Fate, which had directed her footsteps to the path which they had taken (so she’s NOT sitting there criticizing her husband and hating her fate? This is an interesting thing for the narrator to tell us… And it’s interesting that she would even think in terms of “fate,” instead of her own decisions, “directing her footsteps.”) She was just having a good cry all to herself. (as one does late at night) The mosquitoes made merry over her (mosquito bloodsucking party), biting her firm, round arms and nipping at her bare insteps (feet).
The little stinging, buzzing imps (ie mosquitos) succeeded in dispelling a mood (they got rid of her bad mood?!) which might have held her there in the darkness half a night longer. (guess they made her so itchy she forgot to be sad…?)
On the actual test, you won’t necessarily have time to write yourself insanely detailed notes like I did here. That’s OK! Instead of writing “really bad feeling” or making notes about “the unfamiliar part of her consciousness” you can use shorthand – a little frowny face, a question mark, an underline, an exclamation, a star. And it’s OK if you don’t know all the words, like “upbraiding” or “lamenting.” The rest of the passage – with its words like “oppression,” “anguish,” “shadow,” “mist passing across her soul,” “good cry” – should serve to cement the impression that whatever “upbraid” or “lament” might mean, it’s not good.
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25 So now we can turn our attention to a question based on this passage: By depicting in such detail Mrs. Pontellier’s emotional state, the narrator is trying to suggest that… A) Mr.
Pontellier is worldly and callous
B) Mrs.
Pontellier is clearly upset about something that happened before Mr.
Pontellier came back home C) Mrs.
Pontellier does not enjoy being a mother
D) Mrs.
Pontellier is unused to confronting her own unhappiness
Remember to really think about what the test is asking you. The question asks about the narrator’s intentions here in showing you Mrs. Pontellier’s state – i.e., Based on this unhappy episode, what does the narrator want to tell you about this character? You can easily answer this question based on explicit textual evidence. Consider option A. Mr. Pontellier may indeed be worldly and callous (not very nice), but there is no evidence from this particular part of the passage (which is all the question asks about!) that this is why his wife is so upset. You can easily cross this one out – remember, you only want to look for what the text says explicitly, and here the question asks only about one particular part of the passage, in which Mr. Pontellier is NOT described in any detail. (In fact, all it says about him is that Mrs. Pontellier did NOT use this time to criticize him in her mind – but it gives no specific descriptions as to his personality.) Next, try option B. As with option A, this MIGHT be a possibility – except that there is absolutely no indication of this in the actual text. It says nothing about
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26 what happened before Mr. Pontellier came home, so you can cross this one out immediately. Look at option C. Again, remember to look only at the part of the text that the question is asking about. There is no mention about being a mother in this part of the text, and in fact no mention of children at all. This clearly cannot be the answer. Now we come to option D: Mrs. Pontellier is unused to confronting her own unhappiness. Consider the evidence here, because the text has pretty much told you that this is the case: She feels “indescribably oppressed” (as though she lacks the words/experience to describe it – presumably, if she was very familiar with and deeply aware of this feeling, she would know exactly how to describe it and what the reasons for it are). Her unhappiness “generates from an unfamiliar part of her consciousness” – i.e., she has no idea where it came from. And if she doesn’t know WHY she’s unhappy, then this is pretty good evidence that she doesn’t think a whole lot about her own unhappiness. Clearly, this is the only reasonable choice. Now, a critical reader will no doubt make the connection between Mrs. Pontellier’s anguished crying and her inconsiderate husband. A good critical reader might also connect this to the blurb before the passage, which tells you that this book had an “unconventional point of view in 1899” – a point of view that will no doubt have something to do with the fact that the marriage between the main characters seems very unfulfilling.
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27 These critical reading skills will be very helpful in the next chapter, Determining Implicit Meanings.
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Determining Implicit Meanings The College Board defines “determining implicit meanings” as “drawing reasonable inferences and logical conclusions from the text.” If determining explicit meanings is figuring out what the text says, then determining implicit meanings is figuring out what the text suggests or implies. This sounds difficult, and in some cases it can be. But there are tricks to drawing inferences and reaching conclusions, and they are: 1) Read closely. Just as you do when you’re trying to figure out an “explicit” meaning, you’ll want to take notes, translate, and pay attention to what the text is saying. Understanding the surface meaning of a text will help you understand it on a deeper level, too. 2) Find evidence.
Every time you choose an answer, match up your choice with actual evidence (meaning, a quote) from the text. If you can’t do that, or if the evidence you’ve chosen doesn’t convince you, then you are probably not making a supportable conclusion and you should pick another answer. Try this strategy with the following passage from the Public Library of Science blog:
As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., there has been a lot of discussion about how afraid we really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in a tense
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29 congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American public have gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook. Donald Trump has been an especially noisy voice on the topic on Twitter, demanding that Obama stop all flights to and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is actually much more contagious than the CDC says it is. At the end of September, with the announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter, writing:
"The United States must immediately institute strong travel restrictions or Ebola will be all over the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."
Trump’s comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of hysteria, with the use of the word “plague,” that is reminiscent of the infectious disease panic seen in many other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic plague in 1924, the latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as the “source” of the disease.
The first thing you will want to do is annotate your text. Make notes next to anything that seems interesting, unusual, or otherwise notable. And if there’s something you don’t understand, translate it for yourself into plain English as best as you can. My translations and comments are in red:
As Ebola rears its ugly head in the U.S., (negative) there has been a lot of discussion about how afraid we really should be. While health officials have remained relatively calm, insisting in a tense congressional hearing that there is no need to panic, some members of the American public have gone in the opposite direction, proclaiming a state of emergency on social media channels such as Twitter and Facebook. (debate here) Donald Trump has been an especially noisy (negative-sounding) voice on the topic on Twitter, demanding that Obama stop all flights to and from West Africa and proclaiming that Ebola is actually much more contagious than the CDC says it is. At the end of September, with the announcement of the first suspected case of Ebola in the U.S., Trump expressed panic on Twitter, writing:
"The United States must immediately institute strong travel restrictions or Ebola will be all over
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30 the United States--a plague like no other! Ebola is much easier to transmit than the CDC and government representatives are admitting. Spreading all over Africa - and fast. Stop flights."
Trump’s comments suggest not only a distrust of health authorities but also a kind of hysteria, (negative) with the use of the word “plague,” that is reminiscent of the infectious disease panic seen in many other outbreaks in American history, including SARS in 2003 and bubonic plague in 1924, the latter an outbreak that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods because they were seen as the “source” of the disease.(Trump is panicking in the same way that people panicked in 1924, which led to thousands racially-based firings… negative).
These are just preliminary notes, but they will help us answer the next two questions using the second strategy, matching up every option with a quote / evidence from the text.
How does the author of this passage most likely feel about Trump’s comments on Twitter?
A. She finds Trump’s comments laudable and important. B. She finds Trump’s comments irrelevant and pointless. C. She is distrustful of Trump’s comments. D. She is subtly disdainful of Trump’s comments.
Now, the author never explicitly expresses an opinion about Trump. However, if you read closely, you can answer this question by matching up each option with evidence from the text. Consider A: She finds Trump’s comments laudable and important. Even if you don’t know that “laudable” means “worthy of praise,” you can figure out that important is a positive thing. Comb over the text. Is there any mention that the author finds Trump’s contribution important, other than the fact that she is mentioning him? There’s no evidence of this. In fact, all of the
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31 words that she uses to describe Trump’s contributions are NEGATIVE – she calls him “noisy” and says he is demonstrating “hysteria,” neither of which are positive words. Go ahead and cross out Option A. Now, Option B – Again, look at these words: “irrelevant and pointless.” Both are negative, which matches with the negative tone the author uses to describe Trump’s comments. But is there any evidence that she finds Trump “irrelevant”? Surely if he was “pointless,” the author wouldn’t mention him at all. Nor would she say that “Trump’s comments suggest… a kind of hysteria… reminiscent of the infectious disease panic… in 1924… that famously led to the frantic firing of thousands of Latino workers and destruction of homes in low-income Latino neighborhoods.” In fact, Trump’s comments are the opposite of “irrelevant” – if panics like his have led to people being fired and homes being destroyed, then clearly words like his have some resonance, even if they are a negative rather than a positive part of this national conversation.
Clearly, Option B can’t be correct.
Check out Option C and try to find evidence for the fact that the author is distrustful of Trump’s comments. True, the word “distrustful” shows up in the passage… although the passage suggests that it is Trump who is distrustful of authorities, not the author. True, the author seems like she does not agree with Trump, calling him “noisy” and “hysterical” and subtly suggesting that his comments could lead to widespread panic, firing, and destruction of homes. So this might be a good answer – there is some evidence here. Let’s consider Option D and see if there is more or better evidence: The author is “subtly disdainful” – i.e. she has a negative impression of Trump’s comments. Clearly, by describing Trump as “noisy,” “hysterical,” and “having an attitude
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32 “reminiscent of widespread panics that led to firings and destructions of homes,” the author is demonstrating a disdain of Trump. So it’s between C and D. Which word better describes the author’s attitude? Is there evidence that she doesn’t trust Trump, or is there more evidence that she thinks negatively of him? While C may be a possible answer, D is a better answer because there is more evidence
for it. Which brings us to Strategy #3 for Determining Implicit
Meanings:
When in doubt, go with the option that has more evidence.
---------------------------------Let’s try one more example from the same article:
At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in response to a life-threatening viral illness?
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33 Remember, annotate and translate anything that sticks out to you:
At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in response to a life-threatening viral illness?
As you can see, I bolded a lot of information – all because it stood out to me in some way. The words in quotes hold a lot of interest – clearly, the author is trying to communicate that SOMEONE believes that West Africans are “irrational” and “ignorant,” but by putting the words in quotes, she is demonstrating distance from that opinion. I also bolded “now being addressed” because this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is clearly important enough that local AND foreign health officials feel the need to address it. Next, I bolded parts of the first sentence of the next paragraph, paying special attention to those words “but while” – transition words like BUT, HOWEVER, WHILE, and YET (among others) always demonstrate a shift in thinking or a
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34 contradiction, and I wanted to be prepared to answer a question about this shift in thinking. In translation, the author is saying “There has been some ignorance in West Africa, which helps spread Ebola, but we (meaning, Americans) have not paid attention to our own ignorance.” Now the purpose of the article shifts slightly to OUR ignorance and irrationalities, rather than West African ignorance and irrationalities. She finished by saying that OUR ignorance levels can be “dangerous to our health.” See if you can use our strategies (read closely, annotate, find evidence) to answer the following question:
Based on the passage, the author would most likely agree with which of the following aphorisms?
A. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. B. Don’t throw stones if you live in a glass house. C. Be the change you wish to see in the world. D. Even if sickness distracts from thoughts, all that is needed is the will to love.
Even if you don’t know what the word “aphorism” means (it is a fancy word for “common saying”), chances are that you recognize these idiomatic English expressions. This question will require you to make some inferences based on the passage because clearly, the author never uses any of these sayings. So let’s examine them one by one: Option A: “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched” means “don’t make plans based on things that haven’t happened yet.” Skim the text. What evidence is there that the author agrees with this advice? Other than the fact that this is good general advice, the author makes no mention of plans or hopes for the future. Cross this one off.
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35 Option B: “Don’t throw stones if you live in a glass house” means “Don’t criticize others for faults that you have yourself.” Skim the text. Is there mention of criticism? Yes! We have criticized West Africans for being “irrational” and “ignorant” while ignoring our own “missteps and irrationalities” that are “just as dangerous to our health.” There is certainly evidence that the author thinks that the American public is “throwing stones” despite living in a glass house made of our own irrationalities and ignorance. Keep this as an option and consider the next option: Option C: “Be the change you wish to see in the world.” This can be interpreted as “If you want to see a change in the world, then you yourself should try and make this change.” Look at the text. Is the author advocating for a specific change? Maybe – by asking “And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health” she
might be subtly advocating that we stop being
ignorant and irrational. But the general tone of the article isn’t focused on making changes. Instead, the point of the article seems to be more focused on illustrating a phenomenon rather than giving a directive (in this case: stop or change). It’s still an option, but the evidence isn’t quite rock-solid. Consider Option D: This one mentions sickness (which is one of the topics of the article). But the author never says anything about the will to “love.” You could make a very weak argument that by saying that Americans can be as irrational as West Africans when it comes to health, the author is advocating that Americans start loving their West African counterparts because we all have the same irrationalities. You COULD make this argument. But read it back to yourself. It sounds pretty flimsy. Cross off D.
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36 Now you’re left debating between B and C. Which has the most evidence? Is the author advocating for change here, or is she pointing out that Americans can be pretty hypocritical in thinking West Africans are irrational when the American public has the potential to be just as irrational? Clearly, B has the most evidence, and therefore can be the only right answer. ---------------------------------Let’s try this one more time, using the same passage. At the same time, a good deal of the coverage of the Ebola crisis in West Africa has focused on the “irrationality” and “ignorance” of West Africans, choosing to visit traditional healers instead of doctors and ignoring warnings from health officials that traditional burial rituals can hasten the spread of the disease. Indeed, this “lack of faith in Western medicine” is now being addressed by local and foreign health officials who are running educational programs in places like Liberia and Sierra Leone in order to ensure that the people exposed to the illness have the correct scientific information.
But while certain cultural practices and lack of education have certainly played a role in the rapid spread of Ebola in West Africa, the amount of attention we have paid to the “ignorance” and “irrationality” of people living in these developing countries has not been balanced with an equal amount of attention to our own developed nations’ manifestations of similar irrational health beliefs. Are we really that much more knowledgeable and rational than our West African counterparts, or do our irrationalities and psychological missteps simply take different cultural forms? And do our ignorance levels and irrationalities have the potential to be just as dangerous to our health as seeking out a local healer instead of a trained healthcare professional in response to a life-threatening viral illness?
Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride as a “psychological misstep” akin to an Ebola patient visiting a local healer?
A. Thinking that West Africans are irrational B. Panicking about Ebola C. Refusing a flu shot D. Staying up-to-date on “correct scientific information”
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37 To answer this question, you first need to understand it. There are two blocks here – the fact that the question uses the word “deride” (which means criticize), and the fact that the question is so long and could potentially be confusing. So, even if you’re not sure of the word “deride,” try your best to translate the question. It is using terminology from the text (“psychological misstep”) to ask: Which of the following American practices would the author most likely deride (criticize) as a “psychological misstep” (irrational/bad thing) akin to (like) an Ebola patient visiting a local healer? I.e.,
“Which AMERICAN practice would the author think is AS irrational as visiting a local healer to cure Ebola”? In other words, which action is irrational AND potentially dangerous to public health? The key here are the words “misstep” and “akin” – clearly, the answer will be negative (misstep) in a similar way (akin = comparison word) as thinking Ebola can be cured by a local healer. Looking at the answer options, you can cross one off right from the start, because the answer will clearly be negative and at least one of the answers (D) is positive. Staying up to date on correct scientific information (which is a quote from the text, but don’t let that fool you!) is clearly a POSITIVE thing, not a dangerous, irrational one. Now look at Option A: “Thinking that West Africans are irrational.” The question is asking: what is an irrational thing that Americans do? While there is evidence from the text that Americans view West Africans as irrational, and that this view is wrong, is there evidence from the text to support the second part of the question – that this behavior is akin to visiting a local healer to cure Ebola (i.e. dangerous to public health)? Think back to the earliest part of the text, in which the author subtly criticized Donald Trump for potentially inciting mass hysteria that could lead to firing and destruction of homes. That is both irrational AND problematic/destructive – so for now, let’s keep Option A. There’s some evidence for it.
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38 Try Option B next: “Panicking about Ebola.” Is panicking about Ebola irrational? The author suggests that it is, by saying in the very first paragraph “health officials have remained relatively calm,” which suggests that the average American should probably be a bit calmer too. So yes, the author would probably agree that panicking is irrational. But is it as irrational as treating Ebola incorrectly and allowing it to spread (as suggested by that “akin”)? Probably not. You can go ahead and cross this off based on lack of evidence. Now Option C: “Refusing a flu shot.” The author doesn’t explicitly mention flu in this article. But the flu, like Ebola, is a disease, and refusing to treat a disease is a fairly irrational thing to do – especially because like Ebola, the flu is contagious. The key to determining whether this is the right answer lies in that “akin” – which of the options are actively dangerous in the same way as not treating Ebola properly? Clearly, the best and most likely answer is C: both actions (not treating Ebola OR the flu properly) are irrational AND allow a disease to spread in a dangerous way. True, we had some evidence for Option A, but the scenario in Option C corresponds most directly with the scenario outlined in the text, so that’s the best answer – there is more evidence for it based on what the text says. This is a form of “analogical reasoning,” which is a skill you will develop further in the next section.
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39
Analogical Reasoning K, pop quiz: Analogies : SAT :: VCRs : ____________________ A, Entertainment B, DVDs C, Theaters D, Limited-‐edition boxed sets Give up? At the risk of sounding old, analogies were huge on the SAT Verbal section when I was a wee lass, nervously sharpening my #2 pencil before the day of the big test. (By the way, the answer to that quiz is A – just as this form of analogical reasoning is no longer relevant to the SATs, VCRs are no longer relevant to the wider world of entertainment.) Now that analogies have gone the way of pogs, dinosaurs, and the VCR, you may think that you don’t need to worry about them anymore. Unfortunately, though the question format has changed, the SAT will still test you on whether or not you can think analogically: whether you can deftly and accurately compare one thing to another, whether you can draw conclusions based on similarities and differences, whether you can logically apply information from one scenario into another. (The word analogy comes from the Greek word for “proportion,” which makes sense if you think of an analogy as setting up some sort of relationship between two or more things.) You won’t have to memorize lists of words and figure out if “chthonic: stygian :: celestial : effulgent”, because let’s face it, those words are fairly useless unless you’re Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 39
40 a huge word nerd/studying for a PhD in mythology /a passionate H.P. Lovecraft fan/an awesome combination of the three. (The analogy works, by the way). But analogies themselves are a crucial way to organize information, to marshal support for an argument, to understand a relationship, or to impose an orderly framework on a narrative. In short, the College Board finally wised up, threw out the thesaurus, and decided to test you on applicable skills, like whether you can use critical reasoning to figure out what information can and should be usefully extrapolated and applied to a new situation. A lot of this sounds more complicated than it is; chances are, if you’ve ever had, made, or defended an argument, you’ve already practiced this skill. Now you just need to hone this skill in the context of reading. It may help to remember that making an analogy is just another form of making an inference – extrapolating from the text to figure out how the information applies to a new situation. Ready to practice? The following passage from Plato’s “Apology” details the conviction and execution of Socrates. The question may be asked, Why will he persist in following a profession which leads him to death? Why?-‐-‐because he must remain at his post where the god has placed him, as he remained at Potidaea, and Amphipolis, and Delium, where the generals placed him. Besides, he is not so over wise as to imagine that he knows whether death is a good or an evil; and he is certain that desertion of his duty is an evil. Anytus is quite right in saying that they should never have indicted him if they meant to let him go. For he will certainly obey God rather than man; and will continue to preach to all men of all ages the necessity of virtue and improvement; and if they refuse to listen to him he will still persevere and reprove them. This is his way of corrupting the youth, which he will not cease to follow in obedience to the god, even if a thousand deaths await him. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 40
41 Mark up your text however you like. Here’s how I annotated and translated mine: The question may be asked, Why will he (Socrates) persist in following a profession which leads him to death? Why?-‐-‐because he must remain at his post where the god has placed him, as he remained at Potidaea, and Amphipolis, and Delium, where the generals placed him. (Socrates was a military man) Besides, he is not so overwise as to imagine that he knows whether death is a good or an evil; and he is certain that desertion of his duty is an evil. (Would rather face death, which may or may not be “evil,” than desert his duty, which he knows is “evil.”) Anytus is quite right in saying that they should never have indicted him if they meant to let him go. For he will certainly obey God rather than man; and will continue to preach to all men of all ages the necessity of virtue and improvement; and if they refuse to listen to him he will still persevere and reprove (reprimand) them. This is his way of corrupting the youth, which he will not cease to follow in obedience to the god, even if a thousand deaths await him. (Stands up for what he believes in despite what other people say) Your annotations and translations may look different; that’s okay. Different things jump out to different readers. Practice your analogical reasoning skills with the following question: 1. Based on the excerpt, which of the following behaviors would Socrates most disdain? A. A teacher corrupting his students B. The worship of false gods C. Registered voters neglecting to cast their ballots D. Students returning library books late The passage doesn’t mention any of these scenarios, so based on what you know about Socrates, draw an analogy between the scenarios described in the answer Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 41
42 choices and the positions outlined in the excerpt, and see which relationship fits best. Let’s look at A. The words “corrupting the youth” appear in the passage – in the context of something that Socrates himself “did not cease,” so there’s no need to even draw an analogy here – we are flat-‐out told that he engaged in “corruption,” whatever this might mean, so we this can’t be a scenario that he disdained. Check out B, “The worship of false gods.” There is mention of gods and obedience to gods in the passage, but nowhere is it mentioned that Socrates believed only in one specific type of god and/or cared about other people’s beliefs. In fact, there’s no mention at all of Socrates as a critic of other people’s faiths, ideas, or dogmas, so this can’t be it – we can’t even draw an analogy between this answer choice and any behavior outlined in the passage. Look at C, “Registered voters neglecting to cast their ballots.” Think about the relationship between a voter and the vote; once you have registered, it is arguably your “civic duty” to cast your ballot. If you don’t, you are “neglecting your duty.” Though there is no mention of voting here, a sizable portion of the passage is devoted to Socrates’ hatred of dereliction (the shirking of duty.) In fact, he would rather die than neglect his duty – which he views as “evil.” If we take the premise that not voting = shirking your duty, then this relationship could fit. But let’s view Option D before we come to any decisions… Option D is a contender; one might argue that returning a library book in a timely fashion is also a duty. However, the books still get returned in this scenario, even if they get returned late, so the duty isn’t necessarily “shirked,” just “delayed.” Though this is somewhat plausible, it doesn’t hold up as nicely as Option C, which provides the best answer. Let’s try with another passage…
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43 Barbara Cawdry is passionate about environmentalism and social protest. The fifty-‐eight-‐year-‐old retired science teacher made waves recently when she tied herself to an ancient oak tree slated to be cut down by the California Parks Department. Though interfering with the agenda and activities of the state government is considered a crime, Cawdry remained tethered to the tree, refusing food or drink, until the state police arrived to forcibly remove her. She is continuing her vigil in the North County jail, where she has threatened to stage a hunger strike if the tree is cut down. At the time of this writing, Cawdry faces a two thousand dollar fine and up to five months in jail. When contacted for this article, Cawdry’s message was brief: “All I’m doing is trying to save the trees.” This is a fairly simple passage, so you may not feel the need to mark it up.
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44 2. Based on the passage, Cawdry would probably support which of the following groups? A. Loggers striking for better pay and better hours B. Armed freedom fighters questing to resist an outside force by whatever means necessary C. Members of the Animal Liberation Front destroying labs where animal testing is conducted D. Anti-‐war protestors disrupting traffic during a protest Now, none of those people or scenarios are mentioned in the passage. But based on what we know about Cawdry, you can easily set up an analogy between her actions and that of the groups mentioned in the answer choices. Cawdry’s relationship to social protest does not seem to be violent or destructive, so let’s see if we can eliminate any of the other choices. We don’t know anything about her politics other than the fact that she really, really likes trees, so we can’t necessarily set up an analogy between her passions and the passions of the people in this group. With that said, if you look at choice A, it’s pretty obvious that Cawdry would not sympathize much with loggers, as they literally cut trees down for a living. She may espouse a similar form of protest – non-‐violent disobedience – but her politics are too radically at odds with that of the loggers to make this a compelling analogy. Strike answer A. The armed freedom fighters in Choice B who resort to “whatever means necessary” are probably too violent for Cawdry’s tastes; we don’t know how she feels about their grievances, but we can extrapolate from her choice of protest (tying herself peacefully to a tree) that she probably would not endorse “whatever means necessary,” or else she might have resorted to violence to further her aims. Choice C might look appealing at first; based on Cawdry’s love for trees, we might be able to extrapolate that animals are near and dear to her heart as well. But unlike the members of the Liberation Front, she doesn’t seem intent on destroying Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 44
45 property; her protest seems mainly relegated to doing harm to herself, not to others. Choice D is the only one left, and it fits best because just as Cawdry’s behaviors are non-‐violent yet disruptive, anti-‐war protestors take a similar tactic. This question asks you to consider the different relationships between the ideas and behaviors mentioned in the article and the ideas and behaviors outlined in the answer choices; often, when the SAT asks you to make an analogy, what they’re actually asking for is some kind of comparison. Make a brief list of the different ideas in the passage; you will find the correct answer when you arrive at the best match between the ideas in the passage and the ideas in the answer choices. Try it one more time, using one of the sassiest passages in the English language, “Politics and the English Language,” by George Orwell: MOST PEOPLE WHO BOTHER with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent, and our language-‐-‐so the argument runs-‐-‐must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-‐conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes. Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 45
46 language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible. Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step towards political regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the exclusive concern of professional writers. I will come back to this presently, and I hope that by that time the meaning of what I have said here will have become clearer. I’ve annotated the passage like so, paying special attention to the IDEAS expressed, because remember that when it comes to analogies, we want to see if there’s an equivalency between one idea / scenario and another: MOST PEOPLE WHO BOTHER with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. (Our language skills are deteriorating.) Our civilization is decadent, and our language-‐-‐so the argument runs-‐-‐must inevitably share in the general collapse. (People think that because our civilization is waning so must our language). It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. (Insisting on standards makes you seem really old-‐fashioned.) Underneath this lies the half-‐conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument, which we shape for our own purposes. (People believe that we don’t have conscious control over the evolution of our language – but we do!) Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual writer.(It’s no one person’s fault that our language is devolving.) But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 46
47 and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. (An analogy: this is a vicious cycle! Our language is devolving, so bad writers feel god about writing bad stuff, which makes the language devolve further…) It is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible. (We can make our language better) Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble. If one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly, and to think clearly is a necessary first step towards political regeneration: so that the fight against bad English is not frivolous and is not the exclusive concern of professional writers. I will come back to this presently, and I hope that by that time the meaning of what I have said here will have become clearer. Please note that Orwell himself makes use of analogies – not once but twice! First he says that struggling to maintain language standards makes one seem old-‐fashioned, as if campaigning for the return of candles as opposed to electric lights. Then he compares the devolution of the English language as the kind of vicious cycle that alcoholics suffer. Orwell knows: analogies are a rich and complex way to express ideas.
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48 3. Based on the passage, which of the following scenarios would Orwell find most objectionable? A. Doctors who use outdated methods of medical observation B. Civilizations that become so decadent that their morals decay entirely C. Students whose spelling has been corrupted by social media D. Professional writers who struggle to communicate their intended meanings I find it helpful to distill the answer choices into a single core idea, which may make it easier to figure out which answer is most congruous with the ideas expressed in the passage. Option A. At the heart of this option is the idea of being old-‐fashioned or outdated. While Orwell does talk about the idea of being old-‐fashioned (It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. (Insisting on standards makes you seem really old-‐fashioned.), he isn’t disapproving of this. In fact, he seems to either endorse the notion of being old-‐fashioned, or to disregard it entirely. Either way, he isn’t positioning himself firmly as being against old-‐fashioned tendencies. We can discard Option A. Option B. Distill this into a single idea – decay. It’s true that Orwell seems pretty anti-‐decay (especially as regards to language); though he says little in this passage about morals, there’s no evidence that he WOULDN’T find this scenario objectionable. Keep it for now. Option C. What is at the heart of this answer? The devolution of a type of language. Orwell spends two paragraphs railing against bad writers; there is every indication that he would find social-‐media spellings to be a travesty. In fact, this is so directly parallels Orwell’s statement that it’s barely even an analogy – it’s more a modern-‐ day extension of his opinion. Clearly this is probably going to be the best option, but let’s look at Option D as well. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 48
49 Option D. Distill this answer choice into an idea: the struggle of using language properly. Orwell’s piece castigates bad writers and bad writing – but nowhere does he say that writing well is EASY. In fact, he would probably approve of a writer’s struggle to communicate meaning clearly and cleanly. Certainly he makes no statement that is similar / in harmony with the idea that writing should be easy. Of all these choices, C is clearly the best – it is the MOST similar to what Orwell is saying. Isolating the ideas in a passage so that you can answer questions about them is a very good strategy for mastering reading comprehension questions; it’s going to be especially useful for the next chapter of our review, Citing Textual Evidence.
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50
Citing Textual Evidence To achieve success on the SAT and in the classroom, you must be in possession of all the facts. Aside from a few math questions, the majority of the questions are multiple choice – meaning that the answers are already there. All that remains is for you to make sure you are picking the best one, and the way to do this is to make sure that you’re paying attention to all the evidence. Every answer is “the best answer” for a reason; you have to make sure you understand what that reason actually is. To do this, you must understand the passage thoroughly, so you know what actually counts as “evidence” or as “support” for a claim. Next, you must understand what the question is actually asking you so that you are equipped to choose the absolute best answer for it. Take this brief passage, for example: Upon my entrance, Usher arose from a sofa on which he had been lying at full length, and greeted me with a vivacious warmth which had much in it, I at first thought, of an overdone cordiality -‐-‐ of the constrained effort of the ennuyé man of the world. A glance, however, at his countenance, convinced me of his perfect sincerity. We sat down; and for some moments, while he spoke not, I gazed upon him with a feeling half of pity, half of awe. Surely, man had never before so terribly altered, in so brief a period, as had Roderick Usher. This passage is a bit old-‐fashioned, so let’s take our time annotating it: Upon my entrance, Usher arose from a sofa on which he had been lying at full length, (the man was lying on a couch and got up when I entered) and greeted me with a vivacious warmth which had much in it, I at first thought, of an overdone cordiality -‐-‐ of the constrained effort of the ennuyé man of the world. (his greeting seemed overdone; he put in too much effort). A glance, Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 50
51 however, at his countenance, convinced me of his perfect sincerity. (But when I looked at his face I could tell her was sincere.) We sat down; and for some moments, while he spoke not, I gazed upon him with a feeling half of pity, half of awe. (He didn’t speak, and I stared at him, half with pity and half with awe.) Surely, man had never before so terribly altered, in so brief a period, as had Roderick Usher. (He had changed very quickly) Now make a list of all the evidence you can cite from the text to support the following statement: There is something wrong with Roderick Usher. Look at the text. What indicates that there might be something wrong? 1. Well, for one, Usher is lying on the sofa when our narrator walks in. Now, we don’t know what time of day it is, so by itself this can’t be taken as indication that something is wrong, but it could be a telling detail. 2. He has “an overdone cordiality… constrained effort of the ennui man of the world” – i.e. he seemed at first to have the social mannerisms of a person who was bored (“ennui”) with the world. This is a signal that Usher could be depressed or at the very least full of existential boredom – not a great state of affairs. 3. “I gazed upon him with a feeling half of pity and half of awe.” This is telling – once you’re awed by the amount of pity you have for someone, you know something is wrong with them. 4. “Terribly altered” – to be changed is not such a bad thing. But to be “terribly changed;” changed for the worst? Warning sign. You never know what might be evidence, which is why it’s so important to read closely and to mark up your text as thoroughly as possible, so when you’re passing back over it you can see at a glance which ideas end up being important.
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52 Let’s try this again. Read the excerpt, which is from The Atlantic, and then see what evidence you can find to support the statement. “Since the release of The Hunger Games in 2012, dystopian cinema has enjoyed sustained interest in American culture. Popular young adult novels are being turned into blockbuster Hollywood films every few months, it seems, and with good reason: Beyond their built-‐in teen fan base, films like Divergent, The Giver, and The Maze Runner draw on some of adult society’s greatest fears of the moment: Is technology tearing us further apart? Will global warming destroy the planet? Will income inequality further create a world of haves and have-‐ nots? Critics have worried that these particular films stoke an irrational fear of technology, or a distaste for big government, but dystopian stories have long been celebrated (and used in classrooms across the country) because of their ability to push audiences to think critically about their actions. Yet with the upcoming release of The Hunger Games: Mockingjay Part 1, poised to be the biggest film of the year, it’s just as worthwhile to consider what these films don’t seem to fear. While recent dystopias warn youth about over-‐reliance on computers, totalitarian rule, class warfare, pandemic panics and global warming, very few ask audiences to think deeply about sexism and racism.” Once you have marked up your passage, find all the evidence you can to support the following statement: The author believes that most dystopian films and books are not doing enough to promote critical thinking. Read carefully, pulling out the strands of the author’s argument in pieces:
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53 1. “Dystopian cinema has enjoyed sustained interest” OK, this argues for dystopias’ popularity – not for their promotion of critical thinking 2. “Popular YA novels are being turned into blockbuster Hollywood films every few months… and with good reason.” Also argues for dystopias’ popularity – not for their promotion of critical thinking 3. “Draw on some of adult society’s greatest fears” Fear does not necessarily lead to critical thinking, so we can’t put this one in the evidence column 4. “Dystopian stories have long been celebrated (and used in classrooms across the country) because of their ability to push audiences to think critically about their actions” Finally, a mention of critical thinking à so these films DO promote it. This does not directly contradict the statement, however, that they do not do ENOUGH to promote critical thinking. Remember, to answer these types of questions you must read CAREFULLY! 5. “It’s just as worthwhile to consider what these films don’t seem to fear.” Ah ha. The author is now asking you to consider what these films DON’T do – i.e. to evaluate what is negative and/or missing about these films. S/he doesn’t say anything about critical thinking, but this might be the turning point for the article to start discussing a specific failure of these films – which may include the fact that they don’t do enough to promote critical thinking. 6. “While recent dystopias warn youth about over-‐reliance on computers, totalitarian rule, class warfare, pandemic panics and global warming, very few ask audiences to think deeply about sexism and racism. “We have a winner. Your first clue is the world “while,” which indicates a shift from a previously held/described opinion. The author spent the previous paragraph setting up a scenario (schools use Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 53
54 dystopias to teach students certain lessons and make them think about things), and now there is going to be a shift: “Very few ask audiences to think deeply.” For an article like this, it is important to consider the structure of a piece – the author spends some time setting up a scenario, in which s/he lays out the foundations of an argument. A good argument will always contain claims and counterclaims, so don’t be fooled by the parts of the argument that give an opposite opinion; they should not be taken as evidence against the author’s argument or opinion, but as acknowledgments that alternate viewpoints exist (usually prior to the author demonstrating why they are invalid). It’s not always easy to tell which part of a text is the author’s argument and which contains the claims that s/he will shortly dismantle; that’s why transition words like “yet,” “but,” “while,” “however,” and “while” are so important. Let’s try one more time; this time, you will have to answer a question with one of four options. When answering, consider the evidence: This passage is also from The Atlantic: “This week, one of the two Common Core assessment consortia announced its cut scores—benchmarks students need to clear to be considered proficient at the content on which they’re tested. Just a third to roughly 40 percent of K-‐8 and high school students are projected to be proficient in math and English Language Arts… And while tests before didn’t challenge students enough, Minnich said, the conversation in states where these Common Core-‐aligned tests are imminent will be, ‘Well, who decided this was the right thing for kids? Who decided that these test scores were actually what kids need?’ Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 54
55 For states to expand deeper-‐learning techniques, they’ll likely first need to overcome the blowback from parents whose children are suddenly deemed unprepared for the challenges of college. …It’s a recipe as simple as it is complex: Convince the masses the Common Core is on to something good, and improve from there.” 1. The author of this article probably feels most strongly that A. Tests do not challenge students enough B. Certain states are doing a better job than others of preparing students for tests C. The Common Core needs to undergo change to be truly meaningful D. The Common Core is not the right thing for kids Now, you’ll want to pay attention to this one because the answer choices all echo sentences found in the text. The trick is to determine what the question is actually asking you, so you can understand the correct evidence. It’s not enough to simply quote from the text – your quote must support and be relevant to an assertion. Let’s look at the answer choices: A. Tests do not challenge students enough. Consider the evidence from the text – “just a third to 40% of students are projected to be proficient in math and English.” If only 40% of students are passing – let alone doing well – there is very little compelling evidence that the tests are not adequately challenging. And look at the next line “And while tests before didn’t challenge students enough…” So while this may at one point have been an opinion, the question is asking about tests NOW. Lastly, the question is asking about the author’s opinion. At this point in the article, the author has not yet stated an opinion, but is rather quoting statistics and other people’s opinions. Pay attention to the structure here – it’s important to be able to differentiate the author’s opinion, and that of her sources. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 55
56 B. Certain states are doing a better job than others of preparing students for tests. Look closely. Are any specific states mentioned? Are there any statistics for the breakdown of achievement by state? Is there a single indication that some states are doing better than others? There’s absolutely nothing in this article to support this opinion; scrap this answer. C. The Common Core needs to undergo change to be really meaningful. First, find all mentions of the Common Core: … This week, one of the two Common Core assessment consortia announced its cut scores OK, that has nothing to do with changing to be meaningful. The conversation in states where these Common Core-‐aligned tests are imminent will be, ‘Well, who decided this was the right thing for kids? Who decided that these test scores were actually what kids need?’ A quote from someone – not the author – predicting that certain states are poised to criticize the Common Core. This could potentially be a meaningful piece of evidence as it predicts (the need for) a possible change in the Common Core standards. …It’s a recipe as simple as it is complex: Convince the masses the Common Core is on to something good, and improve from there.” OK, more possible evidence here: “on to something good and improve from there.” Clearly, the author believes that the Common Core has SOME merit, and can be improved on in order to rectify or address the issues mentioned in the article. Let’s keep this answer choice for now. D. The Common Core is not the right thing for kids. Looking at all the evidence we compiled for the answer above – all the mentions of Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 56
57 the Common Core – it’s clear that the only people who are asking “is this right for kids?” are states and parents, NOT the author. Additionally, questioning whether something is right is NOT the same as declaring definitively that it isn’t. Lastly, the author’s last words in this excerpt are “The answer is simple: convince the masses the Common Core is on to something good and improve from there.” S/he’s not dismissing the Common Core out of hand, but saying instead that it has the potential to be meaningful. It can’t be entirely the wrong thing for kids if it’s “on to something good.” Clearly, the evidence best supports choice C. Let’s do this one more time, again with an excerpt from the Atlantic. “Animal behavior seems to reveal that animals don't want to be in enclosures, either: A giraffe who freaks out about men with large cameras, a brown bear whose cage door is the subject of his obsessive compulsive disorder, a 5,000-‐pound killer whale who shows her trainer who is boss by dragging him underwater for just about as long as he can live, before letting him go—these episodes seem like something more complicated than simple errors of confinement. It is hard to avoid the conclusion that in some way the animals understand that the world around them is an artificial one, that these phobias and psychotic episodes represent reactions to that artifice, or subversions of it.” 2. Based on the passage, what is the reason that animals in zoos can potentially exhibit violent behavior? A. These animals have psychiatric disorders B. These animals are traumatized by the demands of their trainers and keepers C. These animals suffer from severe phobias D. These animals seek to disrupt what they perceive as the unreal world around them Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 57
58 Look at the evidence for Option A. While the article mentions an animal “freaking out” and another with “obsessive compulsive disorder,” it does not suggest that all of these animals have psychiatric disorders. In fact, the article tries to investigate the roots of these behaviors; to simply dismiss said violent behaviors as disorders would not get at the heart of the article’s argument. Consider B. Again, while the article mentions “freaking out about men with large cameras,” the “obsessive compulsive” fixation on a cage, and “showing the trainer who is boss,” again, the article is trying to figure out why these things happen. To use these incidents as evidence for themselves simply creates a circular argument. Check out C. Again, the article does mention phobias, but there is no explicit link drawn between the phobias and the violent behavior; additionally, the next sentence seems to suggest that (rather than one creating the other), they stem from the same source. To use the phobias as evidence for why animals behave violently seems, again, to be circular, since the ultimate argument is that these behaviors and attitudes stem from the same place. Last, look at D. The last sentence of the excerpt says “in some way the animals understand that the world around them is an artificial one, that these phobias and psychotic episodes represent reactions to that artifice, or subversions of it.” In other words, they understand they should not be in this condition, in this enclosure, penned in, and all their behaviors (their disorders, phobias, feelings about trainers and keepers, violent behaviors, etc) all come from the same place: the desire to somehow disrupt this “artificial,” or fake, world that they are living in. In essence, the distractors for this question are all incomplete – they are all incomplete thoughts that, taken together, create the best and fullest answer to the question. In the next section, you will practice isolating the details that together make up the central idea or theme of an excerpt.
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59
Determining Main Ideas Perhaps the most important part of reading, and reading comprehension, is knowing how to determine the main idea of a passage or selection. After all, this is the real test of whether you understand what the passage is trying to convey. You may not understand every single word, but the ability to ferret out the general meaning of a larger selection – whether it’s a paragraph, a chapter, or even a whole book – is crucial to the process of analyzing, deconstructing, and even enjoying what you read. But How? Determining a main idea can be as simple as looking at the first and last sentences of every paragraph. In a simple non-‐fiction work, these sentences will often introduce or summarize the essential ideas in the selection. While this is NOT a strategy that will work with literary or higher-‐level texts, it’s a good stepping-‐stone to understanding where you can begin to look to gather the main idea. Let’s practice with a brief, simple selection from The New York Times: “Thursday morning comes quickly out of the dark, and with it the promise of the Thanksgiving feast. Have you set the table yet? You should. Set it as if for a sacrament. The Thanksgiving meal is America’s most holy secular ritual. ‘There are three things that people pick up on the instant they walk into your home on Thanksgiving,’ said Danny Meyer, the New York restaurateur, who does not celebrate the holiday at Union Square Cafe, Gramercy Tavern, North End Grill or any of his other considerable number of restaurants, but always with family at home. ‘They will be able to feel the human energy. They’ll smell the food. And they will see, instantly, the table. The combination — if you’re in a good mood, and you’ve taken time with the table, and the turkey is cooking — sends a message that, no matter what, everything is going to be O.K.’” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 59
60 What is the main idea of this paragraph? Look at the first sentence, which indicates that clearly, this passage will be about the “Thanksgiving feast.” Then look at the last “The combination (of good mood, good food, and a set table) sends the message that everything is going to be O.K.” Now, “Thanksgiving feast” is not really an idea; it’s the subject. What’s the difference? After all, a subject is “what a passage is about” and a main idea is also “what the passage is about.” Think of it like this: A subject is the broadest, most general way to describe something. A main idea is much more specific. A good rule of thumb when trying to determine main ideas is to put them in a full phrase or sentence; after all, just saying that the main idea is the “Thanksgiving feast,” gives no indication of what features or aspects of the Thanksgiving feast are important. For all we know, a passage that is merely described as being about “the Thanksgiving feast” could end up detailing all the ways in which the Thanksgiving feast could go wrong! But the words “no matter what, everything is going to be okay” are a pretty clear indicator that this isn’t the case here. So to avoid ambiguity, get yourself in the habit of scrawling the main idea (i.e. a full phrase or sentence) in the margin of each paragraph. Thus, taken together, the first and last sentences of each paragraph in a lower-‐ complexity informational text should present you with the main idea. Here it might be something like: “With enough preparation, the Thanksgiving feast will go smoothly,” or something similar to that. (There are, of course, multiple ways to word this that will still be correct!) Let’s try this once more with a similarly simple text, also from The New York Times: Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 60
61 “This season millions of Americans will celebrate with turkey on the table. The turkey is, after all, the native North American animal that Benjamin Franklin considered “a much more respectable bird” than the scavenging bald eagle. But while the eagle landed on the country’s Great Seal and the turkey gets pride of place at our holiday dinners, neither bird can claim to have changed American culture more than their lowly avian (avian = bird) cousin, the chicken.” First sentence: Americans celebrate with turkey. Last sentence: The chicken has changed American culture more than any other bird. You don’t even need the first sentence here to determine the main idea of the passage. Clearly, it’s going to be about how chickens have changed America. (Pretty thrilling stuff.) In isolation, it’s pretty easy to determine the main idea of a single paragraph. But the SAT will also ask you to determine the main ideas of PARTS of longer excerpts – to keep the longer excerpt in mind while choosing an answer that makes sense of the different parts of longer pieces. Let’s practice with this 1965 speech on voting rights by Lyndon B. Johnson: “In our time we have come to live with moments of great crisis. Our lives have been marked with debate about great issues; issues of war and peace, issues of prosperity and depression. But rarely in any time does an issue lay bare the secret heart of America itself. Rarely are we met with a challenge, not to our growth or abundance, our welfare or our security, but rather to the values and the purposes and the meaning of our beloved Nation. The issue of equal rights for [African-‐Americans] is such an issue. And should we defeat every enemy, should we double our wealth and conquer the stars, and still be unequal to this issue, then we will have failed as a people and as a nation. For with a country as with a person, "What is a man profited, if he shall Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 61
62 gain the whole world, and lose his own soul ?" There is no [African-‐American] problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem. And we are met here tonight as Americans—not as Democrats or Republicans-‐-‐we are met here as Americans to solve that problem. This was the first nation in the history of the world to be founded with a purpose. The great phrases of that purpose still sound in every American heart, North and South: "All men are created equal"—"government by consent of the governed"—"give me liberty or give me death." Well, those are not just clever words, or those are not just empty theories. In their name Americans have fought and died for two centuries, and tonight around the world they stand there as guardians of our liberty, risking their lives. Those words are a promise to every citizen that he shall share in the dignity of man. This dignity cannot be found in a man's possessions; it cannot be found in his power, or in his position. It really rests on his right to be treated as a man equal in opportunity to all others. It says that he shall share in freedom, he shall choose his leaders, educate his children, and provide for his family according to his ability and his merits as a human being.” A typical SAT question might ask you: What is the main idea of the second paragraph? A. Having equal rights will cause everyone to profit B. Doubling national wealth and conquering the stars should be among Americans’ top priorities C. We will never defeat our enemies if we do not have equal rights D. For the good of the nation, Americans must unite to fix unjust policies
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63 Again, this is a good place to look at the first and the last sentences of the paragraph in question: “The issue of equal rights is such an issue” and “We are met as Americans to solve that problem.” Now, that’s not particularly helpful because without the context of the previous paragraph, we don’t know what “such an issue” or “that problem” actually mean. But we CAN understand that this speech deals with an important issue that Americans must solve together. This may even be enough to help you answer the question completely! But if you’re not entirely sure yet of the answer, skim the first paragraph again, and find out that “such an issue” (i.e. equality for African-‐ Americans) refers to “an issue that lays bare the secret heart of America itself” – i.e. a very important matter. So let’s consider the answer options now: A: Having equal rights will cause everyone to profit. While in some (figurative) sense this may in fact be true, pay close attention – is this what Johnson is actually saying in the passage? Look at where he mentions profits: a. …should we double our wealth and conquer the stars, and still be unequal to this issue, then we will have failed as a people and as a nation. b. For with a country as with a person, "What is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" These two sentences suggest that the current situation is untenable and immoral, and while there is evidence that a reverse situation (equal rights may lead to profit) it’s not compelling enough to be the main idea of the paragraph. Look at B: While doubling American wealth and conquering the stars are good goals to have, nowhere does Johnson say they are the most important; in fact, he seems to suggest the opposite when he says that achieving those goals without achieving equality will make us “fail as a people and a nation.” Clearly, this isn’t the most
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64 important priority if there are other, better goals to worry about. Check out C: Again, Johnson does mention “defeating every enemy,” but in context of an achievement that will be meaningless if we do not first achieve equality for all of our citizens. (“We will fail as a people and as a nation.”) This can’t be the right answer. D is the only correct choice. Consider every part of the sentence: “For the good of the nation” à considering that other (extremely worthwhile) goals are meaningless without equality, it can be inferred that achieving equality will indeed be for the good of the nation. The second part, “Americans must unite” finds support in the last few sentences: “There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only an American problem. And we are met here tonight as Americans—not as Democrats or Republicans-‐-‐we are met here as Americans to solve that problem.” Johnson lists some things that might divide us – geographic region, political affiliation – before dismissing them as meaningless, demonstrating that unity is key in solving essential problems. Thus far this is all pretty straightforward. But what happens with a higher-‐level text, or a literary text that doesn’t do you the very nice favor of laying out main ideas in the first and last sentences of each paragraph? When that happens, you must notice the telling details and any repetitions of words and ideas. Try it with this (fairly complex) excerpt from a David Foster Wallace essay about 9/11, written on 9/13/2001. I’ve included my annotations below: “Everybody has flags out. Homes, businesses. It's odd:
Flags =
You never see anybody putting out a flag, but by Wednesday patriotism?
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65 morning there they all are. Big flags, small flags, regular flag-size flags. A lot of home-owners here have those special angled flag-holders by their front door, the kind whose brace takes four Phillips screws. And thousands of those little hand-held flags-on-a-stick you normally see at parades – some yards have dozens all over as if they'd somehow sprouted overnight. Rural-road people attach the little flags to their mailboxes out by the street. Some cars have them wedged in their grille or duct-taped to the antenna. Some upscale people have actual poles; their flags are at halfmast. More than a few large homes around Franklin Park or out on the east side even have enormous multistory flags hanging gonfalon-style down over their facades. It's a total mystery where people get flags this big or how they got them up there. My own next-door neighbor, a
Huge flags, hanging like banners (gonfalon— heraldic flag, like knights used to have); making quite a statement
retired CPA and vet whose home- and lawn-care are nothing short of phenomenal, has a regulation-size anodized flagpole secured in 18" of reinforced
-This guy sounds
cement that none of the other neighbors like very much
like he does
because they think it draws lightning. He says there's a very everything by the particular etiquette to having your flag at halfbook: mast: You're supposed to first run it all the way up
"phenomenal
to the top and then bring it halfway down.
homecare,"
Otherwise it's an insult or something. His flag is out
regulation-size
straight and popping smartly in the wind. It's far and away
“official” flagpole”
the biggest flag on our street. You can also hear the wind in
-A good detail –
the cornfields just south; it sounds the way light surf sounds
this guy cares
when you're two dunes back from it. Mr. N–'s flag's halyard
about
has metal elements that clank loudly against the pole when
“procedures” and
it's windy, which is something else the other neighbors don't
“etiquette” and
care for. His driveway and mine are almost side by side, and what is proper he's out here on a stepladder polishing his pole with some -"Or something" kind of ointment and a chamois cloth… and in fairness it's
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= our narrator is
66 true that his metal pole does shine like God's own
a bit flippant!
wrath. "He[ck] of a nice flag and display apparatus, Mr. N–.""Ought to be. Cost enough." "Seen all the other flags out everywhere this morning? "This gets him to look down and smile, if a bit grimly. "Something isn't it?" Mr. N– is not
Biggest flag
what you'd call the friendliest next-door neighbor. I
because he thinks
really only know him because his church and mine are in the that makes him seem like the same softball league, for which he serves with immense precision as his team's statistician. We are not
biggest
close. He's nevertheless the first one I ask: "Say Mr. N–,
patriot? Clearly
suppose somebody like a foreign person or TV reporter were puts a lot of effort into appearances. to come by and ask you to say what the purpose of all these flags everywhere after the Horror and everything yesterday What’s the was, exactly – what do you think you'd say?" "Why" (after connection a brief interval of giving me the same sort of look he between “God’s wrath” and usually gives my lawn) "to show our support and empathy in terms of what's going on, as Americans. "The
displaying an
point being that on Wednesday here there's a weird
American flag
accretive pressure to have a flag out. If the purpose
right after 9/11?
of a flag is to make a statement, it seems like at a
Think about this
certain point of density of flags you're making more idea… of a statement if you don't have one out. It's not
More details
totally clear what statement this would be. What if
about the
you just don't happen to have a flag? Where has
neighbor. Think
everyone gotten these flags, especially the little ones you can about the put on your mailbox? Are they all from July 4th and people contrast between just save them, like Christmas ornaments? How do they
the two men
know to do this? Even a sort of half-collapsed house down the street that everybody though was unoccupied has a flag in the ground by the driveway. The Yellow Pages have nothing under Flag. There's actual interior tension:
Again, a very
Nobody walks by or stops their car and says, "Hey,
telling detail –
your house doesn't have a flag," but it gets easier
contrast between
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67 and easier to imagine people thinking it. None of the
the two
grocery stores in town turn out to stock any flags. The novelty shop downtown has nothing but Halloween stuff. Only a few businesses are open, but even the closed ones are displaying some sort of flag. It's almost surreal. The VFW
Accretive =
hall is a good bet, but it can't open til noon if at all (it has a
accumulated,
bar). The lady at Burwell's references a certain hideous Qik-
built up gradually
n-EZ store out by 1-74 at which she was under the impression she'd seen some little plastic flags back in the racks with all the bandannas and Nascar caps, but by the time I get there they turn out to be gone, snapped up by parties unknown. The reality is that there is not a flag to be had in this town. Stealing one out of somebody's yard is clearly out of the question. I'm standing in a Qik-n-EZ afraid to go home. All those people dead, and I'm sent to the edge by a plastic flag. …Until in one more of the Horror's weird twists of fate and circumstance it's the Qik-n-EZ proprietor himself (a Pakistani, by the way) who offers
Pressure! He feels pressure to put out a flag, like he’s not being patriotic “enough” Everyone has a flag but him!
solace and a shoulder and a strange kind of unspoken
Feels very
understanding, and who lets me go back and sit in the
conspicuous
stock room amid every conceivable petty vice and indulgence America has to offer and compose myself, and who only slightly later, over styrofoam cups of a strange kind of tea with a great deal of milk in it, suggests, gently, construction paper and "Magical Markers," which explains my now-beloved homemade flag.
How is the writer internalizing, understanding, and processing the tragedy?
Why would this man offer “unspoken understanding”? In what way are
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68 they both outsiders?
How does the writer resolve his problem? Do you think that his neighbor would approve of this solution? Look back at your notes – and by the way, it doesn’t matter if there are words whose meaning you don’t know; what matters is that you get the general gist. So, what are the repeated ideas in this excerpt? Well, there’s flags – and, more subtly, what these flags might mean. But certainly it’s not enough to say “the main idea of this essay is flags.” Because again, that doesn’t tell us anything important. Therefore, think about the people mentioned in this essay. How do they reactto the issue of flags, and why do they react this way? This might make it easier to distill this big essay into one idea. 1. There’s our unnamed narrator, who does not have a flag and feels bad / like an outsider about it. (Remember, he says he feels “pressure,” and like he is “making a statement,” and he’s being “sent to the edge…” over this issue.) 2. There’s Mr. N from next door, who has a flag and clearly takes lots of pride in it. (It’s regulation-‐size, raised and lowered with military precision, and as polished as “the wrath of God.”)
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69 3. There’s the Pakistani owner of the shop, who listens to our narrator and provides him with a solution to his flag problem. (“Offers solace,” “gentle suggestion,” “unspoken understanding.”) Clearly, the essay is about more than who has a flag. It’s clearly about what the flag represents to each person in this excerpt. Remember, finally, that this essay was written two days after 9/11. The context here is crucial. Therefore: What is the main idea of this passage as a whole? A. The script by which different people process and symbolize complex emotions, such as patriotism and grief B. The proper procedures for showing off patriotism and reacting to a national tragedy C. The discrimination against Pakistanis after 9/11 D. The pressure that comes with not being adequately prepared to react to a tragedy Now, think about this carefully. Most of these answers are pretty plausible, because they all have something to do with the passage. Let’s start with A – the script by which people process and symbolize emotions like patriotism and grief. Now, Wallace never mentions a script, but he doesn’t have to; the majority of the passage is about the fact that everyone seems to have a flag but him, as though they are all following a memo that he didn’t receive. (“Where has everyone gotten these flags, especially the little ones you can put on your mailbox? Are they all from July 4th and people just save them, like Christmas ornaments? How do they know to do this? Even a sort of half-‐collapsed house down the street that everybody though was unoccupied has a flag in the ground by the driveway.”) So the script part, while subtle, is true. But what about this “symbolize complex emotions”? At this point, you should realize that the flags here are not just objects but representations of a feeling. After all, Wallace asks his neighbor: "Say Mr. N–, suppose somebody like a foreign person or TV reporter were to come by Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 69
70 and ask you to say what the purpose of all these flags everywhere after the Horror and everything yesterday was, exactly – what do you think you'd say?" Clearly, this question demonstrates that there is a larger purpose to these flags, that they symbolize and demonstrate something big. And that’s clear in Mr. N’s answer, too: “to show our support and empathy in terms of what's going on, as Americans.” Again, the flags are part of a script. They are the answer to a tragedy and a means of showing support, which is demonstrated also in the different types of flags on display – the huge banner-‐style ones, the regulation-‐size ones on flagpoles, the plastic ones, and even the author’s homemade Magic Marker one. Now, let’s look at the other answer choices: B. The proper procedures for showing off patriotism and reacting to a national tragedy, is a worthwhile contender. However, remember that at first, Wallace does not have a flag. Based on his characterization of himself and his flag-‐less-‐ness (“If the purpose of a flag is to make a statement, it seems like at a certain point of density of flags you're making more of a statement if you don't have one out. It's not totally clear what statement this would be. What if you just don't happen to have a flag?”), is Wallace the sort of person who would get hung up on “proper procedures”? Especially when you contrast him with Mr. N, who gives him “the same sort of look he usually gives my lawn.” Though there are points in this essay that are concerned with procedure, these points are more about how other people seem to be acting (again, following a script), rather than an actual guide on the best way to act. C is perhaps the easiest answer to disregard; the Pakistani storeowner is only mentioned at the very end of the essay, and though Wallace does mention the store owner’s “unspoken understanding” (which alludes, in turn, to the outsider status he probably feels in the wake of the tragedy), nowhere does he explicitly mention discrimination. Additionally, this “unspoken understanding” is only mentioned once, and a main idea is usually repeated and reinforced in multiple ways. This is clearly not the correct answer. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 70
71 D is a contender – clearly, Wallace feels pressure! This is an instance where there are some good answers that pale in comparison to the “best” answer. While it’s true that there is great pressure in feeling that you are not reacting appropriately to / prepared adequately for a national tragedy, these “reactions” and “preparations” are in turn just part of a larger script that tells people how they should act, how they should deal with their lack of preparedness. D is a good answer because it’s really part of answer A – in many ways, a fragmented or incomplete choice that does not fully express the main idea of the essay. That was a long, high-‐level passage– not so much because of the words or the structure, but because it is full of subtly-‐expressed and complex ideas. In the next section, you will learn how to break down and summarize these kinds of ideas.
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72
Summarizing Ever tried to tell a friend a story? When you’re recounting an event or a film, you automatically make choices about which details to emphasize and which to leave out. And though your friend probably won’t mind if you leave in irrelevant details, one of the most highly-‐rated skills in secondary and post-‐secondary education is the ability to summarize key information, which explains why the College Board cares so much about whether or not you can do it well. There isn’t a big difference between identifying the main idea and being able to cogently summarize the text; after all, the main idea and the summary are interrelated concepts. In a sense, “summarizing” just means that you are able to restate the main idea of all of or part of a text and marshal key pieces of evidence to support your claim. Learning how to accurately and intelligently summarize information requires three essential skills: 1. Comprehension of the material 2. The ability to identify and isolate key supporting details 3. The ability to describe, in general terms, what those details work together to say Your ability to do this may depend on the level, complexity, and type of text you’re reading. Luckily, every type of text will have certain “signals” that let you know which pieces of information are important.
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73 Structure Remember that text structure is paramount in simpler non-‐fiction texts, with each paragraph introduced (or summarized) by a topic sentence that presents the main idea of the paragraph. It’s these bracketing sentences – the first and last of each paragraph – that will work together to present a useful summary of the selection as a whole. For example, take this excerpt, from a lower-‐complexity non-‐fiction article titled “Traveling Teaches Students in a Way Schools Can’t,” recently published in the Atlantic. I have bolded parts of the first and last sentences in each paragraph, which should all help you to summarize the text of the passage as a whole. When I turned 15, my parents sent me alone on a one-‐month trip to Ecuador, the country where my father was born. This was tradition in our family—for my parents to send their first-‐generation American kids to the country of their heritage, where we would meet our extended family, immerse ourselves in a different culture, and learn some lessons on gratefulness. My family’s plan worked. That month in Ecuador did more for my character, education, and sense of identity than any other experience in my early life. And five years later, my experience in Ecuador inspired me to spend more time abroad, studying in South Africa at the University of Cape Town. These two trips not only made me a lifelong traveler, but also a person who believes traveling to developing countries should be a necessary rite of passage for every young American who has the means. It’s often said that spending time in less affluent countries teaches Americans never to take anything for granted. To some extent, this is true. During my time traveling in these areas, I often traveled without access to hot water, Internet, air conditioning, or even basic electricity. I slept in rooms with Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 73
74 spiders, mosquitos, and bedbugs. I rode on public transportation that rarely left on time and often broke down suddenly in remote areas. Stripped of my daily habits and expectations, I was forced to surrender the idea that I have a right to anything—including the luxury of convenience, or days when everything I’ve planned actually happens. And my minor travel hassles seemed even more petty when I realized that they represented larger systemic problems that locals must deal with every day. But these trips didn’t only teach me to appreciate what I had; they also moved me to consider why I had it in the first place. I realized that much of what I thought was necessity was, in fact, luxury and began to realize how easily I could survive off of much less. I didn’t necessarily need hot water or a timely bus or a comfortable bed to be happy for the day. I didn’t necessarily need a jaw-‐dropping landscape or a famous archeological ruin or a stunning beach to make my travels worth it. Instead, most of the time, that fulfillment came from the people I interacted with—not the things I had or did. It came from eating soup with locals at a rest stop on a 12-‐hour bus ride, sharing a meal with Peruvian soccer fans while watching a match, or chatting with the owner of my hostel during his lunch break. Discovering that my best travel moments came from these subtle, personal moments instead of the grandiose, materialistic ones made me understand that living contently required little. What I originally thought I “took for granted,” I now rethought taking at all. 1. What is the most accurate summary of this article? A. The author is a lifelong traveler. B. The author believes that minor hassles are meaningless. C. The author advocates travel abroad as an educational tool. D. The author never takes anything for granted.
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75 Now, all of these options were mentioned somewhere in the text; maybe even in the bracketing sentences. But all the distractors are single details that work together to create one cohesive theme, which can be best summarized in Option C. Remember, when thinking about summaries, you can and should be as general as possible; a summary isn’t a blow-‐by-‐blow account chock-‐full of individual details, but a general “gist” or zoomed-‐out picture of the main idea(s). In a simple non-‐ fiction text, it’s easy to identify these ideas if you look at the topic sentences of every paragraph. Repetition of Ideas Whenever the writer repeats a string of words, a concept, or idea in the text, it’s safe to say that these repetitions will be key in your general summary. Remember, the writer doesn’t have to use the exact same words each time in order to establish repetition – you can repeat ideas without repeating words. But it’s hard to diversify the vocabulary when you’re explaining the same thought over and over, so there’s a good chance that much of the repetitions will utilize at least some of the same words, making it easy to skim the material and find the most heavily-‐emphasized ideas. Take the following example, from the Public Library of Science Blog. Here I have bolded every instance of repetition: The American Society of Magazine Editors awards are the Academy Awards of magazinedom, and this year all the finalists in all the long-‐form, narrative categories went to men. …the dearth of women among the nominees can perhaps be explained in part by the dearth of female bylines in the sort of magazines that publish long-‐form narrative journalism. At the New Yorker, Harper’s, The New Republic and The Atlantic, for instance, less than thirty percent of the stories published in 2011 were written by women, according to this year’s VIDA Count, which did a gender breakdown of bylines in each magazine. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 75
76 I’ve long bemoaned the fact that there are so few women represented among the contributing editors on many of these publications. (Contributing editors are the writers whose work you’re most likely to see in the mag; they either have contracts for a certain number of words a year or just enjoy a privileged relationship with the editors.) It’s also true that many of the magazines that publish narrative pieces are staffed largely by men. Part of the reason is that a lot of the narrative journalism is published in magazines targeted at men. Take Esquire, for instance, which often scoops up ASME nominations and awards: On the masthead of the March issue, of the 33 editorial staffers listed – including the photo, art, and fashion people—only nine are women. And from what I can tell, only one or possibly two of those are in a position to assign stories. 2. How would you summarize this article? A. There are too many male journalists. B. There are not enough female journalists. C. Women are not accurately and adequately represented in long-‐form journalism. D. The magazines that publish long-‐form journalism are at fault for the lack of female representation. Remember, summarizing requires finding the general idea based on what the text actually says. Unlike with other skills on the new SAT, the answers are already there; all you need to do is rephrase them, rather than making inferences. Check the bolded portions that repeat the main idea; none of them say that there are too many male journalists, just that male journalists are overrepresented. Similarly, this article doesn’t say there aren’t enough female journalists, just that they’re not Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 76
77 recognized (or even hired) in the same numbers as men. Nor does the piece explicitly blame the magazines – it just highlights the fact that a discrepancy exists between male and female representation in journalism. Clearly, all the repetitions serve to emphasize that female journalists exist, but are simply underrepresented, as is presented in answer C. Repetition of Details Sometimes an author will use an abundance of details to continually demonstrate one overarching idea. These details will work together to illustrate a fact or concept that the author wants to emphasize. For example, take this non-‐fiction piece about pupfish. I’ve bolded every detail that the author includes in order to try and understand she is trying to emphasize – which in turn will lead me to a cogent summary of this excerpt. West of Pahrump, Nevada, in a corner of the Mojave Desert a couple thousand feet above Death Valley, a warm aquifer provides a home for one of the world’s rarest animals. It’s a tiny silvery-‐blue fish, smaller than your pinkie toe, and in the past 50 years it has survived real-‐estate speculators, death threats, congressional battles, and human screwups. The Devil’s Hole pupfish—Cyprinodondiabolis—is nothing if not tenacious. But the biggest existential threat to the pupfish comes from its own DNA. Once upon a time, pupfish lived in a sprawling lake. Around 20,000 years ago, water levels dropped, the landscape turned to desert, and the pupfish ended up in disconnected ponds. Today, nine different species are scattered across the Southwest, and half of them are endangered. Devil’s Hole is the worst case; as of September 2012, there were 75 fish left. Thousands of years of adaptation have left the Devils Hole pupfish able to live only in one very particular environment: It needs 90-‐degree water, low oxygen, and a shallow submerged ledge on which to spawn. It’s hard enough being endangered; being endangered and picky is a deadly combination. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 77
78 Think about what these details are doing in this piece: they are establishing a sense of time and place (Mojave desert, September 2012), drawing a portrait of the fish (small, tenacious), and establishing what kind of threats the endangered fish face and why (environment, ability to breed only in very specific places). Though all of these details are different, they work together to serve the same purpose. Together, these details will help you answer the question: 3. What is the best summary of this selection? A. Devil’s Hole pupfish are tenacious despite the odds they face. B. Due to a combination of factors, Devil’s Hole pupfish face extinction. C. It is crucial that the Devil’s Hole pupfish continue to survive. D. Devil’s Hole pupfish are extremely rare. Now, many of these details were mentioned in the article. But think about the “big picture” that these details work together to illustrate. You need to be able to focus on one general idea that doesn’t extrapolate from the text, but simply gives a big-‐ picture restatement of what the text actually says. Option A is mentioned in the text, but it doesn’t do a thorough-‐enough job of summarizing the “big picture.” This detail is only mentioned once and isn’t explicitly reinforced throughout the text, so it can’t be the best summary of the selection. Option B does a much better job of providing a summary – it mentions a combination of factors (which is general enough to encapsulate many of the details mentioned in the piece) and neatly summarizes the point of the selection – that, as the last sentence states, “being endangered and picky is a deadly combination;” i.e., the pupfish face extinction. Option C is never explicitly mentioned in the text; while you may be tempted to extrapolate from the text that it is important for biodiversity that the pupfish survive, stick to what is explicitly stated. Do not make inferences while trying to summarize. Choice D is true, but it isn’t the best summary – it’s just one small detail that helps to build the bigger picture of the main idea. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 78
79 Even when the details seem disparate, they often work together to create a cohesive whole; when in doubt, think about which answer option is best SUPPORTED by the details, and which options merely help BUILD a larger idea. This will help you better determine an accurate and succinct summary for the piece.
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80 Signal Words and Text Features When attempting to find key ideas, watch out for words that introduce important concepts. Words like “important,” “paramount,” “clearly,” and “obviously,” “essentially,” “basically,” “in essence,” “thus,” and “ergo” –among others—can signal that the writer is introducing or summing up an essential idea. Words like “for example” can help to demonstrate an essential concept. Bolding, italics, and CAPS can also highlight important ideas, so watch out for those as well. Of course, this isn’t a hard-‐and-‐fast rule, but it can be helpful when you’re trying to decide which ideas to isolate. For example, take this snippet on teaching literacy: The concept of literacy is fundamentally misunderstood. There is a misconception that literacy simply means “knowing how to read,” and while that is partially true, it doesn’t present the whole picture. “Knowing how to read” is about much more than just matching up letters with the sounds that they make; it is also about understanding how information fits together in context. Students who excel in one context may fail in another because they lack the multiple types of literacy that are necessary to succeed. For example, there is a well-‐known anecdote about a high-‐level student who continually failed her math homework. Finally, she was sent to a learning specialist who tried to diagnose the problem. The specialist asked the student to read and explain one of the math problems that was giving her so much trouble. The student read fluently “Find the product of two integers,” but when it came time to explain, she was at a loss. She did know how to explain what a product was, in the mathematical sense, though she could perfectly explain the concept of a “product” in a historical/social sciences setting. Clearly, though she could read perfectly and scored high in all her English classes, she lacked basic math literacy. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 80
81 There are a lot of signal words here, and they all work together to demonstrate a concept. Just as in the last passage, there are also details that work together to present a big picture, which you will be asked to summarize. 4. What is the best summary for this passage? A. The definition of literacy is disputed. B. Many people lack basic literacy skills. C. There are multiple types of literacy. D. Words can have different meanings, which makes literacy complicated. Remember, think about how the details and the signal words work together to create one cohesive idea that is explicitly stated in the text. Nowhere does it say that the meaning of literacy is “disputed,” just that it is “misunderstood.” You can scrap Option A. While B may be a tempting option, remember that it is never explicitly stated in the text, and that it is too much of an extrapolation from the detail that students may fail in certain contexts because they lack a specific type of literacy. Option C is supported in the text; it is both explicitly stated in the phrase “multiple types of literacy… are necessary to succeed” and demonstrated in the example of the student who had one type of literacy but not the other. Lastly, Option D may be true – it is illustrated in the anecdote – but it is not the point of the selection; the selection is there to present a general idea or main point about literacy, and Option D is too specific.
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82 In Summary Remember that there are multiple ways to come up with a good summary of a text. Pay attention to structure, repetition of ideas and details, and signal words and text features. Remember to keep your summary general and “big picture” instead of focusing on the multiple smaller details that work together to create the general idea of the text. Finally, don’t extrapolate – when presenting a summary, stick to what is explicitly stated in the text. Utilizing these strategies will help you score high on any summary questions, on both the SAT and in your classes.
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83
Understanding Relationships Part of demonstrating reading comprehension skills is the ability to understand the relationships between the individuals, ideas, and events mentioned in a text. This understanding will help you better understand the selection. There are multiple types of relationships that may appear in a selection. Here are some of the most common. Relationships between Individuals Selections drawn from narrative pieces will usually feature characters; these characters will interact in a variety of ways, which will demonstrate their relationships. The SAT may ask you about the type of relationship that the characters have to one another – are they siblings? Coworkers? Friends? – based on context, or it may ask you to qualitatively describe the relationship – amicable? Acrimonious? – based on the interactions that the characters have and the way that they speak to one another. Take this example, from Scarlet Stockings, a short story by Louisa May Alcott. As you read, mark up the points in the passage where the characters reveal through their speech either the NATURE of their relationship or a CHARACTERIZATION of their relationship. Pay attention also to characters who are mentioned but not present, as well as the characters’ relationship to their setting (where it’s applicable). "COME out for a drive, Harry?"
-‐ One character spends a
"Too cold."
long time clearly trying to
"Have a game of billiards?"
amuse the other, who
"Too tired."
declines to be amused
"Go and call on the Fairchilds?"
-‐ This second character is
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84 "Having an unfortunate prejudice against country
kind of a snob
girls, I respectfully decline."
-‐ So these two are sister
"What will you do then?"
and brother
"Nothing, thank you." And settling himself more luxuriously upon the couch, Lennox closed his eyes, and appeared to slumber tranquilly. Kate shook her head, and stood regarding her brother, despondently, till a sudden idea made her turn toward the window, exclaiming abruptly, "Scarlet stockings, Harry!" "Where?" and, as if the words were a spell to break
-‐ Kate knows how to get
the deepest day-‐dream, Lennox hurried to the window, her brother’s interest with an unusual expression of interest in his listless
-‐ We can reasonably
face.
extrapolate that Harry has
"I thought that would succeed! She isn't there, but I've
a little crush
got you up, and you are not to go down again," laughed
-‐ Harry is not embarrassed
Kate, taking possession of the sofa.
in the least
"Not a bad maneuver. I don't mind; it's about time
-‐ He clearly likes the red-‐
for the one interesting event of the day to occur, so
stocking girl, but is pretty
I'll watch for myself, thank you," and Lennox took the
passive about it
easy chair by the window with a shrug and a yawn. "I'm glad any thing does interest you," said Kate, petulantly, "though I don't think it amounts to much, for, though you perch yourself at the window every day to see that girl pass, you don't care enough about it to ask her name." "I've been waiting to be told." "It's Belle Morgan, the Doctor's daughter, and my
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-‐ Another relationship
85 dearest friend."
established
"Then, of course, she is a blue-‐belle?"
-‐ A potential (and
"Don't try to be witty or sarcastic with her, for she
potentially cantankerous)
will beat you at that."
relationship established
"Not a dumb-‐belle then?"
-‐ Harry asking if she has a
"Quite the reverse; she talks a good deal, and very well
boyfriend (ma belle = “my
too, when she likes."
beauty”); character detail
"She is very pretty; has anybody the right to call her
established
'Ma belle'?"
-‐ More relationships
"Many would be glad to do so, but she won't have any
established
thing to say to them."
-‐ Kate clearly cares for and
"A Canterbury belle in every sense of the word then?"
worries about her brother
"She might be, for all Canterbury loves her, but she isn't fashionable, and has more friends among the poor than among the rich." "Ah, I see, a diving-‐bell, who knows how to go down into a sea of troubles, and bring up the pearls worth having." "I'll tell her that, it will please her. You are really waking up, Harry," and Kate smiled approvingly upon him. "This page of 'Belle's Life' is rather amusing, so read away," said Lennox, glancing up the street, as if he awaited the appearance of the next edition with pleasure. "There isn't much to tell; she is a nice, bright,
-‐ Think of the
energetic, warm-‐hearted dear; the pride of the
relationships being
Doctor's heart, and a favorite with every one, though established here she is odd."
-‐ Establishment of a
"How odd?"
possible relationship
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86 "Does and says what she likes, is very blunt and honest,
between two people who
has ideas and principles of her own, goes to parties in
haven’t met yet
high dresses, won't dance round dances, and wears red stockings, though Mrs. Plantagenet says it's fast." "Rather a jolly little person, I fancy. Why haven't we met her at some of the tea-‐fights and muffin-‐ worries we've been to lately?" "It may make you angry, but it will do you good, so I'll
-‐ Clearly, Harry doesn’t
tell. She didn't care enough about seeing the
care much for his society.
distinguished stranger to come; that's the truth."
(Dyspepsia = indigestion)
"Sensible girl, to spare herself hours of mortal
-‐ Typical sibling
dullness, gossip, and dyspepsia," was the placid reply.
relationship – trying to get
"She has seen you, though, at church and dawdling about a rise out of her brother town, and she called you 'Sir Charles Coldstream' on the
-‐ Kate criticizing her
spot. How does that suit?" asked Kate, maliciously.
brother (lovingly); Harry
"Not bad, I rather like that. Wish she'd call some day, and demonstrating he doesn’t stir us up."
really care (“I’m dying of
"She won't; I asked her, but she said she was very busy,
boredom!”)
and told Jessy Tudor, she wasn't fond of peacocks." "I don't exactly see the connection." "Stupid boy! she meant you, of course." "Oh, I'm peacocks, am I?" "I don't wish to be rude, but I really do think you are vain of your good looks, elegant accomplishments, and the impression you make wherever you go. When it's worth while you exert yourself, and are altogether fascinating, but the 'I come -‐-‐ see -‐-‐ and -‐-‐ conquer' air you put on, spoils it all for sensible people." "It strikes me that Miss Morgan has slightly infected you
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87 with her oddity as far as bluntness goes. Fire away, it's rather amusing to be abused when one is dying of ennui." "That's grateful and complimentary to me, when I have
-‐ Kate reveals her
devoted myself to you ever since you came. But every
annoyance with her
thing bores you, and the only sign of interest you've
brother
shown is in those absurd red hose. I should like to
-‐ Harry’s relationship to
know what the charm is," said Kate, sharply.
the town revealed
"Impossible to say; accept the fact calmly as I do, and be
-‐ Kate’s relationship to the
grateful that there is one glimpse of color, life, and
town revealed, too -‐-‐
spirit in this aristocratic tomb of a town."
clearly she feels defensive
"You are not obliged to stay in it!" fiercely.
about it
"Begging your pardon, my dove, but I am. I promised to -‐ Circumstances revealed give you my enlivening society for a month, and a
More relationships – dead
Lennox keeps his word, even at the cost of his life."
parents, a sibling
"I'm sorry I asked such a sacrifice; but I innocently
relationship neglected for
thought that after being away for five long years, you
five years
might care to see your orphan sister," and the dove produced her handkerchief with a plaintive sniff. Now that you have read the annotated passage, try your hand at answering these questions. What is the best description of Kate’s feelings towards her brother? A. Kate is disaffected and disinterested in her brother B. Kate strives to entice Lennox to become more social, with uneven results C. Kate is malicious towards Lennox, while he is bored with her D. Kate is in awe of Lennox’s formidable ego
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88 When understanding relationships between characters, you will have to do a good deal of extrapolating from what is directly stated in the text, but be careful that every one of your inferences is based on actual evidence presented in the text. Look at answer A; you should be able to see quickly that while Lennox could conceivably be called “disaffected and disinterested,” Kate is clearly neither, as evidenced by her constant attempts to interest Lennox in the outside world. Option B is certainly supported by the text; the whole first paragraph is devoted to Kate’s attempts to spur Lennox towards some sort of social activity, though he seems disinterested and criticizes everyone in their town as “dull.” However, she does manage to make him to go SOME social events (“tea fights and muffin worries”), and to get him talking about his interest in Belle Morgan, so clearly her efforts are not entirely futile – hence why “uneven” is a good adjective. Option C could also conceivably be supported by the text – the selection does say that Kate “said maliciously” and that Lennox complains of “ennui,” but taken as a whole, the selection does not paint Kate maliciously. Instead, it is clear that she cares about her brother and simply wants to try and enliven him. And while D may also be an option, as Kate does speak about Lennox’s apparently impressive ego, she does not appear to do so with “awe,” which is too positive an adjective for her position. Therefore, B is the only truly defensible option. Which quote best characterizes the siblings' relationship? A. “I promised to give you my enlivening society for a month, and a Lennox keeps his word, even at the cost of his life." B. “When it's worthwhile you exert yourself, and are altogether fascinating, but the 'I come -‐-‐ see -‐-‐ and -‐-‐ conquer' air you put on, spoils it all for sensible people." C. “Be grateful that there is one glimpse of color, life, and spirit in this aristocratic tomb of a town." D. "I thought that would succeed! She isn't there, but I've got you up, and you are not to go down again," laughed Kate. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 88
89 The use of these quotes will force you to consider and marshal the evidence for your claims. Let’s examine the first – clearly, Lennox feels himself duty-‐bound to his sister, so while this quote is directly relevant to the relationship between the two siblings, it is in fact more revealing of Lennox’s relationship to himself than to his sister. He refers to his own company as “My enlivening society” (perhaps facetiously), and makes a claim about himself (“A Lennox keeps his word.”) While we could conceivably use this quote to understand Lennox’s relationship to his sister (perhaps one of duty), it does not seem to accurately reflect the siblings’ relationship as a whole, though if there are no better options, this one may be suitable. Next, try B; here, Kate is making an observation about her brother’s personality. This quote clearly reveals a feeling she has about one aspect of his personality, especially as he relates to his society, but it seems to be more a comment about Lennox’s “public face” than one about the siblings’ private relationship. C reveals Lennox’s feelings about his town, as well as Lennox’s feelings about Belle, but has nothing to do with Kate herself; it is too much if an extrapolation to suggest that he finds Kate as boring as the town where they live. Finally, D reveals both how well Kate knows her brother, as well as the obvious sense of affection she feels for him. She teases him, rouses him from his stupor, and makes him come to the window using a tactic only she would know (since it clearly comes from her observations of him), and gives him a joking directive – all signs that point to an affectionate and close relationship between the siblings. Of all the quotes, this one best encapsulates the relationship between Kate and Lennox; it is not the most obvious choice, but it subtly paints the complex relationship between cantankerous Lennox and affectionate Kate. Relationships Between Ideas The SAT will provide you with several nonfiction passages, many of which will present claims and/or arguments that you will have to assess. Questions may focus Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 89
90 on the relationship between one idea and the next. Do the ideas contradict each other? Build on one another? Influence one another? Work in conjunction? There are a few ways to understand the relationship between ideas. The first thing to do is to try and differentiate between the ideas that are being presented. This may sound simple, but a high-‐complexity text can present confusing parallels between ideas, so you want to make sure that understand the distinction between one idea and the next. Chronological Signal Words There are some signal words that should help you make these differentiations. Pay attention to words that signal chronology: First, before, next, later, afterwards, used to, recent(ly), now For example, the following sentence uses signal words to clearly differentiate between two ideas: Though researchers used to believe that there could be no life on Mars, therecent discovery of rocks that appear to be water-‐weathered has changed this thinking. It may be useful to label the ideas outlined here with numbers, so that you can figure out what scientists used to believe, what they now believe, and what the relationship is between the two ideas (clearly, the latest research now invalidates the earlier theory.) Many relationships are often established, changed, or influenced by TIME, so any words that signal a passage of time are certainly worth paying attention to. Relational Signal Words
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91 Pay attention also to words like: While, although, but, however, despite and In addition, moreover, also, due to, because, thanks to These can also signal a shift or a change between two schools of thought, which can be very useful in determining the different relationships between them. Relational signal words can signal a compare-‐and-‐contrast and a cause-‐and-‐effect relationship, which is very important to pay attention to. Compare and contrast the relationships outlined in the following two sentences: 1.
While there was once widespread support for the existence of Bigfoot, recent research has definitively disproved this theory. The signal words should indicate to you that the relationship here is negative à one theory has since replaced the other.
2.
It is thanks to Newton’s understanding of gravity that Einstein’s notion of relativity exists.
Clearly, this relationship is positive as one theory builds on or was inspired by the other. This could in fact be broadly categorized as a cause and effect relationship. Now that you’ve practiced with simple samples, try your hand at figuring out the relationship between the ideas presented in the following blog post from the Public Library of Science. This is a relatively higher-‐level text, so pay close attention to the ideas that are being discussed here. When I first ran across Asifa Majid’s article with -‐ Olfaction = smell Ewelina Wnuk in Cognition, about how speakers -‐ Western society = cares more of Maniq, a language indigenous to southern
about vision than other senses
Thailand, have a vocabulary for talking about
-‐ Other cultures do not privilege
smell, I was taken aback. In anthropology,
sight over all, neglecting smell
especially since the work of people like David
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92 Howes, Constance Classen, and Andrew Synott, we know very well that different cultures privilege olfaction and other senses more than Westerners do. The anthropology of the sense has made it clear that the ideological privileging of vision in the West, and relative underdevelopment of sense of smell… is not matched elsewhere. However, Wnuk and Majid were
-‐ These two were trying hard to
attacking, with empirical observations and
disprove a theory that already
psychometric testing, one of the pillars of
existed: that evolution favored
Western philosophical accounts of how
other senses over smell, since
human senses evolved: the idea that human
smell was traditionally
evolution had tipped the
considered to be “weaker” and
balance decisively away from olfaction.
less “precise.” (This is the OLD
The alleged weakness and imprecision of
theory).
olfaction was taken for granted in perceptual psychology. Some of these theories of sensory evolution
-‐ Old theory: our ancestors
hold that our ancestors had, in a way, paid for
evolved because they “gave up
our distinctive cognitive and perceptual
on” a precise sense of smell; they
development by sacrificing olfactory acuity.
favored vision, which grew
Vision increased precision at the expense of
stronger, as smell grew weaker
olfaction. In fact, some theorists of brain
-‐ Acuity = strength
evolution go so far as to suggest that there
was a kind of neurological trade-‐off: language
-‐ Also part of the old theory: it
use could only grow as our ancestors lost a
was necessary for us to sacrifice
capacity for smelling. The restraint and
this highly developed sense of
remove from the immediate sense-‐world
smell so we could develop
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93 necessary for logic and abstract thought was
language
opposed to the kind of complete immersion and sensory triggering of behavior that other
-‐ In other words, other animals
animals had because of the way aromas
were too distracted by smells to
dominated their perception. Were the senses in think clearly; we lost the ability to a zero-‐sum exchange where visual acuity and a
smell the way animals do but we
distinctly human way of life made acute
can now think more clearly
olfaction impossible?
because we aren’t distracted by our overly-‐strong senses
Research conducted by Asifa Majid, together -‐ Transition -‐-‐ new research with her collaborators, suggests that
shows this OLD theory is untrue –
language and olfaction are not at odds; the
the use of language makes our
right language can actually enhance the
senses STRONGER
perception of aroma, as language has also
enhanced, inflected and refined our other
-‐ The fact that our sense of smell
senses. Rather than a fact of human being, the
is weak says more about Western
neglect of olfaction in the West is a result of our culture than the way that we own cultural presuppositions and sensory
evolved physically
biases: smell suffers from neglect, not an inescapable evolutionary trade-‐off. There are just enough signal words here to help you differentiate between the two distinct schools of thought. The writer sets out a sequence of events that STARTS with her coming across a certain scientist’s recent work (“When I first…”). She then speaks about what we know from anthropological research (non-‐Western cultures privilege smell; the West cares more about sight), segues into the fact that Majid and Wnuk are trying to disprove old theories (“However…”), explains the old theories (“Some of these theories…” “In fact…”), and explains Majid and Wnuk’s new research. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 93
94 The structure is a little bit confusing because it jumps between present (coming across this new research) and past (explanation of older theories), but if you read carefully and pay attention to signal words like “First,” “However,” “Now,” “Disprove,” “Rather,” you should be able to ascertain the sequence of events as well as the relationship between the ideas explained. What was Majid and Wnuk’s aim in conducting this new research? A. To support the theory that a degraded olfactory sense was evolutionarily beneficial B. To disprove the theory that a degraded olfactory sense was evolutionarily beneficial C. To demonstrate that language can enhance olfaction D. To prove that visual acuity can only increase as olfactory acuity degrades Now, these distractors all use high-‐level language to try and confuse you, but once you differentiate between Majid and Wnuk’s aim and its relationship to older theories, you will be able to answer the question easily. To begin with, remember that Majid and Wnuk set out to “attack” the old theory. So they must be opposed to it, or trying to disprove it. Remember also that the old theory states that humans lost their strong, precise sense of smell in order to better develop the vision and the language that was more evolutionarily advantageous. Majid and Wnuk instead found that this WASN’T true. Knowing that, let’s look at A. Next to “degraded olfactory sense was evolutionarily beneficial,” you can write “Old Theory.” So A means that they wanted to support the old theory, which simply isn’t true, as the article says they wished to “attack” it. Scratch A. B is the exact opposite of A – they wanted to DISPROVE this old theory, which is indeed true. Keep it for now.
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95 C is true, according to their research, but it wasn’t explicitly stated as the aim for the scientists’ research; instead, it was a FINDING of their research. You can scratch C. D is just a dressed-‐up version of the old theory (that it’s a fight to the death between the sense of sight and the sense of smell, and that one can only grow at the expense of the other). This is the opposite of what their research suggests as well as the kind of claim that they sought out specifically to “attack,” so you can get rid of D. This was a difficult question because it asks you to do a lot of work simultaneously (figure out the text structure, figure out the relationship between two ideas, and figure out the complex language in the distractors).
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96 Relationships between Events Like individuals and ideas, events also have the ability to influence each other. As you no doubt learned in your social science classes, events have the ability to give rise to other events; for example, had the 1963 March on Washington never happened, it is doubtful that the 2008 election would have had the same results. But historical speculation aside, the SAT will no doubt ask you to identify and perhaps analyze the relationships between different events. Here are four of the most common kinds: Cause and Effect -‐Implies one event caused the other -‐Signal words: due to, because, since, thus, therefore, hence, since, thanks to, as a result, consequently -‐Example: Due to the rain on Monday (cause), I was unable to walk to school (effect). Chronology -‐Indicates a sequence of events -‐Signal words: first, second, third, since, then, now, recently, yesterday, last Monday, for years -‐Example: For decades, scientists have believed the existence of aliens is merely an overused sci-‐fi trope; yesterday’s surprise visit by friendly extraterrestrials has now proved, beyond a shadow of a doubt, the existence of intelligent life on other planets. Compare and Contrast -‐Describes two (or more) similar or disparate events -‐Signal words: Also, additionally, moreover, in addition, furthermore (compare); despite, while, however, yet, but, whereas (contrast) -‐Example: The two wars were remarkably similar in their carnage and vastly
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97 inflated budget, but as one was effective and the other was not, they will be remembered very differently. Though there are other categories, such as Problem and Solution, these are the main three that you need to worry about; the other categories could neatly fit in to these. For more practice, read the following short passages and answer the questions about them: “For years, researchers have disagreed about whether Pluto is in fact a planet. Now, however, the diminutive ball of ice and methane might be staging its comeback. The once-‐planet was reclassified a “dwarf planet” or “plutoid” (a dwarf planet further out than Neptune) in 2003, leading to hundreds of nostalgic protests, Facebook groups, and even t-‐shirts all mourning Pluto’s demotion. One popular slogan read ‘Pluto will always be a planet in our hearts.’” Based on the passage, which choice best describes the relationship between Pluto’s reclassification and the reaction of the public? A. The public reacted with glee to Pluto’s reclassification. B. The public reacted with anger to Pluto’s reclassification. C. The public reacted with confusion to Pluto’s reclassification. D. The public reacted with sadness to Pluto’s reclassification. This is a fairly straightforward cause-‐and-‐effect question: what was the effect of Pluto’s reclassification on the public? As explicitly stated in the text, the reclassification led to “hundreds of nostalgic protests” and “mourning;” these two words should clearly establish that D is the only correct choice. You may not have recognized this as a cause-‐and-‐effect relationship, but look at the phrase “leading to.” That should clearly indicate exactly what kind of relationship this is.
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98 “Having the essentially complete sequence of the human genome is similar to having all the pages of a manual needed to make the human body. The challenge to researchers and scientists now is to determine how to read the contents of all these pages and then understand how the parts work together and to discover the genetic basis for health and the pathology of human disease. In this respect, genome-‐based research will eventually enable medical science to develop highly effective diagnostic tools, to better understand the health needs of people based on their individual genetic make-‐ups, and to design new and highly effective treatments for disease. Individualized analysis based on each person's genome will lead to a very powerful form of preventive medicine. We'll be able to learn about risks of future illness based on DNA analysis. Physicians, nurses, genetic counselors and other health-‐care professionals will be able to work with individuals to focus efforts on the things that are most likely to maintain health for a particular individual. That might mean diet or lifestyle changes, or it might mean medical surveillance. But there will be a personalized aspect to what we do to keep ourselves healthy. Then, through our understanding at the molecular level of how things like diabetes or heart disease or schizophrenia come about, we should see a whole new generation of interventions, many of which will be drugs that are much more effective and precise than those available today.” How will the sequencing of the human genome affect scientific research in the future? A. It will teach scientists how to make the human body. B. It will lead scientists to sequence other organisms’ genomes. C. It will increase awareness of public health issues. D. It will contribute to great gains in preventative medicine. This is a simple cause-‐and-‐effect question that asks about the effect that sequencing the genome will have on scientific research. Look at all the answer options to Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 98
99 determine which is the best one. Though A is clearly drawn from the text, it is an obvious trick; the passage COMPARES the sequencing of the human genome to the creation of a manual on how to make a human body. It does not state or imply that building a human body will be an immediate effect or priority after the sequencing occurs. Option B has no basis in the text, as there is no statement about scientists’ plans for sequencing the genomes of other organisms. Though you may conceivably be able to extrapolate C from the text, there’s no real evidence for this option. Option D is explicitly stated in the text, and is thus the best answer.
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100 From The Atlantic: “The history of clip art is in many ways the history of the World Wide Web itself. Clip art was made possible because of the invention of desktop publishing in the early 1980s. The first library of professionally drawn clip art was provided by VCN ExecuVision and introduced in the IBM PC in 1983. It offered images to be used in presentations and newsletters. Early electronic clip art was simple line art or bitmap images. The introduction of the Apple Macintosh program MacPaint, in particular, meant that consumers could use and edit bit-‐ mapped clip art for the first time. One of the first successful clip-‐art producers was T/Maker Company, which had worked with Apple to develop an alternative word processor, WriteNow. In 1984, T/Maker began publishing small, retail collections of those bitmap images under the brand name "ClickArt." The first version of "ClickArt" offered images designed for both professional and personal uses; the professional were published in 1984 as "ClickArt Publications." The widespread adoption of the CD-‐ROM in the early 1990s was also a boon to clip art: Many more companies began offering electronic clip art on CDs. As this happened, clip-‐art makers began emphasizing quantity over quality. Even T/Maker, which built its business on sales of small, high-‐quality clip-‐art packages, entered the volume clip-‐art market. In 1995, it became the exclusive publisher of more than 500,000 copyright-‐free images— to create what would be, at the time, one of the largest clip-‐art libraries in the world.” Based on the information in the article, what could be considered the most important turning point for clip art? A. The invention of desktop publishing in the 1980s B. The release of professional images for public consumption in 1984 C. The 1995 publishing of one of the largest clip-‐art libraries in the world D. The adoption of the CD-‐ROM in the 1990s and the subsequent emphasis on quantity, not quality Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 100
101 This article is clearly structured sequentially, with multiple dates and events recorded. Though the article never explicitly calls one development more important than the other, it is possible to extrapolate an answer to this question. Look at the words used – “most important TURNING POINT.” This should immediately disqualify option A – though the existence of clipart is important, it isn’t a “turning point” because the beginning by definition cannot be a turning point. Strike A. While B could be a good choice, its results are never discussed in the article, so it can’t be a turning point as we are never told what it CHANGED. C is highly tempting, but watch out – it is the RESULT of a turning point, rather than the turning point itself. We are never told what effects of the existence of the largest clip-‐art library in the world, but we ARE told that the adoption of the CD-‐ROM led to an emphasis on quantity, not quality, which directly leads to the creation of one of the largest clip-‐art libraries in the world. In order to answer this question, you must understand what it is asking you—to identify a point in the history of clip art that led to a change, or at least to important results; only Option D fits this bill. Understanding relationships between individuals, ideas, or events can be tricky, but as long as you understand what the question is asking you and which signal words will lead you to the answer, you will achieve success on this section of the SAT.
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102
Interpreting Words and Phrases in Context One of the most important features on the new SAT is emphasis on vocabulary in context. Gone are the days of recondite* “SAT Words;” now you will have to figure out how high-‐level yet everyday words fit into the context of a piece. This isn’t to say that the words will all be familiar to you -‐-‐ don’t confuse “frequently used” with “easy” -‐-‐ but all the words on the new SAT will be relevant to the kinds of higher-‐ level texts you’ll be expected to read beyond high school, so practicing this skill now will help you later on.
Here are some strategies for determining the meaning of words in context. 1. Pay attention to the context.
Sounds obvious, doesn’t it? But in order to figure out the meaning of a word, you’ll need to pay attention to how it is used. After all, the word “product” means one thing in a math context, and quite another in a discussion of tribal artifacts. So you don’t only need to pay attention to the sentence directly preceding the word in question; pay attention to the setting of the word. Read the introductory blurb that indicates where the reading comes from. A narrative piece will use certain words differently than an economics text or a science article. Read the following excerpt from a social sciences article about class distinctions, and see whether you can assess what the words mean. But it’s not only linguistic differences that make this transition hard. The way a person speaks is just a small part of the social currency that determines who is privileged and who is not. When Lisa Faison, 15, started at her elite private
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103 school, she quickly learned that it wasn’t “normal” in her school community to have no Internet at home. “We can’t afford it,” she shrugs -- an unfamiliar concept in this world of luxury cars, high-end vacations, and school tuition that costs upwards of $20,000 a year. Based on the context, the word currency most probably means… A. Money B. Exchange C. Community D. Expression
You’ve probably heard the word “currency” before in regard to money. But look at the word before it, “social.” This modifier clearly indicates that this specific use of the word “currency” has something to do with being a part of society. And the sentence before it, about linguistic habits, also isn’t directly relevant to the issue of money. Money is clearly there as an option to try and confuse you, and to assess whether you can differentiate between different uses of the same word. (Plus, “social money” is a very awkward phrase -- when in doubt, try substituting the answer option for the word. In some cases, it will be glaringly obvious that the answer is wrong). According to the article, currency, whatever it is, “determines” whether or not a person is privileged. So currency is something that has a certain power, and it’s something that is decided by an external source (“social” -- clearly, society determines it). Look at the other choices. We have “exchange,” which fits in with the money idea -- after all, money is exchanged for goods and services. Maybe this type of currency is also just an exchange -- when you have certain things, or grow up in a certain community, you are seen in a specific way that others aren’t. This can be thought of as a type of “exchange” -- the things that you HAVE or DO
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104 determine the way you are THOUGHT OF or SEEN. Plus “social exchange” sounds like it could be an appropriate choice -- the article is about how a girl from a lower-income background fits in with peers of a higher-income background, which is certainly a type of “social exchange.” Before we decide, let’s try C. “Social community” is redundant -- in fact, it’s so redundant that it can’t possibly be right. It could have been a good choice, but in this context it doesn’t make any sense. Lastly, D, expression, is a worthwhile contender. In fact, were it not for “exchange,” D would certainly be the answer. After all, social expression -- the way that people express themselves in society -- goes a very long way in determining who is privileged and who isn’t. But “currency” seems to be about more than just “expression” -- expression suggests that people control the way they are seen, but the article suggests that this isn’t true. Lisa couldn’t control the way her peers saw her; because of one thing beyond her control, they automatically saw her in a completely different way. This suggests that “currency” and “expression” cannot be synonyms. The best answer is B, exchange. Not only does it fit best as a synonym, it is also related to the other meanings of the word “currency.” This will not always be the case with words in context -- they will not always be related in meaning to the same words used in other contexts -- but in this case, it’s a handy bonus that helps to determine the best answer. This was a difficult question because it illustrated a high-level concept; the SAT will ask many questions like this, which ask you to figure out an ordinary word in a complex setting.
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105 2. Replace, replace, replace.
As mentioned in the previous tip, replacing the word in question with an answer choice can be a very useful way to determine if the word makes sense. For example, try this excerpt from a science article. The experiment had three steps. First, the researchers raised the visibility of the fruit, moving it from its shadowy spot by the juice dispenser to a prominent position near the cash register. Next, they lowered the price of the fruit from one dollar to fifty cents. Last, they plastered images of happy-looking students eating fruit all over the cafeteria walls, hoping to entice more students to share in this activity. “We did see an increase in fruit intake,” said one researcher, “but because of our bundled experiment, we’re not sure why this campaign succeeded.”
Based on the context, bundled most closely means… A. Rushed B. Bungled C. Together D. Multi-step
First determine what this piece is about. Scientists are doing an experiment involving several elements. Clearly, the experiment can’t be “rushed” if it contains multiple processes, and there’s no mention in the article of a time constraint on the research. Rushed is therefore not a good choice. “Bungled” sounds like bundled. The SAT is relying on this fact -- and on the hope that you may not be aware that “bungled” means “messed up” -- to confuse you. But choosing a word solely on basis of its perceived similarity to another word (rather than a shared root) is a terrible strategy, and one that the SAT capitalizes on to trick you. In any event, it is highly unlikely that the scientist admit to messing up the experiment that way, so “bungled” is most likely out.
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106 “Together” may make sense at first, since there were several elements to the experiment, but read the sentence again: “because of our together experiment” doesn’t make any sense. Pay attention to parts of speech -- you can do an experiment together, but you can’t do a together experiment. At least not one that makes sense. Scratch C. Last, “multi-step” may not SOUND like it’s a synonym for “bundled,” but remember the first sentence, the one that said the experiment had three steps? There’s a dead giveaway for the fact that “multi-step” is the best answer in this context. “Bundled” can mean “packaged together,” which is why “together” could have been an attractive option -- but replacing the word with the answer option will quickly make it clear that sometimes, the most attractive-seeming options are not very feasible at all. 3. Visualize.
Research has demonstrated that visuals help you learn vocabulary. There will be diagrams and charts on the new SAT, but no pictures -- which is why you can be your own illustrator. You don’t need to sketch out a perfect image to understand the meaning of a word -- this is a strategy that will work just fine if you keep it confined to your own head -- but taking the time to visualize what the article is talking about will be very helpful as you answer questions designed to test your comprehension. For example, try visualizing this excerpt, from a social-science article. “But being a consumer and not a producer has its drawbacks. Those with frustrated artistic inclinations often cite a general fatigue with consumption, complaining of an exhausting glut that can only be counterbalanced by the hard work of producing.”
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107 This is a hard image to visualize in your head, as there isn’t much imagery or a sense of scene or setting. But there are some words that should help -- fatigue, complaining, exhausting, hard work. Imagine a “consumer” -- someone who “consumes,” or “eats,” or “takes in” something. (I am imagining a little Pac-Manlike creature.) Imagine this “over-consumer” getting tired -- consuming too much and slowing down. This exhaustion can only be “counterbalanced” or reversed, by the consumer making something of his or her own (“producing”). Now I am imagining that little Pac-Man creature staying in one place, creating something, losing all that excess weight of “consumption” and getting energized again, thanks to the “hard work of producing.” The visual came to my head -- I didn’t draw it or otherwise mark it down -- but it helped me to better understand the piece by anchoring the abstract (all this talk of producers and consumers and artistic fatigue) to an actual representation of the concepts. Try visualization as you answer this final question about words in context. The following excerpt is from a literary piece. She tensed, expecting the lights to blare and the Matron’s voice to sound over the loudspeakers wired into every room. But all was quiet and still. The night was a neverending black and not a single bird sang or swooped in the trees. She took a deep, quavery breath and stepped out into the uncharted night.
Based on the reading, what is the best meaning for the word “uncharted”? A. Unknown B. Wild C. Frightening D. Shadowy
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108 From the context, you can probably figure out that there is something a little bit ominous happening here -- our protagonist is “tensing” in fear of a “Matron” who can project her voice into every room (so the protagonist lives in some sort of dystopian communal housing). The “neverending black” of the night and the silence of the birds also contribute to this ominous impression. Based on this reading, you may be tempted to choose “C,” frightening -- but despite this ominous impression, the text does not say that the night is frightening. After all, our protagonist is walking into it willingly. Nor do we have any indication that the night is “wild” (there is no mention of tempestuous weather or wild animals), and “shadowy” is an overly redundant synonym for “neverending black” (plus, shadows need at least some light to exist, and there clearly isn’t any of that here.) The best definition for “uncharted” is “unknown” -- “uncharted territory” is territory that hasn’t been put on a map yet, territory that isn’t familiar. Of all the choices, A and C are the strongest; in this case, the best you can do is use context and common sense to eliminate the answer choices that are clearly wrong and use your vocabulary knowledge (or your best guess) to determine the correct answer. Figuring out words and phrases in context can be tricky, and sometimes there isn't a replacement for simply knowing what a word means. But if you use these tips -- paying attention to every part of the context, replacing the word in question with the answer options to see if it makes sense, and visualizing the context as best you can -- this will be very helpful in figuring out the meaning of vocabulary in context.
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Part II: Rhetoric (Reading)
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Analyzing Word Choice “Rhetoric” is defined as the art of discourse,” or (more informally) “the art of persuasion.” The new SAT is preparing you to read, analyze, and internalize information that you might see in college and the workplace -‐-‐ mostly persuasive writing that attempts to get an important point across succinctly and informatively. In this section of the review, you’ll learn some strategies for: 1. Comprehending the structure of a persuasive piece 2. Analyzing the choices that a writer makes in order for a piece to become persuasive 3. Understanding why a piece was written 4. Understanding how each element in the piece works within the larger context This particular article will focus on that last issue; when analyzing rhetoric, you can break down the argument into its smallest pieces, which are the words used to effectively convey the idea in question. You may be familiar with Common Core standards -‐-‐ or with English teachers -‐-‐ that ask you to determine how an author’s writing conveys or creates meaning and tone. This is the exact same skill, only applied to a broader swath of prose than just literature. This skill could also be called “paying close attention.” As you read, take note of the words that create some sort of feeling or image. Does the author use bland, boring words, or does s/he use intense, vivid language to evoke a particular mood or scene? Take these two sentences as examples. Both say the same thing, yet one evokes a mood much more vividly than the other: I was tired and hungry when I came home the other day. Famished and yawning, I trudged up the steps to my empty apartment. The latter sentence clearly uses far more vivid language. It’s not just the replacement of “famished” for “hungry” or “yawning” for “tired” (though “yawning,” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 110
111 a verb, conveys a sense of action that “tired” does not) that creates such a strong sense of emotion. It’s also the inclusion of the word “empty” before “apartment” -‐-‐ the first sentence tells us “I came home,” a rather neutral statement, while this sentence describes the home. It is empty and isolated. It even gives us a glimpse at the kind of home it is, evoking images of stairwells, the city, and isolation. Let’s try this one more time: Stephanie Carmichael was a bully. There were no two ways about it. Stephanie Carmichael liked to hit people. Unfortunately, her victims did not share her enthusiasm. Now, both of these sentences are equally vivid, but the tones are completely different. Take the first sentence -‐-‐ it is conversational, utilizing informal, everyday language (“no two ways about it.”) The second sentence is more formal, almost sardonic; it states the obvious (there aren’t many people who enjoy being hit), but slightly dramatizes the situation by calling Stephanie’s targets “victims” and referring to her penchant for hitting as an “enthusiasm.” Even though the two sentences say the same thing in equally vivid language, the tones are vastly different because of the words being used. Pay close attention to distinctions like this and you will do very well on this section of the SAT. It can be very helpful to visualize everything that the author describes, as this will help to establish a sense of tone, mood, and place. When I saw the words “no two ways about it,” I pictured a down-‐home, folksy type; when I read, “her victims did not share her enthusiasm,” I pictured Benedict Cumberbatch as the narrator -‐-‐ refined, sardonic, and very British. Clearly, the words used can go a long way in evoking a very particular image. Extra Practice As you read, think about how the writer uses words to convey information. Take a look at this following example, paying attention to how s/he structures and words Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 111
112 the argument. If possible, try to visualize the person who wrote this piece. Use their words to get a sense for how they feel and what they think about the topic in question: The recent exclusion of the Harry Potter series from your newspaper’s Best Books Ever Written list is an unqualified travesty. I am outraged and confused that your magazine would choose to exclude such a seminal work of literature from the Western canon. The Harry Potter books rank among the best ever written, inspiring countless generations of children and inculcating them with a sense of wonder and delight. Rest assured that this snub will not be ignored; due to your lack of research and clearly unsound opinions, I am canceling my subscription effective immediately. What is the general tone of the article? A. Incensed B. Delighted C. Unqualified D. Distressed Though this question does not directly ask you to pinpoint one word or phrase, it asks you to consider the words used in this article as a whole. It should be fairly easy to determine that this writer is clearly not “delighted” (B). Nor is s/he “unqualified” -‐-‐ though this word is used in the piece, it is an adjective (meaning “total” or “complete”) for the “travesty” of the exclusion of Harry Potter from a Best Of list. It is clear that the writer is D, distressed -‐-‐ words like “outraged” and “confused” make that clear -‐-‐ but a better answer is A, “Incensed,” or angry. The writer is clearly more than just distressed -‐-‐ s/he is angry, threatening to cancel his/her subscription to the magazine and threatening “this snub will not be ignored.” This sounds like a lot more than just “distress.” As you read, make sure that you’re paying attention to the piece as a whole and considering the very best answer. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 112
113 Which quote from the article best conveys the author’s tone? A. “The Harry Potter books rank among the best ever written” B. “Due to your lack of research and clearly unsound opinions” C. “I am canceling my subscription” D. “The exclusion… is an unqualified travesty” This question is asking you HOW the writer has conveyed his/her tone of acute anger. Though each of the quotes is lifted directly from the text, only one best conveys a tone of rage. Clearly, A, while an important and closely held opinion, does not convey the author’s rage, but the author’s opinion about the Harry Potter series. B gets closer to the author’s rage, as it insults the writers in the magazines, but it does not contain any of the very strong language that the writer used in other parts of the selection. C contains a threat, but no strong language. Clearly, D is the best answer as it most effectively conveys the author’s sense of rage. Try practicing with a slightly less colorful selection from a history text: The senator had little to say about the barbarism of the crime, bizarrely choosing instead to direct his vitriol towards the victim and her family rather than the perpetrators, who were released on bail just two days after the attack. “I appeal to the American public tonight,” he stated in a press conference last Monday, “to ask why this girl was allowed to run amok after dark by herself.” What is the author’s opinion of the senator’s remarks? A. The author supports the senator’s appeal to the nation. B. The author believes the senator’s remarks are a barbaric crime. C. The author is bewildered and angered by the senator’s remarks. D. The author has no opinion on the senator’s remarks. In order to correctly answer this question, you must separate out the words that the author uses to refer to the senator, and the words that the author uses to refer to the Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 113
114 crime. You must understand also what the senator’s remarks WERE -‐-‐ refer to the quotes, which enclose the Senator’s words. (Understanding how this text is structured will come in useful here.) Be wary of answer choices that quote directly from the text -‐-‐ they may be trying to confuse you by drawing your attention to an irrelevant part of the selection. For example, Answer A contains the words “appeal to the nation,” which are lifted directly from the text. Yet there is absolutely no indication that the author supports this appeal; in fact, it is the senator who used the word ‘appeal,’ not the author. Answer B also directly refers to a quote from the text, but again, the “barbaric crime” has nothing to do with the senator’s words; the senator’s speech was a response to the crime. Option C is directly supported by the text, as s/he says that the senator “bizarrely” chose to direct his “vitriol” towards the victim. This use of the word "bizarre” in reference to the Senator’s choices showcases the author’s confusion about the politician’s actions; the use of the word “vitriol” (cruel or bitter criticism) also illustrates the author’s position. After all, the Senator is not actually being vitriolic; his language is not harsh enough for that. Yet clearly the author feels that the Senator’s remarks are so unfair that they border on abuse -‐-‐ a position that is clearly if subtly demonstrated throughout the piece. You may be tempted to say that D, the author has no opinion, but the word “bizarre,” again, demonstrates that this isn’t true. Let’s try once more; pay careful attention to how the author creates tone and mood here. Which words are the most useful in the creation of this scene? Which words best help you to visualize what the author is trying to convey? As the long slog towards establishing fair trade practices in Equatorial Kundu continues, there is a glimmer of hope on the horizon. The West African country has long been the focus of controversy for its corrupt practices regarding the mining of diamonds and the harvesting of coffee, but with the recent installation of reforming President Mbala Mbame, new legislation could change the way miners and harvesters are treated by internal and international trading entities. “We will no longer stand by Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 114
115 and watch the common people suffer,” President Mbame announced in a historic televised speech yesterday. “Equatorial Kundu is facing the dawn of a new day, and anyone who stands in our way will be dealt with summarily.” There is no word yet from the BPA, the rebel group that led riots in the streets in response to Mbame’s election, on how these new agreements will impact their flourishing black market economy, but Kundu’s army is on standby and the country is both tense and hopeful. How does the author paint a vivid image for the reader? A. S/he chose a strongly worded quote from the president of the country, which establishes a display of strength. B. S/he draws attention to the plight of the miners and harvesters, helping the audience to understand the dire economic conditions of Kundu. C. S/he speculates about the reprisals of the BPA, establishing a fearful tone for the piece. D. S/he uses multiple descriptive words, such as “slog,” “glimmer,” “tense,” and “hopeful” to establish Kundu’s general mood. Many of these choices seem as though they may be correct. For example, choice A is at least somewhat true -‐-‐ President Mbame’s speech was worded somewhat threateningly (“anyone who stands in our way will be dealt with summarily”). Yet the piece isn’t about the “display of strength” of the new president; it’s about the changing conditions in the country, and the possible hope of a revitalized economy for the lower classes. While President Mbame’s quote certainly evokes a mood, it does not help establish the mood of this piece. Option B is also attractive, but clearly not correct; the writer does not detail the plight of the harvesters or the miners at all. S/he mentions these low-‐income occupations, but does not use any evocative language whatsoever to describe their lifestyles or issues. C is also clearly incorrect; there is no speculation in the piece, only a statement of facts (that the army is on standby and that there has not yet been any contact from the rebel group). Finally, the author DOES use descriptive Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 115
116 words that clearly paint an image of Kundu as being on a long road to recovery; the word “slog” corresponds to the difficulties that the miners, harvesters, and new President face as they stand up to violent rebel groups and take back what is rightfully theirs. The word “glimmer of hope” corresponds to the “hope” mentioned at the end of the article but emphasizes that the battle hasn’t been won yet. The tension is palpable, and the writer reiterates it by detailing the struggles that President Mbame and his people will face in the future. As always with these types of questions, it is crucial that you pay close attention to what is stated, what can be reasonably inferred, and what is simply wild speculation. This will help you determine which words are most important in context. Some types of passages will make analyzing word choice easier than others. Different texts seek to do different things. For example, an objective piece that clearly lays out a number of facts without editorializing will not necessarily have lots of strong words you can point to as creating a tone, but a literary work or an editorial will certainly use all manner of rhetorical devices from strong language to evocative words in order to create meaning or mood. Remember that “rhetoric” means “argument,” so when analyzing arguments, be on the lookout for strong language and interesting, unusual, or particularly meaningful word choices.
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Analyzing Overall Text Structure It may not seem like it, but all texts, like houses, are constructed carefully and in a specific way. Even the most stream-‐of-‐consciousness modernist text has a structure and a plan; a lot of work goes into polished, professional writing, and it is safe to assume that there is a strong relationship between a text’s aims (what it is trying to do, say, convey) and the way it is organized. It can be helpful to think of a text like a house. Just as houses are built to accommodate the specific needs of the owner -‐-‐ taking into consideration climate, family size, and personal taste -‐-‐ texts are tailored to best convey specific information. For example, a narrative text that seeks to tell a story will be structured very differently from a persuasive text that seeks to inform or argue a point. Here are some text structures that may crop up on the new SAT: Narrative Texts There will be one reading from US and/or World Literature on the new SAT. It could be structured in a variety of ways, including: -‐a linear story, with a traditional plot arc (beginning, middle, end) -‐a non-‐linear story, told in flashbacks or switching between past, present, and future events -‐stream-‐of-‐consciousness (this is unlikely, as these types of texts are quite high-‐level and difficult to analyze, but it’s best to be prepared!) Regardless of the structure, the resulting text will most likely be heavy with description -‐-‐ adjectives, imagery, and other strategies intended to get the reader to think, feel, imagine, or visualize something. The author might center a piece directly around dialogue, letting the reader understand the character dynamics and predict the plot using only the characters’ words as a guidepost. For example, in Louisa May Alcott’s story Scarlet Stockings, the characters’ relationship and a probable sequence of events emerge clearly from the following dialogue: Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 117
118 "COME out for a drive, Harry?" "Too cold." "Have a game of billiards?" "Too tired." "Go and call on the Fairchilds?" "Having an unfortunate prejudice against country girls, I respectfully decline." "What will you do then?" "Nothing, thank you." And settling himself more luxuriously upon the couch, Lennox closed his eyes, and appeared to slumber tranquilly. Kate shook her head, and stood regarding her brother, despondently, till a sudden idea made her turn toward the window, exclaiming abruptly, "Scarlet stockings, Harry!" "Where?" and, as if the words were a spell to break the deepest day-‐dream, Lennox hurried to the window, with an unusual expression of interest in his listless face. "I thought that would succeed! She isn't there, but I've got you up, and you are not to go down again," laughed Kate, taking possession of the sofa. "Not a bad maneuver. I don't mind; it's about time for the one interesting event of the day to occur, so I'll watch for myself, thank you," and Lennox took the easy chair by the window with a shrug and a yawn. "I'm glad any thing does interest you," said Kate, petulantly, "though I don't think it amounts to much, for, though you perch yourself at the window every day to see that girl pass, you don't care enough about it to ask her name." "I've been waiting to be told." "It's Belle Morgan, the Doctor's daughter, and my dearest friend." "Then, of course, she is a blue-‐belle?" "Don't try to be witty or sarcastic with her, for she will beat you at that." "Not a dumb-‐belle then?" "Quite the reverse; she talks a good deal, and very well too, when she likes." Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 118
119 "She is very pretty; has anybody the right to call her 'Ma belle'?" "Many would be glad to do so, but she won't have any thing to say to them." "A Canterbury belle in every sense of the word then?" "She might be, for all Canterbury loves her, but she isn't fashionable, and has more friends among the poor than among the rich." "Ah, I see, a diving-‐bell, who knows how to go down into a sea of troubles, and bring up the pearls worth having." "I'll tell her that, it will please her. You are really waking up, Harry," and Kate smiled approvingly upon him. "This page of 'Belle's Life' is rather amusing, so read away," said Lennox, glancing up the street, as if he awaited the appearance of the next edition with pleasure. "There isn't much to tell; she is a nice, bright, energetic, warm-‐hearted dear; the pride of the Doctor's heart, and a favorite with every one, though she is odd. "How odd?" "Does and says what she likes, is very blunt and honest, has ideas and principles of her own, goes to parties in high dresses, won't dance round dances, and wears red stockings, though Mrs. Plantagenet says it's fast." "Rather a jolly little person, I fancy. Why haven't we met her at some of the tea-‐ fights and muffin-‐worries we've been to lately?" "It may make you angry, but it will do you good, so I'll tell. She didn't care enough about seeing the distinguished stranger to come; that's the truth." "Sensible girl, to spare herself hours of mortal dullness, gossip, and dyspepsia," was the placid reply. "She has seen you, though, at church and dawdling about town, and she called you 'Sir Charles Coldstream' on the spot. How does that suit?" asked Kate, maliciously. "Not bad, I rather like that. Wish she'd call some day, and stir us up." "She won't; I asked her, but she said she was very busy, and told Jessy Tudor, she wasn't fond of peacocks." "I don't exactly see the connection." Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 119
120 "Stupid boy! she meant you, of course." "Oh, I'm peacocks, am I?" "I don't wish to be rude, but I really do think you are vain of your good looks, elegant accomplishments, and the impression you make wherever you go. When it's worth while you exert yourself, and are altogether fascinating, but the 'I come -‐-‐ see -‐-‐ and -‐-‐ conquer' air you put on, spoils it all for sensible people." "It strikes me that Miss Morgan has slightly infected you with her oddity as far as bluntness goes. Fire away, it's rather amusing to be abused when one is dying of ennui." "That's grateful and complimentary to me, when I have devoted myself to you ever since you came. But every thing bores you, and the only sign of interest you've shown is in those absurd red hose. I should like to know what the charm is," said Kate, sharply. "Impossible to say; accept the fact calmly as I do, and be grateful that there is one glimpse of color, life, and spirit in this aristocratic tomb of a town." "You are not obliged to stay in it!" fiercely. "Begging your pardon, my dove, but I am. I promised to give you my enlivening society for a month, and a Lennox keeps his word, even at the cost of his life." "I'm sorry I asked such a sacrifice; but I innocently thought that after being away for five long years, you might care to see your orphan sister," and the dove produced her handkerchief with a plaintive sniff. "Now, my dear creature, don't be melodramatic, I beg of you," cried her brother, imploringly. "I wished to come, I pined to embrace you, and I give you my word, I don't blame you for the stupidity of this confounded place." Why does Louisa May Alcott choose to begin her story this way? A. The dialogue helps establish the characters, setting, and plot without too much exposition B. The dialogue reveals the tragic pasts of her orphaned narrators and helps establish a sense of sympathy C. The dialogue reveals what a cad Harry is, setting him up for the failure he Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 120
121 is likely to endure by the end of the story D. The dialogue helps establish a love triangle that is likely to be the focus of the story’s plot This question may not seem like it’s asking you about structure, but in fact that is exactly what it is doing -‐-‐ trying to get a sense for whether or not you understand WHY an author made a certain choice in writing a story and whether or not that choice is effective. (It also asks you to consider the author’s purpose as well as the relationship of one part of a story to the whole of the story -‐-‐ three skills for the price of one!) Consider the answer choices. Answer A is certainly correct -‐-‐ we do have a sense of the characters’ interests, relationships, and personality (Harry is a grouch with a crush, Kate is a sweetheart who loves and worries about her brother, and Belle is apparently perfect). But the key here is the “without too much exposition” -‐-‐ world-‐ building is difficult, and it takes skill to inundate the reader with information about the characters and plot without being boring or redundant. In effect, Alcott’s clever “in medias res” (in the middle of things) dialogue strategy plops the reader directly into the Lennoxes’ sitting room, eliminating the need for a tiresome introduction that would have gone something like this: Harry and Kate were brother and sister, but Harry had been away in France for five years and was pretty cranky about having to be back in a boring old town that he hated. And so forth. But let’s consider B. The specificity of the other answer choices certainly makes them tempting, but consider them closely: while it’s TRUE that Harry and Kate are orphaned, this is in no way the purpose or entirety of their dialogue. They mention it once, towards the end of the selection, and while the background helps establish a sense of context, it is in no way the focus of the piece. Nor does Harry come off as being particularly sympathetic, and Kate doesn’t need the tragic orphan detail to become sympathetic -‐-‐ everything she does, from striving to set up her brother and her best friend to her strategy of caring for her brother, establishes her as a Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 121
122 sympathetic character. So beware of extreme specificity -‐-‐ with questions like this, which ask about a piece as a whole, generalized answers will often work better than specific ones. C’s flaw is similar to B’s; it is simply too specific, plus there isn’t a ton of support/evidence for it. Yes, Harry’s kind of a cad -‐-‐ but it’s highly unlikely that his sister, who clearly loves and cares about him and her best friend, would be plotting to set the two up if she didn’t think they would work well together. Plus, there’s simply no evidence that the two won’t hit it off -‐-‐ in fact, the evidence is to the contrary, since the chances are that you’ve seen some variant of this “good girl reforms bad boy” trope before. Scratch C. Ditto D. You may be tempted to pick this one because the dialogue does indeed establish a love story that is integral to the story’s plot. But please beware of this expression “love triangle.” As of now, there are only two players in this potential love story -‐-‐ Harry and Belle. Kate certainly isn’t part of the love triangle, as she’s Harry’s sister and playing matchmaker, not striving for the romantic affection of either party. Pay attention to small details like this. Narrative texts may also be structured a-‐chronologically, utilizing literary devices such as flashbacks, flash forwards/foreshadowing, or internal dialogue. For example, look at this following excerpt, which is heavy on internal dialogue: “I hate this stupid place,” thought Princess Bluebell to herself as she trudged up the stairs to her new boarding school, The KAPS Academy for Young Heroines. “I hate horses,” she thought murderously, eyeing the portraits of noble steeds that lined the hallways. “They smell terrible. I hate archery,” she continued, looking askance at the bust of Diana the Huntress that dominated the front entryway. “It gives me splinters. And I hate, hate, hate that the whole aim of this stupid school is to teach me how to be my own hero instead of waiting around for my handsome prince.” At this, she sighed, pulling out her wallet-‐size Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 122
123 photo of Charming, the handsome prince next door who was no doubt going to stop loving her when she came back to the castle over summer break, all tanned and strong and able to rescue herself instead of languishing pale and malnourished in some attic tower guarded by a dragon. Everyone knew princes had no use for strong girls. He would stop loving her in an instant! “Well, I just won’t learn anything,” she swore, “and Mom and Dad will let me come home after a semester and finally send me off to that witch who’s been agitating to keep me locked in a tower until I turn 16 and Charming can come rescue me. Everyone wants me to be master of my own fate. I’ll beat them at their game!” A wicked smile curved her lips, and she headed up the stairs to her first class, Damsels, Maidens, and Other Helpless Twits: Defying the Stereotypes and Daring to Be Your Own Hero, determined not to learn a single thing. What is the primary effect of this internal dialogue on the structure of the text as a whole? A. The internal dialogue establishes Bluebell as a sympathetic character and invites the reader to admire her master plan B. The internal dialogue establishes Bluebell as a foolish character deserving of mockery and invites the reader to laugh at her C. The internal dialogue establishes an arc for plot and character development D. The internal dialogue establishes the passionate love story sure to ensue between Bluebell and Charming Again, remember that in questions about text structure, general is (generally) better than super-‐specific. Pay attention also to the word “primary” -‐-‐ what is the MAIN effect, or the MAIN purpose of this internal dialogue? A may be half-‐plausible (it’s possible that the author wants to portray Bluebell as a sympathetic character, though from the gently mocking tone it’s fairly clear this isn’t entirely the case) but surely the second clause of the sentence (“invites the reader to admire her master
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124 plan”) will make it easy to scratch A, as Bluebell’s plan is fairly foolish and trades heavily in antiquated stereotypes about femininity. B is plausible too, but not entirely likely -‐-‐ after all, the question asks about the PRIMARY effect of the internal dialogue. We may be invited to roll our eyes a little bit at Bluebell, but it is unlikely that the author would have written this piece specifically to make fun of the main character as this is a fairly big waste of everyone’s time and makes for a less than enjoyable reading experience. So while this could have been a plausible choice had the question not been asking about the PRIMARY effect of this dialogue, it isn’t entirely likely to be the main reason the author uses this literary device. C, again, is a nice general answer and entirely true -‐-‐ this sets Bluebell up to probably revise her thinking, and also gives us a source of conflict / tension, which help propel the plot forward. D is unlikely; there is certainly a love interest, but it’s hard to say what will ensue between Bluebell and Charming, especially considering that she is about to (probably) go through some very intense changes to her worldview. So again, the general answer that focuses on the CRAFT -‐-‐ the underlying structure -‐-‐ of a story rather than a specific element of the story. Expository Texts Expository texts will make up the bulk of the passages on the new SAT, so it’s important to understand how their structures will affect their content. As discussed in a previous article, there are multiple types of expository text structures, and several ways to determine what they are. Sometimes texts will fall into easy-‐to-‐spot structures (chronological, cause and effect, compare and contrast), all of which are briefly reviewed here. But there are multiple devices that authors use to frame arguments and ideas that don’t necessarily fit into these three neat categories, or that utilize elements from one or more of them in order to effectively establish a claim. Those will be reviewed as well.
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125 Chronology A piece that is structured chronologically or sequentially will have all sorts of “time” words to indicate the sequence of events: first, last, second, last Tuesday, then, afterwards, before. Writers often use this type of structure to frame a journalistic piece whose purpose is to accurately convey information in the order in which it happened. This is useful in pieces about current events (or historical events), where dates and times are very important as they influence whatever will happen next. For example, check out this article on the history of space exploration, from aerospace.org. As you read, make note of all the chronological signal words: Humans have dreamed about spaceflight since antiquity. The Chinese used rockets for ceremonial and military purposes centuries ago, but only in the latter half of the 20th century were rockets developed that were powerful enough to overcome the force of gravity to reach orbital velocities that could open space to human exploration. As often happens in science, the earliest practical work on rocket engines designed for spaceflight occurred simultaneously during the early 20th century in three countries by three key scientists: in Russia, by Konstantin Tsiolkovski; in the United States, by Robert Goddard; and in Germany, by Hermann Oberth. In the 1930s and 1940s Nazi Germany saw the possibilities of using long-‐ distance rockets as weapons. Late in World War II, London was attacked by 200-‐mile-‐range V-‐2 missiles, which arched 60 miles high over the English Channel at more than 3,500 miles per hour. After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union created their own missile programs. On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into space. Four years later on April 12, 1961, Russian Lt. Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth in Vostok 1. His flight Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 125
126 lasted 108 minutes, and Gagarin reached an altitude of 327 kilometers (about 202 miles). The first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1, went into orbit on January 31, 1958. In 1961 Alan Shepard became the first American to fly into space. On February 20, 1962, John Glenn’s historic flight made him the first American to orbit Earth. “Landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth within a decade” was a national goal set by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. On July 20, 1969, Astronaut Neil Armstrong took “a giant step for mankind” as he stepped onto the moon. Six Apollo missions were made to explore the moon between 1969 and 1972. Recognizing these signal words will help you better understand the structure of the text -‐-‐ and will also help you to answer questions that ask specifically about a sequence of events. For example, a question may ask you about the first person to enter space, the first American to orbit Earth, the first person to step on the moon -‐-‐ all distinct characters. You will have to pay attention to the signal words and the dates in order to answer those questions accurately. A question about the structure of the text may ask you something like: Why does the author choose to introduce the article with the example of ancient Chinese ceremonial rockets? A, These were the first rockets into space, and as such they are notable and relevant to an article about space exploration B, The article is about Chinese space exploration, and so these rockets are a valuable precursor to the article as they help to better understand the timeline C, These rockets are a successful framing device that help to introduce the history of space exploration, from rockets that tried and failed to reach space
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127 to rockets that landed human beings on the moon D, The use of the Chinese rockets example is irrelevant to the text as a whole Of course, using what you already know about text structure -‐-‐ go general, think about craft and purpose, and pay close attention -‐-‐ it is pretty clear that C is the best answer. A is incorrect as the article clearly states that these ancient rockets didn’t reach space; B is clearly incorrect because the Chinese are not mentioned as being pioneers of space exploration; and D simply isn’t true because the example is indeed relevant in kicking off the article.
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128 The new SAT may also focus on questions such as: What is the effect of using multiple dates in this article to introduce different events? A. The use of dates imparts information in the simplest, most objective, and most historically accurate way B. The use of dates is meant to demonstrate how many years it took for Americans to achieve space flight C. The use of dates is meant to highlight Soviet achievement at the expense of American achievement D. The use of dates is meant to demonstrate that it has been a long time since the American economy could support exploratory space flight This question asks you to analyze why an author chose a specific structure, and potentially to evaluate whether this choice was the most effective one. Again, using our strategy of being GENERAL and focusing on CRAFT and STRUCTURE rather than specific pieces of content, it should be fairly clear that A is the only correct answer. The objective tone of the article (it uses no laudatory adjectives and offers no opinions, just lays out facts) makes it obvious that the author is not interested in criticizing or lauding either the Americans or the Soviets, eliminating B and C. And there is simply no support in the article for D, as there is no mention of the economy.
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129 Cause and Effect Use of the cause and effect structure is especially prevalent in science or history articles that seek to explain or understand specific phenomena. This structure quickly becomes evident with words like “due to,” “thanks to,” “because of,” “leading to,” “resulting in” and the like. This article about diversity on television uses a very subtle cause and effect structure; as you read, pay attention to words that signal a cause and an effect. Though the demographics represented on television have shifted -‐-‐ with greater representation of blended, mixed, or minority families -‐-‐ there is still work to be done. Blonda Thimes, the creative mastermind behind such long-‐running blockbuster hits as Shay’s Anatomy, Disaster, and How to Get Away With A Terrible Crime, has often been credited for bringing minority actors to the forefront of American television. Lauded for her “color-‐blind” casting, Thimes had a lot to say when we contacted her on Thursday. “It’s pretty sad,” Blonda says, “that in 2014 it’s still somehow notable or strange that a black woman is a heroine or a main character instead of a sassy friend or sidekick.” Thimes’ casting has also led to a minor revolution in the representation of gay and lesbian characters on television, as her shows focus on diverse representations that stray quite far from stereotypical depictions of this minority group. Thimes called these stereotypes “lazy, pathetic writing” and claimed that they are “responsible for mass social ignorance.” Now, there are multiple causes and effects here, so pay close attention to how the author chooses to present the multiple factors that went into this article. According to the article, what is the main effect of Thimes’ “color-‐blind” casting? A. Her work has received acclaim and success B. She has been lauded by critics
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130 C. American television is more diverse than ever before D. Stereotypical depictions of the GLBT community have lessened Now, pay close attention to the word “main effect,” because while A is true, it clearly isn’t the focus of the article. B is also true -‐-‐ in fact, it is nearly identical to A -‐-‐ but it also isn’t the focus of the article. C is clearly true (the article states she has “led to” a minor revolution and she has been “credited with” -‐-‐ i.e. she has caused -‐-‐ greater representation of minority actors on television), so this is clearly the best answer. D is tricky, because while Thimes has been credited with positively representing the gay community, this does not mean that other shows have suddenly stopped utilizing reductive stereotypes. An increase in positive representation does NOT equal a decrease in negative representation, so be careful of false effects like this and take care to pay attention to the underlying structure of the article. Compare and Contrast Many articles will utilize comparison and contrast in order to effectively convey a point. Compare and contrast can be quite subtle; while signal words like “worst,” “best,” “like,” “dissimilar,” and others can set up parallels, authors can signal a compare and contrast structure by using disparate examples that ask the reader to think about the elements that are implicitly being compared. Take a look at this article from the New York Times and note the multiple instances of compare and contrast: “Teenagers… might not be needing their social networks in the way that you or I as adults might really need our social networks,” Emily White, author of the book “Lonely: Learning to Live With Solitude,” told Op-‐ Talk. When she and her spouse separated, she said, “I needed help in all sorts of ways, and if that help hadn’t been there I would’ve felt lonely, whereas if I was 16 and you asked me after drama class whether my social support network mattered a lot to me, my answer might have been no.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 130
131 She also floated a potential explanation for the finding that students’ self-‐ reported loneliness dropped even as social network isolation increased. Environmentalists, she said, sometimes use the term “environmental amnesia.” “What it means is that every generation is born into a more degraded ecosystem,” she explained, “and they take that degraded ecosystem as their baseline, and they adjust to it.” Maybe teenagers today have a sort of “social amnesia” — “I’m wondering if these high-‐school students have had weaker support networks their whole lives, and so they’re reporting less loneliness because that’s what they’re used to.” The first paragraph contains a fairly obvious type of comparison and contrast; teenagers and adults clearly process loneliness in different ways and rely on social networks in different amounts at different points in their lives. But it’s the second paragraph that interestingly and implicitly compares teenagers and adults. The word “weaker” should have you thinking “Weaker than WHAT?” and striving to answer that question -‐-‐ what are the elements being compared here? Relational words like this are always a signal that SOMETHING is being compared and contrasted. The “degraded ecosystem” should also be a clue -‐-‐ clearly, this researcher is highlighting a difference in the “Social ecosystem” a teenager in 2014 and a teenager in, say, 1994. Understanding that this text has a cause and effect structure will help you to answer questions about it with greater accuracy. How does Emily White explain the fact that teenagers face increased social isolation yet report less loneliness? A. She argues that there is no connection between social isolation and loneliness B. She gives the example of separating from her spouse to demonstrate that teens don’t feel loneliness the way adults do C. She claims students do not need social networks to get over loneliness D. She uses a cross-‐disciplinary example to demonstrate that teens don’t understand loneliness and support the way older generations do. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 131
132 In essence, this question asks you to figure out WHY this argument was structured this way -‐-‐ why did White first lead with her example about being 16, and then go into an example? What, in essence, is she trying to establish by presenting her argument in this fashion? A clearly cannot be correct as White is obviously not claiming that there is no connection between social isolation and loneliness; in fact, she strives to explain their relationship by giving the example of the degraded ecosystem. If there were no relationship between the two, why would White try to explain it? Clearly, A is incorrect. B could be plausible, but read carefully -‐-‐ she didn’t say teens don’t feel lonely like adults do. She said teens don’t need social networks like adults do. Those are two separate issues, according to the article. C is also incorrect -‐-‐ there is no support for this in the article. She never once says that teens do not need social networks to get over loneliness, only that they view social networks differently than adults do. D is the best answer by process of elimination, but also because it is true -‐-‐ she DOES use a cross-‐disciplinary example that illustrates that the older generation has a “better” ecosystem in terms of relationships, loneliness, and social networks, which helps to explain why teens view these differently from adults and why their loneliness has dropped as their isolation has increased. The way those two factors interact is different today (she claims) than it was twenty years ago, before the rise of the internet. The comparison and contrast is subtle here, and often the new SAT will rely on this subtlety in order to potentially confuse you. Be on the lookout for words that subtly signal relationships (weak ER, strong ER, etc.) as they should lead you to look for and try to understand the elements that are being compared. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 132
133 Use of Quotes and Dialogue Chronological and relational signal words are simple to spot, but not every piece of journalism will come with a helpful string of dates, times, causes, effects, and comparisons. To make a piece interesting and informative, writers will often interview experts, eyewitnesses, and other people of interest who will bolster (or contradict) whatever claims the article is making. Articles like this are certainly more interesting than a dry string of dates and facts, but they can be confusing to follow as different experts can have different opinions and you need to differentiate between who is saying what, and in what context. For example, look at the following article from the Atlantic, on the importance of field trips: What if those field trips actually had a proven, tangible benefit to student learning? That’s the premise set out in a new study by Jay Greene, a professor of education reform at the University of Arkansas. Greene evaluated 670 students, who were divided into two groups. The first group of students was chosen at random to see a live theater performance of either Hamlet or A Christmas Carol. The second group either read the texts of the plays or watched film versions. When compared with their peers in the second group, the students who attended live theater scored significantly higher on a vocabulary test that incorporated language from plays, and they were also better able to answer questions about the plot and characters, according to Greene's findings. The live theater group also scored higher on tests that measured their tolerance of diverse points of view and ability to detect emotions in other people. Those gains were still measurable six weeks after students attended the live theater performance, Greene said. "Schools are increasingly focused on the things that we’ve told them to be Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 133
134 focused on, namely improving math and reading test scores," Greene told me. "Anything that isn’t directly related to that doesn’t attract as much of their attention, their resources, or their time." In metro Atlanta, field trips are being used as both a means of reinforcing classroom instruction and providing students with new experiences. "It’s important for [students] to learn the standards and perform well on these standardized tests," Jason Marshall, a principal at an elementary school in the Atlanta area, told the Atlanta Journal-‐Constitution. "But I think the way we’ve always approached it is the day they take a test is really just a snapshot of what they learn. We’re interested in them learning much more about their community, … their state, country, world and how all those things are interconnected." A question about text structure for an article like this may ask you what a specific expert says, forcing you to ensure that you understand and can differentiate between one expert’s opinion and another’s (or the expert’s opinion and the opinion of the writer). Keep your eyes peeled for quotes and make sure that you mark down who is saying what, as the use of multiple quotes from multiple sources can often confuse students about who is saying what and why they are saying it. For example, try this question: Based on the quotes from educators in this article, how would a high-‐ school principal approach field trips (leaving aside concerns about cost)? A. There is not enough information in this article to answer this question B. A high school principal would most likely be opposed to a field trip, as it would distract students and take away instructional time C. A high school principal would only support field trips to go see Shakespearean plays
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135 D. A high school principal would be invested in the concept of an educational field trip as it encourages different forms of learning. The first thing you must do when answering this question is find the quotes from educators so that you can make a reasonable inference about how a principal might feel. (Yes, questions about text structure often require some inferences -‐-‐ authors generally do not spell out WHY they make certain choices in writing, leaving it to the reader to figure it out for themselves.) Leave A for now -‐-‐ let’s consider the other answer choices and whether or not they are supported by the article before we decide whether or not there is enough information in the article to answer the question. There is support for B in the quote “Schools are focused on the things that we’ve told them to be focused on… anything that isn’t directly related… doesn’t attract as much of their attention.” But if you continue reading (and paying attention to the way this article is structured, with quotes introducing and FRAMING an issue), then it becomes clear that this isn’t the be-‐all, end-‐all of quotes when it comes to how principals feel about field trips. Look at the quote from the principal in the last paragraph: “The day they take the test is just a snapshot;” “we’re interested in them learning much more about their community…” This doesn’t sound like the perspective of a person opposed to educational field trips, plus it goes hand in hand with the previous statements about field trips being educationally useful. So while B is somewhat plausible if you refer only to one quote from the article, the end quote from an actual school principal, coupled with the statements about the positive effects of field trips, work together to make it clear that B cannot be the answer. C is too specific; while the research focused on plays, the principal quoted in the last paragraph makes no distinction between the types of field trips and the specific content knowledge that his school cares most about imparting. D is best supported by the principal’s statement in the last paragraph -‐-‐ if his school cares most about supporting different types of learning, then a field trip with multiple educational Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 135
136 outcomes is actually the ideal. Clearly, there was enough information in the article to answer the question, so A cannot be correct. The Structure of an Argument Finally, many of the texts on the new SAT will focus on rhetoric: claims, counterclaims, and arguments. Later articles will focus with greater specificity and detail on these issues, but as they are closely related to structure, it is important to be able to identify them. Writers will often set up an argument by: 1. Establishing a claim 2. Defending that claim 3. Potentially addressing other claims / opinions 4. Demonstrating why those other opinions are incorrect Steps 1 and 2 are essential. Steps 3 and 4 are optional and you will not always see them. But it is essential that you learn to identify the structure of an argument and understand how a claim is established and defended. Look at this article and try to understand what this writer is agitating for, and whether the structure of this argument is effective: “But if the University wants us to take its strictures seriously, the least it can do is pretend to listen to our demands. We are being asked to fork over increasingly high tuitions each year, to partake in the mandatory (and expensive) dining and boarding plan for the sake of “communal class bonding,” and to participate in community-‐building exercises that benefit no one and alienate a significant percentage of the student body. The University would do well to consider that it endangers the future contributions of its alumni base with its attitude towards its students, which is one of shameless financial wrangling and gross neglect.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 136
137 How does the structure of this argument help to create a tone of indignation? A. The author clearly establishes her indignation by ending the letter with a subtle threat to the university B. The author clearly establishes her indignation with the use of informal language such as “fork over” C. The author clearly establishes her indignation by placing certain words in quotations to indicate disdain D. The author clearly establishes her indignation by making a specific complaint and enumerating the reasons for it This is an interesting question because it doesn’t ask you to evaluate the claim or even to evaluate whether the structure helps establish the claim; instead it asks you to assess how the structure helps to create a tone. This is a “double whammy” question that gets at skills like analyzing word choice as well as analyzing structure. Have a look at the answer choices. A is tempting because it is partially true -‐-‐ the author DOES end the letter with a subtle threat -‐-‐ but it is clear well before this threat in the last sentence that she is unhappy. Therefore she doesn’t ESTABLISH her indignation in the last sentence, just CEMENTS it. Pay attention to distinctions like this because they could be the difference between choosing the right answer and choosing a plausible distractor. B is implausible; use of words like “fork over” makes the author sound a little bit folksy, but doesn’t necessarily establish a sense of indignation. It’s not like “fork over” is the exclusive phrase of people who are unhappy with a specific financial situation. C is interesting; it’s clear from the quotes that the author doesn’t think much of this so-‐called “communal class bonding,” but she doesn’t spend much time critiquing it, nor does she establish her indignation by using this phrase -‐-‐ her indignation was
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138 established well before, in the first sentence. So C can’t be correct. D is the only obvious choice -‐-‐ not only is it the most all-‐encompassing/general, it also best reflects the structure of this article and argument. There are multiple types of text structures; this is just a sampling. But if you take away anything from this article, it should be to pay attention to the subtleties and signal words. They are often the key to unlocking the entire piece.
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Analyzing Part-Whole Relationships As discussed in the previous article, rhetoric relies heavily on a well-‐constructed argument. It’s important that you can analyze the structure of the text as a whole, but it’s equally important to be able to pull out specific parts of the text and analyze how they relate or fit in with the rest of the structure. Think of texts like tapestries, or Jenga towers: every element needs to be balanced and well-‐considered, or else the finished whole can unravel completely. There are essential functions that each small part of the text must fulfill: 1. Logic / setup → every element of the text must fit together logically and clearly. 2. Focus → every element of the text should stay on point; this is especially important in an expository text. 3. Support → every element of the text should be doing something: introducing a topic, supporting a claim, countering a claim, establishing evidence, describing a feature, outlining… 4. Inform →Is this sentence informing you about something? A setting, a character, a piece of research, an opinion? If it isn’t, consider its purpose. It may not belong there. The new SAT may ask you about the function of a word within a sentence (as discussed here), a sentence within a paragraph, or a paragraph within a larger text, so it’s important to understand the function of the larger element as well as the function of the smaller element. Here are some common types of part/whole questions the new SAT will focus on:
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140 Sentence-‐to-‐Paragraph Relationships Logic / Set-‐up In order to ensure that you fully comprehend structure, the new SAT will often ask you what a sentence is “doing” in the middle of a paragraph. You’ll have to analyze the surrounding context in order to correctly answer these, as not every sentence functions in the same way within a paragraph. For example, an expository essay may start with an introductory or topic sentence that reveals the purpose or subject of the paragraph, while a narrative selection will kick off with a first sentence that helps to characterize or describe someone. These bits of text are doing the hard work of “set-‐up,” and often they set the tone for the rest of the piece. For example, look at the first sentences of these two separate paragraphs and try to figure out their functions and relationship to the paragraph as a whole: Lupita didn’t much care for bees, but she wasn’t going to sit idly by and watch as Bobby Valente -‐-‐ by all accounts the biggest jerk in the entire seventh grade -‐ -‐ smashed this one with the edge of his Understanding New Horizons! science textbook. “You can’t just kill something just because you don’t like it,” she informed him, edging close and blocking the bee from his reach. Bobby eyed her strangely. “But it’s a bee,” he said. “It might hurt us first.” -‐-‐-‐-‐ (from Wikipedia) Bees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. The most advanced of these are eusocial colonies found among the honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees. Sociality, of several different types, is believed to have evolved separately many times within the bees. In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labor within the group, then they are considered semi social. It should be pretty obvious that these two paragraphs do NOT have the same purpose. Their tones are different, their subject matter is different, and their organization is different. Therefore, if we break down these paragraphs into their Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 140
141 component parts, we won’t find that every sentence corresponds in function and type. Therefore, beware of falling into traps like “the first sentence always introduces a topic.” This may be true SOMETIMES, or for CERTAIN types of passages, but it all depends on the surrounding context. What is the purpose of the first sentence in the first selection? A. To provide a thesis statement for a larger argument B. To demonstrate Lupita’s feelings about bees C. To establish a conflict between bees and humans D. To flesh out a character It should be fairly clear from the selection that this selection is not making an argument, and as such does not require a thesis statement to establish a claim. You can get rid of answer A. While B is semi-‐plausible, this does not seem to be the focus of the selection -‐-‐ the sentence states that Lupita “didn’t care for” bees, yet she campaigned for the bee’s rights/safety anyway. This says more about Lupita than about Lupita’s actual feelings about bees. Keep B until you can eliminate C and D. C is clearly incorrect -‐-‐ there isn’t actually a conflict here between bees and humans; if there were, Lupita wouldn’t be agitating to save the bee. D is the best answer, because what actually matters in this paragraph (and this sentence) is the establishment of a character who cares about the helpless and isn’t afraid to stand up to the “biggest jerk in the entire seventh grade” in order to defend her beliefs, even though these beliefs might be unpopular. You get more information about Lupita here than about Lupita’s feelings about bees or the conflict between bees and humans, which is a pretty good indicator that D is the best answer. When in doubt, consider the answer choices in terms of the information they impart; the one that seems like it imparts the most relevant information will probably be the right answer. What is the function of the first sentence in the second paragraph? A. To introduce various specialized terms and vocabulary that will be used in Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 141
142 the article B. To lend support for an argument C. To set up the purpose and topic of the paragraph. D. To counter a claim If you read the first sentence of the second article carefully, you’ll see that there is no specialized vocabulary until the second sentence; here, the question-‐writers are hoping you’ll see the word “introduce,” stop reading, and pick A. This is a bad strategy. Read the whole question and the whole answer. B can’t be right since there is no preceding argument, so the first sentence can’t support an argument that doesn’t exist. C is obviously true -‐-‐ the second paragraph is all about the different types of communities in which bees live, and the first sentence clearly indicates this. D, like B, can’t be correct since there is no preceding argument or claim to support or refute. Focus Every text has (or should have) a focus -‐-‐ in essence, a “point.” And every component of the text (sentences, paragraphs, etc) should reinforce the central point -‐-‐ or introduce new points for consideration. Think of texts almost like interlocking puzzle pieces -‐-‐ every sentence should “fit” in some way with the one before it, so even if a sentence is introducing a new point, it shouldn’t come out of nowhere. For example, here are two examples of excerpts, one of which keeps its focus and one of which doesn’t: 1. The books were organized alphabetically. There was a gap on the shelf between Melville and Milton, where Mencken had been pulled out. 2. The books were organized alphabetically. Cheese is delicious. It’s not too difficult to see that retaining focus is important, or else the reader will give up. The excerpt below contains a good example of an excerpt that shifts focus subtly, without descending into incoherence. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 142
143 Vampires -‐-‐ in all their various incarnations -‐-‐ are dead. The pale, the tortured, the lonely, the en-‐souled, the menacing, even the sparkling: as a romantic trope or an object of nightmares, vampires have had their moment in the sun, and their long dark night has finally come. They are dead, but our obsession with the supernatural isn’t. In short order, hopeful Young Adult writers and cynical movie producers have foisted upon us every half-‐baked example of the liminal, undead, or unknown: zombies, ghosts, half-‐demons, fallen angels, werewolves, rockstars masquerading as college students… What these varyingly successful attempts to breathe new life into the “creature story” fail to understand, however, is that it is the human monster that is the scariest, the darkest, the most intense… and ultimately the most interesting. How does the first sentence establish the tone of the rest of the article? (logic/set-‐up) A. By dispassionately stating a fact, therefore creating an objective, journalistic tone B. By passionately declaiming, therefore creating a fiery tone C. By including a pun, therefore creating a dry tone D. By utilizing a dependent clause within the two hyphens, therefore creating a digressive tone This question asks you to consider the first sentence in context of the rest of the article; you must pick out specific words and phrases that establish a tone in order to accurately answer the question. Consider Option A. The sentence does, in some way, include a fact -‐-‐ vampires are indeed dead. But the tone in the remainder of the article is hardly objective; the author uses a lot of strong language (“foisted upon us,” “half baked,” “varyingly successful,” “fail to understand,”) to establish a clear and obvious opinion. Answer A can therefore not be correct. (This is why it pays to read the entire answer choice!) B is clearly incorrect: the author does not passionately declaim in the first sentence, even though parts of the selection do Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 143
144 indeed utilize fiery language. C is correct -‐-‐ there is a pun here (vampires are dead in the literal sense, but they are also “dead” in the sense that they are culturally irrelevant), and the tone of the article is indeed dry (the quote “vampires have had their moment in the sun” and the inclusion of “rockstars masquerading as college students” in a list of undead/unknown creatures both indicate that the writer has a somewhat wry sense of humor about this topic.) D is half-‐correct as well -‐-‐ there is a dependent clause hidden within those two hyphens -‐-‐ but it does not necessarily create a digressive tone, as the article stays on focus the whole time, demonstrating that vampires were once culturally relevant and now no longer are, or should be. Don’t be impressed by D’s “grammar-‐speak;” this is the SAT’s transparent attempt to try and trick you into choosing an answer just because it sounds like it might be right. Which sentence in the selection introduces a shift in focus? A. “The pale, the tortured, the lonely...” because it shifts the focus of the article back to when vampires were culturally relevant. B. “They are dead…” because it shifts its focus from vampires to other creatures. C. “In short order…” because it shifts the focus of the article to writers and movie producers D. “What these varyingly successful attempts…” because it introduces the author’s premise This is a difficult question because it asks you both to understand what the focus of the article is as well as how the author creates a subtle shift in focus. From reading the paragraph, it should be clear that the focus of the article isn’t necessarily going to remain on vampires, so you need to be able to make a logical inference about where the focus of the article will later rest. Look at A. The second sentence of the article is still about vampires, and in fact categorizes all these different types of vampires in order to demonstrate that yes, all Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 144
145 of them are now culturally irrelevant (“their long dark night has finally come”), so A can’t be correct. B reinforces the idea that vampires are dead, and introduces creatures who, like vampires, command our attention as a culture -‐-‐ perhaps signaling a shift from vampires to other creatures. B is actually a good answer, so let’s keep it in our back pocket until we read the other answer choices. C is an example of a thought that B introduces, so it can’t be the “shift,” because it’s dependent on another sentence. D, however, is the best answer -‐-‐ it shifts away from vampires and all the other supernatural creatures that our culture is obsessed with, and establishes a premise -‐ -‐ that all of these books and films about supernatural creatures are missing a treasure trove of literary inspiration (from humans). D indicates (correctly) that the preceding example of vampires just serves to introduce or set up the premise -‐-‐ that the human psyche could be a darker/better inspiration for literature than made-‐up creatures. Though B is a good answer, D is better. Support Expository texts will make claims; a good expository text will support those claims. The SAT will test your understanding of how these supports / evidence work. For example, it is pretty clear from the following two examples that the second sentence supports the first by giving some sort of reason or explanation for it: •
I hate animals. They smell bad.
Don’t be fooled by sentences like this, though, which look like they are making a well-‐supported claim: •
The person who wrote the above sentence is clearly a sad, sad human being. Animals are awesome.
While both sentences are true, the writer doesn’t take the time to demonstrate the relationship between them, leaving the reader to make the connection. But in truth, Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 145
146 these are two disparate clauses that have nothing to do with one another -‐-‐ so make sure that the sentences actually do support each other. Test your understanding of supports with the following excerpt: Team Voldemort is not exactly what it sounds like. This group of 12 fifteen-‐ year-‐old girls from British Columbia has no interest in magic, spells, or world domination -‐-‐ though they do often enter the field with two red slashes painted under their eyes. “It symbolizes the blood of our enemies,” says Katie Canuckie, the cheerful, pigtailed tenth-‐grade captain of the team. “We’re preparing for victory and we will win.” She flashes a smile that glints with heavy orthodontia. The award-‐winning girls’ lacrosse team, which has broken three international records with its 15-‐year winning streak, was renamed in 2002 to symbolize “that we should be taken seriously,” quoth Brenda Ballyhoo, the team’s coach and a former Olympic hopeful, who was behind the name change. “Look,” she says, speaking frankly, “people don’t take girls’ sports seriously. That is a documented fact. How much attention does the WNBA receive as compared to the NBA? How about women’s soccer in comparison to football, or to the World Cup nationwide? Women’s hockey as opposed to men’s? Face it: people don’t care about girls’ sports. Well, we’re here to change that. Our name might be cutesy, but we’re dead serious about our mission.” When asked whether she was concerned about the message that the name Team Voldemort sends, Brenda laughed darkly. “We’ll see who’s concerned when we’re done with our season.” Which sentence provides the best support for Brenda’s claim that “people don’t take girls’ sports seriously”? A. “Our name might be cutesy, but we’re dead serious about our mission.” B. “We’ll see who’s concerned when we’re done with our season.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 146
147 C. “That’s a documented fact.” D. “How much attention does the WNBA receive as compared to the NBA?” Ballyhoo’s assertion is that no one cares about girls’ sports. Claims made in A and B about the “dead serious-‐ness” of Team Voldemort are a response to the idea that “no one cares about girls’ sports,” NOT a refutation of it. C is a plausible choice -‐-‐ but it doesn’t actually support the claim because without actual statistics or verification, it’s an easy claim to make, and it doesn’t need to be proven in any way. The best answer for this question is D, because it provides an example of what Ballyhoo is talking about -‐-‐ she says that no one cares about girls’ sports and gives a clear example of a type of sport in which women are underrepresented or neglected by the public. How does the writer of the article support the assertion that “Team Voldemort” is “not what it sounds like”? A. By asking the coach whether she is concerned about the message implied by the team’s name B.By giving statistics about the team’s victories and awards C. By subtly contrasting the aims and attitudes of the team with Voldemort’s aims D. By describing Katie Canuckie’s orthodontia Often with “support” questions, the support for the assertion will be directly after the claim itself (which gets back to text organization/structure and focus -‐-‐ having the support placed too far from the claim would lead to confusion!) Look at A -‐-‐ at the end of the article (far away from the actual claim itself, which is made at the very beginning of the article), the writer asks the coach if she is concerned about the team’s name. But this question has little to do with the fact that the team “isn’t what it sounds like.” Giving statistics about the team’s victories and awards does paint the team positively (in contrast to the team name, which could be construed Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 147
148 negatively), but this contrast isn’t strong or explicit enough to provide support for the fact that Team Voldemort “isn’t what it sounds like.” C is plausible, however, as the author does contrast the attitudes of the team with Voldemort’s; the author states: “This group… has no interest in magic, spells, or world domination;” s/he may as well say “unlike Voldemort.” Describing Katie’s orthodontia does somewhat subtly set up a contrast between this innocent teenage girl and the menacing Voldemort, but again, as in B, this contrast isn’t strong or explicit enough to really be construed as “support” for this claim. Paragraph to Whole-‐Text Relationships The previous questions asked about the relationship between a sentence and a paragraph. Just as each sentence does its “work” within a paragraph, each paragraph has a specific function within the text as a whole. Obviously, however, paragraphs within literary texts will perform very different functions than paragraphs within expository texts. Still, each paragraph should be doing one or more of the following: •
Setting up a situation or claim
•
Supporting OR refuting a claim
•
Maintaining Focus
•
Informing
Each function will come with signal words. Some words that might be associated with greater support or refutations would be: because, in support of, therefore, thus, ergo, hence, due to this, moreover, additionally, as well, also, and, further, an example of this is… Pay attention to these words; they will most likely show up in non-‐fiction expository texts, as opposed to narrative works, but even narrative works have signal words Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 148
149 that indicate a paragraph’s function(s). As you read below, underline or annotate the words that seem to indicate the function of the paragraph. The following excerpt is a narrative piece. 1. I never considered myself an immigrant, though I was with my parents on the ten-‐hour Iberia flight from Casablanca to Newark that took us farther from home than any of us had ever been before. But a five-‐year-‐old is already an immigrant anyway, confronting confusing new rules and codes every time she leaves the house; maybe this was why I took to America so much more quickly than either of my parents. Or maybe I was always going to be “like an American,” trying desperately to find my way home. My parents’ wanderlust -‐-‐ not to mention the lack of economic opportunity in the Old Country -‐-‐ just took the guesswork out of it. 2. By the age of ten, my accent had melted away, my French was rusty enough to make my aunts click their tongues at my mother whenever I attempted transatlantic conversation, and though twice-‐weekly “Arabic school” had kept me functionally literate, my spelling was a disaster. 3. On the other hand, I excelled at my role as a mediator between my parents and the phalanx of bureaucrats who controlled seemingly every aspect of American life. From parent-‐teacher conferences (“Maman, my teacher wants to speak with you on Tuesday.” “Why? What have you done?!” “Nothing, I swear! They’re speaking to everyone’s parents!”) to doctor’s visits (“Baba, he says I need another shot.” “What, only one? Surely you’re at risk for more than one disease”), I became an expert navigator of the foibles, interests, and various idiocies of the adult world. 4. By the time I was sixteen, my parents’ English was, if not flawless, then at least less fractured than before. Certainly it was sufficient to embarrass me at every college fair we attended (naturally, my parents were obsessed with getting me into a “good college,” which to them meant Harvard and Harvard Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 149
150 only, watching me graduate from medical school, and then marrying me off to another doctor who had also graduated from Harvard; naturally, I was obsessed with piercing as much of my body as I could and studying photography. Thus far I had not made these desires known to either of them, but as we had learned in English class, “things fall apart.” If I were forced into another AP Biology or Chemistry class, the center would not only no longer hold, but would implode completely.) What is the relationship between the first and the fourth paragraph of this text? A. The fourth paragraph provides a counterexample to the first B. The fourth paragraph gives a thorough analysis of principles outlined in the first C. The fourth paragraph refutes the first paragraph D. The fourth paragraph expands in detail on the general principles outlined in the first paragraph Literary or narrative texts don’t often utilize the same rhetorical devices and strategies as other non-‐fiction texts, which may make your job of figuring out these questions much easier. After all, it’s pretty clear that this writer isn’t trying to persuade the reader, but instead to tell a story. Therefore, words like “thorough analysis,” “counterexample,” and “refute” won’t necessarily apply to works like this. You can automatically scratch A (there is no example, let alone a counterexample, to analyze here), B (there is no thorough analysis here) and C (this kind of narrative wouldn’t be interested in refuting itself -‐-‐ the author is telling a story, not trying to make a claim. It would be counterintuitive for the writer to try and refute herself!)Though D may not seem immediately obvious, it’s certainly the best answer -‐-‐ the general principle outlined in paragraph one is the idea of immigration, of being a foreigner in some sense, and of the narrator being “an American” by disposition. By the fourth paragraph, in which the narrator is disillusioned with her parents’ ideals and interested in expressing her individuality, it should be clear that Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 150
151 this is just a further example of the general idea expressed in paragraph one. Taken in context, what is the purpose of Paragraph 3? A. Paragraph 3 provides examples that vividly illustrate the narrator’s point B. Paragraph 3 further reinforces the points made in Paragraph 2 C. Paragraph 3 provides an analysis of the various ways that being an immigrant has changed the narrator D. Paragraph 3 provides a set-‐up for Paragraph 4 Look closely at these answer options and read carefully. As per Option A, paragraph 3 certainly is full of examples, as evidenced by the multiple parenthetical asides that humorously illustrate the author’s interactions with her parents as well as the other adults in her world. Keep answer A for now. Look at B. B requires that you also be familiar with paragraph 2, but Paragraph 2 simply states that the narrator no longer speaks French and Arabic with native proficiency. This does not mean, however, that the narrator would automatically be better equipped to deal with the adult American world than her parents; it simply means that she no longer speaks good French. In fact, Paragraph 3 goes in a completely different direction from Paragraph 2 -‐-‐ it gives examples about an entirely different part of the narrator’s life, so it can’t be taken as “reinforcement” of anything stated in Paragraph 2. C could be a good answer, but again -‐-‐ this isn’t an analysis so much as a list of examples. Additionally, we don’t know if this is a “change” in the narrator’s personality -‐-‐ all she has ever been is an immigrant -‐-‐ so C is in fact a fairly worthless answer to begin with. Lastly, look at D; while it’s tempting to assume that all paragraphs will be linearly linked, as they often are in expository texts, this is obviously not always the case, especially with literary narratives. Additionally, Paragraph 3 Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 151
152 does not set up Paragraph 4, as 3 documents how helpful the narrator is to her parents, and how she acted as a go-‐between, while Paragraph 4 discusses the fact that she now wishes to be her own person instead of playing a pre-‐ ordained part. Moreover, Paragraph 4 starts off with a transition (“by the time I was 16…”), which indicates that there’s a shift in perspective. A is the best answer. When answering questions like this, you must think critically about what each paragraph strives to do, not just what each paragraph says. Pay attention to the words that the writer uses; transition words that indicate the passing of time (as in Paragraph 4) or a change of opinion or topic (“on the other hand,” in Paragraph 3) will help you figure out whether a paragraph is setting up, expanding, extending, refuting, or shifting focus completely. Expository Texts There are multiple signal words that help indicate the purpose of each paragraph. As you may remember from the review of text structure, signal and relational words can indicate the type of text as a whole, which will help you understand what each paragraph is doing in service of the larger whole. For example, look at this chronologically structured text from the Public Library of Science Blogs Network, and figure out from the signal words what purpose each paragraph holds within the text as a whole: 1. Within 5 years… I think people will know what an exome is, because analyzing it will be as common as a CBC or blood lipid profile is today before visiting the doc. As costs decrease and gene discoveries increase, we’ve reached a tipping point, by definition when “a series of small changes or incidents becomes significant enough to cause a larger, more important change.” Until “exome” becomes a household world, clever studies are illuminating pioneering applications of the technology. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 152
153 2. The exome, the part of the genome that encodes protein, harbors 85% of disease-‐causing gene variants (we’re not supposed to say “mutation” anymore, but that’s what I mean). Results from several large studies have been published over the past 3 years, but a paper in last week’s Science Translational Medicine from Stephen Kingsmore’s group at Children’s Mercy–Kansas City offers the most promising results yet. 3. “It heralds the dawning of the new age of clinical genetics. We’ve been waiting for this to come around for 10 to 15 years, and it’s finally here,” says Robert Marion, MD, chief of the division of genetics at The Children’s Hospital at Montefiore and a developmental pediatrician at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, about the paper (he’s not part of the team). I devoured his book “Genetic-‐Rounds: A Doctor’s Encounters in the Field that Revolutionized-‐ Medicine.” 4. Last month, the Journal of the American Medical Association published findings of two ongoing prospective exome sequencing studies of individuals with symptoms suggesting an inherited condition. A group from UCLA diagnosed 213 of 814 (26%) cases that hadn’t been diagnosed clinically or with single-‐gene tests or panels. The 26% rose to 31% if parents had their exomes sequenced too. The second report, from Baylor College of Medicine, diagnosed 504 of 2000 (25.2%) patients. Both studies weren’t just children. As you may have noticed, there are multiple words here that signal that this is a chronological text (within 5 years, over the past 3 years, heralds the dawning of a new age, last month, etc.); knowing that this is a chronological text may help you understand the author’s purpose and therefore why she chose to structure this essay the way she did. What is the function of paragraph 2 within the larger text? A. Paragraph 2 illustrates the author’s larger point Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 153
154 B. Paragraph 2 provides a thesis for the rest of the text C. Paragraph 2 introduces a change in focus from Paragraph 1 D. Paragraph 2 summarizes the rest of the article Look at option A. To rule it out, you need to know what the author’s larger point is. Because this is an expository text, there is a good chance that this thesis statement resides somewhere in the first paragraph; sure enough, the first paragraph is home to the author’s claim that “exome” will soon become a household word thanks to its importance to medical science. Therefore, we now need to see whether Paragraph 2 illustrates this claim. Paragraph 2 gives a definition for the word and highlights its importance to medical science based on the past few studies on exomes. This does help illustrate that exome may become a household word (there have been many studies and apparently many medically important findings), but before we settle on this answer, let’s examine the other options. B is clearly untrue; the thesis is found in Paragraph 1. Paragraph 2 provides illustration for a thesis. Scratch B. You can scratch C, too. There is no shift in focus -‐-‐ it’s a continuation of the focus. Nor can D be true; the second paragraph in a four-‐paragraph article certainly can’t summarize the rest of the article, since the article has barely begun by Paragraph 2. Clearly, A is the best answer. Whether or not the chronological signal words helped you assess the function of each paragraph, it’s still a good idea to make sure you understand text structure as this can potentially influence the rest of the text. The new SAT may not necessarily word its questions so bluntly; rather than ask you the “purpose” or “function” of each paragraph in a text, the test may ask about the way the author “creates an argument,” “structures his/her claim,” “reinforces his/her position,” “builds on the argument,” “refutes the argument,” or similar. These are really just forms of asking you “What is the purpose of this paragraph” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 154
155 since it is through the organization and structure of each individual paragraph that writers most effectively structure and word their arguments.
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156
Analyzing Point of View A text’s “point of view” is the perspective from which it is written. Tone, stance, opinion: all of these are part and parcel of the concept of “point of view.” Not every piece takes a perspective or point of view; think about articles that strive for journalistic objectivity, whose strength is in the fact that they present ideas and events without extraneous commentary or obvious emotion. Perhaps in middle school you learned that every text is written from a specific “point of view” (first person, second person, third person). This is an extension of that concept, focusing on the idea that HOW a piece is written (i.e. its form -‐-‐ the perspective it takes, the point of view it espouses) will clearly influence its content. Each point of view can be classified into three broad categories: 1. Positive 2. Negative 3. Neutral Of course, these aren’t particularly nuanced designations; there are a multitude of ways in which a point of view can be “positive” or “negative.” However, understanding the broad category into which a point of view fits will help you understand it on a more nuanced and detailed level. As discussed in this article, signal words will help you understand what an author is trying to impart. Perspective is closely related to tone, so pay attention to signal words that illustrate how an author feels about the topic. Try to assess the following piece, from Vox.com, based on specific signal words that demonstrate how the author feels about the topic at hand. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 156
157 Every day seems to turn up opportunities to abuse science in new and perverse ways, especially when it comes to health. You open a newspaper or news site, and you read about a health claim making the rounds: a diet that will give you the energy of a teenager, an exercise routine that will elongate your legs, a policy that will protect Americans from scary viruses. Many of these claims — even the ones that come from the lips of the most esteemed doctors and public officials — aren't backed by any good evidence. Some even run in the opposite direction of what the best-‐available evidence tells us. In the interest of the correcting the record, we rounded up the most egregious abuses of health science in 2014. What are some words that signal the author’s perspective on these health claims? Well, we have the sarcastic phrases “a diet that will give you the energy of a teenager," "an exercise routine that will elongate your legs," "a policy that will protect Americans from scary viruses.” All of these are semi-‐sarcastic indications that the author thinks that these claims are silly -‐-‐ clearly, if you use logic, it is easy to see that no diet can actually elongate your legs. But perhaps more obvious are the following phrases “aren’t backed by any good evidence” “run in the opposite direction of what the best-‐available evidence tells us.” And finally, “most egregious abuses of health science” should indicate pretty clearly that what is about to follow is, in the author’s opinion, arrant nonsense. All of this is established by certain signal words, which establish the tone, which make it pretty clear what the author’s perspective is. Broadly categorized, it’s obvious that the perspective is negative. But within that negativity lie shades and nuances, as indicated in the following question: The author’s perspective in this piece is that of… A. A social reformer on a crusade B.A medical professional dispensing advice C.A scholar exposing bedrocks of hypocrisy D. An observer interested in scientific integrity Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 157
158 Now, it becomes quite clear from these answer choices that these answer choices reach far beyond the “negative,” “positive,” and “neutral” designations. So examine them closely. Option A is tempting -‐-‐ after all, this writer is very unimpressed with the “egregious abuses of health science” committed in 2014. And one could argue that correcting these misimpressions is a type of “social reform.” So though this isn’t a perfect analogy, keep it for now. B is tempting too; however, there is no evidence that this writer is a medical professional, nor is there any advice being dispensed -‐-‐ only facts (presumably). Be careful of choices like these and again, pay attention to the nuance. The third option is also tempting -‐-‐ however, there isn’t any “hypocrisy” here, just misinformation. And again, there’s no indication that this person is any sort of scholar. Finally, D is tempting -‐-‐ “observer” is general enough to be true (clearly, this person did observe what s/he feels to be “egregious abuses of health science”) without inserting any background or credential that isn’t stated in the text (i.e. “medical professional” or “scholar”), and the second part works as well -‐-‐ correcting this misinformation is indeed a form of pursuing “scientific integrity.” So between A and D, think about which is more accurate -‐-‐ there’s more evidence for the pursuit of scientific integrity than for the “crusade” for various social reformers. The SAT will ask you about the perspectives of multiple kinds of texts. Try this one, from a New York Times entitled “Should You Have Things:” “...the loss of possessions, ones deeply associated with the self, can cause real grief.” At The New Yorker, Allen Kurzweil writes about one such possession — an Omega Seamaster watch that had belonged to his father, who died when he was 5. The watch fell victim, he believes, to the influence of his boarding-‐school bully, Cesar Augusto Viana: “Within the week, his henchman admitted that he’d hurled my watch off a balcony on a dare. I ran down the stairs, dashed outside, and dug through knee-‐ deep snow until my fingers turned white and tingly. The watch never surfaced. The loss left me more than bereft. I felt annihilated.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 158
159 Much later, after he’s confronted Mr. Viana as an adult, Mr. Kurzweil realizes: “My father’s Omega turned out to be more than a talisman. It was a time machine that had transported me back to a moment when my family was intact and I was happy.” And, he writes: “When I told my wife and son that I was banishing Cesar from our lives, they celebrated his eviction by giving me an extravagant gift. I am wearing it on my wrist.” Experiences, good or bad, may become stories, but Mr. Kurzweil’s account… suggests that things may have a narrative power, too. They may help us tell the stories of our lives, of what we’ve lost and what we’ve gained. This is a slightly more challenging text to parse, as the author does not necessarily offer his or her own perspective -‐-‐ at least not a strongly-‐worded one. But if you read carefully, paying attention to text structure (i.e. differentiating between the quotes from outside sources and the perspective of the writer his or herself), and highlighting important signal words, you’ll be able to accurately answer this question: The writer’s perspective on material objects is that… A. Attachment to material objects signals an underdeveloped sense of self B. Attachment to material objects encourages a sense of victimhood C. We must be careful of the power of our attachment to material objects D. Attachment to material objects is psychologically powerful for a reason This will be easy to answer if you pay attention to the fact that the writer is careful not to express a strongly worded opinion; instead, s/he allows the sources and the quotes to speak for themselves. Nowhere does the writer indicate that s/he believes that A is correct, and while B clearly plays on the story of bullying described in the third paragraph, this story of bullying itself was not motivated by the material object, nor was the attachment to the object the reason for Mr. Kurzweil’s sense of victimhood. C is somewhat plausible, as the author does state in the last paragraph that material objects have a “narrative power,” but the author doesn’t indicate that Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 159
160 this is a power that should cause us to be wary or careful. Instead, D is clearly the best answer, as it indicates that these material objects do have power and that this power does have a reason (“they may help us tell the stories of our lives.”) As you can see, perspective isn’t always indicated in strongly worded rants; it is just one of the ways that writers can frame or illustrate their ideas. Understanding point of view requires a fair amount of reading comprehension. You must be comfortable with analyzing word choice and text structure, with isolating details from the text, and with citing textual evidence for the correct answer. Additionally, you must read the text carefully in order to differentiate between the author’s perspective and that of the figures involved in the narrative. Finally, the SAT will present a multitude of seemingly plausible choices when it asks you to parse the particular perspective of a piece. Try assessing the perspectives found in the following article, excerpted from The Atlantic, which presents multiple perspectives: And yet, on Tuesday morning, the nuns and priests who presented the findings of [a report about American nuns] seemed hopeful—for the future of American nuns, but also for the relationship between U.S. sisters and the Vatican, which has been strained. The report recognizes some women's "perception of not having enough input into pastoral decisions which affect them or about which they have considerable experience and expertise." And the Vatican let [a nun] fully design and execute the report, which other [nuns] appreciated: When representatives visited her congregation, Holland said, "it was evident that these were sisters like us, to whom we could speak openly and honestly." Holland's reaction is particularly revealing, because she speaks for an organization of American sisters that has long been criticized by the Vatican. [Nuns] in the United States are represented by two organizations: The Leadership Conference of Women Religious, or LCWR, an association of congregation leaders that represents about 80 percent of American sisters; and Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 160
161 the Council of Major Superiors of Women Religious, or CMSWR, which represents the other 20 percent. The Council is typically characterized as more "conservative," or traditional: Most of the women it represents wear habits, and some live in cloisters. The LCWR, on the other hand, represents many congregations whose members wear street clothes and work in their local communities. The chairwoman of the more conservative CMSWR, Mother Agnes Mary Donovan, was very positive about the report, saying the information-‐gathering process "was overwhelmingly a beautiful experience." She noted that the average age of women religious represented by the CMSWR is 53, which is "well below the average trend." Nearly 1,000 women are preparing to take their final vows into CMSWR organizations, which she said was a good sign for recruitment. But the report warned that the less traditional lifestyles of the majority of U.S. congregations might be a turn-‐off for women who are interested in religious life. "Candidates often desire the experience of living in formative communities and many wish to be externally recognizable as consecrated women [by wearing habits]," it says. "This is a particular challenge in institutes whose current lifestyle does not emphasize these aspects of religious life." Among the women who live in those less traditional congregations, the report will likely be met with mixed reactions. As Holland said during the press conference, "The visitation was met by some ... with suspicion and apprehension." Not all congregations agreed to participate in the study, which representatives of the Vatican called "a painful disappointment." And this report says nothing about the ongoing investigation into the activities and teachings of the LCWR, which "often contradict or ignore magisterial teaching," as a 2012 Church document put it. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 161
162 Although there may be hope for healing between American nuns and the Vatican, and although there's clearly a strong will to address the issues facing women religious, this report mostly surfaces issues, rather than resolving them. "I'm concerned about those who may still be angry," Holland said." Now, this piece presents multiple perspectives -‐-‐ as well as a shifting timeline -‐-‐ on one report. Because this is the excerpt to a larger piece, and because this text details the lifestyles of a particular subculture that may not be known to you, this may be a difficult text to parse. But if you annotate the text, keeping the different players straight, then you should be able to answer the following questions without an issue. First, read the questions and see whose perspectives the question is asking about; then, go back to the text and underline, star, or color-‐code the particular players that the article is asking you about. This should make it easier to keep track of who is speaking, and what their particular perspective is. Based on the article, the majority of American nuns would take which perspective on the results of this report? A. Most American nuns would react with “painful disappointment” B. Most American nuns would have no unified perspective on this report C. Most American nuns would be angry about this report D. Most American nuns would be very positive about this report In order to answer this question, you must understand who this “majority” of American nuns is. After all, there are two major groups mentioned: "[Nuns] in the United States are represented by two organizations: The Leadership Conference of Women Religious, or LCWR, an association of congregation leaders that represents about 80 percent of American sisters; and the Council of Major Superiors of Women Religious, or CMSWR, which represents the other 20 percent. The Council is typically characterized as more "conservative," or traditional: Most of the women it represents wear habits, and some live in cloisters. The LCWR, on the other hand, represents many Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 162
163 congregations whose members wear street clothes and work in their local communities." Clearly, the article is asking you about that 80%, i.e. the slightly “less traditional” group of sisters who wear street clothes (as opposed to habits) and work in their local communities. This automatically eliminates any answer choice that gives the perspective of that 20% of “more traditional” nuns. Now that you recognize this, read answer A. The article does mention the words “painful disappointment,” but this isn’t part of the perspective of the nuns -‐-‐ instead, it’s the reaction of the Vatican to some congregations’ unwillingness to participate in this survey. Scratch A. B claims that most nuns would have no unified perspective. If you read the article closely, you’ll see that Holland, who seems to speak for that 80% of “less traditional” sisters, at times is hopeful (“other nuns appreciated;” “it was obvious these were sisters like us and we could speak honestly and openly;” “the visit was met by some with suspicion and apprehension;” “I’m concerned about those who may still be angry.”) Most tellingly, the article states that these “less traditional” nuns -‐-‐ i.e., eighty percent of nuns in America, i.e. the majority that this question is asking about -‐-‐ will have “mixed reactions” to this report. Taking all of these factors into consideration, it is clearly difficult to find a unified perspective here that all American nuns would espouse. B is clearly the correct answer. C claims that “most American nuns would be angry,” but there’s no evidence for that from the text -‐-‐ the text does claim that some might be angry, but this isn’t the majority of American sisters. D claims that these nuns would feel very positive about the report, but again, there is no evidence for this in the text; it is the minority of American nuns (that 20% of “more conservative” nuns) who would probably feel “very positive” about the report, considering that their spokeswoman called the experience of gathering information for the report “overwhelmingly a beautiful experience.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 163
164 This was a hard question to answer, because it asks you to understand each part of the text as well as to rely on inference and nuance rather than the more obvious triggers of strong language, description, and tone. Based on the article, most American nuns take which of the following perspectives on the Vatican? A. They are above all devoted to the Vatican’s strictures B. They have entirely broken from the Vatican’s decrees C. They have an uneasy relationship to the Vatican’s authority D. They remain objectively neutral to the Vatican Remember, this question asks you about “most” American nuns, so be sure that you are paying attention to that 80% of nuns instead of the 20%. If you read the article carefully, you’ll see that “the relationship [between the two] has been strained,” and that many American sisters have been “criticized by the Vatican” for “contradicting and ignoring magisterial teachings.” Moreover, some congregations refused to participate in this Vatican-‐sponsored fact-‐finding mission, clearly indicating that they have little interest in helping the Vatican. All of this helps to get rid of Option A. Option B clearly can’t be true since many of these women DID participate in this Vatican survey, and had “mixed feelings” towards it -‐-‐ if they have entirely broken from the Vatican, surely they wouldn’t have cared about “healing” their relationship to the institution. C surely seems to be true, whereas D is clearly false. Clearly, C is the only correct answer. Determining point of view is about more than just figuring out if the article is written in first, second, or third person. Signal words, adjectives, and other descriptions can help you figure out the perspective espoused by the writer or by one of his/her sources, but it’s also important to remember that you must bear in mind text structure and organization when reading to discover perspectives, as these will help you follow along and understand the multiple perspectives that may be contained in a single text. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 164
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Analyzing Text Purpose Every text you’ll find on the SAT has been written for a purpose. Perhaps you learned in middle school that all texts were written for one of three purposes: 1. To inform 2. To persuade 3. To entertain This is true, broadly speaking, but again, it isn’t a very nuanced way of thinking about text purpose. Within “to inform” or “to entertain” lie a multitude of other, more precise reasons why a writer may have chosen to write a text. Since sadly most texts don’t come with a disclaimer stating “THIS IS MY PURPOSE,” it is up to the reader to determine the author’s purpose in writing a text or including a specific detail in said text. In fact, you will be using the same skills in parsing an author’s purpose as you did while analyzing part-‐whole relationships and assessing the purpose of a particular sentence or paragraph within a larger text. As always, signal words that demonstrate a personal connection to the text are especially important. Additionally, pay attention to contextual information, either included in the text of directly preceding it that may reveal the text’s purpose. For example, just the fact that this particular article is hosted on an education blog, under a page called SAT Review, should tell you that the purpose of this article is to help you study for the SATs. Using contextual information as well as tone, assess the following text’s purpose, paying attention to the tone as well as to any contextual information: “We Shall Fight on the Beaches,” by Winston Churchill, June 1940: I have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once again able to defend our Island home, to ride out the storm of Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 165
166 war, and to outlive the menace of tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone. At any rate, that is what we are going to try to do. That is the resolve of His Majesty’s Government-‐every man of them. That is the will of Parliament and the nation. The British Empire and the French Republic, linked together in their cause and in their need, will defend to the death their native soil, aiding each other like good comrades to the utmost of their strength. Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God’s good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old. The purpose of this speech was most likely: A.A declaration of independence B. The setting of a new agenda for the nation C. An inspirational battle cry D. The pillorying of a public enemy From context, you should have figured out that this speech was given sometime during WWII. Knowing this, you can easily scratch A -‐-‐ this isn’t a declaration of independence so much as a call to war. B is also uninspiring -‐-‐ while Churchill is setting an agenda of war for the nation with his insistence that “we shall not flag or fail…. we shall fight on the seas and oceans…” his passionate declamation is at odds with the dry, corporate tone of B. C is certainly correct, as evidenced by Churchill’s Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 166
167 obvious passion and fiery language (“we shall never surrender… even if… this Island… were subjugated… then our empire beyond the seas would carry on the struggle…”) Clearly, he is attempting to inspire his people and assure them of their victory over the Nazis. And while he clearly has no love for the Nazi regime, this speech is less concerned with pillorying (criticizing) this public enemy than inspiring the British population. Every text, even the driest one, has some kind of purpose; sometimes, as with this text, paying attention to the intended audience will also help you to understand the purpose of a text. This speech was given at the House of Commons but likely broadcast on the wireless, so it’s safe to assume that the audience was the entire population of England. When the audience is that large, the writer’s purpose will clearly be different from the his/her purpose when addressing a small, intimate gathering. For example, try to assess the audience and the purpose of the following excerpt, given by First Lady Michelle Obama at the Brookings Institute in December 2014: And then there are the issues of quality and value, which are similarly complex. As you know, when deciding whether it’s worth sending their girls to school, parents aren’t just asking themselves, will this be a good experience for my daughter, they’re calculating what those school fees will mean for their family’s food budget, they’re contemplating the loss of household help that is critical to the survival of that family. So they want to see real evidence that their daughter is learning real, marketable skills –-‐ things like literacy, numeracy, vocational skills that will help her provide for herself and, ultimately, her family. That’s the kind of bar that we need to clear as we move forward. Because in our work to educate girls, especially adolescent girls, we’re often asking families to do what seems to be in the exact opposite of their daughters’ and their families’ Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 167
168 best interests. Often, we’re asking them to change or disregard some of their most strongly held values and traditions. So, yes, we need more infrastructure. We need more resources. And, yes, we need more good laws and policies -‐– those are absolutely the necessary building blocks for change. But we also need buy-‐in from those families and those communities. We need parents to actually believe that their daughters are as worthy of an education as their sons, and that sending girls to school is a good investment for their future. And that might take some real effort on the ground to actually understand people’s concerns, to gain their trust, to determine what resources they need to make the sacrifice of educating their daughters. What is First Lady Obama’s purpose in giving this talk? A. To inform the nation about a major problem facing girls and women worldwide. B. To criticize the mishandling of an international crisis. C. To persuade the members of this institute to contribute funds for the amelioration of this issue. D. To spur greater involvement among key players poised to redress the issue of girls’ neglected educations worldwide Remember, the context of this speech is given to you: First Lady Obama is speaking at the Brookings Institute. Even if you don’t know that the Institute is a think tank based in Washington D.C., it should be clear that this isn’t a State of the Union address aimed at the entirety of the nation, but a talk given to a limited number of members of the American public. Therefore you can scratch A immediately -‐-‐ the First Lady is not informing “the nation” but instead addressing a group of people who are likely already acquainted with the depths of this issue. Nor does B have any basis in the text -‐-‐ there is no Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 168
169 criticism, nor any indication that the First Lady believes that there has been a “mishandling” of the crisis. C isn’t particularly convincing either -‐-‐ though the First Lady does detail some of the challenges that girls worldwide face, nowhere does she ask for more funds to address these issues. Clearly, D is the only correct answer -‐-‐ the First Lady succinctly highlights some of the issues that girls worldwide face, as well as possible avenues to take when addressing those problems. And the fact that she is giving this speech to a small number of people at a think tank clearly indicates that these are the people who have some sort of influence and ways to deal with this problem. So while this certainly falls under the broad umbrella of “informing,” with a slight tinge of “persuading,” this speech is clearly far more nuanced than either of those designations can adequately capture. The SAT will also test your understanding of the purpose of literary narratives. Obviously, a literary narrative’s purpose will always be, on some level, to “entertain.” But when reading, try to go beyond the idea of literature as entertainment. Delve into the context and pay attention to signal words that will help you to understand the true purpose of the author’s writing. With questions about purpose, the answer choices are your friend -‐-‐ you’re not being asked to get into the author’s mind, necessarily, just to pick the most plausible out of a range of options. In essence, the work has already been done for you; you just need to recognize the right answer. Try to figure out the purpose of this brief literary passage, Snow, by Julia Alvarez: Our first year in New York we rented a small apartment with a Catholic school nearby, taught by the Sisters of Charity, hefty women in long black gowns and bonnets that made them look peculiar, like dolls in mourning. I liked them a lot, especially my grandmotherly fourth grade teacher, Sister Zoe. I had a lovely name, she said, and she had me teach the whole class how to pronounce it. Yo-‐ lan-‐da. As the only immigrant in my class, I was put in a special seat in the first row by the window, apart from the other children so that Sister Zoe could tutor Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 169
170 me without disturbing them. Slowly, she enunciated the new words I was to repeat: laundromat, cornflakes, subway, snow. Soon I picked up enough English to understand holocaust was in the air. Sister Zoe explained to a wide eyed classroom what was happening in Cuba. Russian missiles were being assembled, trained supposedly on New York City. President Kennedy, looking worried too, was on the television at home, explaining we might have to go to war against the Communists. At school, we had air raid drills: an ominous bell would go off and we'd file into the hall, fall to the floor, cover our heads with our coats, and imagine our hair falling out, the bones in our arms going soft. At home, Mami and my sisters and I said a rosary for world peace. I heard new vocabulary: nuclear bomb, radioactive fallout, bomb shelter. Sister Zoe explained how it would happen. She drew a picture of a mushroom on the blackboard and dotted a flurry of chalk marks for the dusty fallout that would kill us all. The months grew cold, November, December. It was dark when I got up in the morning, frosty when I followed my breath to school. One morning as I sat at my desk daydreaming out the window, I saw dots in the air like the ones Sister Zoe had drawn random at first, then lots and lots. I shrieked, "Bomb! Bomb!" Sister Zoe jerked around, her full black skirt ballooning as she hurried to my side. A few girls began to cry. But then Sister Zoe's shocked look faded. "Why, Yolanda dear, that's snow!" She laughed. "Snow." "Snow," I repeated. I looked out the window warily. All my life I had heard about the white crystals that fell out of American skies in the winter. From my desk I watched the fine powder dust the sidewalk and parked cars below. Each flake was different, Sister Zoe had said, like a person, irreplaceable and beautiful. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 170
171 What is the author’s purpose in recounting this story? A. To illustrate the hardships that new immigrants face when assimilating to their new country B. To provide a searing indictment of America’s Cold War policy C. To give a poignant snapshot of the various joys and challenges of learning to be an American D. To demonstrate the fear that many children felt during the Cold War Though the excerpt is brief, you can easily isolate its main subject, which is immigration and assimilation into American society. Yet Option A is clearly incorrect -‐-‐ though immigrating to the United States is no doubt a difficult enterprise, especially without an adequate command of English, this brief excerpt details none of the hardships of assimilation. You may have highlighted the “holocaust was in the air” line to support this answer, yet remember that any hardships that came with being in America during the early 1960s were shared by all Americans, not just immigrants. (We know that the story takes place in the early 1960s because of the mention of President Kennedy, who served as President from 1961 -‐ 1963.) B is also incorrect -‐-‐ this is clearly not a polemic against American policies since no policies are even mentioned here. The author presents the “holocaust in the air” as a fact of life, not something to rail against. C seems to be the best answer, as the piece as a whole is largely about the different aspects of learning to be an American -‐-‐ everything from learning a language to experiencing snow for the first time is part and parcel of these joys and hardships. D isn’t a terrible answer, as this passage does clearly demonstrate fear, yet considering the upbeat ending and the matter-‐of-‐fact way in which the author discusses the fear that she and her family and classmates felt, this is a less convincing answer than C, which more fully encompasses every aspect of the passage.
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172 In learning to parse purpose, you must consider the text as a whole. What is its main focus? What most concerns the author? Are there ideas or themes that are consistently repeated? Who is the intended audience? All of these considerations will help you to better understand purpose and to accurately answer questions about an author’s purpose in writing and publishing a text.
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Analyzing Claims and Counterclaims One of the most important features of the kinds of texts you’ll see on the SAT (as well as in any academic setting) is “argument.” This isn’t to say that all texts contain “fightin’ words;” instead, most expository and some narrative texts contain a central thesis that they try to prove with details, explanations, and other forms of evidence and support. The ability to parse an argument is absolutely crucial to your understanding of the text. But understanding the thesis isn’t the only aspect of understanding the argument; you must also be able to break down an argument into its component claims and counterclaims. Claims: A claim is the central argument of the text. It can also be called a thesis, a proposition, or -‐-‐ if there is only one -‐-‐ simply “the argument.” Assess the claim of the following brief excerpt: One of the ways in which ordinary people can prevent gingivitis is by gargling twice daily with a dentist-‐approved mouthwash. Broadly stated, the claim of this “passage” is that mouthwash will prevent gingivitis. Presumably, the rest of the passage will go on to explain why mouthwash works, in an effort to back up its central claim. Unfortunately, because the nature of claims is so variable -‐-‐ all texts will look different, and all texts will make different types of claims -‐-‐ there is no immediately obvious signal word that will help you to ascertain the nature of a claim. In order to figure out what a claim is, you must simply read carefully. Does the writer provide lots of supporting details? Are the paragraphs organized effectively, with topic sentences that introduce the central focus of each paragraph? If so, the claim is often found in the last sentence of the first paragraph. If you’re in a pinch and can’t find the claim, skimming the first and second paragraphs of an expository text may help. However, it is not enough to simply Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 173
174 identify the claim, as a sophisticated argument will also include what is called a “counterclaim.” Counterclaims: Counterclaims provide an opposing viewpoint to the central claim. Including a counterclaim in your writing helps you to prove that yes, your opinion is the best-‐ substantiated / most widely-‐supported one. By giving the opposition a voice and then knocking it down, the writer demonstrates a deep competence and familiarity with the topic -‐-‐ provided that s/he can effectively address the counterclaim. Look at the way this author structured his counterclaim: One of the ways in which ordinary people can prevent gingivitis is by gargling twice daily with a dentist-‐approved mouthwash. However, in a recent survey of American dentists, some questioned the use of mouthwash as a tactic to prevent gingivitis. As you can see, the second sentence indicates that the author is presenting a “counterclaim” -‐-‐ a refutation to the central claim that using mouthwash is an effective tactic for preventing gingivitis. One easy way to spot a counterclaim is to look for signal words like “however,” “but,” “on the other hand,” “yet,” “in contrast,” “otherwise,” “notwithstanding,” “nevertheless,” “on the contrary” -‐-‐ any words that signal a contrast will help you find the counterclaim. In fact, if you’re having a hard time finding the actual argument in the essay, work backwards. Look for the transitional words that may signal a counterclaim, and assess what the counterclaim says. Then figure out the claim it is attempting to refute. Countering the Counterclaim: Sophisticated essays counter their counterclaims in order to illustrate how thoroughly they have considered the topic and how effectively they can argue. Writers include counterclaims either to knock them down, as in a persuasive essay, or to maintain objectivity by showing the “other side of the story,” as in a piece of journalism. What is the aim in this piece? Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 174
175 One of the ways in which ordinary people can prevent gingivitis is by gargling twice daily with a dentist-‐approved mouthwash. However, in a recent survey of American dentists, some questioned the use of mouthwash as a tactic to prevent gingivitis. The survey, which was released on Tuesday, apparently polled a total of three dentists, none of whom had completed their dental studies. Clearly, this writer used the counterclaim in order to further bolster his own argument -‐-‐ by discrediting the opposition. Read the following passage -‐-‐ a commencement address by Ursula K. LeGuin, delivered in May of 1983 -‐-‐ and determine how LeGuin establishes claims and counterclaims. As you read, evaluate the effectiveness of the writer’s strategy, and determine the purpose of setting up a claim, counterclaim, and refutation. Intellectual tradition is male. Public speaking is done in the public tongue, the national or tribal language; and the language of our tribe is the men's language. Of course women learn it. We're not dumb. If you can tell Margaret Thatcher from Ronald Reagan, or Indira Gandhi from General Somoza, by anything they say, tell me how. This is a man’s world, so it talks a man’s language. The words are all words of power. You’ve come a long way, baby, but no way is long enough. You can’t even get there by selling yourself out: because there is theirs, not yours. Maybe we’ve had enough words of power and talk about the battle of life. Maybe we need some words of weakness. Instead of saying now that I hope you will all go forth from this ivory tower of college into the Real World and forge a triumphant career or at least help your husband to and keep our country strong and be a success in everything -‐-‐ instead of talking about power, what if I talked like a woman right here in public? It won’t sound right. It’s going to sound terrible. What if I said what I hope for you is first, if -‐-‐ only if -‐-‐ you want Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 175
176 kids, I hope you have them. Not hordes of them. A couple, enough. I hope they’re beautiful. I hope you and they have enough to eat, and a place to be warm and clean in, and friends, and work you like doing. Well, is that what you went to college for? Is that all? What about success? Success is somebody else’s failure. Success is the American Dream we can keep dreaming because most people in most places, including thirty million of ourselves, live wide awake in the terrible reality of poverty. No, I do not wish you success. I don’t even want to talk about it. I want to talk about failure. Because you are human beings you are going to meet failure. You are going to meet disappointment, injustice, betrayal, and irreparable loss. You will find you’re weak where you thought yourself strong. You’ll work for possessions and then find they possess you. You will find yourself -‐-‐ as I know you already have -‐-‐ in dark places, alone, and afraid. ...So what I hope for you is that you live there not as prisoners, ashamed of being women, consenting captives of a psychopathic social system, but as natives. That you will be at home there, keep house there, be your own mistress, with a room of your own. That you will do your work there, whatever you’re good at, art or science or tech or running a company or sweeping under the beds, and when they tell you that it’s second-‐class work because a woman is doing it, I hope you tell them to go to hell and while they’re going to give you equal pay for equal time. I hope you live without the need to dominate, and without the need to be dominated. I hope you are never victims, but I hope you have no power over other people. And when you fail, and are defeated, and in pain, and in the dark, then I hope you will remember that darkness is your country, where you live, where no wars are fought and no wars are won, but where the future is.
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177 What is LeGuin’s central claim? A. That men abuse their power B. That victimhood is a physically and emotionally untenable situation C. That every person should strive to define themselves as they want D. That to be human is to be doomed to fail LeGuin makes a few claims over the course of this argument, and they are all subtly constructed. Though she would probably not disagree with choice A -‐-‐ “the language of our tribe is the man’s language” -‐-‐ this does not appear to be her central claim; remember, a central claim is the most important or main one that an author makes. Though LeGuin discusses “the language of the tribe” she does not focus on male abuse of power. Nor does she focus on victimhood -‐-‐ she mentions it once in the last line of her speech. C is a well-‐supported claim, as she devotes the majority of the speech to “talking like a woman” -‐-‐ refuting traditional (ie male) ideas of success by encouraging women to do or be what they want (including mothers, their “own mistress”es, “doing whatever [they’re] good at.” And though D seems correct -‐-‐ she does talk about failure quite extensively -‐-‐ the word “doomed” suggests that LeGuin sees failure as something negative, to be avoided, instead of natural and to embraced. Clearly, C is the best answer. Which line from the text provides the best counterclaim to LeGuin’s central assertion? A. “No, I do not wish you success. I don’t even want to talk about it.” B. “You will find yourself… in dark places, alone and afraid.” C. “I hope you have no power over other people.” D. “Well, is that what you went to college for? Is that all?” Remember, LeGuin’s central assertion is that people should define themselves how they want, without recourse to external benchmarks about what constitutes happiness. We’re looking for an effective counter to that. A is simply an extension of her argument, not in any way a counter of it. B is also an extension of her argument Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 177
178 (that no one should be afraid of ending up “in dark places.”) C, too, is an extension of her argument. Only D is “another voice,” providing another perspective on her argument. D asks “well, what about success? What about why you even went to this college in the first place?” D makes a counterclaim to LeGuin’s assertion that it’s just fine to make motherhood your only ambition. This question “what about success / why did you go to college” is only important to LeGuin’s argument because she knocks it down immediately, saying it is irrelevant. Clearly, she only includes a counterclaim in order to demonstrate that her argument takes the best perspective. What is LeGuin’s tone in this commencement address? A. The tone of an optimist who believes that everything will turn out the way it should B. The tone of a pessimist who believes that everyone is destined to fail C. The tone of a realist who acknowledges the various possibilities and opportunities that exist in this world D. The tone of an idealist who places her trust in a higher power This is a review question designed to jog your memory about strategies used to analyze tone. It should be clear from reviewing LeGuin’s claim and counterclaim that she acknowledges the realities of the world -‐-‐ she talks about failure and darkness too much to be considered an optimist. But nor is she a pessimist. Clearly, she believes in the power of possibility as well as the strength of the human spirit. There is no evidence that she places her trust in a “higher power,” which leaves only C as the best option -‐-‐ she does acknowledge that various opportunities and possibilities exist in this world, as evidenced by her obvious hope that each woman is “her own mistress” and her insistence that “darkness is your country.” The structure and content of this argument is somewhat unusual. Try your hand at another narrative text, and this time consider the author's purpose in including the various claims and counterclaims found in the article. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 178
179 “We sent you to college to learn THIS?” That was the reaction that Matilda Flanagan, 19, received from her incensed mother after she came home during winter break of her sophomore year of college, flushed with pride and relief at finally having chosen a major. Flanagan’s mother, Brunhilde, a nurse, had hoped her daughter -‐-‐ a straight A student who won a national science fair in the eleventh grade for her rather gory project on the life cycle of a tapeworm -‐-‐ would go on to major in chemical engineering or biology, “something really practical and lucrative,” as Brunhilde bluntly puts it. But instead, the 19 year old Flanagan, who describes herself as a “huge nerd,” had chosen to take another path: Fandom Studies. More specifically, her concentration was on “the collective fascination with cultural artifacts of the 1990s,” i.e. Buffy the Vampire Slayer and My So Called Life. “She’s majoring in television!” Brunhilde Flanagan raged during a recent interview. “I mean, why are we paying 45k a year for her to write some essays on a TV show? She could have easily done that while living at home and working at Walgreens!” (Matilda worked 15 hours a week at Walgreens during high school.) The elder Flanagan isn’t alone in her ire. Increasingly, the parents of students at expensive private liberal arts colleges are throwing up their hands and asking: “Where exactly is my money going?” Bob Litchfield, a litigator from Denver, echoed Brunhilde Flanagan’s frustration. “Why exactly is Yale charging my son -‐-‐ or more accurately, me -‐-‐ over fifty thousand dollars a year so that he can study Pokemon? Please, explain this to me,” he said in a phone interview, the anger palpable in his voice. Litchfield had hoped that his son, a 20-‐year-‐old classically trained violinist, would follow his footsteps and enter the rarefied (not to mention remunerative) world of corporate litigation. But Humperdinck Litchfield is far more interested in demonstrating how Charmander represents the shattered Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 179
180 dreams of a nation. Since matriculating at Yale, he has become fluent in Japanese, and has committed the contents of every Pokemon card ever released to memory. “This is an outrage,” says Brandywine Buckley, a stay-‐at-‐home mother of quadruplets who attend the University of Florida. “Why exactly are my four daughters studying pop music? One of them recently wrote a term paper on what Britney Spears ‘means’ for our culture. I’ll tell you what she means: she means you’ll never get a job like this! We wanted our daughter to become a statistician. Why is she wasting her time?” Money is certainly a central concern for these apoplectic parents, but these students have a quick response. “In a way, this is the definition of academics,” Matilda said, animated. “I mean, what could be more academic than pursuing knowledge that is by definition completely and entirely useless in the context of the real world? I don’t see anybody questioning history nerds who choose to spend 7 years of their lives in the library, pursuing pointless degrees in medieval history. Why is that allowed -‐-‐ heck, even celebrated -‐-‐ when a study of our own pop culture is demonized?” To which her mother responded drily, “medieval historians don’t exactly make any money, either.” The battle between practical parents footing impressively (some might say frighteningly) high tuition bills and passionate students who have chosen to pursue their own untraditional paths won’t end anytime soon, as more and more universities add Cultural Studies classes to their course offerings. It is impossible to say whether these “impractical” courses of study will outlive the current decade, as more and more graduates of cultural studies programs graduate with serious debt and no immediately applicable job skills -‐-‐ unless you count the ability to name every single episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer in a single breath. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 180
181 This is an interesting piece to parse, because -‐-‐ unlike the previous straightforward text -‐-‐ this article offers multiple perspectives and has a somewhat untraditional structure with seemingly no “central argument.” But if you read closely, you’ll see two sides of an argument emerge, with the author taking a position of her own. It’s important that you are able to apply the ability to assess claims and counterclaims even to texts with an untraditional structure, as you will be learning to assess all forms of informative texts is an essential skill on the SAT, in college, and later in life. What is the central claim of the text as a whole? A. That cultural studies are a pointless waste of time B. That cultural studies are the purest form of academic inquiry C. That cultural studies are a recent phenomenon that has sparked strong feelings D. That cultural studies are an important part of college If you read the question closely, you’ll see that you are being asked to assess the central claim of the whole text, NOT any individual claim espoused by one person. This question is basically asking you what the text is ABOUT. While answers A and B are opinions held by the various players in this article, neither is the “point” of the text, or the central claim that the author makes. All the author is trying to do is illustrate a recent trend, making C the best answer; there is no evidence for D. Based on the article, what is the primary underlying motivation for these irate parents’ anger? A. Parents are concerned that cultural studies will interfere with their children’s social skills B. Parents are concerned that cultural studies will not adequately prepare their children for the job market C. Parents are concerned that cultural studies are shallow and unproductive D. Parents are concerned that cultural studies are extremely expensive Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 181
182 This question asks you to assess the claims made by the parents interviewed in the article and evaluate the reasoning behind them. It is fairly obvious that parents think that cultural studies are a waste of time, but though obsessive fandom may interfere with students’ social skills, there is no real evidence for this in the article or in any of the parents’ arguments, so you can scratch A. B is a strong contender, especially considering that every single parent interviewed expressed hopes for their children’s future in the job market (see: the father who wanted his son to be a lawyer, the mother who hoped her daughter would be a statistician). And though C is a reasonable inference, it doesn’t seem to be the primary motivator for these parents’ anger. D is also a reasonable contender, as parents mention money often -‐-‐ but if you read very closely, it’s clear that they are willing to spend a lot of money on their children’s education provided their children actually acquire usable skills in the job market. So it’s not necessarily that parents are reticent about spending money -‐-‐ the argument has more to do with disappointment that they will not recoup this investment. Clearly, B is the best choice. How does the author subtly demonstrate her own opinion in this article? A. By quoting more irate parents than fandom-‐loving students B. By calling Matilda Flanagan a “huge nerd” C. By quoting Matilda Flanagan extensively, demonstrating an acceptance of Matilda’s opinion D. By subtly insinuating that cultural studies are impractical Again, this really is a question about claims -‐-‐ what is the author subtly claiming, and how? A may be tempting -‐-‐ it is true that the author quotes three irate parents and only one cultural studies student. But this is not necessarily indicative of an obvious bias; it’s possible that the writer did not have the same access to students as she did to parents. Keep this answer for now, but consider the other options. B is clearly incorrect, because Matilda calls herself a “huge nerd” (seemingly as a point of pride). And C can’t be true because quoting someone extensively does not imply an Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 182
183 endorsement of their opinion -‐-‐ if that were the case, both A and C would be correct. But the last paragraph of the text provides evidence for D -‐-‐ the author calls into question the continued existence of these cultural studies program, claiming that they leave students with “no applicable job skills” and subtly denigrating the skills they do impart (the ability to name all the episodes of Buffy the Vampire Slayer in a single breath). Though this is supposedly a neutral text (the author sets up multiple claims), the inclusion of this last sentence is a not-‐so-‐subtle hint that the author also has some feelings about this issue. When evaluating a claim and/or a bias, consider any reason the author may have for including information. If it doesn’t serve the obvious purpose of bolstering the central claim (as the quotes from parents and students do), then there is a very good chance that it is being included for the sole purpose of demonstrating the author’s opinion. Claims and counterclaims are an important part of many forms of writing, whether narrative, expository, or persuasive. If you can spot a claim when it is being made and analyze its purpose, you are already poised for success on the SAT as well as in any later academic context.
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Assessing Reasoning As demonstrated in previous articles, the new SAT is very concerned with testing your ability to understand arguments -‐-‐ in structure, tone, style, and reasoning. But it is not enough to simply identify the claims and counterclaims that an author makes over the course of an argument. It is crucial that you are able to assess those claims and arguments, and evaluate whether or not they are sound. When assessing a claim, you must consider both its soundness and its validity. A valid argument is one that follows logically (even if it isn’t true). For example: Premise: All people can fly. Beyonce is a person. Therefore, Beyonce can fly. This is a perfectly valid argument. It happens to be complete nonsense, but it follows logically. When analyzing an author’s argument, you must consider whether the argument follows logically -‐-‐ whether each premise builds logically on the next. This is one very important part of assessing reasoning. The SAT isn’t only asking you to assess whether a text is valid, however; it also asks you to assess whether an author’s reasoning is sound -‐-‐ i.e., whether the argument is not only logical but true. You may not have deep familiarity with every topic that the SAT Reading section will cover; often, you will be presented with persuasive or expository texts that contain information that you will not be able to assess because you don’t have the content knowledge to do so. For readings like that, assume that the content is actually true -‐-‐ the SAT will not trip you up or try to “trick” you by presenting you with false information. Therefore, as you read, assume the argument is true (unless presented with evidence otherwise, i.e. if the piece is intended to be
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185 absurdist or satiric) and assess instead its logic and the flow or structure of its premises. Assess the following excerpt’s validity and soundness; as you read, it may be helpful to annotate, underline, or number key portions of the text that make up the argument. See if you can follow the argument’s trajectory. This speech, “The Perils of Indifference,” was given by Elie Weisel in 1999. In a way, to be indifferent to... suffering is what makes the human being inhuman. Indifference, after all, is more dangerous than anger and hatred. Anger can at times be creative. One writes a great poem, a great symphony. One does something special for the sake of humanity because one is angry at the injustice that one witnesses. But indifference is never creative. Even hatred at times may elicit a response. You fight it. You denounce it. You disarm it. Indifference elicits no response. Indifference is not a response. Indifference is not a beginning; it is an end. And, therefore, indifference is always the friend of the enemy, for it benefits the aggressor -‐-‐ never his victim, whose pain is magnified when he or she feels forgotten. The political prisoner in his cell, the hungry children, the homeless refugees -‐-‐ not to respond to their plight, not to relieve their solitude by offering them a spark of hope is to exile them from human memory. And in denying their humanity, we betray our own. Indifference, then, is not only a sin, it is a punishment. And this is one of the most important lessons of this outgoing century's wide-‐ranging experiments in good and evil. What is the reasoning behind Elie Weisel’s claim that indifference is the greatest evil? A. Indifference is a sin and a punishment B. Indifference is more dangerous than anger and hatred
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186 C. Indifference benefits the aggressor D. Indifference denies the humanity of others In order to answer this question, you must consider how Weisel structures his argument. His central claim is that indifference is the greatest evil, but how does he justify this claim? Read answer A closely -‐-‐ while he does say that indifference is a sin and a punishment, this does not reveal the reasoning behind his argument. In fact, this answer option simply repeats or extends his claim without actually providing the reasoning behind it. The same is true for answer B and partially for answer C -‐-‐ none actually explain Weisel’s reasoning, or the way he configures the argument behind the central premise. Only answer D logically explains why indifference is the greatest evil. When you think about the way reasoning works, ask yourself: does this explain WHY the author has made this central claim? If you can’t answer that question, then the answer option is probably incorrect. One way to tackle this problem is to map out the argument itself and see which pieces of it lead logically to others. 1. In a way, to be indifferent to... suffering is what makes the human being inhuman. This is the central claim. The rest of the argument should prove this, and answer the question “why is this claim true?” 2. Indifference, after all, is more dangerous than anger and hatred. This does not answer the question of “why is this claim true; it simply extends the premise that indifference to suffering is evil. 3. Anger can at times be creative. One writes a great poem, a great symphony. One does something special for the sake of humanity because one is angry at the injustice Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 186
187 that one witnesses. But indifference is never creative. Even hatred at times may elicit a response. You fight it. You denounce it. You disarm it. This begins to answer the question of “why:” indifference is the greatest evil because, unlike anger or hatred, it is not creative. 4. Indifference elicits no response. Indifference is not a response. Indifference is not a beginning; it is an end. And, therefore, indifference is always the friend of the enemy, for it benefits the aggressor -‐-‐ never his victim, whose pain is magnified when he or she feels forgotten. The political prisoner in his cell, the hungry children, the homeless refugees -‐-‐ not to respond to their plight, not to relieve their solitude by offering them a spark of hope is to exile them from human memory. And in denying their humanity, we betray our own. Again, this reinforces the premise by answering the question of “why:” why is indifference the greatest evil? Because it isn’t creative and has no response, and ignores and forgets the people who need the most help. In so doing it betrays the humanity we all share. 5. Indifference, then, is not only a sin, it is a punishment. And this is one of the most important lessons of this outgoing century's wide-‐ranging experiments in good and evil. This extends the argument -‐-‐ BECAUSE indifference is the greatest evil (the “then” indicates the idea of “because”), it is both a sin and a punishment. This subtly moves on from the central premise and extends it so that it is even more damning. When you’re stuck, use this numbering / why strategy, and see if it helps you better assess and evaluate the reasoning behind an argument.
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188 Try this strategy one more time with the following text from the Atlantic, entitled North Korea Is Not Funny. As you read, ask yourself: What is the author’s claim? What is the reasoning behind it? Is the reasoning behind it logical, valid, and sound? If you're not sure how to do this, number the claims and make sure that all of them answer the question of “why.” This film (The Interview, about the assassination of Kim Jong Un) is not an act of courage. It is not a stand against totalitarianism, concentration camps, mass starvation, or state-‐sponsored terror. It is, based on what we know of the movie so far, simply a comedy, made by a group of talented actors, writers, and directors, and intended, like most comedies, to make money and earn laughs. The movie would perhaps have been better off with a fictitious dictator and regime; instead, it appears to serve up the latest in a long line of cheap and sometimes racism-‐tinged jokes, stretching from Team America: World Police to ongoing sketches on Saturday Night Live. Humor can be a powerful tool for surviving in a closed society, and lampooning dictators can lend latent popular movements the confidence they need to challenge their oppressors. In Libya, dissidents heaped mockery on the Qaddafi family in the early stages of their Arab Spring revolution. In the Soviet Union, activists like Natan Sharansky employed dark humor to weather persecution and labor camps. In a “confrontation with evil,” Sharansky once observed, it is important “to take yourself and everything that’s happening very seriously, to understand that you are part of a very important historical process, and that’s why everything [that] you’ll say and do has tremendous importance for the future.” Nevertheless, he added, “it’s very important not to take anything seriously, to be able to laugh at everything, at the absurdity of this regime, at this KGB prison, and even at yourself.” Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 188
189 Yes, North Korea has long been ruled by an eccentric dynasty of portly dictators with bad haircuts. Yes, the propaganda the regime regularly trumpets to shore up its cult of personality is largely ridiculous. And yes, we on the outside know better, and can take comfort in pointing fingers and chuckling at the regime’s foibles. But it takes no valor and costs precious little to joke about these things safely oceans away from North Korea’s reach. When a North Korean inmate in a political prison camp or a closely monitored Pyongyang apparatchik pokes fun at Kim Jong Un and the system he represents—that is an act of audacity. It very literally can cost the person’s life, and those of his or her family members. To pretend that punch lines from afar, even in the face of hollow North Korean threats, are righteous acts is nonsense. What’s more, crowding the North Korea “story” with anecdotes of nutty behavior and amusing delusions may ironically benefit those in charge in Pyongyang. It serves to buffer and obscure the sheer evil of a regime that enslaves children and sentences entire families to death for crimes of thought, while building ski resorts, dolphinariums, and other luxury escapes for elites with funds that could feed its malnourished people for several years. How many people would have watched The Interview and concluded that they should do something to help change this odious regime and bring about human rights for North Koreans? In Charlie Chaplin’s 1964 autobiography, the star discussed the backlash that he faced from Hollywood and the German and British governments when plans for The Great Dictator’s release were announced. He moved forward with the project despite these concerns, but years later suggested that he regretted that decision: “Had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration
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190 camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator; I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis.” Kim Jong Un… and his barons are also representative of a singularly horrific system, one in which the scale and scope of suffering among 25 million North Koreans does not, as a recent United Nations inquiry noted, “have any parallel in the contemporary world.” North Korea is not funny. It is hard to imagine a comparable comedy emerging about quirky Islamic State slavers or amusing and “complicated” genocidaires in the Central African Republic. The suffering in question is happening now, as I write. The day will soon come when North Koreans are finally free, and liberated concentration camp survivors will have to learn that the world was more interested in the oddities of the oppressors than the torment of the oppressed. What is the central claim of this text? A. That films can never adequately capture the horror of man’s evils B. That, like Charlie Chaplin, the makers of this film will regret their decision to parody an evil regime C. That comedy in the face of evil is a bold and audacious response D. That The Interview is a poor vehicle for adequately expressing the evils of the North Korean regime Consider the title of this text: North Korea Isn’t Funny. From there it should be fairly simple to isolate the central claim. Answer A is too much of a stretch; in fact, the writer says The movie would perhaps have been better off with a fictitious dictator and regime, suggesting that there is a certain value -‐-‐ even if it is just entertainment -‐ -‐ to depicting evil on film. Nor is there evidence for B. C is certainly an assertion, as evidenced by this quote: “Humor can be a powerful tool for surviving in a closed society, and lampooning dictators can lend latent popular movements the confidence they need to challenge their oppressors.” But if you follow the structure of the argument, that is a counterclaim, not a central claim, and it does not apply to the Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 190
191 main premise, which is D -‐-‐ that The Interview is a poor vehicle for this kind of commentary, and that “North Korea is not funny,” certainly not when those of us poking fun at it live thousands of miles away from this regime. As the writer says: “But it takes no valor and costs precious little to joke about these things safely oceans away from North Korea’s reach. When a North Korean inmate in a political prison camp or a closely monitored Pyongyang apparatchik pokes fun at Kim Jong Un and the system he represents—that is an act of audacity. It very literally can cost the person’s life, and those of his or her family members. To pretend that punch lines from afar, even in the face of hollow North Korean threats, are righteous acts is nonsense.” What is the writer’s reasoning behind the claim that The Interview is a poor vehicle through which to express outrage at North Korea’s various abuses of human rights? A. The film is slightly racist, and thus inappropriate B. The film is not funny, and thus it is inappropriate C. The film is a comedy and not a meaningful stand D. The film will be overly sympathetic to the North Korean regime This question asks you to trace the writer’s reasoning. If the central claim is that the film is inappropriate, you must ask yourself as you read each answer choice “Does this answer the question of WHY the film is an inappropriate vehicle?” A is partially true -‐-‐ the writer does say that the portrayal is “cheap and sometimes racism-‐ tinged.” Keep it for now. B is not supported by the text; the writer has not seen the film and makes no mention of its quality, just its subject matter. C is supported repeatedly throughout the text, as the writer continually makes clear that making a comedy about North Korea is deeply insensitive (“The day will soon come when North Koreans are finally free, and liberated concentration camp survivors will have to learn that the world was more interested in the oddities of the oppressors than the torment of the oppressed”) as well as lacking in any actual meaning: (“But it takes no valor and costs precious little to joke about these things safely oceans away from North Korea’s reach.” “What’s more, crowding the North Korea “story” with anecdotes Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 191
192 of nutty behavior and amusing delusions may ironically benefit those in charge in Pyongyang. It serves to buffer and obscure the sheer evil of [the] regime.” “How many people would have watched The Interview and concluded that they should do something to help change this odious regime and bring about human rights for North Koreans?”) All of these arguments demonstrate the writer’s line of reasoning when s/he claims that the film is inappropriate. So while A may be partially true, it is in no way the best or most widely-‐supported answer. As you can see from this article, in order to assess reasoning, you must also be able to cite evidence accurately to justify your assessment; the easiest and best way to do this is by asking yourself “why?” or "Does this support the central claim?" You will learn more about this skill in the next article.
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Analyzing Evidence Analyzing Evidence As discussed in the last article, part of being able to assess an author’s argument is the ability to analyze the evidence that s/he brings to justify the central claims of the argument s/he makes. You must be able point to the claim, prove how the author uses reasoning to support it, and analyze whether or not this reasoning (i.e. the evidence presented) is convincing. As always, you must be able to ask yourself “why? Why does the author make this claim? How does the author justify this claim?” If pieces of evidence thoroughly and convincingly answer the central question of “why,” then they work; if not, then they don’t. Try with this scathing review of Love Actually from the Atlantic. As you read, assess what the central claim is, and how the writer supports the claim. Are his reasoning and his evidence convincing? (Can you think of a counter to any of them?) ...So take the film on its own titular terms. What does Love Actually tell us about love, actually? Well, I think it tells us a number of things, most of them wrong and a few of them appalling. Now, anyone who goes to the cineplex with any regularity knows that the last decade has seen more than its share of bad romantic comedies. But Love Actually is exceptional in that it is not merely, like so many other entries in the genre, unromantic. Rather, it is emphatically, almost shockingly, anti-‐romantic. ...The bulk of the film… offers up at least three disturbing lessons about love. First, that love is overwhelmingly a product of physical attraction and requires virtually no verbal communication or intellectual/emotional affinity of any kind. Second, that the principal barrier to consummating a relationship is Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 193
194 mustering the nerve to say “I love you”—preferably with some grand gesture— and that once you manage that, you’re basically on the fast track to nuptial bliss. And third, that any actual obstacle to romantic fulfillment, however surmountable, is not worth the effort it would require to overcome. Begin with the elevation of physical attraction over any of the other factors typically associated with romantic compatibility: similar likes and dislikes, overlapping senses of humor, shared values, what have you. [One character] falls in love with [another] the first time he speaks with her—“Get a grip,” he chides himself moments afterward—when essentially the only thing he knows about her is that she accidentally uses profanity a lot. (Charming? Sure. Evidence of a soul mate? Unlikely.) [Two characters] meanwhile, fall in love despite not sharing a word of language in common. Moreover, the movie telegraphs very clearly that the moment when Firth really falls for Moniz is when he watches her strip down to her underwear. ...The pattern is repeated throughout the film. [One character] is in love with a beautiful, popular girl at school with whom he’s never spoken. [One character] recognizes that a ray of sunshine may enter his entombed love life the instant he meets a mom who looks exactly like (i.e., is played by) Claudia Schiffer. We can assume, I suppose, that [two characters] have had some conversations— they do work in the same office, after all—but the film doesn’t bother to show them having any. All we know about him is that she thinks he’s “too good for her” and, later, that he has washboard abs. The storyline regarding [one character]’s quest for American babes is played as a gag, of course: dorky British guy is convinced that his accent will prove irresistible to super-‐hotties in Wisconsin—and, lo and behold, he’s right! But the plotline’s comically exaggerated infatuation with physical attraction is actually not very far out of keeping with the rest of the film.
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195 Creepiest of all is the storyline involving [two characters]. Why is he so desperately in love with his best friend’s bride? Well, it’s not the result of any conversation they’ve had or experience they’ve shared, because the movie is at pains to note that he’s barely spoken to her and he goes out of his way to avoid her company. Indeed, the video tribute to her bridal radiance that he records at her wedding makes pretty clear what it is about her that so captivates him. (Hint: not her mind.) And he, too, like [another character] ultimately suggests that the only way he will ever get over this love of his life is by hooking up with a supermodel. I’m barely scratching the surface of what’s wrong with this subplot—the movie’s worst—which somehow manages to present the idea that it’s romantic to go behind a friend’s back to ostentatiously declare your everlasting love for his wife. But let’s not get off track. This is the point at which defenders of the film will reply, reasonably enough: So what? In movies beautiful people always fall in love with other beautiful people! What’s wrong with love at first sight, anyway? Which are both fair responses, as far as they go. But Love Actually is a considerable outlier among romantic comedies in its rigorous conviction not only that people fall in love without really knowing one another, but that they don’t even need to learn anything about each other to confirm their initial attraction. This is not some abstruse or esoteric component of high-‐end cinema. The core of most romantic comedies—the core, for that matter, of most romantic comedies written and/or directed by Richard Curtis—is one form or another of mutual exploration between potential lovers. Some movies do it well and some do it poorly, but almost all at least make an effort to do it. The protagonists bicker their way into love (27 Dresses, Sweet Home Alabama, Something's Gotta Give...). The guy gradually persuades the gal that he’s worthy, or vice versa (Groundhog Day, Knocked Up, Working Girl ...). One helps the other overcome a foolish obsession with a Mr. (or Mrs.) Wrong (The Wedding Singer, Forgetting Sarah Marshall, While You Were Sleeping ...). The free spirit teaches Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 195
196 the control freak to let go and embrace life (Along Came Polly, Pretty Woman, The Ugly Truth ...). Opposites discover that they are attracted (Two Weeks Notice, Notting Hill, Maid in Manhattan ...). Etc., etc. My point is in no way to suggest that these are all good movies. (They’re emphatically not.) Rather it is to point out just how far outside the ordinary it is that none of Love Actually’s fated couples spends any meaningful time getting to know one another at all. What is the author’s main source of support for his central claim that the film Love Actually is “anti-‐romantic”? A. Unlike other films, it doesn’t accurately portray relationships B. The film offers up three disturbing lessons about love C. The film is about love at first sight, which is an unrealistic concept D. The film emphasizes physical attraction over everything else The author is clearly building a case against Love Actually. While he does compare it to other films, he does not suggest that these other films are “accurate,” which leaves A in the dust. B is true, and a direct quote from the text, but it is not support for the idea that Love Actually is anti-‐romantic; it’s more an extension of the argument as it does not adequately answer the question of “why.” It just makes a claim but doesn’t back it up. C is also true-‐ish, but it isn’t the main source from where the author draws his argument. Instead, the author spends nearly the entirety of this article proving that D, the film emphasizes physical attraction over everything else, and this is the real reason that the film is anti-‐romantic. How does the author use evidence to support his argument? A. The author gives multiple examples from the film that all function as support for his central claim B. The author compares Love Actually to other films to support his central claim C. The author effectively addresses a counterclaim in order to support his
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197 argument D. All of the above This question doesn’t ask you what the author’s evidence IS, but rather asks you to evaluate his strategy. A is clearly true; the majority of the article is given over to discussing the various characters and their relationships. The author does compare the film to others in its genre, all to demonstrate that its conception of relationships is “far outside the ordinary.” The author does address the counterclaim (“beautiful people fall in love all the time”) by saying that Love Actually’s idea of “love at first sight” does not fit any sort of accepted “love at first sight” model because the characters do not even speak to each other once they have fallen in love. Clearly, D is the best answer -‐-‐ the author uses multiple tactics in order to demonstrate his main point. Try once again to analyze the evidence that an author uses to structure and support the following argument. As you read, make sure you are paying attention to the central claim as well as to HOW the author uses evidence to prove his point, as well as the actual content of the evidence, and whether or not it effectively supports the central claim. This article is also from The Atlantic. One of the most celebrated pieces of advice to writers is “Write what you know.” Unfortunately, it shows. The demographics of published writers in the West are largely homogeneous, and as a result, our literature is also largely homogeneous. Growing up, for example, my heroes were Atreju, Frodo, and Paul Atreides. All I ever really wanted to do was go on adventures like them. I readily identified with them, and their trials became my scripture: the loss of Artax, the recovery at Lothlórien, the knife fight with Feyd-‐Rautha. Despite a liberal upbringing and an education at a women’s college, it didn’t occur to me that my identification with male heroes had damaged me in any way—that is, until I became a writer, Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 197
198 and found myself weirdly reluctant to write a woman hero. This wasn’t an accident. As Vanessa Veselka wrote in The American Reader, there is a profound relative lack of female road narratives in the Western literary tradition. This absence hurt her in much more concrete ways. When recounting her years as a teenage hitchhiker, Veselka writes, “my survival depended on other people’s ability to envision a possible future for me…[but] there was no cultural narrative for [us] beyond rape and death.” Male hitchhikers had Jack Kerouac, Walt Whitman, and dozens of others. Veselka had bodies in dumpsters on the six o’clock news. Meanwhile, in Joseph Campbell’s The Hero With a Thousand Faces, a work that compares mythologies from cultures around the globe, the hero pretty much just has one face: that of a white (or white-‐washed) man. Women are usually guiding spirits or goddesses encountered along the way, not the heroes themselves. This has troubling implications when we view writing stories as an act of creation: not just of a narrative, but of the society in which we live, and the possibilities prescribed for the people who live in it. Literature is our collective creation myth. ...Western writers still make up the majority of published English language authors, and English is one of the global lingua franca. Western literature already has extraordinary women heroes created by extraordinary writers: Toni Morrison’s Sethe, Ursula Le Guin’s Tenar, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Ifemelu. But they’re a tiny proportion of the whole. We need more. Writing characters different from us—for all creators, in all directions—is integral to creating a literature in which all phenotypes are heroic, and therefore, all are humanized. I won’t go so far as to say that creators have a responsibility to do so. But I do submit that our increasingly global society offers an unprecedented Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 198
199 opportunity for all creators to write what we don’t know. The defining heroic journey of the 20th century was to conquer evil: the Nothing, Sauron, the Harkonnens. But the defining heroic journey of the 21st century will be to reconcile the Other with the Self. What is the writer’s central premise in this text? A. That the lack of diversity in Western literature has concrete negative effects on our society B. That writers have a responsibility to the reader to create more diverse characters C. That the advice “write what you know” is mistaken and should be rethought D. That identification with male heroes is damaging The writer does spend the bulk of the text lamenting the lack of diversity in Western literature, first citing her own experiences reading exclusively male protagonists, then citing other cases of women who have found themselves stymied and frustrated by the lack of protagonists and narratives that accurately represent the vast spectrum of humanity. Keep A for now. B is clearly wrong, as the writer says in the last paragraph “I won’t go so far as to say that creators have a responsibility [to write characters different from themselves].” She does start off with C -‐-‐ that “write what you know” is popular advice -‐-‐ but she doesn’t advocate letting go of this advice entirely. And while she does claim that her identification with male heroes was personally damaging, this is not the central claim of her article -‐-‐ rather, it is a piece of evidence that she uses to bolster her claim. (It answers the question “why?”) Which is the most effective piece of evidence that the writer uses, and why? A. Her assertion that her own identification with male heroes was damaging, because it adds a personal touch to this persuasive text that helps the reader Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 199
200 connect better with its content B. Her example of Vanessa Veselka’s lack of female role models in the road narrative, because it graphically emphasizes the gulf between what is viewed as possible for men and what is viewed as possible for women C. Her example of the different evils our literature has had to conquer, because they give a real face to the problem that our literature and our society face D. Her assertion that literature is our “collective creation myth,” because this illustrates just how deep this problem runs. Remember, the writer uses evidence to support her central claim that the lack of diversity in modern literature is deeply problematic. To be effective, these pieces of evidence must answer the question of WHY this assertion is true. Read A; while this is certainly evidence that she used, and while it does add a personal touch, consider whether it indeed helps the reader connect better with the content. Does this accurately demonstrate the extent or seriousness of the damage done to our society? Keep A for now, as it does reflect a form of damage, but consider whether it’s the best answer. B is certainly true; it is extremely damaging for a young woman to see only two (very dark) options for herself as she embarks on a road trip. The fact that women are missing entirely from the road narrative certainly constitutes a compelling piece of evidence from the assertion that the lack of diversity in literature is indeed damaging to our society. C is a clever answer that in fact has nothing to do with the argument; she gives an example of these evils (the Nothing, Sauron, etc) only to contrast these villains with the villains that we find within ourselves (“the Self and the Other”). And D is also a clever answer, but it doesn’t prove her point since there is no tangible evidence for it; it is just another piece or extension of her central argument. Between A and B, B is the better answer; while both provide examples of the kind of damage caused by the lack of diversity in literature, B’s example is far more graphic, pervasive, and violent, and therefore more convincing as an example of "damage." Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 200
201 As you read and analyze evidence and claims, make sure that you understand the distinction between evidence / support and the actual argument itself. The new SAT will attempt to distract you by offering you answer choices about pieces of “evidence” that are simply extensions of the author’s argument. Watch out for this, and make sure you are always asking yourself “does this answer the question of ‘why’?”
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Part III: Synthesis (Reading)
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204 Of the various skills required for success on the SAT (as well as other academic pursuits), one of the most important (and sometimes the most difficult for students) is synthesis, or the ability to understand and integrate the information found in multiple texts. A truly high-‐level student can extract relevant information from multiple texts and weave together a coherent argument that takes into account these various sources of information. Synthesis is just a combination of the skills you have reinforced over the course of the previous articles, but in the context of multiple texts. This skill requires you to read carefully, think critically, make inferences, asses reasoning, analyze evidence, and form justifiable opinions -‐-‐ on basis of more than one passage. Sometimes the texts will present two sides of the same argument -‐-‐ in some ways making your job of analysis easier -‐-‐ and sometimes they will not. Try your hand at analyzing the following two texts; as you read, pay careful attention to similarities and differences between the two. It may be helpful to make a chart of the various ways in which these texts discuss the same main ideas: Text One, from The University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences A species is endangered when it is threatened with extinction. Since time began, countless species have gone extinct from natural processes. The extinction of dinosaurs is the best known example. Why Save Endangered Species? If extinction is a natural process, why should we make an effort to save endangered species? Because we can no longer attribute the accelerating extinction of plants and animals to natural causes. Today most species of plants and animals become extinct because of habitat destruction (loss of living space to development or pollution), introduction of non-‐native organisms, and direct killing (over-‐harvesting, poisoning).... Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 204
205 Our understanding of the value of endangered species to humans has increased together with the recognition that human activities cause extinction. In general, benefits of species can be classified as ecological, economic, and social. Different combinations of benefits occur for any particular species, and some species are obviously more "valuable" than others. More important than knowing why a particular species is valuable is understanding why so many kinds of plants and animals are valuable. Biological Diversity The assemblage of populations of plants and animals in an area is termed its "biological diversity." The term biological diversity is often used interchangeably (sometimes confusingly) with two other terms, "genetic diversity" and "ecological diversity." Genetic diversity (amount of genetic variability among individuals of the same species) and ecological diversity (number and relative abundance of species) are both components of biological diversity. Genetic diversity is directly related to a species' ability to survive environmental change. For example, plants and animals can be characterized by their ability to exist under different climatic (moisture and temperature) conditions. However, within different species there is a certain amount of variability in the tolerance of individuals to climatic conditions. The ability of different species to cope with environmental-‐-‐in this example climatic-‐-‐ change depends on this variability. When genetic variability is reduced, as with the Florida panther, the risk of extinction increases. The loss of a single species can set off a chain reaction affecting many other species. The total impact of extinction is not always apparent, and is difficult to
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206 predict, but it is clear that conserving biological diversity is essential for maintaining intact ecosystems. Benefits of Biological Diversity How does maintaining biological diversity benefit humanity? It only takes a moment to realize that throughout history plants and animals have provided humans with food, clothing, energy, medicines, and structural materials. Today, solutions to problems in agricultural production in tropical countries, reliance on petrochemicals, and the cures for cancers may lie in organisms not yet discovered. It would be a shame to lose these benefits without even knowing we had them. Text Two, Public Library Of Science Blogs Network -‐ Plants with Personality If you had to be an endangered animal, you’d be better off as a tiger than a toad. If you were a tiger, filmmakers might cast you in wildlife documentaries and journalists might write heart-‐rending stories about the disappearance of your kind. Your furry mug might appear on magazine covers and postage stamps. And conservation organizations just might make you their flagship species, a stand-‐in for all the critters whose survival is threatened. In other words, if you were a tiger, you might have a fighting chance of at least making humans care about your predicament. That’s a taller order if you’re a toad, an animal that wins over few human hearts. Instead, we prefer the so-‐called “charismatic mega fauna,” funneling our emotional and conservational energies into species like tigers, lions, elephants, dolphins, pandas, and the like. A number of psychologists and biologists have begun to uncover why some species appeal to us more than others, identifying a number of factors that make certain kinds of critters especially attractive. For instance, we have a soft spot for our fellow mammals, and we prefer big beasts to smaller ones. We’re Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 206
207 also strongly attracted to “neotenic,” or juvenile-‐looking, features. The youngsters of many species have large heads, large eyes, big foreheads, and snub noses. Human infants have these characteristics, as do puppies, kittens, and all sorts of other critters that we find cute. In some species, adult animals retain features associated with youth–such as oversized eyes–and we’re naturally drawn to these neotenic faces. ...Our preferences for certain species over others have serious implications for conservation. Studies have shown that charismatic mega fauna attract more than their fair share of conservation attention and funding. As Stokes put it in his 2006 paper: “Much of the world’s biodiversity will survive only if humans choose to protect it. Given that people are likely to protect what is important to them, human preferences will be important determinants of many species’ prospects for survival…” As you read, take note of the fact that these two articles clearly discuss a similar theme -‐-‐ but that they take very different angles on this theme. Make sure that you pay attention to similarities and differences in context, tone, style, and structure -‐-‐ and, of course, to the content of the passages themselves. What is the best way to characterize the difference between Text One and Text Two? A. Text One is persuasive, while Text Two is purely informative B. Text One contains much scientific jargon, whereas Text Two is highly descriptive C. Text One provides general information about a scientific context while Text Two details a phenomenon specific to that context D. Text One is a call to action whereas Text Two is clearly written increase awareness
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208 These two texts, while somewhat related in their subject matter, are in fact very different -‐-‐ partially because of their structure, partially because of their tone, and partially because of their content. However, A claims that Text One is persuasive, which -‐-‐ if you read it closely -‐-‐ it isn’t. It doesn’t contain much of a central claim, other than the fact that extinction is a bad thing; nor does it spend too much time trying to convince you that extinction is a bad thing. Instead, it simply and clearly lays out the facts about extinction and genetic, ecological, and biological diversity. For this reason alone answer A is wrong. B is incorrect as well -‐-‐ while it’s true that Text One contains many scientific definitions, Text Two contains at least two unfamiliar scientific words as well (“charismatic megafauna” and “neotenic.”) Additionally, Text Two hardly contains multiple adjectives or long descriptions; it is somewhat informal, rather than “highly descriptive.” Answer C is true; Text One DOES provide general information about why endangerment and extinction are highly negative phenomena, and Text Two DOES detail a specific phenomenon within the context of endangerment and extinction, as it describes the animals that are most likely to be helped or saved by concerned humans. D is incorrect; Text One, objective as it is, is hardly a call to action. There are no strong words and there is no direct address of the reader; simply detailing why extinction and endangerment are negative things surely does not constitute a call to action. And while Text Two DOES inform the reader of a specific phenomenon, it’s hard to get away with saying that its primary aim is to “raise awareness,” as that has a political connotation that is absent here. All in all, C is the best answer. In what way do the structures of these two texts help to shape the way they convey information? A. Text One provides a sequence of events that allows readers to better understand the process of extinction; Text Two offers no such sequence B. Both texts provide in-‐depth, objective explanations of scientific phenomena, allowing the reader to better understand the material C. Both texts lay out a problem and suggest possible solutions, offering the reader an insight into some scientists’ approaches to mass extinctions Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 208
209 D. Text One defines important terms while Text Two outlines cause and effect, so that readers are better able to understand the immediacy and importance of the phenomena described There is a definite text structure to Text One; the multiple subheadings should alert you to that immediately. However, this text structure is not at all a sequence of events; you’ll be hard pressed to find even one chronologically significant signal word (e.g. “first,” “second,” “third,” etc.) For this alone you can get rid of answer A. B is certainly true of Text One, but it’s hard to make that same case for Text Two, as the majority of the content is taken up with a catchy introduction and a less-‐than-‐ objective-‐sounding tone. Keep B for now but consider better options. The first part of C is true -‐-‐ both texts do lay out a problem -‐-‐ but neither proposes a possible solution. D is true -‐-‐ Text One is full of important terms that help the reader better understand the phenomena described, while Text Two does provide a cause (humans are predisposed to like “neotenic” animals) and effect (non-‐neotenic endangered animals are in greater danger than neotenic ones). Of all the answers, D is the most true. Both texts can be said to have the aim of… A. Galvanizing the reader towards change B. Frightening the reader with grim tidings C. Educating the reader with accessible language D. Propelling the reader towards an unavoidable conclusion This question asks you to make inferences regarding why both of these texts were written. Assess the tone of these texts -‐-‐ one is neutral and objective, laying out facts, while the other is informal and engages more with the reader. But both contain important scientific information that sheds light on certain aspects of the same phenomenon. A may be correct -‐-‐ it’s possible that the writers of both these texts wished to spur the reader towards some kind of action -‐-‐ but it’s also quite doubtful considering that neither of these can really be considered a call to action, as neither Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 209
210 uses fiery language or impels the reader towards any real kind of action. Additionally, B is also possible -‐-‐ but it is unlikely considering the notable absence of any strong language or sobering statistics. C is certainly true -‐-‐ though these articles do contain some “jargon,” they both take care to either define these terms or to give the reader enough context to understand them, and both pieces are written in a style that is easy to follow; additionally, the textbook-‐like tone of the first passage is a strong indicator that the author wished to educate and inform the reader. D is interesting, but not very compelling -‐-‐ which conclusion, exactly, does the second article try to propel the reader towards? What words or sentences can be said to be “propelling” the reader? Though you may indeed reach an “unavoidable” conclusion after reading these pieces, the neutral, subdued tone of the first piece and the lack of any conclusion in the second make it very hard to find evidence for D being the right answer. C is the best answer. Both Text One and Text Two contain unfamiliar words and phrases. What is the approach these texts take to defining these phrases? A. Both texts consistently define every unfamiliar phrase they use B. Text One consistently defines phrases whereas Text Two defines some phrases and lets the reader infer the meaning of others C. Text One does not define relevant phrases whereas Text Two does D. Neither text adequately explains the scientific phrases it uses As explained above, these texts have similar aims in that they both seek to make scientific phenomena clear and easy for the layperson to understand. Therefore their approach to phrasing and terminology is very important; if you look closely at Text One, it certainly defines all the terms it uses, from “endangered” to “genetic diversity.” Yet Text Two does not ever define the phrase “charismatic mega fauna,” leaving it to the reader to figure it out. This invalidates Answer A and makes Answer B the only correct choice.
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211 Based on Text Two, “charismatic mega fauna” most closely means… A. Those with great personalities B. Humans invested in saving animals C. Animals that humans feel compelled to save D. Plants with personality You may be tempted to choose “A” based on your understanding of the word “charisma” (magnetism), but remember, this is a scientific article about animals, so it’s unlikely that the writer would devote much time to considering animals’ “great personalities.” B is clearly wrong; the article uses the phrase in the following context: That’s a taller order if you’re a toad, an animal that wins over few human hearts. Instead, we prefer the so-‐called “charismatic megafauna,” funneling our emotional and conservational energies into species like tigers, lions, elephants, dolphins, pandas, and the like. Replace the word “charismatic megafauna” with “humans invested in saving animals” and it quickly becomes clear how ridiculous this answer is. C is a much better choice. D references the title of the piece, but as there is no mention of plants yet, it makes little sense in this context. Lastly, if you know the meaning of “flora” (plants) and “fauna” (animals), the meaning of this should be clear, as only one of the choices is “animals.” How do the varying tones of these works influence the relationship between the reader and the texts? A. The objective tone of Text One introduces a problem to the reader, whereas the informal tone of Text Two allows the reader to feel satisfied that the problem is being addressed B. The second-‐person tone of Text Two contains a subtle indictment of the reader, whereas the detached tone of Text One distances the reader from the Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 211
212 immediate problems of endangered species C. The jargon in the first text gives the reader an unbiased, in-‐depth perspective, while the informal tone of the second text clearly reveals the author’s perspective D. The textbook-‐like tone of the first text, contrasted with the informal tone of the second, make it clear that these articles would be read in very different contexts. This question is in essence asking you about the tone of the text. Don’t be fooled by this jargon-‐y idea of “the relationship between the reader and the texts;” simply focus on the fact that the question is asking you about the tone. Assess the answer choices and see which makes the most sense -‐-‐ even if you don’t understand the question, you should be able to eliminate answer choices because some of them will contain blatantly inaccurate information… such as answer A. While the first part is true, the informal tone of Text Two does nothing to address the problem. In fact, all the text does is present a problem, without even a mention of a solution. This answer is wrong. B is also wrong; there is absolutely no “subtle indictment” of the reader here. Or rather, if there is a subtle indictment (criticism) of the reader, it is so subtle as to be nonexistent. There are simply no words in this text that contain any sort of criticism of the reader, or even imply it. This alone makes the answer wrong. C is also wrong; we have no idea what the author’s perspective is for the second article. Just because an article is informal does not mean it is biased; this is important to remember. The second article still clearly lays out all of the facts, and quotes experts in the field -‐-‐ while at the same time not even hinting at the author’s perspective. The only answer left is D, and it is clearly true -‐-‐ these clearly WERE written for very different contexts, such as a textbook or a magazine. In fact, you don’t need much beyond the little blurb at the top of each text to tell you this -‐-‐ Text One comes from a college website while Text Two comes from the Public Library of Science’s Blogs network. Even if you’re not totally sure what a question is asking you, simply paying attention to the context can sometimes be enough to propel you
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213 towards the right answer. These two passages are best read together because… A. Text Two defines and explains Text One B. Text Two gives a reason for a phenomenon found in Text One C. They give two oppositional sides of one story D. Text One contains a general picture of a phenomenon while Text Two details a specific feature of this phenomenon This question asks you to consider why the evil geniuses behind the SAT paired these texts. Clearly, all paired texts will have some sort of relationship. Clearly, A is incorrect; considering its definition-‐heavy tone,Text One needs no additional definition or explanation. B is tempting, but please consider that Text Two does not actually give a REASON that certain species are endangered -‐-‐ it simply gives a reason for why certain endangered species are more “cared about” or impacted by conservation efforts. Nor is C correct; these two articles do not give opposing sides or differing accounts; they both simply describe certain features of endangerment. D is clearly the best answer -‐-‐ while Text One is about a general phenomenon (endangerment and extinction), Text Two addresses another, smaller phenomenon that is only possible in context of the phenomenon described in Text One. Clearly, D is the best answer. As you can see, synthesis will mostly center on asking you to compare and contrast the various tones and approaches that two texts take. Remember, the SAT pairs texts for a reason, and it won’t always be as simple as “one is pro, one is con.” For example, the texts above are clearly related yet not at all the same; as soon as you’ve assessed the similarities (thematic or otherwise) between two texts, it will become much easier to assess how they diverge and how they complement one another. This will make it easier to understand how to answer Synthesis questions.
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Analyzing Quantitative Information The new SAT will have a strong emphasis on the role that quantitative information plays within a larger text. In a world that is increasingly governed by data, the ability to identify, understand, summarize, and effectively use data to come to conclusions is paramount. Data will make an appearance on all sections of the SAT -‐-‐ not just math, but Reading and Writing, too. Luckily, data analysis is just another form of reading comprehension, so all of the work you have been doing in the past few articles will help you form data-‐based conclusions. Perhaps the most important part of analyzing quantitative information is simply to pay attention. Look at what information the data is presenting. Read all parts of the graph or chart, including the labeling of the horizontal and vertical axes, and make sure that you pay attention also to the way information and numbers are categorized. Remember also that charts and data are not there to confuse you; instead, they are there to help you better understand the text of the article, so think of them as an added benefit to your reading. Let’s start with the following article, linked here. As you can see, the map is clearly here to illustrate an essential theme of the article. The article asserts that North Korea is very poor and gives a map as evidence, then explains how the map functions. What does the inclusion of this map show about poverty in North Korea? A. That it is restricted to only a few small sections of the country B. That economic sanctions against North Korea have increased in recent years C. That the poverty in North Korea is a heinous crime D. That, compared to neighboring countries, North Korea is very poor It is important to understand what the question is really asking -‐-‐ it is asking how the map changes or deepens your understanding of poverty in North Korea Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 214
215 specifically. But read carefully -‐-‐ while A looks like it may be true (after all, the lights are restricted to one part of the country) if you read closely you’ll see that the clustering of lights is in fact an indication that resources, not poverty, are restricted to just one area. The emptiness and lack of light in the surrounding areas denote poverty. Clearly, considering how little light there actually is, the poverty isn’t restricted -‐-‐ the resources are. A is wrong. B is true -‐-‐ economic sanctions against North Korea HAVE increased in recent years -‐-‐ but is completely unrelated to the data you see in front of you. (While the article does say that electricity use increases in cities but dims in the countryside after new sanctions are imposed, we’d have to see a much more detailed breakdown of the light situation after a few sanctions in order for this claim to be relevant to the data.) C is also true, and also supported by the article, but has little to do with the data. Maps and charts reveal facts and statistics; they do not make judgments. D is the best answer because remember that the map compares two different but neighboring countries -‐-‐ North and South Korea. Without the comparison to South Korea, this map of North Korea’s light situation (or lack thereof) would be completely meaningless, as we’d have nothing against which to measure it, no real rubric for understanding this map. As this question proves, you must read carefully and make sure you understand and are answering the question, or else your choice will be inaccurate. This article, too, contains data that will help you to better understand what the article itself is trying to say? Based on the chart, what inference can you make about the number of MFAs that will be earned in 2012-‐2013? A. The number will most likely continue to go up B. The number will most likely stay the same C. The number will most likely decrease D. There is no prediction that can reasonably be made about this chart
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216 If you look at the chart -‐-‐ and read the article -‐-‐ it’s pretty clear that the number of people earning MFAs has gone up significantly in the past few years, and that this trend shows no sign of stopping despite the high costs and low pay of being an artist. Based on the trends depicted in the graph -‐-‐ as well as the fact that artists consider their profession to be an honor, and tend to have wealthier parents than the rest of the population -‐-‐ it is pretty easy to predict that A is the only correct answer. This article contains a more challenging graph. Read the article, and look at the graphs, then answer the questions. Some will ask you merely to point to data, whereas others will ask you to analyze it: Based on the first graph, what percentage of five-‐year-‐olds believe in Santa? A. Nearly 70% B. Nearly 83% C. Nearly 62% D. Nearly 65% This is the kind of question designed to see if you are paying attention. A refers to the percentage of three year olds who believe in Santa, B is the correct answer, C refers to number of three-‐year-‐olds who believe in the Tooth Fairy, and D refers to the number of five-‐year-‐olds who believe in the Tooth Fairy. When answering questions like this, all you need to do is pay attention to what the graph actually says. Based on both the article and the first graph, what conclusion can you draw about the number of eight-‐year-‐olds who believe in Santa? A. Twice as many eight-‐year-‐olds than nine-‐year-‐olds believe in Santa B. Eight-‐year-‐olds on the whole no longer believe in Santa C. Eight-‐year-‐olds who no longer believe in Santa most likely also no longer
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217 believe in the Tooth Fairy D. Eight-‐year-‐olds are the most skeptical age group The question asks about both the article and the first graph, so make sure that you’re using information from the article to answer this question. The article does mention that a 1978 study found that only a quarter of eight-‐year-‐olds believe in Santa -‐-‐ though the graph would seem to contradict this finding because more than 25% of nine-‐year-‐olds believe in Santa, and it doesn’t make sense for the belief in Santa to go up and then down again once children reach a certain age. (Though it’s true that belief in Santa goes up between the ages of three and five, this can be explained by the fact that three-‐year-‐olds just might not be mature enough to grasp the concept of Santa fully). Based on the trend in the chart (a decreasing belief in Santa correlated with age) and the anecdotes in the article, it doesn’t stand to reason that “twice as many” eight year olds believe in Santa; not even twice as many seven-‐ year-‐olds believe in Santa than nine-‐year-‐olds, and based on the graph we can safely assume that a belief in Santa will only decrease, not increase, with age. There is also no evidence for B, considering that nearly a third of nine-‐year-‐olds believe in Santa, according to the chart, so it makes little sense for no eight year olds to believe in Santa. C is supported by the text as well as the chart; belief in Santa and the Tooth Fairy appear to be related, as each time a belief in Santa grows or shrinks, belief in the Tooth Fairy does the same. We can assume that eight-‐year-‐olds skeptical of Santa will also be skeptical of the Tooth Fairy, but we cannot assume that eight-‐ year-‐olds are the most skeptical age group, especially given the data and the evidence about Wooley’s daughter (though the article does not say how old she was). Based on the second graph, adults of which religious group are most likely to still believe in Santa? A. No adults believe in Santa B. Catholic adults are most likely to believe in Santa C. Adults of “another religion” are most likely to believe in Santa D. Mainline Protestant adults are most likely to believe in Santa Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 217
218 Again, this question is just trying to see whether or not you are paying attention. All you need to do is pay attention to the key -‐-‐ the graph is color coded. The green bar will tell you what percentage of which group of adults still believes in Santa; looking at the green bar, it is clear that adults of “Other Religion” are most likely to still believe in Santa. All this question is asking you to do is to look at information that is already in the text. What is the relationship between the two graphs? A. Both graphs depict the same trend: that belief in Santa peaks between the ages of 5-‐8 B. Both graphs depict the same trend: that children under five are more likely to believe in Santa C. Both graphs depict the same trend: that belief in Santa is correlated with belief in the Tooth Fairy D. Both graphs depict the same trend: that belief in Santa is correlated with religion Remember, this question is asking you about the relationship of the two graphs to one another -‐-‐ not about one graph in isolation. Consider the options carefully; the first graph does indeed show that five-‐year-‐olds are the most likely of any age group to believe in Santa, while the second graph is a little bit more generous and says that five to eight year olds are the most likely to believe in Santa. In essence both graphs say the same thing, though the parameters given by the second graph are slightly larger than the parameters given in the first. Neither graph depicts the trend described in option B, and only one graph depicts the trend found in C. Only the last graph depicts the trend found in D. Clearly, there is only one right answer, and it is A. What is one surprising question that the data in the second graph presents but does not explain? Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 218
219 A. Why five-‐to-‐eight-‐year-‐old children of “other religions” are least likely to believe in Santa while nine-‐to-‐twelve year old children and adults of “other religions” are most likely to believe in Santa B. Why 5-‐8 year-‐old children of “no religion” are most likely to believe in Santa C. Why adults believe in Santa D. Why more kids don’t believe in Santa This is a bit of a tricky question, because the only role of this data is to present information. You’ll have to look at the data critically and in isolation -‐-‐ meaning that you can’t use too much outsider information, like the idea that Christmas is technically a Christian holiday, to drive your question. Instead, look only at the data. The first option, A, is based on data and only on data -‐-‐ it has nothing to do with other religions. It simply depicts the most interesting and unexpected trend. Where the rest of the religions are all more or less the same (belief peaks between 5-‐8 and steadily declines), the Other Religion bar shows belief peaking at 9-‐12, declining at older than twelve, and then peaking again during adulthood. Why would this happen? The data does not behave like the data for the other religions, which is why A is the best answer. B is also an interesting question, but it isn’t surprising -‐-‐ after all, the findings there are consistent with the findings for all five-‐to-‐eight-‐year-‐olds; and the percent of 5-‐8-‐year-‐olds of No Religion who believe in Santa is not significantly higher than the percentage of most 5-‐8-‐year-‐olds who believe in Santa. C has nothing to do with the data; personal beliefs are not the concern of data and charts. Our only interest here is why the data is fluctuating -‐-‐ hence why D is also incorrect. As demonstrated by the questions above, data analysis and the use of quantitative information can enrich your reading experience tremendously. Pay attention to detail and remember to think objectively about data, and you will see much success on this portion of the SAT. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 219
220
Part IV: Expression of Ideas (Writing)
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221
Development Text Development Text development refers to the rhetorical structure and purpose of a text. That is, it is a way to describe the components of a text that make that text successful in communicating ideas. Analyzing text development entails looking at four components: •
Proposition – the main claim or controlling idea of the text
•
Support – the details, facts, and statistics used to back up the proposition
•
Focus – the relevance of all of the details to the main claim
•
Quantitative Information – information in graphs, charts, or tables that can be related to information in the text.
Review the following text and chart before continuing the explanation that follows Sample Text -‐ Linking Poverty and Obesity By now it has become common knowledge that America is suffering from an obesity epidemic. The United States is home to the greatest number of overweight or obese people in the world. In fact, 66% of all Americans are overweight. The statistical frequency of obesity in the U.S. is a complicated number. Although America is one of the wealthiest nations in the world, obesity is most often associated with its poorest citizens. Researchers have identified a direct correlation between BMI, or body mass index, a measurement of obesity, and income. However, the connection between obesity and poverty is not a result of uneducated choices. Rather, those living in poverty are more likely to become obese because of the unique challenges in accessing nutritious foods one faces when living in a high poverty area. In low-‐income neighborhoods, residents are less likely to find large grocery stores, farmers’ markets, or other places where they can purchase healthy foods including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, or low-‐fat dairy products. As their food shopping Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 221
222 choices are often limited to convenience stores or corner stores, the poor often find that their food choices are consequently limited to convenience foods, such as frozen meals, canned foods, and other choices that are high in fat and salt, and often contain highly refined grains and added sugar. When high quality nutritious foods are available to those living in poverty, these food items are often much more expensive than less nutritious, but more filling foods, such as boxed pasta mixes. With limited funds to spend on food, poor shoppers seek to maximize the calories per dollar ratio. For example, while a healthy lunch choice, such as a chicken Caesar salad, provides about 60 calories for each dollar spent, a frozen beef burrito provides 112 calories for the same dollar, making it the more economical choice. Unfortunately, these inexpensive, high calorie foods are not nutrient rich. Combined with the uniquely ample portion sizes, most Americans have become accustomed to, these cheap, filling foods lead to overconsumption and weight gain. In addition, those living in low-‐income neighborhoods often have easy access to fast food restaurants. In fact, in many neighborhoods, fast food restaurants outnumber stores selling nutritious foods nearly four to one. Fast food restaurants offer high calorie meals for relatively low prices. A fast food taco, for example, provides 100 calories per dollar. Unfortunately, the fast food taco also offers high fat and sugar content, and very little nutritious value. Consuming fast food on a regular basis can lead to rapid weight gain and obesity. Some people believe fast food restaurants should be held responsible for obesity rates nationwide. However, these businesses often counter than they provide affordable food options to Americans at all income levels and that healthy choices are available on their menus. Finally, while a simplistic analysis of obesity rates among the poor could lead to the conclusion that lack of education, depression, or other factors such as substance abuse could cause the higher rates of obesity among that population, a close analysis demonstrates that the opportunity to make different food choices may not exist. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 222
223 Often the poor live in what have been called “food deserts,” areas where affordable, nutritious food is difficult or impossible to obtain.
Proposition The proposition is the main claim a text sets out to prove. One can usually find the proposition near the end of the first paragraph. In an argumentative essay, the proposition is also called the thesis statement. In the article above, which sentence is most likely the proposition? 1. Rather, those living in poverty are more likely to become obese because of the unique challenges in accessing nutritious foods one faces when living in a high poverty area. 2. Although America is one of the wealthiest nations in the world, obesity is most often associated with its poorest citizens. 3. Researchers have identified a direct correlation between BMI, or body mass index, a measurement of obesity, and income. The answer is A. While all three sentences make a connection between poverty and obesity, only A includes the argument the author is about to make, that the connection between obesity and poverty is caused by a lack of access to nutritious foods.
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224 In the sample text, the proposition is introduced specifically in the introduction, and confirmed in the conclusion. Note that both sentences of the conclusion make reference to the availability of nutritious foods: •
“…a close analysis demonstrates that the opportunity to make different food choices may not exist.”
•
“Often the poor live in what have been called “food deserts,” areas where affordable, nutritious food is difficult or impossible to obtain.”
When analyzing a text to determine the proposition, it is crucial that the reader consider the entire text. Finding the proposition is not as simple as choosing the last sentence in the introduction. Sample Question: How does the author introduce the proposition? A. By lamenting America's obesity epidemic B. By railing against the many factors that have led to the obesity epidemic C. By leveling blame on the poor D. By dispassionately outlining facts Your clues for answering these questions can be found in the verbs that make up the answers. There is simply no textual evidence to support Option A, which claims that the author "laments" the obesity academic. This strong language suggests that the author has a strong, regretful opinion of the epidemic -‐-‐ but there is no evidence of this kind of passion in the article. The same is true of B and C -‐-‐ there is no "railing against" or "blame." In fact, if you look at how the author introduces the proposition, all you will see are facts outlined without real comment. In order to answer this question, you must be familiar with both the terms -‐-‐ i.e., to know what a proposition actually is -‐-‐ as well as the vocabulary used in the answer options. You must also understand the difference between an objective tone (which is used here, in this expository text) and a subjective one (which makes use of many adjectives, descriptions, and clearly illustrates the author's opinion.) Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 224
225 Support The support consists of specific facts, examples, and details used to provide evidence for the claim. Support can be in the form of statistic data, but may also include elaboration or explanation that strengthens the proposition. In the sample text, which information is not support for the proposition? 1. “…68% of all Americans are overweight…” 2. “…chicken Caesar salad provides about 60 calories for each dollar spent…” 3. “…in many neighborhoods, fast food restaurants outnumber stores selling nutritious foods nearly four to one.” The answer is A. The percentage of Americans who are overweight is certainly a statistic, which might lead one to conclude that it supports the proposition. However, here that is not the case. The use of this statistic provides introductory context, and lets the reader know why this topic is important, but the percentage of all Americans suffering from obesity does not support the proposition’s connection between obesity and poverty. Choice B, however, provides information that explains why high calorie foods may be chosen more frequently than healthier, lower calorie foods. Choice C elaborates on the imbalance of food options available in high-‐poverty neighborhoods, supporting the author’s proposition that obesity is a result of a lack of access to nutritious foods. When analyzing a text to determine what information supports the proposition, it is important that the reader does not assume all statistics or numbers are relevant support. Understanding the text holistically is necessary in order to identify relevant support. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 225
226 Sample question: What is the best support from the article for the claim that the poor have unique challenges when it comes to making healthy choices? A. The poor have many issues with substance abuse in their communities that make it hard to eat well. B. Fast food restaurants do not offer healthy food options at all. C. Lower-‐income neighborhoods are "food deserts" that do not offer affordable high-‐quality foods. D. High-‐calorie foods are often not nutrient-‐rich. This question asks you to consider information that supports a claim. Often, answer choices for questions like this will include information that was actually featured in the article, but be careful to pay attention and make sure that this information actually supports the claim. For example, while Option A isn't incorrect -‐-‐ the poor can have issues with substance abuse, which are mentioned in the article -‐-‐ you should not use outside knowledge, only what is explicitly stated in the text, to demonstrate your understanding of the way the text is structured. In fact, the text explicitly states that this explanation is "simplistic" -‐-‐ so clearly it's not the best support for this claim. B is incorrect as well, as the text states that "fast-‐food restaurants provide affordable food options to Americans at all income levels and that healthy choices are available on their menu." C is the best answer, as the writer mentions in the last paragraph of the text that this is a challenge that the poor face. D is also true, but has nothing to do with the claim statement in question. Focus When evaluating the focus of a text the reader should consider how and if each paragraph clearly relates to the proposition. In the sample text, the proposition makes a connection between poverty and obesity. Therefore, all of the information in the body paragraphs should provide support for that claim. Which of the following details is not relevant to the proposition? Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 226
227 1. “Some people believe fast food restaurants should be held responsible for obesity rates nationwide.” 2. “Combined with the uniquely ample portion sizes most Americans have become accustomed to, these cheap, filling foods lead to overconsumption and weight gain.” 3. “…poor shoppers seek to maximize the calories per dollar ratio…” The answer is A. Remember, the purpose of this essay is to support the proposition. The two sentences at the end of the fourth paragraph that refer to the debate about whether or not fast food restaurants are responsible for obesity are not related to this proposition. The writer argues that lack of access to affordable, high quality foods leads to obesity. There is no claim that there is a connection directly to fast food restaurants. And, the author also mentions convenience and corner stores as other sources of low quality, low price food. When analyzing the focus of a text it is important to keep the specific proposition in mind. Information that seems to be related may only refer to the same topic, but not the same controlling idea, as in this example. Again, it is impossible to analyze focus without understanding the entire text. Where is the most logical place to insert the following statement? "In fact, many have claimed that it is this factor that differentiates American consumers from consumers in other countries; no one knows how these over-‐large servings developed, but experts argue that without proper portion control there can be no answer to this epidemic." A. Right before this statement: "A fast food taco, for example, provides 100 calories per dollar. Unfortunately, the fast food taco also offers high fat and Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 227
228 sugar content, and very little nutritious value." B. Right after this sentence: "However, the connection between obesity and poverty is not a result of uneducated choices." C. Right after this sentence: "Combined with the uniquely ample portion sizes, most Americans have become accustomed to, these cheap, filling foods lead to overconsumption and weight gain." D. Right after this sentence: "Finally, while a simplistic analysis of obesity rates among the poor could lead to the conclusion that lack of education, depression, or other factors such as substance abuse could cause the higher rates of obesity among that population, a close analysis demonstrates that the opportunity to make different food choices may not exist." This question tests your understanding of how to best organize a piece of writing so that it retains its focus. Pay attention to the sentence itself "it is this factor that differentiates American consumers..." So you know that this sentence must have to go after another sentence that introduces some new factor. Look at A. The sentence before "A fast food taco, for example" reads "Fast food restaurants offer high calorie meals for relatively low prices." Perhaps this phenomenon could be a differentiating factor -‐-‐ but look at the rest of the sentence, which is clearly about overlarge servings. The preceding sentence makes no mention of overlarge servings, so this cannot be the right place for a sentence about portion control. If you look at the rest of the choices, the only one that mentions portion control is C -‐ -‐ so C must be the best answer, as it is the only one that introduces the "unique differentiating factor" of portion control, and is thus the best place for a sentence about portion size. Quantitative Information Often a graph or chart will accompany a text and provide additional information related to the text. When analyzing quantitative information, it is necessary to consider the information in that graphic as it relates to the proposition in the text. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 228
229 Many conclusions can likely be drawn from a graphic representation, but only those related to the proposition are relevant. What related conclusion can the reader reasonably draw based on the information in the graph “Obesity Rate by Income?” 1. Those earning more than $50,000 a year are more likely to have access to farmers’ markets than those earning $30,000 a year. 2. Those earning $35,000 a year are less likely to be obese than those earning $20,000 a year. 3. To avoid becoming obese Americans should try to earn at least $50,000 a year. Answer: A According to the text one reason those living in poverty are more likely to be obese is that they don’t have access to large supermarkets or farmers’ markets where they can purchase nutritious foods. Based on the claim in support of the text’s proposition, the reader can conclude that it is likely that wealthier Americans have greater access to these sources of food. Choice B is accurate, and it is obvious that more income is correlated to lower obesity rates. However, there is no direct connection between this observation and the proposition of the text. That is, this statement doesn’t make the connection to the availability of nutritious foods. Choice C is not the correct choice because the proposition of the text is not to advocate for higher wages or to suggest that those living in poverty simply try to earn more money in order to improve their health. This observation is not related to the text.
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230 Conclusion Before responding to questions about the development of a text it is crucial that the reader consider the entire text holistically and be particularly focused on the proposition or main claim the text makes. Begin by underlining or highlighting the proposition, and consider other components, including support, focus, and quantitative information as they apply to that proposition.
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231
Organization Text Organization The organization of a text refers to all of the elements that make it logical and cohesive. All levels of a text, from sentences to paragraphs, should be organized and ordered logically and cohesively. To analyze the organization of a text, it is necessary to consider four different elements: •
Sequence – the order in which information is presented
•
Introductions – how a text begins, and what information is provided to establish context and purpose of the text.
•
Conclusions – how a text ends, and the synthesis of ideas to leave the reader with an understanding of the purpose and content
•
Transitions – words and sentences used to move from one concept to another within a text
Sequence The sequence of a text is the order in which details are presented in support of the main idea. Often, the thesis or proposition will establish the order of information. There are several ways to organize details in a text: •
Chronologically – in time order. This strategy is particularly effective for narrative fiction, biographies, or texts that recount events in history.
•
Description – focusing on sensory details. This order divides details into what can be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, and felt.
•
Process – describes a sequence of steps necessary to complete a task
•
Division and classification – sorts details into categories
•
Compare and contrast – identifies similarities and differences between two entities
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232 •
Causal (cause and effect) – examines either a single case/effect relationship or a causal chain, or series of components leading to a phenomenon, event, or condition.
Examples of Organizational Strategies: Strategy
Example
Chronologically
George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland, Virginia. When he was just 11 years old, in 1743, Washington’s father passed way, and little George’s half-‐brother took him into his home and raised him with his own children. In 1748, when Washington was 16, he went on his first surveying job, mapping the western sections of Virginia.
Description
The sand beneath my feet is damp, cool and soft. A gentle breeze wafts in from the water, bringing with it the smell of seaweed and cotton candy from a carnival just a half a mile away. As I walk closer to the carnival the sounds of people screaming in joyful fear from the top of the roller coaster reaches my ears. I can still taste the salt on my lips from my swim in the water earlier today.
Process Analysis Before mixing the ingredients, preheat the oven to 350 degrees. Slowly mix the butter, flower, and cream together, being careful to remove all lumps from the batter. Then, slowly add cocoa, vanilla, and chopped nuts. Division and
Developing a strong heart and healthy muscles requires a
classification
regimen of both aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Aerobic exercises include swimming, walking, running and biking. Anaerobic exercises include weight lifting and yoga.
Compare and
Both cats and dogs are considered valued pets and even
contrast
members of American families. There are differences between these two most common pets that, if analyzed, can help a potential pet owner understand which pet might be a better
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233 choice. For example, cats are often considered more difficult to train than dogs, while dogs tend to require more maintenance, including frequent exercising and grooming. Causal
Poor lifestyle choices in one’s youth can lead to serious health issues that don’t emerge until middle age. For example, people who smoke between 10-‐20 cigarettes per day for five years or more are 70% more likely to develop emphysema by age sixty than those who smoke fewer cigarettes or don’t smoke at all.
Use the text below to answer the questions about these concepts. 1. The Hindi-‐language film industry, based out of Mumbai, India, is one of the most prolific producers of feature films in the world, producing up to 1000 films per year. Nicknamed “Bollywood,” a combination of the name of the American film-‐hub, Hollywood, and the colonial name of Mumbai, Bombay, the network of studios produces hundreds of films per year, many of which reach worldwide audiences. Unlike Hollywood, which is a geographical location, Bollywood is a concept that includes production companies located throughout India and in other parts of the world where Hindi-‐language films are produced. 2. Bollywood films have enjoyed a long and profitable history, beginning with the first film, a silent picture produced in 1913, around the time when the American movie industry was relocating from New York to California, and producing the first Hollywood films. The first Bollywood film with sound appeared in 1931, just four years after Hollywood’s breakthrough “talking picture” The Jazz Singer By the 1940’s Bollywood films were garnering worldwide attention, and in 1946 Neecha Nagar, a Bollywood film, won the best picture award, called the Palme d’Or, or Golden Palm, at the Cannes Film Festival in France. 3. While the development of Bollywood films may have paralleled the growth of
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234 the American film industry in California, Hindi-‐language films are unique in several ways, and hardly an imitation of American film genres. For example, Bollywood films tend to be considerably longer than American films, stretching up to three hours, as compared to two hours or less for American films. In addition, almost every Bollywood film, regardless of genre, includes at least one elaborate singing and dancing segment, which is often cast as dream within the plot. These musical numbers are also a response to strict censorship codes that were once imposed on films produced in India. Because characters could not kiss, hold each other, or engage in more intimate contact, the music and dancing came to represent romance within a love story. Eventually, the musical numbers, and in fact, the films themselves developed unique aesthetic signatures, including the bumping of shoulders between characters who were romantically involved, exaggerated expressions of love or passion, and elaborate dances that led to the romantic characters being almost, but not quite, cheek to cheek. 4. The Bollywood film industry has experienced three distinct eras in its history. Like the American film industry, Bollywood found its roots in a studio-‐based model, or the studio era. During this time, from the dawn of Bollywood films to about 1950, studios and the executives who ran them maintained almost all control of film production, and garnered the most profits from those films. Actors, directors, musicians, and all of the other creative people engaged in film production were merely employees of the studios, often paid flat salaries, and required to work on the films to which they were assigned for the duration of their employment contract. 5. During World War II, it became difficult for Bollywood studios to procure raw film stock. In fact, the only film stock available was on the black market, and filmmaking became a moderately criminal activity. Producers engaged in a wide range of crimes saw film production as a means to launder money, or turn
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235 illegally obtained profits into legal funds that could be banked or used for purchases in general market. In the midst of this cycle, actors began to command and receive very high salaries for their work, as the black market studios saw actor salaries as a means of converting illegal profit to legal business expenses. 6. Following World War II, and the demise of the black market studios, a few film directors emerged as the most sought-‐after. These directors partnered with the most successful and popular music directors and a few styles of filmmaking and musical production dominated the industry from the 1950s until the 1990s. As the celebrity of specific directors’ styles continued to increase, so too did their salaries. Like the exorbitant salaries paid actors during the war years, these expenditures were not sustainable. With the onset of digital music sources and music pirating, the profits studios once saw from selling the soundtracks to films all but evaporated, and it became increasingly difficult to meet the salary demands of the music directors. In the 1990s several studios were bankrupted and forced to close. This period in Bollywood history is referred to as the Directors’ Era. 7. Some critics refer to the period from about 1998 to the present as a time of transition, or the Transition Era. There are still some film and music directors who command higher salaries than others, based on their past success and unique approaches to film. However, they now accept package salaries, from which they are required to pay many other employees, including musicians, camera operators, etc. These directors are, in fact, contractors within the industry. The new payment scheme encourages cost savings so that, for example, instead of hiring a full orchestra for days at a time, the music director might record all of the music in a short period of time and use digital music for some sequences.
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236 8. Some actors, similarly, are paid more than others, and there are a few, mostly male, actors who command salaries much higher than any other performer. These actors, however, receive payment through a combination of acting salaries, musical royalties, and payments for personal appearances and endorsements. 9. Despite these hurdles and recent changes in the Bollywood film industry, it is a vibrant and growing business. Today, Bollywood films are screened in ninety different countries, and in India alone, about fourteen million people see a Bollywood or Hindi-‐language movie every day. The essay above uses compare and contrast to provide context for the details about Bollywood films. Aspects of Bollywood films are compared to aspects of American films in order to clarify points for an American reader. What other organizational strategy is applied in the passage above? A. Chronological B. Process C. Causal Answer: A The essay above is organized chronologically, which is a strategy well suited to explain the history of a phenomenon. The essay starts with the beginning of Bollywood films, in 1913, and ends with a description of current trends. Introductions A successful introduction must accomplish two goals: •
Provide context or background for the information in the essay.
•
Reveal the controlling idea or proposition of the essay
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237 There are several ways to introduce a text, each of which is particularly applicable to specific types of essays. This list is not exhaustive, but does provide some of the most common strategies: •
Describe a scene or tell an anecdote – with a description or anecdote the reader is brought into the world of the subject, either through empathy with the subject, or with an understanding of the setting necessary to comprehend the details.
•
Provide relevant background information – this is historical or technical information necessary to understand the purpose and relevance of the text.
•
Use a startling statistic or remark from a cited source – this strategy is particularly effective when writing about a topic that readers may not consider a serious or important issue. A startling statistic or quote will highlight the relevance of the subject.
•
Define an important term – providing a definition can reveal rarely considered context of a subject. Usually this is not a dictionary definition, but one that relies on scientific research or discovery or a philosophical point of view.
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238 Examples of Introductions Type of Introduction
Example
Description/anecdote
The first time I saw a Bollywood film I was amused, confused, and utterly thrilled. I can still remember how surprised I was when a seemingly predictable romantic comedy suddenly morphed into an elaborate musical dance number. When I left the theater that afternoon, I was hooked, and wanted to know more about the roots and history of Bollywood.
Relevant background
There are more than 1,000 Bollywood films produced each
information
year, and these films are shown on almost every continent every day. The first Bollywood film was produced in 1913.
Startling statistic or
“I would love to work in a Bollywood film, as there is so
remark
much drama and color, in the films there” (Pitt, 2013). Brad Pitt, the seminal American film star is not alone in his admiration for Bollywood cinema. These unique films continue to read a broader, global audience of people who are wowed by the unique spectacle only Bollywood can deliver.
Define an important
The term “Bollywood” does not refer to a specific place.
term
Rather Bollywood is a term coined to refer to Hindi-‐ language films produced in Mumbai, India.
Review the text above. Which is most likely the introduction strategy this author applied? A. Provide relevant background information B. Define an important term C. Use a startling statistic
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239 Answer: A In this essay the author provided relevant background information about the Hindi-‐ language film industry and the origin of the term “Bollywood.” This information provides relevant context for the reader who is not familiar with these types of films. If the writer was to revise this introduction and focus on defining an important term, which would be the most relevant term that would benefit from a clearly articulated definition? A. Bollywood B. Hindi C. Film concept Answer: A “Bollywood” may be an unfamiliar term to most readers, and it is a sort of “nickname” applied to Hindi-‐language films. Since it is not a commonly understood term, a thorough definition would benefit the reader by providing information necessary to understand the rest of the essay. Transitions Transitions are words or phrases used to connect ideas between sentences or between paragraphs. Effective transitions build coherence in an essay and ensure the reader is able to follow a logical line of reasoning from the beginning to the end of a text. Transitional words and phrases fall into many categories. Review the categories and examples below. To show agreement or
In addition
Likewise
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Similarly
240 similarity: To show contrast or
Although
contradiction:
On the other
Nevertheless
hand…
To provide examples or
In other
Notably
In fact…
emphasize a point:
words…
To show cause/effect:
As a result…
Because…
Therefore…
Sequence/time:
In the first
Prior to…
Next
place… To summarize or conclude:
In conclusion… Summing up…
On the whole…
Review the text above. Which type of transition would most successfully improve the logical development from paragraph (4) to paragraph (5)? A. Cause/effect B. Sequence/time C. Summarize/conclude
Answer: B Paragraph (4) discusses the challenges faced by the film industry during WWII. Paragraph (5) begins to describe a new era in Bollywood film, following WWII. This is clearly a change in time and a sequence or time transition, such as “following, after,” or “later” would be appropriate. Review the text above. Which type of transition would most successfully improve the logical development from paragraph (8) to (9)? A. Cause/effect Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 240
241 B. Sequence/time C. Summarize/conclude Answer: C Paragraph (9) is the concluding paragraph of the essay. To signal the end of the text and to alert the reader that summary or implication will follow, a summarizing or concluding transition is appropriate. Conclusion: The conclusion of an essay pulls together all of the information presented and comes to some final concept that expresses the relevance of the text. There are several strategies that can be applied to the conclusion, including: •
Brief summary of the essay’s main points – the conclusion pulls the most important information from the essay and synthesizes it into an objective summary.
•
Provocative question – challenges the reader to reconsider previously held opinions on the topic
•
Call for action – challenges the reader to do something about the topic.
•
Explain the significance or implications of the findings in the text – how does this information change the body of knowledge on the topic, and change how the topic will be considered in the future?
Which of the strategies listed is most likely the one used by the author of the text above? A. Brief summary of main points B. Provocative question C. Explain significance or implications
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242 Answer: A The conclusion of this essay explains the significance and implications, by explaining that the Bollywood film industry will likely continue to prosper, despite challenges faced over its long history. The inclusion of the statistic about the number of people who view a Bollywood movie daily suggests a large audience for these films, further solidifying the point. Which other strategy could be successfully applied to this essay? A. Brief summary of main points B. Provocative question C. Call to action Answer: A A brief summary of the essay’s main points would offer another effective conclusion to this essay. Since the essay is expository, or informative, rather than argumentative or persuasive, a call to action, such as “See a Bollywood movie soon,” would not effectively synthesize the author’s main points. The essay does not offer a contentious issue or debate, so a provocative question would not be an effective way to end the essay.
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243
Precision and Concision Effective Language Use
Ideas are only communicated effectively if a text uses language effectively. There are many considerations that impact how effective a text is in achieving the writer’s rhetorical purpose. Among these are: •
Precision – The exactness of word choice
•
Concision – The economy of word choice
Precision
Precise language uses the most accurate, descriptive term. Nouns are specific, rather than general, and modifying words call on imagery to draw connections a reader can relate to in order to develop a mental image of a situation that closely matches the intent of the writer. Some characteristics of precise writing include: •
Use of the active voice in which the noun or subject performs the action of the verb. o Active: Marta moved the couch to the center of the room. o Passive: The couch was moved to the center of the room.
•
Use of precise words, rather than their definitions. o
Precise: Marta rode a commuter train to work yesterday.
o
Imprecise: Yesterday, Marta utilized a mode of rail transportation frequented by those who work some distance from their homes.
•
Convert nouns to verbs o
Precise: Marta worked with other teachers to develop a new curriculum.
o
Imprecise: Marta worked with other teachers in the development of a new curriculum.
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244 •
Replace vague words with specific words o
Precise: The band featured a talented singer with a soulful voice who reminded me of Aretha Franklin.
o
Imprecise: The band was good.
Read the text below and continue on to the content that follows: California’s San Joaquin Valley is home to more than ten percent of California’s agricultural production, which means one of every ten farms in the state is in the Valley.1 The United States relies on this narrow strip of farmland, located in central California, for food and cotton2. In recent years, however, an extended drought, which has gone on for a long time3, has threatened crop production. To combat this drought, farmers have turned to deep wells, which pump ground water from far below the earth’s surface. What seems like a reasonable solution to a bad4 agricultural problem may have significant unforeseen consequences. Recent research suggests that the removal of ground water in the Valley has elevated mountains, caused several small shifts of the earth’s crust, resulting in vibrations5, and has the potential to trigger more frequent earthquakes. The earthquakes could also become more intense.6 Review the excerpt (2) in the passage above. What would be the best way to make this sentence more precise?
A. …for growing food and cotton B. …for artichokes, oranges, lettuce, and cotton C. …for many kinds of food and cotton D. …for many plants used for food and manufacturing Answer: B This sentence already includes a specific crop, cotton. To make the entire Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 244
245 sentence more precise, the best strategy is to list specific foods that are grown in the region.
Review the excerpt (4) in the passage above. What would be the best way to make this sentence more precise?
A. …reasonable solution to a serious… B. …reasonable solution to a worsening… C. …reasonable solution to a growing… D. …more reasonable solution to an increasing problem… Answer: B The main idea of this passage is that the problems caused by deep well pumping are becoming more serious. While “growing” suggests some increase, it is not as precise as “worsening,” which clearly indicates the problem will only become more severe as time goes on.
Concision
Concise writing is direct and to the point. It avoids restating ideas, and is clear and specific. There are several strategies to evaluate the concision of a text, including: •
Identifying unnecessary words or phrases
•
Identifying passive sentences
•
Identifying negative sentences, which use more words than positive sentences to express the same idea.
•
Using short, related sentences, rather than combining ideas into fewer, concise sentences.
Read excerpt (5) in the passage above. What problem interferes with the concision of this sentence?
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246 B. Passive sentence C. Negative sentence D. Improper word use Answer: A This sentence includes unnecessary words and phrases. Since the sentence already uses the word “earthquake,” the author attempted to vary the sentences by using the definition of an earthquake in this section. The result, however, is a sentence that is overly wordy and potentially confusing. The sentence should be revised. Which is the most effective revision of excerpt 5 in the passage above?
A. …caused small earthquakes… B. …caused vibrations from shifts in the earth’s crust… C. …caused several small shifts of the earth’s crust, called earthquakes… D. …led to vibrations or earthquakes… Answer: A Small vibrations caused by shifts in the earth’s crust are called earthquakes. Avoid defining a term rather than naming it, especially when the term is commonly understood by the average reader. If the term were highly technical or specific to a certain discipline, it might be necessary to elaborate, but that is not the case in this excerpt.
Review excerpt (6) in the passage above. What problem interferes with the concision of the text?
A. Passive sentence B. Negative sentence C. Lack of concision in sentences
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247 D. Lack of precision in word choice Answer: C The last sentence in the text provides additional information about the predictions for future earthquakes. The result is a passage that is overly wordy, and the suggestion that new, more detailed information will be presented. The passage should be revised.
What is the best revision of excerpt (6) in the passage above?
A. …and has the potential to trigger more frequent and intense earthquakes. B. …and has the potential to trigger more frequent earthquakes that could be more intense. C. …and has the potential to trigger earthquakes. The earthquakes could be more frequent and more intense. D. …and has the potential to trigger more intense earthquakes that happen more frequently. Answer: A Option A combines the important details from both sentences into a single, concise sentence that successfully communicates that future earthquakes may be both more frequent and intense.
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248
Style and Tone Effective Language Use
Ideas are only communicated effectively if a text uses language effectively. There are many considerations that impact how effective a text is in achieving the writer’s rhetorical purpose. Among these are: •
Style – most often refers to the diction of the writing, which can be formal, informal, or very informal. The style is the created through the author’s word choice and organization. An author’s style is also influenced by his or her intended audience. For example, someone writing for an audience of children will maintain a different style than an author writing for graduate students.
•
Tone - the writer’s attitude toward the subject, which must be appropriate to the purpose.
Style
Style refers to how something is written to achieve a specific purpose. The style of the writing affects the reader’s impression of what he or she is reading, including assessments of the credibility and persuasiveness of an argument. The style of a text must remain consistent in order to achieve its purpose. Review the passage below and assess the writer's style, paying careful attention to the words and sentence structure that s/he uses.
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249 Venice, Italy is a city composed of 117 small islands, connected by bridges and canals. There is no wheeled traffic in the streets of Venice. In other words, there are no cars, no bicycles, no scooters, and no horse carts in the entire city. There is, however, a public transportation system, consisting of vaporetti, or water buses, which provides service to the city’s main canals, the lagoon surrounding the city, and the train station. Visitors travel to Venice either by waterbus, from nearby Marco Polo Airport, or by train from many cities in Europe. The train station, Venezia Santa Lucia, is located on the banks of the Grand Canal, Venice’s main thoroughfare. Think about how this passage is written. Is it informative? Does it give directions? Is it poetic, with a lyrical style? Does it directly address the reader or give the writer's opinion? Once you assess the passage and consider these factors, take a stab at the following question:
Which sentence most effectively matches the style of this passage and could be added to the end of the paragraph?
A. On my last trip to Venice, the lack of wheeled traffic drove me crazy! B. Those arriving by train can transfer to local waterbuses, which offer stops near most hotels and tourist attractions, or hire private water-taxis to take them directly to the their destination. C. Though many of the ancient canals are choked by trash and grime, the water retains a smoky, mystical quality when lit by the soft glow of streetlights that wink D. If arriving by train, you can either take one of the waterbuses, which stop at most of the hotels, or get a private water taxi to get right to the doorstep of your own hotel. Answer: B
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250 This sentence matches the style of the passage for several reasons. First, the sentence is informative -- rather than narrative or persuasive -- matching the high level of detail and elaboration in the rest of the passage. Second, it maintains focus on visitors to Venice, rather than residents, and, third, it does not express an opinion or address the reader directly (you). While this is a passage intended for visitors, it is more informative than directive. Taking these ideas into consideration, review the passage below: Motivated by concern for the environment, as well as a desire to avoid large financial commitments, fans of tiny houses, or microhomes, have rejected the typical 2600 square foot American house in favor of homes measuring just 100 to 400 square feet. Tiny homes offer many benefits. Residents pay less to heat and cool their homes, and property taxes are much lower than those on typical houses. Tiny homes consume less resources in construction and use less energy overall. There are, however, some drawbacks to micro-living. Residents often find it difficult to entertain, because there is very little space for guests, or even for additional seating. Finally, living in a microhome requires discipline. Since a small space can quickly become cluttered, residents must discard anything they don’t use regularly. Which of the following sentences is aligned with the style of this passage and could be added as the first, or topic sentence of the paragraph?
A. In the last decade a growing number of Americans have embraced the tiny house movement. B. Micro is a Latin prefix that means very small. C. Tiny homes have pros and cons, but mostly they are more affordable than traditional homes and much better for the environment. D. Microhomes are also called tiny homes and they are a new fad that is really growing in popularity.
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251 Answer: A Begin by analyzing the overall style of the passage. Notice the word choices the author makes, “large financial commitment,” rather than “big expense,” and “motivated by concern for the environment,” rather than “because they care about the environment.” This analysis tells the reader that the writer anticipates a specific audience – adults familiar with home ownership and familiar with trends in environmental activism. From this analysis, we can assume the diction, or word choice, will be elevated, and the author will not define terms (as in Option B) or use informal language (as in D -- "really growing in popularity" is too colloquial, or conversational, to fit in with this style). Nor will the author express an opinion (as in C) -- instead, s/he simply lays out the facts.
Tone
The style of a piece is often closely linked to the tone. The tone of a text expresses the writer’s attitude toward the subject. The most effective way to analyze tone is to establish if the text is objective or subjective. •
Objective tone §
Impartial, neutral, unbiased
§
Does not show an opinion or preference for a topic
§
Uses words with neutral/objective connotations ("economical" rather than "cheap," for example).
•
§
Avoids first and second person pronouns
§
Generally more formal diction or style
Subjective tone §
Personal point of view
§
May use first or second person pronouns
§
Often relies on emotions and personal experiences or impressions
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252 §
Uses evaluative words (clever, thoughtful, lazy, argumentative)
§
Biased or clearly opinionated
§
Generally informal diction or style
In both objective and subjective texts, the reader can further analyze the tone by evaluating the connotations, or implications, of the words the author chooses. The author’s attitude toward the subject is revealed in the evaluative or connotative words he or she uses. Review the following excerpt from Wuthering Heights: This time, I remembered I was lying in the oak closet, and I heard distinctly the gusty wind, and the driving of the snow; I heard, also, the fir bough repeat its teasing sound, and ascribed it to the right cause: but it annoyed me so much, that I resolved to silence it, if possible; and, I thought, I rose and endeavoured to unhasp the casement. The hook was soldered into the staple: a circumstance observed by me when awake, but forgotten. ‘I must stop it, nevertheless!’ I muttered, knocking my knuckles through the glass, and stretching an arm out to seize the importunate branch; instead of which, my fingers closed on the fingers of a little, ice-cold hand! The intense horror of nightmare came over me: I tried to draw back my arm, but the hand clung to it, and a most melancholy voice sobbed, ‘Let me in—let me in!’ ‘Who are you?’ I asked, struggling, meanwhile, to disengage myself. ‘Catherine Linton,’ it replied, shiveringly (why did I think of Linton? I had read Earnshaw twenty times for Linton)—‘I’m come home: I’d lost my way on the moor!’ As it spoke, I discerned, obscurely, a child’s face looking through the window. Terror made me cruel; and, finding it useless to attempt shaking the creature off, I pulled its wrist on to the broken pane, and rubbed it to and fro till the blood ran down and soaked the bedclothes: still it wailed, ‘Let me in!’ and maintained its tenacious gripe, almost maddening me with fear. ‘How can I!’ I said at length. ‘Let me go, if you want me to let you in!’ The fingers relaxed, I snatched mine through the hole, hurriedly piled the books up in a pyramid against it, and stopped my ears to exclude the lamentable prayer. I seemed to keep them closed above a quarter of an hour; yet, the instant I listened
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253 again, there was the doleful cry moaning on! ‘Begone!’ I shouted. ‘I’ll never let you in, not if you beg for twenty years.’ ‘It is twenty years,’ mourned the voice: ‘twenty years. I’ve been a waif for twenty years!’ Thereat began a feeble scratching outside, and the pile of books moved as if thrust forward. I tried to jump up; but could not stir a limb; and so yelled aloud, in a frenzy of fright. To my confusion, I discovered the yell was not ideal: hasty footsteps approached my chamber door; somebody pushed it open, with a vigorous hand, and a light glimmered through the squares at the top of the bed. I sat shuddering yet, and wiping the perspiration from my forehead: the intruder appeared to hesitate, and muttered to himself. At last, he said, in a half-whisper, plainly not expecting an answer, ‘Is any one here?’ I considered it best to confess my presence; for I knew Heathcliff’s accents, and feared he might search further, if I kept quiet. With this intention, I turned and opened the panels. I shall not soon forget the effect my action produced. Which words best described the author’s tone in the passage?
A. Frightened and embarrassed B. Apprehensive and angry C. Panicked and spiteful D. Alarmed and callous Answer: D The narrator in this passage is alarmed by the noise outside the window, and again by the clasp of the ghostly hands on his own. He states, “Terror made me cruel,” and goes on to explain how he tricked the ghost into releasing him, only to taunt her by telling her he will never let her in. Review the following sentence from the passage above: “I heard, also, the fir bough repeat its teasing sound, and ascribed it to the right cause: but it annoyed me so much, that I resolved to silence it, if possible; and, I
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254 thought, I rose and endeavored to unhasp the casement.” What tone does the author employ in this sentence to best express the narrator’s emotional state?
A. Fear B. Anxiety C. Frustration D. Apprehension Answer: C In this sentence the author chose words such as “teasing” and “endeavored” to communicate a frustrated tone, as the narrator complains about an annoying sound outside his window and struggles to open the window to resolve the problem. (This question has a very obvious answer if you read the text: "It annoyed me so much...") Sometimes a writer will let his/her feelings creep into an otherwise neutral piece. Use context clues, such as words that demonstrate emotion, to ascertain which parts of a text display some sort of bias. Review the excerpt below before going on to the questions that follow: The Dark Romantic authors are a favorite among middle school and high school readers. The works of Poe, and to a lesser extent Hawthorne and Melville, touch on the depraved, the grotesque, and the horrific, all topics that seem elicit, yet appealing to the adolescent mind.1 Many Americans, in fact, report that the most memorable reading experiences of their secondary academic careers involved reading the works of one or more of these authors. In contrast, the Transcendentalist works of Emerson and Thoreau, when they are taught, tend to leave student-readers feeling confused and disconnected from the text. Although the Dark Romantics emerged directly as a response to Transcendentalism, the
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255 connection between the two genres is seldom explored in secondary classrooms, thus leaving students with an incomplete understanding of the works they so enjoy. 2Unlike the Transcendentalists, who celebrated the inherent perfection of the human condition and the notion that the spirit of each individual, if it could be reached, would connect all people and nature, the Dark Romantics asserted that mankind was inherently flawed, fallible, and prone to sin and self destruction.3 That is, while the heroes of Transcendental literature sought their more perfect selves, the protagonists of Dark Romantic literature struggled to avoid their natural states of depravity, and while the Transcendentalists saw the supreme divinity personified in the natural world, accessible to anyone who could transcend the
selfishness of the individual, the Dark Romantics perceived the world
around them to be populated with anthropomorphic representations of the devil and his demon-minions.4 Almost every character in a Dark Romantic text has the potential to be Satan himself. Edgar Allen Poe, perhaps the most well-known of the Dark Romantics, rejected Transcendentalism to the point of publicly mocking the movement for what he considered an overtly literary approach that lacked meaning. He decried the use of “metaphor for metaphor’s sake,” and thought many of the self-proclaimed Transcendentalists were pretenders to the movement who produced falsely mystical stories which included impossibly spiritual outcomes.5 Poe’s own works were populated by criminals and madmen. As the inventor of American detective fiction, Poe created a genre dedicated to identifying and flushing out evil in society. His focus on motive, on what made criminals commit crime, frequently led his detectives to identify deep-seeded madness within a criminal, and to suggest that all humans are capable of such depravity, but that some are more successful than others at suppressing it.6
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256 While Poe’s reaction to Transcendentalism was primary based on what he’d read and those he encountered who were engaged in the movement, Nathaniel Hawthorne found himself drawn away from Transcendentalism to Dark Romanticism because of his own experience and family history. Which sentence in the passage above most demonstrates a biased or subjective point of view?
A. Sentence (1) B. Sentence (2) C. Sentence (4) D. Sentence (5) Answer: B In the following sentence, the author demonstrates a subjective opinion of the teaching of Transcendentalism and Dark Romanticism in secondary classrooms. The author notes, “Although the Dark Romantics emerged directly as a response to Transcendentalism, the connection between the two genres is seldom explored in secondary classrooms, thus leaving students incomplete understanding of the works they so enjoy.” This sentence suggests that teachers ignore the connection between the two schools of literature and thus neglect making connections necessary for students to best understand literature they already enjoy.
What revision of sentence (2) best results in an objective tone?
A. While 90% of secondary teachers report teaching the works of the Dark Romantics, only 40% report that they consistently teach the works of the Transcendentalists, whose works inspired the Dark Romantics. B. Most teachers cover the Dark Romantics in great detail but don’t bother with the Transcendentalists because their work is too challenging for high
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257 school students. C. Teachers should cover both the Dark Romantics and the Transcendentalists, since it is difficult to understand the works of authors like Poe if one hasn’t read authors like Emerson. D. Dark Romantic literature is very popular with students, so it is taught more often than Transcendentalism, which students don’t like much at all. Answer: A Using statistics is one of the best ways to avoid a subjective or biased tone. Note that this revision does not suggest that teachers are providing an “incomplete” education, or that either genre is neglected. The revision includes only facts that can be supported and confirmed with evidence.
Review sentence (3) from the passage. Which revision most effectively improves the style of the writing?
A. Unlike the Transcendentalists who celebrated the inherent perfection of the human condition and the notion that each individual could reach his own spirit and connect it to those of all other people and nature, the Dark Romantics asserted that mankind was flawed, fallible, and prone to sin and self destruction. B. The Transcendentalists thought people were most good, while the Dark Romantics thought people were generally evil. C. The Transcendentalists celebrated man’s spirit and how it could be connected to the spirits of nature, while the Dark Romantics insisted that mankind was flawed, fallible and prone to sin and self destruction. D. Unlike the Dark Romantics, who saw that self-destruction was inevitable for mankind, the Transcendentalists celebrated how perfect the human condition was and how all living things are connected.
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258 Answer: A Revision A corrects the passive form of the sentence by suggesting that the “individual” can connect his spirit, rather than the passive construction, “the spirit, if it could be reached, would connect…” Review the sentence below from the passage: The works of Poe, and to a lesser extent1 Hawthorne and Melville, touch on the depraved2, the grotesque3, and the horrific, all topics that seem elicit4, yet appealing to the adolescent mind. Which section includes an error in diction?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 Answer: D In option D (4), the writer has made a word-choice error. “Elicit” means to evoke or drawn a reaction or result. It is likely this author intended to use the word “illicit,” which means forbidden. Review the sentence below from the passage: His focus on motive1, on what made criminals commit crime, frequently led his detectives to identify deep-seeded madness2 within a criminal, and to suggest that all humans are capable of such depravity3, but that some are more successful than others at suppressing it4.
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259 Which section includes an error in diction?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 Answer: B This is an error in the use of a phrasal adjective. The correct phrase is “deepseated,” meaning that something is “seated” or firmly in place within a context. In this case, the madness noted is firmly in place within the criminal mind. You can determine the style and tone of a piece by paying attention to the words used -- particularly if they elicit a specific emotion, communicate a bias, or argue a point. As you read, pay attention to the diction of a piece, and consider its intended audience. Remember too that all written works have some sort of style, whether it's formal or informal, objective or subjective, or somewhere in between. This will help you accurately answer questions that the new SAT may pose about style, tone, and grammar.
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260
Syntax Syntax Syntax questions require readers to consider a text at the sentence level. That is, the reader should be able to identify and apply necessary changes to sentences in order to improve the clarity, precision, or logic of the writing. Questions on this topic might require students to: •
Combine short or related sentences
•
Identify sentence revisions that improve logical connections between ideas.
•
Identify sentence revisions that correct grammar errors.
•
Identify sentence revisions that improve clarity.
Read the passage below, and consider the relationships between the sentences as you do so: Puritan literature is rooted in the belief that God is always at work in the daily lives of humans. Most texts describe the discovery of evidence of God’s intervention or participation in human lives.1Texts often include allusions to classical literature, as Puritans valued education.2Because they eschewed flowery prose, the allusions are straightforward and direct. 3Puritan literature is the seed of the American identity.4It stresses self-‐reliance and overcoming hardship to achieve a goal.5These values are often associated with pursuit of the American Dream.6 Which transition added to the beginning of sentence (2) would best indicate the relationship to the preceding sentence? A. Although B. As a result C. To begin with
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261 D. Moreover Answer: B The first two sentences of the passage indicate a cause/effect relationship. The first sentence describes the “root” of Puritan literature. The second sentence describes the focus of the literature resulting from that root-‐belief. Which is the best revision of sentence (3)? A. Because the Puritans eschewed flowery prose, the allusions are straightforward and direct. B. To avoid flowery prose, the allusions are straightforward and direct. C. They eschewed flowery prose; the allusions they preferred are straightforward and direct. D. In lieu of flowery prose, the allusions are straightforward and direct. Answer: A To answer this type of question the reader should begin by confirming what the sentence intends to say. In this case, there are two main points: the Puritans rejected (eschewed) flower prose, and, as a result of that rejection, the allusions are straightforward and direct. This sentence has a dangling modifier error, caused by the lack of an antecedent for the pronoun “they” in the first clause. That is, this sentence seems to say that “they” refer to the allusions in the second clause. In fact, “they” refers to the Puritans. So, replacing “they” with “Puritans,” corrects the sentence and makes it clear. Which sentence most effectively combines sentence (5) and sentence (6)? A. It stresses self-‐reliance and overcoming hardship to achieve a goal, values often associated with pursuit of the American Dream. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 261
262 B. It stresses self-‐reliance, overcoming hardship to achieve a goal, and values often associated with the American Dream. C. It stresses self-‐reliance and overcoming hardship to achieve a goal; values often associated with pursuit of the American Dream. D. It stresses values associated with the pursuit of the American Dream like self-‐reliance and overcoming hardship to achieve a goal. Answer: A To choose the most effective sentence the reader must understand the context of the passage. The main point of the last three sentences is that Puritan literature was a “seed” from which the “American identity” grew – meaning it came before the American identity, which makes sense, since there was no America when it was written. Understanding the context enables the reader to dismiss choice D as incorrect, because it suggests that the Puritans were in pursuit of the American Dream, which was not the case. Choice B indicates that the “values often associated with….” are different from self-‐reliance and overcoming hardship, which is not the case. Choice C is not correct because one should use a semicolon (;) only between two independent clauses. The second clause in this sentence could not stand-‐alone; it is not an independent clause. Choice A is correct. Review the passage below: Most people are familiar with catnip’s effects on cats, but many are not aware that catnip has a long history of use as a medicinal and culinary herb.1A member of the mint family, catnip can also be used in tea, and as a savory accent to soups and stews.2While American cooks prefer more subtle seasonings, French cooking uses the sharp, minty taste of catnip in many well-‐known dishes.3One popular French dish that uses
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263 catnip is bouillabaisse, a fish stew.4
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264 Review the sentence below: Catnip is used in traditional medicines to treat insomnia, stomach upset, and headaches. Where would this sentence best fit within the given passage? A. After sentence (1) B. Before sentence (1) C. After sentence (2) D. Before sentence (4) Answer: A Sentence (1) is the topic sentence, and it establishes two focus areas: medicinal and culinary uses for catnip. Since “medicinal” is mentioned first, it would logically be elaborated on first. Note, as well, that sentence (2) reads, “catnip can also be used…” This transitional word indicates a comparison. Adding the given sentence before sentence (2) provides the point of comparison. Which is the most effective revision of sentence (3)? A. While American cooks prefer more subtle seasonings, French chefs use the sharp, minty taste of catnip in many well-‐known dishes. B. While American cooks prefer more subtle seasonings, the French use the sharp, minty taste of catnip in many well-‐known dishes. C. Although American cooks prefer more subtle seasonings, French cooking uses the sharp, minty taste of catnip in many well-‐known dishes. D. While American cooks prefer more subtle seasonings, but French cooking uses the sharp, minty taste of catnip in many well-‐known dishes. Answer: A Sentence (3) includes an error in comparison. The sentence begins with “American Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 264
265 cooks,” so it refers to the people who do the cooking. In the existing sentence, cooks are compared to cooking, which is flawed. To correct the sentence, the comparison must be between cooks or between types of cooking. Only A revises the sentence so that cooks are compared to chefs (cooks). Understanding syntax is an important part of honing your verbal skills. As you read, consider the relationships that each sentence sets up. Are the sentences all grammatical? Do they introduce or reinforce direct and logical relationships to one another, or to the content of the text? Paying close attention and thinking critically about these ideas will help you to score high on the SAT.
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266
Part V: Standard English Conventions (Writing)
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267
Sentence Formation Basic Parts of a Sentence A simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The subject of the sentence is a person, place, thing, or idea. The predicate of the sentence contains a verb that states something about the subject. •
He walks.
•
John writes.
•
They talk.
The first words in the examples above are subjects, and the final words in these examples are predicates. This is the basic structure of all simple sentences. The Subject The subject of a sentence can be a noun, a pronoun, or a noun phrase. It usually appears at or near the beginning of a sentence. The subjects in the following examples have been underlined. These sentences have nouns as their subjects. Nouns can be common, proper, or collective. Always remember that the noun that functions as a subject will NEVER be part of a prepositional phrase. •
The dude lied. (common noun)
•
Lilith dances beautifully. (proper noun)
•
The pack of wolves howled at the moon. (collective noun)
These sentences have pronouns as their subjects. Always use subjective pronouns as subjects, and never use an objective pronoun.
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268 •
He giggles. (singular pronoun)
•
Yesterday, they fell down the stairs. (plural pronoun)
•
Me and Joe are very good friends. (incorrect usage of an objective pronoun)
These sentences have noun phrases as their subjects. Although a noun phrase is made up of multiple words, they collectively form a single component that functions as a normal noun in the sentence. Noun phrases may be gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. •
Lying about yourself is bad. (gerund phrase)
•
To learn is a good thing. (infinitive phrase)
Verbs All predicates must contain at least one verb. The three primary types of verbs are action verbs, linking verbs, and auxiliary verbs. The verbs in the following examples have been underlined. Action verbs are expressive of an activity being performed. An action verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb is followed by a direct object. An intransitive verb is not followed by a direct object. A direct object cannot be found in a prepositional phrase. •
The dog runs. (intransitive verb)
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A fireman climbs the ladder. (transitive verb-‐-‐the word ladder is the direct object)
•
The dolphins swim in the water. (intransitive verb-‐-‐the word water is not the direct object because it is the object of a prepositional phrase)
A linking verb attaches a subject compliment to the subject. The subject compliments in these sentences are in italics. A subject compliment can be a noun
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269 that renames the subject or an adjective that describes the subject. •
The food on the table smells delicious.
•
The old man looks very happy.
•
The fireman is Joe.
Auxiliary verbs are smaller verbs placed in front of the main verb. Up to three auxiliary verbs may be used in a sentence along the main verb. Auxiliary verbs express tense, mode, and voice. •
Jane is baking. (expresses tense -‐ present participle)
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Jane could have baked the cake. (expresses mode -‐ possibility)
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The cake might have been baked by Jane. (expresses voice -‐ passive)
Direct Objects The predicate of the sentence may also contain a direct object, an indirect object, or a subject compliment. The direct object receives the action of the verb, and the indirect object receives what is being given or done. The subject compliment is an adjective or a noun and either describes or renames the subject. The italicized words are examples of direct objects. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or subordinate clauses. •
Robert reads books.(noun)
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Jane hit him. (pronoun)
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She loves running in the morning. (noun phrase)
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Bill hates when she doesn't listen. (subordinate clause)
Indirect Objects The words in italics are examples of indirect objects. Indirect objects can be either nouns or pronouns. Indirect objects can also be placed within prepositional phrases. •
Phil brings Jane candy. (noun)
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270 •
He finds you money. (pronoun)
•
Bill gives food to the needy. (inside a prepositional phrase)
Subject Compliments The words in italics are subject compliments. A subject compliment can be a noun or a pronoun that renames the subject or an adjective that describes the subject (use subject form of pronoun as a subject compliment-‐-‐it sounds strange, but it is correct). A subject compliment is always followed by a linking verb. A subject can also be a participial phrase or an infinitive phrase). •
Jim is the principal. (noun)
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The principle is he. (pronoun -‐ subject form)
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Mountains are beautiful. (adjective)
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She seems to be distracted. (infinitive phrase)
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She is floating on a cloud. (participial phrase)
Clauses A clause is formed with a subject and a predicate like a sentence; however, it is used as a building block for a larger sentence that is more complex. A clause may be either independent or subordinate. Independent clauses are capable of standing alone as complete sentences. Every sentence must contain at least one clause. An independent clause expresses a complete thought. •
He sat on his porch while his cat played on his lawn.
•
Since they were so thirsty, they bought some bottled water to drink.
•
Bob was riding on his green tractor because he needed to plow his field.
Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction and are not capable of standing alone as complete sentences. The subordinating conjunctions in the Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 270
271 following examples have been italicized. Subordinate clauses begin with either a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun. In addition, subordinate clauses make the reader want more information •
He shot his rifle because he felt like it. (subordinate conjunction)
•
He was on the team, which had won every game. (relative pronoun)
Four Types of Sentences There are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-‐ complex. Simple sentences are formed from a single independent clause that stands on its own. No further information is needed in order to completely understand the idea that is being asserted by the independent clause. •
Jay walks.
•
The gorilla weighed 800 pounds.
•
The preacher spoke for several hours.
Compound sentences are formed from two independent clauses that are connected by a coordinating conjunction. There are only seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. They can be remembered by using the acronym FANBOYS. Compound sentences MUST use a comma right before the coordinating conjunction unless the clauses are very short. This is the most common punctuation mistake in English. The coordinating conjunctions in the following examples are underlined. •
He went the grocery store yesterday, and he went to the zoo last week.
•
Bob ran all the way home, but he forget his key at work.
•
The big lion wandered out of its cage, so the zookeeper shot it with a tranquilizer dart.
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272 Complex sentences are formed from an independent clause and a dependent clause. When the dependent clause comes first, a comma is used to separate the two clauses. When the independent clause comes first, nothing is used to separate the two clauses. •
Because he likes the taste of ice cream, he eats his desserts very quickly.
•
He eats his desserts very quickly because he likes the taste of ice cream.
Compound-‐complex sentences are formed from two independent clauses and a dependent clause. There are many possibilities and combinations that are possible with these types of sentences. •
He went to the stadium because he wanted to see the game, but he fell asleep in his chair.
•
Since he was a model citizen, he picked up the smelly garbage, and he threw it away in a nearby trash can.
Shifts in Construction Certain components of a sentence need to remain consistent and parallel. However, there are inappropriate shifts in tense, voice, mood, person, number, and discourse that make it hard for the reader to grasp the intended meaning of a sentence. The most common inappropriate shifts in sentence construction will now be examined. Tense Verb tense expresses the time that the action of the verb takes place. If the tense within the sentence is changed, then the meaning of the sentence will often become illogical. However, unnecessary shifts in tense are easy to notice and repair. Incorrect Shift of Tense
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273 •
He caught the fish and then throws in back into the water. (past to present tense)
•
She will buy the chicken and cooked it in her oven. (future to past tense)
Correct Repair •
He caught the fish and then threw it back into the water. (both past tense)
•
She bought the chicken and cooked it in her oven. (both past tense)
Voice A verb can be used to express either active or passive voice. Active voice is when the subject of the sentence performs the action of the sentence. Passive voice is when the subject of the sentence does not perform the action of the sentence. When a sentence uses two verbs they usually need to use the same voice. Incorrect Shift of Tense •
Some people want candy, but sometimes bananas are received. (active to passive)
•
When the lady turned up the radio, her favorite song was heard. (active to passive)
Correct Repair •
Some people want candy but sometimes receive bananas. (both active)
•
When the lady turned up the radio, she heard her favorite song. (both active)
Mood A verb may also be used to express mood. There are three types of mood: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. The errors in mood shift occur when either indicative is shifted to imperative within a sentence or when imperative is shifted to indicative. Incorrect Shift of Mood
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274 •
Stand up in the room, and you speak to the audience. (imperative to indicative)
•
Take your medicine, and you call your doctor. (imperative to indicative)
Correct Repair •
Stand up in the room, and speak to the audience. (both imperative)
•
Take your medicine, and call your doctor. (both imperative)
Person There are three perspectives (or points of view) in English. They are first person, which is the person speaking. The next is second person, which is the person spoken to. The last one is third person, which is the person spoken about. Most unnecessary shifts in person usually occur when the third person changes to the second person. Incorrect shift in person •
Individuals like being busy, so when a job is slow, you are sad. (third to second)
•
Dogs want dog food, so while they eat, you are satisfied. (third to second)
Correct Repair •
You like being busy, so when a job is slow, you are sad. (both second)
•
Dogs want dog food, so while they eat, they are satisfied. (both third)
Number An antecedent is a word or a phrase that is represented by a pronoun. One should use singular pronouns to refer to singular antecedents and use plural pronouns to refer to plural antecedents. Errors that involve unnecessary shift of number are usually very easy to detect and repair. Incorrect shift in number
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275 •
If Janet goes out in the sun, then they need to wear sunscreen. (singular to plural)
•
While he rode in the car together, the boys cleaned their shoes. (singular to plural)
Correct Repair •
If Janet goes out in the sun, then she needs to wear sunscreen. (both singular)
•
While they rode in the car together, the boys cleaned their shoes. (both plural)
Discourse Indirect discourse is when dialogue is reported and not quoted. Direct discourse uses quotation marks and actually quotes what is said. Most errors involving discourse occur when direct discourse is not enclosed in quotation marks and appears as indirect discourse. Incorrect expression of discourse •
He stated he was really happy and let's to go to the park. (both indirect)
Correct Repair •
He stated he was really happy and said, "Let's go to the park." (indirect and direct)
•
He said, "I am really happy. Let's go to the park."(both direct)
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276
Pronouns Pronouns A pronoun is a word that is substituted for a noun or noun phrase. The word for which it is used as a substitute is named or understood within the context of the prose. There are eight different types of pronouns: •
personal -‐ related to a singular entity or group
•
indefinite -‐ refers to a non-‐specific item(s), being(s), or location(s)
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relative -‐ begins a relative clause that functions as either a noun or an adjective
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interrogative -‐ asks a question
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reflexive -‐ refers back to the subject of the sentence
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possessive -‐ indicates ownership
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demonstrative -‐ distinguishes things that are spoken about
PERSONAL PRONOUNS This type of pronoun specifies either a person, animal, thing, or idea. A personal pronoun will use different forms depending on case, number, gender, and grammatical person. Number Singular and plural pronouns are used in order to denote the number of people or items that are referenced. •
I will go fishing with him. (Singular pronouns)
•
They have seen us going to the river with them. (Plural pronouns)
Gender Singular pronouns referring to a person will take on different forms in order to Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 276
277 denote gender. The pronoun it is gender neutral. Only third person pronouns specify gender. •
She walks with her. (Feminine gender)
•
He plays with him. (Masculine gender)
Case Personal pronouns may be either subjective or objective, depending on their use in a sentence. The subjective form is used as either as a subject of a sentence or as a subject compliment. The objective form is used either as a direct object (or indirect object) of a sentence or as the object of a prepositional phrase. •
We will go to the aquarium. (Subjective -‐ used as the subject of a sentence)
•
Bob has left Martha for her. (Objective -‐ object of the preposition for)
Person Personal pronouns have three different forms to denote the concept of the grammatical "person": •
First person: Person or persons speaking
•
Second person: Person or persons spoken to
•
Third person: Person or persons spoken about
Here are some examples of this concept: •
We like football. (first person plural -‐ subjective)
•
You watch football on television. (second person singular or plural -‐ subjective)
•
Football annoys her. (third person singular -‐ objective)
Here is a list of the personal pronouns used in English: Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 277
278 Subjective Case •
First person -‐ I (singular), we (plural)
•
Second person -‐ you (all forms)
•
Third person -‐ he (singular masculine), she (singular feminine), it (singular neutral), they (plural neutral)
Objective Case •
First person -‐ me (singular), us (plural)
•
Second person -‐ you (all forms)
•
Third person -‐ him (singular masculine), her (singular feminine), it (singular neutral), them (plural neutral)
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS This type of pronoun refers to a non-‐specific item(s), being(s), or location(s). This is the largest group of pronouns in the English language. Indefinite pronouns can be easily classified by the types of verbs they use (singular and/or plural). •
Nobody knows everything. (singular)
•
Everybody is at risk. (singular)
•
Others play with that team. (plural)
•
Many were selected. (plural)
There are also possessive and compound forms of indefinite pronouns. Possessive forms end with an apostrophe and the letter s. Compound forms fuse two indefinite pronouns together so that they may act like a singular entity. Possessive forms of indefinite pronouns •
It could be anybody's fault
•
It was everyone's responsibility
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279 •
They despised one another.
•
They loved each other.
Here is a list of the indefinite pronouns used in English: Singular •
no one, nobody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, nothing, everything, something, anything, each, another, other, whatever, whichever, whoever, whomever, enough, little, less, much, more, most, plenty, one, either, neither
Plural •
both, others, none, all, some, any, several, few, fewer, many, more, most
RELATIVE Relative pronouns begin relative clauses that function as either nouns or adjectives. •
He saw the man who was running away from the robber. (adjective clause)
•
She saw the bag that fell from the robber's hands. (adjective clause)
•
She despised whomever stood in her way. (noun clause)
In first two examples above, the relative clauses that begin with relative pronouns serve as adjectives that describe the direct objects of the sentences. In the final example, the relative pronoun whomever forms a noun clause that functions as the direct object of the sentence. There are nine relative pronouns in English: Adjective clauses: "who", "whom", "which", "what", "that" Noun clauses: "whoever", "whomever", "whichever", "whatever" INTERROGATIVE
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280 Interrogative pronouns ask a question. There are five interrogative pronouns, and they are "which", "what", "who", "whom", and "whose". The word who is the subjective form and the word whom is used as the objective form. •
What is she going to do?
•
Who did that? (subjective form used as the subject)
•
To whom does that belong? (objective form used as the object of the prepositional phrase that begins with the word to)
The biggest error with interrogative pronouns is the incorrect usage of the word who as the objective case. Most individuals are not sure how to use the words who and whom. Incorrect usage •
The letter was addressed to who? (incorrect usage of subjective form)
•
To who was the package delivered? (incorrect usage of subjective form)
Correct usage •
The letter was addressed to whom? (correct usage of objective form)
•
To whom was the package delivered? (correct usage of objective form)
REFLEXIVE These types of pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence. Every subjective personal pronoun has a reflexive form. Thus, the reflexive pronouns in English are "myself", "yourself", "himself", "herself", "itself", "ourselves", "yourselves", and "themselves". In addition, the pronoun one also has a reflexive form (oneself). •
I needed it myself. (first person)
•
You bought the purse yourself. (second person)
•
He brought all of that on himself. (third person masculine)
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281 Most of the grammatical errors that occur with reflexive pronouns happen when they are used as the subject instead of referring back to the subject. Incorrect Usage •
Myself is to blame. (incorrect usage of the singular reflexive form)
•
Ourselves have caused it. (incorrect usage of the plural reflexive form)
Correct Usage •
I am to blame. (correct usage of first person singular)
•
We have caused it. (correct usage of first person plural)
POSSESSIVE Possessive pronouns indicate ownership. Every personal pronoun has an objective form. The personal pronouns he and him both use the pronoun his for their possessive form. Therefore, the possessive pronouns in English are: "its", "my", "mine", "your", "her", "hers", "his", "our", "ours", "their", "theirs", and "yours". •
We rode in their car. (third person plural -‐ objective)
•
Your car is black. (second person singular -‐ subjective)
By far, the biggest and most common mistake is the misuse of the possessive pronoun "its". Quite often, it is confused with the contraction it's, which is a combination of the word it and is. Incorrect usage •
The green car lost it's wheel. (incorrect usage of contraction)
•
Its all in a days work. (incorrect usage of pronoun)
Correct usage •
The green car lost its wheel. (correct usage of possessive pronoun)
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282 •
It's all in a day's work. (correct usage of contraction)
DEMONSTRATIVE There are four demonstrative pronouns: "this", "that", "these", and "those". They stand on their own and distinguish the entity or entities that the speaker is speaking about. •
This is what I mean. (singular)
•
Who needs those? (plural)
One of the most common mistakes when using demonstrative pronouns is the incorrect use of the pronouns this and these. The pronoun this is singular, and the pronoun these is plural. Here are some examples of correct and incorrect usage of these terms. Incorrect Usage •
These is not what I mean. (incorrect usage of the plural form)
•
This are not the proper kinds of napkins. (incorrect usage of the singular form)
Correct Usage •
This is not what I mean. (correct usage of the singular form)
•
These are not the proper kinds of napkins. (correct usage of the singular form)
Sample Test Questions Select the answer that correctly identifies the pronoun (or pronouns) in the sentence. 1) The grumpy old man fell down the stairs and hurt his knee.
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283 A. grumpy B. old C. fell D. and E. his 2) The cats smelled the fish and ran out the door A. cats B. and C. ran D. out E. There is no pronoun in the sentence. 3) This is good advice because she really likes to run. A. This, because B. This, she C. because, she D. she, to E. she, likes 4) Those are all of the items in the blue basket that they brought to the picnic. A. Those, all, that B. Those, in, they C. all, that, to D. Those, all, they E. all, in, they ANSWERS: 1) E 2) E 3) B 4) D
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284
Possessive Determiners Also referred to as possessive adjectives, possessive determiners assign possession to a grammatical element that functions as a noun in a sentence. There are two types of possessive determiners in the English language: weak possessive pronouns and nouns that end with an apostrophe and the letter "s". Pronouns As Possessive Determiners The group of seven weak possessive pronouns form the first group of possessive determiners. They are called weak because they cannot stand alone like other pronouns and must have some type of noun to modify. The possessive pronouns "mine, hers, theirs, ours", and "yours" are considered to be strong possessive pronouns and stand on their own; they do not modify anything. Thus, they are NOT possessive determiners. There are seven weak possessive pronouns that function as possessive determiners in the English language: •
"my" -‐ first person singular
•
"your" -‐ second person singular and plural
•
"his" -‐ third person singular (masculine)*
•
"her" -‐ third person singular (feminine)
•
"its" -‐ third person singular (neutral)
•
"our" -‐ first person plural
•
"their" -‐ third person plural
*The pronoun "his" may function as either a strong or weak possessive pronoun. There is also another pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner; it is the pronoun "whose", and it is interrogative in nature. What Weak and Strong Possessive Pronouns Imply The weak possessive pronouns always imply the definite article "the" because they Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 284
285 refer to specific things and do not imply a sense of generality. The weak possessive pronouns are found in both the subject and the predicate of the sentence. In contrast, the strong possessive pronouns can be used to imply either the indefinite article "a" or the definite article "the". They are primarily found in the predicate of the sentence and are usually used as subject compliments but may also be used as subjects; however, this second type of usage is not very common. These two types of possessive pronouns may be modified by the adverbs "more, less, as, much, as much", and "mostly". Here are some examples of strong and weak pronouns: 1. Randy was her friend. (weak possessive pronoun in the predicate) 2. Her friend was Randy. (weak possessive pronoun in the subject) 3. Randy was a friend of hers. (strong possessive pronoun in the predicate) 4. Hers was a gift that belonged to Randy. (strong possessive pronoun in the subject) In the first two examples, the pronoun "her" implies the definite article "the" and makes Randy her specific friend. In the third example, the pronoun "hers" implies the indefinite article "a" and makes Randy one of many friends. While the usage of a strong possessive pronoun as the subject in the last sentence is grammatically correct, it is a type of sentence construction that is not used very often in English. Here are some examples of weak possessive pronouns used as possessive determiners: 1. My car is a very good car. 2. Their car is more her car than it is his. 3. Whose car is it? In the first example, the word "my" is used as a possessive determiner to modify the word "car". In the second example, the word "their" is used as a possessive Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 285
286 determiner to modify the word car, and the word "her" is used to modify the second usage of the word "car"; the adverb "more" is then used to modify the pronoun "her". The pronoun "his" is used as a strong possessive pronoun and stands alone; therefore, it is NOT a possessive determiner. In the final example, the word "whose" is used as an interrogative possessive determiner that modifies the word "car". Common Grammatical Errors Many common errors in the English language occur because of the misuse of the words "their" and "there". The word "their" is a possessive determiner, and the word "there" is an adverb; these two words are constantly confused with each other. These two words are also confused with the contraction "they're", which is a reduction of the phrase "they are". Here are several examples of common errors with these words: Incorrect Usage •
It's not there fault. (adverb used as a determiner)
•
She cannot tell when their lying. (determiner used as a contraction)
•
The two boys did not want to do there chores. (adverb used as a determiner)
•
Jack wants to go and see what there doing. (adverb used as a contraction)
Correct Usage •
It's not their fault. (correct use of determiner)
•
She cannot tell when they're lying. (correct use of contraction)
•
The two boys did not want to do their chores. (correct use of determiner)
•
Jack wants to go and see what they're doing. (correct use of contraction)
Nouns as Possessive Determiners Nouns can be used as possessive determiners when they are spelled with an apostrophe and the letter "s". However; if a noun already ends with the letter "s" because it is plural, then only an apostrophe is used to denote possession. Here are some examples: Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 286
287 •
That is John's house.
•
The swans like to bathe in the pond's fragrant waters.
•
The babies' beds are all in a row.
•
The lions' food source is almost gone, and soon they will grow hungry.
These types of possessive determiners are very similar to the weak possessive pronouns that are used as possessive determiners. They always imply the definite article "the" because they always refer to specific things. In addition, they may also be modified with adverbs in the same way that the weak possessive pronouns are. Common Errors Many mistakes happen when the apostrophe is not placed correctly. Quite often, the word is misspelled and/or the meaning of the word is unintentionally changed. Incorrect Usage •
The mariachi band loved Johns' generous tip. (incorrect plural)
•
They destroyed the walruses's habitat. (incorrect plural)
•
The old mans' dog ate the kitten's food before they could finish it. (incorrect singular and plural)
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288 Correct Usage •
The mariachi band loved John's generous tip. (correct singular)
•
They destroyed the walruses' habitat. (correct plural)
•
The old man's dog ate the kittens' food before they could finish it. (correct plural and singular)
Sample Test Questions Select the answer that correctly identifies the possessive determiner (or determiners) in the sentence. 1) That was her idea of a great artistic presentation. A. that B. was C. her D. of E. great 2) Nobody thought it was John's idea. A. nobody B. thought C. was D. John's E. There is no possessive determiner in the sentence.
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289 3) His idea was that she should try Jane's recipe and not hers. A. his, she B. was, she C. she, hers D. that, hers E. his, Jane's 4) Its main flaw was that her idea was not as good as his. A. its, his B. was, his C. her, his D. its, her E. that, not 5) Their solution was a combination of Jane's recipe and John's idea. A. their, was, Jane's B. was, Jane's, John's C. their, Jane's, John's D. their, was, and E. was, and, idea Solutions 1) C -‐ The word "her" is a weak possessive pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner and modifies the word "idea". 2) D -‐ The word "John's" is a possessive determiner formed from the proper noun "John"; this possessive determiner modifies the word "idea". 3) E -‐ The word "his" is a weak possessive pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner and modifies the word "idea". The word "Jane's" is a possessive determiner formed from the proper noun "Jane"; this possessive determiner modifies the word "recipe". The word "hers" at the end of the sentence is a strong
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290 possessive pronoun in the predicate and stands alone; thus, it is NOT a possessive determiner. 4) D -‐ The word "its" is a weak possessive pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner and modifies the word "flaw". The word "her" is a weak possessive pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner and modifies the word "idea". The word "his" at the end of the sentence is a strong possessive pronoun in the predicate and stands alone; thus, it is NOT a possessive determiner. 5) C -‐ The word "their" is a weak possessive pronoun that functions as a possessive determiner that modifies the word "idea". The word "Jane's" is a possessive determiner formed from the proper noun "Jane"; this possessive determiner modifies the word "recipe". The word "John's" is a possessive determiner formed from the proper noun "John"; this possessive determiner modifies the word "idea".
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291
Grammatical Agreement In English, there are three major types of agreement that are required in order to be grammatically correct: •
Agreement of pronoun and its antecedent
•
Agreement of subject and verb
•
Agreement of nouns
Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent The antecedent of a pronoun is the person, thing, location, or idea in a sentence to which a pronoun refers. The antecedent may be either a noun or another pronoun. Therefore, a pronoun must agree both in number and gender with its antecedent in order for a sentence to be grammatically correct. Agreement of number A singular pronoun is used with a singular antecedent, and a plural pronoun is used with a plural antecedent. Here are several examples: 1. The dog thought that its bone was in the backyard. 2. The kittens ate all of their food in the kitchen. 3. The dog and the cat were glad that they were friends. In the sentences above, the number of each pronoun agrees with its antecedent. In the first example, the possessive pronoun its is singular because its antecedent is the singular noun dog. In the second example, the possessive pronoun there is plural because its antecedent is the plural noun kittens. In the final example, The plural antecedent of the plural pronoun they is a compound noun formed from the nouns dog and cat. In this case, the compound noun takes a plural pronoun. This brings us to our next topic, which is compound nouns. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 291
292 Compound nouns Compound nouns are created from two nouns, two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun; the two elements of a compound noun are connected by the conjunctions and, or, or nor. When the two words are connected by the conjunction and, a plural pronoun is used. When the two words are connected by the conjunction or or nor, the element of the compound noun that is closest to the pronoun determines whether a singular or a plural pronoun is used. 1. Either the dogs or I will eat my food. 2. Either the duck or the pigs will eat their food. 3. The turkey and the chicken will drink their water. The compound nouns in the examples are in agreement with the pronouns that are using them as antecedents. In the first example, the compound noun consists of a plural noun and a singular pronoun connected by the conjunction or; therefore, since the singular pronoun I is closer to the pronoun that is using the compound noun as an antecedent, the singular form is used. In the second example, a singular noun and a plural noun are connected by the conjunction or; thus, the pronoun using the compound noun as an antecedent is plural since the plural noun is closer to the antecedent. In the last example, two singular nouns are connected by the conjunction and; therefore, the pronoun using the compound noun as an antecedent will be plural. Collective Nouns Collective nouns are singular nouns that are used to identify various kinds of groups. When a collective noun is used as an antecedent by a pronoun, the singular form of the pronoun is used. 1. The team won its game. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 292
293 2. The herd began its stampede. 3. A colony of ants was about to meet its doom. In all three examples, collective nouns are used as antecedents by singular pronouns. Common Errors Most of the errors with compound and collective nouns occur when an incorrect pronoun is chosen to be the antecedent. Incorrect Usage •
The cats eat its food. (plural antecedent with singular pronoun)
•
That pair of animals eats their food. (singular collective noun with plural pronoun)
•
The mice are eating its food. (plural noun with singular pronoun)
Correct Usage •
The cats eat their food. (plural antecedent with plural pronoun)
•
That pair of animals eats its food. (singular collective noun with singular pronoun)
•
The mice are eating their food. (plural noun with plural pronoun)
Agreement of Gender A feminine pronoun is used with a feminine antecedent, and a masculine pronoun is used with a masculine antecedent. The same rules for compound nouns apply, depending on whether or not the two words are connected by the conjunction and or by the conjunctions nor and or. 1. William likes to think that he is always right. 2. Mary knows in her heart that William is always wrong. 3. William and Mary do not think that they have a good relationship. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 293
294 4. Does either Mary or William think that he has a good relationship. In the above sentences, the gender of each pronoun agrees with its antecedent. In the first example, the pronoun he is masculine because its antecedent is William, and he is a male. In the second example, the possessive pronoun her is feminine because its antecedent is Mary, and she is a female. In the third example, the plural pronoun they is gender neutral. In the last example, the compound noun because it has a compound noun connected by the conjunction or, so the pronoun using the compound noun as its antecedent uses the proper name William (the element of the compound noun closer to the pronoun) to determine its number and gender. Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to things in a non-‐specific manner. Indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural (some indefinite pronouns may be used either way) when used as antecedents within a sentence. The following indefinite pronouns use singular antecedents: •
no one, nobody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, nothing, everything, something, anything, each, another, other, whatever, whichever, whoever, whomever, enough, little, less, much, more, most, plenty, one, either, neither
These pronouns use plural antecedents: •
both, few, many, others, several
These pronouns may use either singular or plural antecedents: •
all, any, more, most, none, some
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295 Here are a few examples of indefinite pronouns being used as antecedents: 1. All of the monkeys were let out of their cage. 2. Everything finds its place. 3. Both of them know their purpose. In the first example, the indefinite pronoun all is used in its plural form as the antecedent of the indefinite pronoun. In the second example, the indefinite pronoun everything is used as the singular antecedent of the pronoun its. In the final example, the plural indefinite pronoun both is used as the antecedent of the pronoun their. Controversial usage of plural third person to insure gender neutrality In the late 20th century, various writers began to change the practice of using the masculine singular third person pronoun as the antecedent for singular indefinite pronouns and substituted the neutral plural third person instead. By doing this, there would be no gender discrimination. In other words, the pronoun his was paired with the singular indefinite pronouns, and certain individuals began to substitute it with the pronoun their. Others would use the words his or her. •
Everybody knew his place. (older style -‐ instantly defaults to masculine pronoun)
•
Everybody knew their place. (modern style -‐ uses plural pronoun instead)
•
Everybody knew his or her place. (modern style -‐ uses masculine and feminine)
All three of these forms are considered correct by different entities. However, the first example is being shunned by more and more people as time progresses.
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296 Subject and Verb Agreement In English, the subject and verb must agree in number. Thus, a singular subject requires a singular verb and a plural subject requires a plural verb. 1. Jack throws the knife at the wall. 2. Jack's friends throw him out of the pub. 3. Everyone is throwing a fit. In the first example, a singular subject (Jack) uses a singular verb. In the second example, a plural subject (friends) is using a plural verb. In the final example, a singular subject (the singular indefinite pronoun everyone) is using a singular verb. In addition, the rules for compound subjects used as antecedents for pronouns are identical to those used for subject and verb agreement. Therefore when the two elements of a compound subject are connected by the conjunction and, they require a plural verb. Likewise, when the two elements of a compound subject are connected by the conjunction or (or the conjunction nor), the element that is closer to the verb determines the number to be used. 1. The pony and the dog no longer run through the fields 2. The pony nor the dogs run through the fields. 3. The ponies nor the dog runs through the fields. In the first example, the compound subject is connected with the conjunction and uses a plural verb. In the second example, the elements of the compound sentence are connected with the conjunction nor; therefore, the word closer to the verb is used to determine number. The same is true for the third example.
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297 Common Errors The most popular errors that occur are when there is a noun or pronoun of a different number that is placed between the subject and the verb. This sort of occurrence is most common with prepositional phrases beginning with the preposition of. The verb is erroneously matched with the other word that is closer. Incorrect Usage •
One of the fryers are broken. (singular subject with plural verb)
•
John's friends standing by the policeman is yelling. (plural subject with singular verb)
•
The candy that she put in the jars are gone. (singular subject with a plural verb)
Correct Usage •
One of the fryers is broken. (subject and verb are singular)
•
John's friends standing by the policeman are yelling. (subject and verb are plural)
•
The candy that she put in the jars is gone. (subject and verb are plural)
Agreement of Nouns When a sentence uses a form of the verb be as a linking verb, the subject and the subject compliment must agree in number and gender. 1. James is a big man. 2. John was a very small individual. 3. These men were regular sized people. 4. This lady is a highly intelligent professor. In the first example, a singular masculine subject is paired with a singular masculine subject compliment. In the second example, a singular masculine subject is paired with a singular neutral subject compliment. In the third example, a plural masculine
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298 subject is paired with a plural neutral subject compliment. In the last example, a singular feminine subject is paired with a singular neutral subject compliment. Common Errors Most errors occur when the subject compliment is a noun that is used or spelled incorrectly. This sort of error can easily be spotted and corrected without much difficulty. Incorrect Usage 1. Greg is a lady. (feminine subject compliment with masculine subject) 2. Frank is a cowards. (plural subject compliment with singular subject) 3. Samoans are big peoples. (incorrect spelling of plural noun) Correct Usage 1. Greg is a man. (gender agreement between nouns) 2. Frank is a coward. (number agreement between nouns) 3. Samoans are big people. (correct spelling of noun) Sample Test Questions In the following questions, select the answer that contains an INCORRECT usage of agreement: 1) A. They love their team. B. He loves his team. C. We loves his team. D. I love our team. 2) A. Greg drinks from his cup. B. Greg and I drink from our cups. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 298
299 C. I drink from my cup. D. You drinks from your cup. 3) A. The men and the boy are playing golf. B. The boys or the men are playing golf. C. The men or the boy is playing golf. D. The boy or the men is playing golf. 4) A. One of the ducks is walking. B. One of the ducks are walking. C. The ducks are walking. D. The duck is walking. Answers 1. C) This sentence is incorrect because it has a plural pronoun as its subject and uses a singular verb. 2. D) This sentence is incorrect because it has a second person pronoun and uses the incorrect verb tense. 3. D) This sentence is incorrect because it has a compound subject with a singular noun and a plural noun connected by the conjunction or. Since the plural noun men is closer to the verb, a plural verb must be used instead. 4. B) This sentence is incorrect because it has the singular indefinite pronoun one for its subject. This singular subject requires a singular verb. The confusion in this example is the result of the prepositional phrase that contains the plural noun ducks. Since this plural noun directly precedes the verb are, it tricks the writer into thinking that a plural verb should be used.
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300
Frequently Confused Words 1) Affect -‐ Effect Affect -‐ to influence (verb); an emotional response (noun) •
She did not want to affect his decision. (most common usage)
•
He displayed a happy affect. (used as a noun primarily in psychology-‐-‐very rare)
Effect -‐ a result (noun); to cause (verb) •
It did not have much of an effect. (most common usage)
•
He wanted to effect change within the system. (used as a verb-‐-‐not as common)
2) Advice -‐ Advise Advice -‐ a recommendation (noun) •
He gave her some good advice.
•
She did not like his advice.
Advise -‐ to recommend (verb) •
They did not advise him about the situation.
•
John would advise him about the problem.
3) Complement -‐ Compliment Complement -‐ something that completes (noun); to complete something else (verb) •
The purse was a perfect complement to her outfit. (noun)
•
The table and the chair complement each other well. (verb)
Compliment -‐ praise, flattery (noun); to say nice things about (verb) •
He appreciated her compliment. (noun)
•
She complimented his performance (verb-‐-‐past tense)
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301 4) Council -‐ Counsel Council -‐ governing body (noun) •
The council met every month.
•
She was a member of the council.
Counsel -‐ advice (noun); a lawyer or lawyers (noun); to give advice (verb) •
He sought the counsel of his teacher (noun-‐-‐advice)
•
Jane is serving as counsel for the defendant. (noun-‐-‐lawyer)
•
All counsel must obey the rules of the court system. (noun-‐-‐lawyers)
•
He tried to counsel her. (verb)
5) Discreet -‐ Discrete Discreet -‐ prudent (adjective); modest (adjective); unobtrusive (adjective) •
He was very discreet and only said what was required. (adjective-‐-‐prudent)
•
She was impressed by the discreet elegance of the home. (adjective-‐-‐modest)
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He followed at a discreet distance. (adjective-‐-‐unobtrusive)
Discrete -‐ separate, distinct (adjective) •
The book has several discrete sections.
•
That thing has many discrete parts.
6) Eminent -‐ Imminent -‐ Immanent Eminent -‐ prominent (adjective) •
She was an eminent artist.
•
There are many eminent doctors in the city.
Imminent -‐ about to happen (adjective) •
The situation was imminent.
•
He was in imminent danger.
Immanent -‐ inherent (adjective) •
Beauty is not something acquired; it is immanent.
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302 •
Kindness is immanent in all people.
7) Farther -‐ Further Farther -‐ at a greater distance (adjective) •
She threw the ball farther than he did.
•
He ran farther down the trail.
Further -‐ in greater depth (adjective) •
This requires further analysis.
•
They needed further detail.
8) Its -‐ It's Its -‐ possessive form of the word it (pronoun) •
The whale lost its way.
•
The monkey found its cage.
It's -‐ contraction for the clause it is (pronoun and verb) •
It's clear to see that he didn't have a clue.
•
It's time for tea.
9) Principal -‐ Principle Principal -‐ foremost (adjective); administrator of a school (noun) •
The tomato was the principal ingredient in the stew. (adjective)
•
She was the principal of the local elementary school. (noun)
Principle -‐ moral rule (noun); basic truth (noun) •
She was a woman of principle. (noun-‐-‐moral rule)
•
It was a principle of human behavior. (noun-‐-‐basic truth)
10) Than -‐ Then Than -‐ in comparison to (conjunction, preposition) Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 302
303 •
He is older than you are. (conjunction)
•
He is older than you. (preposition)
Then -‐ next (adverb); that time (noun) •
He then traveled all over the world. (adverb)
•
Since then, she's been more prudent. (noun
11) Their -‐ There -‐ They're Their -‐ possessive form of the pronoun they (pronoun) •
It was their decision.
•
Their goal was to succeed.
There -‐ in that place (adverb); introduces a sentence (pronoun); that place (noun); relied on for support (adjective) •
Stand over there. (adverb)
•
There was a time. (pronoun)
•
She took it from there. (noun)
•
She was always there for him. (adjective)
They're -‐ contraction for the clause they are. (contraction) •
They're bad.
•
They're good.
12) To -‐ Too To -‐ toward; begins an infinite phrase (preposition) •
He went to the movies. (preposition-‐-‐toward)
•
Bill went to see her house. (preposition-‐-‐infinitive)
Too -‐ also; very (adverb) •
They wanted to see her, too. (adverb-‐-‐also)
•
She was too smart for them. (adverb-‐-‐very)
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304 13) Whose -‐ Who's Whose -‐ interrogative possessive determiner denoting ownership (pronoun) •
Whose wallet is that?
•
Randy did not know whose purse that was.
Who's -‐ contraction for the clause who is (contraction) •
Who's at the door?
•
She wants to see who's who.
14) Your -‐ You're Your -‐ second person possessive (pronoun) •
Your car is green
•
I do not like your green car.
You're -‐ contraction for the clause you are (contraction) •
You're dumb.
•
You're falling.
15) Capital -‐ Capitol Capital -‐ assets (noun); related to assets (adjective); upper case (adjective); major city (noun) •
The business needed more capital. (noun-‐-‐assets)
•
He paid taxes on his capital gains. (adjective-‐-‐assets)
•
Start the sentence with a capital letter. (adjective-‐-‐upper case)
•
The capital of Japan is Tokyo. (noun-‐-‐major city)
Capitol -‐ government building (noun or adjective) •
She went to the capitol building. (adjective)
•
He works at the Texas State Capitol. (noun)
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305 16) Die -‐ Dye Die -‐ to lose life (verb); a cube that functions as a random number generator (noun) •
Tyrone did not want to die. (verb)
•
Rudy rolled the die. (noun)
Dye -‐ to change or add color by applying liquid dye (verb) •
Tyrone did not want to dye his shirt blue.
•
Rudy was out of dye.
17) Gorilla -‐ Guerilla Gorilla -‐ animal in ape family (noun) •
The gorilla was small.
•
The gorilla was hungry.
Guerrilla -‐ a type of soldier (noun); indicative of a guerilla (adjective) •
The guerilla was small. (noun)
•
The guerilla soldier was hungry. (adjective)
18) Knew -‐ New Knew -‐ to have been familiar with (verb) •
The girl knew the dog.
•
The dog knew the girl.
New -‐ fresh, not yet old (adjective) •
Randy wore a new shirt.
•
His new girlfriend bought it for him.
19) Maybe -‐ May be Maybe -‐ perhaps (adverb) •
Maybe, she would be interested.
•
John might be interested, maybe.
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306 May be -‐ might be (verb) •
She may be interested.
•
John may be interested.
20) Personal -‐ Personnel Personal -‐ intimate (adjective); owned by a person (adjective) •
It was a very personal question. (adjective-‐-‐intimate)
•
Those were his personal belongings. (adjective-‐-‐owned by a person)
Personnel -‐ employees (collective noun) •
He fired all of his personnel.
•
The store's personnel were all given Christmas bonuses.
21) Plain -‐ Plane Plain -‐ simple (adjective) •
It was plain to see
•
That was plain enough.
Plane -‐ to shave wood (verb); aircraft (noun) •
It was time for the carpenter to plane the board.
•
It was a plane up in the sky.
22) Presence -‐ Presents Presence -‐ attendance (noun); being at hand (noun) •
His presence was requested. (noun-‐-‐attendance)
•
Her presence was felt by all. (noun-‐-‐being at hand)
Presents -‐ gifts (noun) •
George received lots of presents.
•
Bill gave George many presents.
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307 23) Stationary -‐ Stationery Stationary -‐ standing still (adjective) •
Tom was in a stationary position.
•
Tina was stationary.
Stationery -‐ writing paper (noun) •
The stationery was pink with red trim.
•
She ran out of stationery, so she didn't write all of her letters.
24) Through -‐ Threw Through -‐ finished (adjective); into and out of (adverb) •
He was through. (adjective)
•
He went through the field. (adverb)
Threw -‐ toss (verb) •
He threw the red ball.
•
She threw it back at him and knocked him over.
25) Waist -‐ Waste Waist -‐ midsection of the body (noun) •
He had a slim waist.
•
Her waist was much slimmer.
Waste -‐ discarded material (noun); to squander (verb) •
The garbage truck was full of waste. (noun)
•
They did not want to waste their money. (verb)
Sample Questions In the questions below, identify the sentence that is correct: 1) Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 307
308 A) He threw the stationery into the trash. B) He threw the stationary into the trash. C) He through the stationary into the trash. D) He through the stationery into the trash. 2) A) The gorilla was flying in the knew plane that was taking it to the zoo. B) The guerilla was flying in the new plain that was taking it to the zoo. C) The guerilla was flying in the knew plane that was taking it to the zoo. D) The gorilla was flying in the new plane that was taking it to the zoo. 3) A) There problem is that their not multiplying they're numbers correctly. B) They're problem is that their not multiplying there numbers correctly. C) There problem is that they're not multiplying their numbers correctly. D) Their problem is that they're not multiplying their numbers correctly. E) Their problem is that they're not multiplying there numbers correctly. 4) A) Its not plain too see the affect of your presents. B) Its not plane to see the effect of you're presence. C) Its not plain to see the affect of your presence. D) It's not plane too see the effect of your presents. E) It's not plain to see the effect of your presence. F) It's not plain to see the affect of your presence. Solutions 1. A) The word threw must be a verb, and the word stationary must be a noun. 2. D) The animal flying to the zoo is a gorilla and not a guerilla soldier. Also, the word new must be an adjective, and the word plane must be a noun. 3. D) The word at the beginning of the sentence must be a pronoun, and the word before the word not must be a contraction of the clause they are. In addition, the word before the word numbers must also be a pronoun.
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309 4. E) The word at the beginning of the sentence must be a contraction of the clause it is, and the third word of the sentence must be an adjective. Also, the word before the word of must be a noun that means "a result." In addition, the last word of the sentence must be a noun that means "being at hand."
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310
Logical Comparisons Logical comparisons that occur between two or more items must have these three characteristics in order to be correct: •
completeness
•
consistency
•
clarity
Completeness When making any type of logical comparison, there must be two things that are compared. The most popular error with this aspect of logical comparison occurs when a claim of comparison is made and only one element of the comparison is mentioned in the sentence. Incorrect Usage 1. The diet product contains 33% less fat. 2. The rock is ten pounds lighter. Correct Usage 1. The diet product contains 33% less fat than the regular product. 2. The rock is ten pounds lighter than the brick. In the above examples, only one item is mentioned in a statement that is attempting to make a logical comparison. Therefore, another item must be included so that a true logical comparison is correctly made. Incorrect Usage 1. Mary walked so slow. 2. John swam so fast.
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311 Correct Usage 1. Mary walked so slow that she was late for work. 2. John swam so fast that he won the race. In the above examples, the word so needs to be qualified in order to have logical comparison. Both sentences can be corrected by comparing speeds of movement with specific events. Consistency Similarity The items being compared need to have some type of similarity that allows for a logical comparison to be made so that consistency is maintained. Incorrect Usage 1. The chips at the corner store are cheaper than the supermarket. Correct Usages 1. The chips at the corner store are cheaper than the supermarket's chips. 2. The chips at the corner store are cheaper than the chips at the supermarket. 3. The chips at the corner store are cheaper than those at the supermarket. In the incorrect example above, chips are being compared to a supermarket. Therefore, the sentence may be corrected if the chips are compared to other chips. The three correct usages present different ways that this correction can be made. Specificity The sentence must be specific with the exact elements that are being compared. Quite often, the first element mentioned is also included in the second element.
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312 Therefore, the writer needs to be specific about the various elements that are being compared in order for the logical comparison to be consistent. Incorrect Usage 1. The boy runs faster than anyone. Correct Usage 1. The boy runs faster than anyone else. 2. The boy runs faster than any one of the others. 3. The boy runs faster than any one of the other boys. In the above example, the boy is being compared to himself because he is part of the universal pronoun anyone. This illogical comparison occurs because the terms in the sentence are not providing an adequate amount of specificity. Thus, all correct usages need to be more specific in order to remedy this situation. This type of repair is usually made by including the words else or other(s). Clarity There are also many errors with logical comparison that occur because of clarity issues. These types of problems are the result of sentences that lack precision. Oftentimes, an ambiguous meaning is not meant but is expressed because the correct words are not employed. Incorrect Usage 1. She gave her best friend more candy than her mother. Correct Usages 1. She gave her best friend more candy than her own mother did. 2. She gave her best friend more candy than she gave her own mother. 3. She gave her best friend more candy than her friend's mother did. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 312
313 The incorrect usage in the example above demonstrates how the lack of precision causes ambiguity and affects the clarity of the sentence. Thus, the logical comparison is uncertain because is unclear which things are being compared. The correct usages use specific terminology in order to precisely clarify the meaning of the sentence. Sample Test Questions In the questions below, please select the answer that contains an INCORRECT usage of logical comparison. 1) A) The diet candy contains half the amount of calories than the regular candy contains. B) The apple pie is better than all of the others. C) He ran faster than anyone. D) She baked her cookies more quickly than everyone else. 2) A) She cried so hard that her tears dripped onto her shirt. B) They ran so fast that they fell. C) The very large boy in the blue shirt ran so fast. D) The tiny dog walked so fast that it quickly lost sight of its owner. 3) A) The grapes at the farmers' market were more expensive than the store. B) The grapes at the farmers' market were more expensive than the store's grapes. C) The grapes at the farmers' market were more expensive than the grapes at the store. D) The grapes at the farmers' market were expensive. 4) A) Linda typed faster than her mother. B) Linda's mother typed faster than anyone. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 313
314 C) Linda's mother typed faster than anyone else her age. D) They both typed faster than all of the others in the room. E) All of the sentences are correct. Solutions 1. C) The subject of the sentence ran faster than anyone. However, the subject is included in the pronoun anyone. Since the subject cannot run faster than himself, it is logically incorrect. 2. C) The subject of this sentence ran so fast that something happened. However, the sentence does not explain what this something is; therefore, it is logically incorrect. 3. A) The grapes are being compared to the store. This unintended comparison is illogical; thus, the sentence contains an incorrect usage of comparison. 4. B) Linda's mother is included in the word anyone; therefore, an incorrect usage of logical comparison has occurred.
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315
Conventional Expressions There are many conventional expressions that are inconsistent with standard written English. While we are not going to cover them all here, several of these incorrect expressions are given are given below along with their proper corrections. 1) For all intensive purposes – For all intents and purposes This phrase is commonly misused when a writer wishes to express an idea meaning that in every practical sense, something has occurred. The misuse of this phrase means that the purposes with which something has occurred were extremely intense. Incorrect Usage For all intensive purposes, the marriage was over. Correct Usage For all intents and purposes, the marriage was over. In the incorrect example above, the writer is expressing that the purposes with which the marriage had ended were very intense. In the correct example, the writer is expressing the intended notion that for all practical purposes, the marriage was over. 2) I could care less – I couldn’t care less This phrase is misused when a writer tries to express the idea of apathy, but instead expresses the idea of caring for something and then being capable of reducing the amount of this concern. Incorrect Usage I could care less if she loves him. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 315
316 Correct Usage I couldn’t care less if she loves him. In the incorrect example above, the writer actually does care that she loves him; however, the writer is able to reduce the amount of this care to a lesser degree. In the correct example, the writer has absolutely no concern about whether or not she loves him. 3) It’s a doggy-‐dog world – It’s a dog-‐eat-‐dog world. This phrase is misused when the writer wishes to express the fact that the world is enormously competitive but instead expresses the unusual notion that the world is like that of a tiny little dog. Incorrect Usage My father always told me that it’s a doggy-‐dog world out there. Correct Usage My father always told me that it’s a dog-‐eat-‐dog world out there. In the incorrect usage above, the father of the writer has informed his child that the world is similar to a cute, little puppy. In the correct example, the father of the writer has informed his child that the world is a very competitive place because friends and colleagues will often betray or destroy each other in order to get ahead 4) Nip it in the butt – Nip it in the bud This phrase is misused when a writer wishes to express that it is time to put something to an end but instead states that it is time to literally bite the hindquarters of something. Incorrect Usage She saw the way that she came on to him and decided it was time to nip it in the butt before he fell prey to her amorous advances. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 316
317 Correct Usage She saw the way that she came on to him and decided it was time to nip it in the bud before he fell prey to her amorous advances. In the incorrect example, she decided to bite another lady’s flirtation in its figurative hindquarters before he fell for this lady’s advances. In the correct example, she decided to put an end to another lady’s flirting before he fell for this lady’s advances. 5) Statue of Limitations – Statute of Limitations This phrase is misused when a writer wishes to express that there is a deadline for filing a law suit but instead states that there is a stone carving that is somehow shaped like limitations (whatever that shape may be). The writer could also be referring to a statue created by an artist named Limitations. Incorrect Usage The statue of limitations has expired. Correct Usage The statute of limitations has expired. In the incorrect example, the writer is expressing an illogical notion that somehow a stone carving has expired. In the correct example, the writer is stating that a criminal charge can no longer be legally prosecuted because the deadline to file a lawsuit has passed.
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318 6) One in the same – One and the same This phrase is most often misused when the writer wishes to express the concept that two things are alike but instead expresses the illogical notion that something is contained within an object referred to as “the same.” Incorrect Usage They are one in the same. Correct Usage They are one and the same. In the incorrect example above, multiple entities are united in some form or fashion while they are inside of an object known as “the same.” In the correct example, two people, two animals, or two things are actually the same. 7) Got off scott free – Got off scot free This phrase is most often misused when the writer wishes to express the concept that someone has escaped punishment for a wrong doing or misdeed but instead claims that someone charged nothing to get off of an individual named Scott. Incorrect Usage He got off scott free. Correct Usage He got off scot free. In the incorrect example above, the writer states that a man removed himself from an individual named Scott for no charge. In the correct example, the writer states that a man has escaped punishment for a crime. 8) Windshield – Wind chill Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 318
319 A windshield is a large piece of glass placed near the front of an automobile. The wind chill is the perceived decrease in the temperature felt by the human body. Incorrect Usage The windshield factor was 30 degrees. Correct Usage The wind chill factor was 30 degrees. In the incorrect example above, an illogical concept is expressed. In the correct example above, an expression of the perceived outdoor temperature is asserted. 9) Irregardless – Regardless The word "irregardless" is not accepted by most teachers of English; however, it is used a lot in common speech of an informal nature. It is a type of double negative that is intended to mean “without regard;” however, the term "regardless" means “without regard,” so the prefix ir-‐ is unnecessary. Incorrect Usage One should use words correctly, irregardless of how other people may use them. Correct Usage One should use words correctly, regardless of how other people may use them. In the incorrect example above, the word irregardlessis used and could be viewed as a type of double negative. In the correct example above, the word regardless is used and the sentence is grammatically and logically perfect. 10) Literally -‐ Figuratively Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 319
320 The word literally is often used when the word figuratively is meant. Oftentimes, the error caused by this type of usage can be repaired by simply removing the word literally. Incorrect Usage She literally drowned herself in a river of tears. Correct Usage She drowned herself in a river of tears. In the incorrect example above, the writer is stating that an individual actually drowned in a real river that was created by tears. This would also imply that this person died-‐-‐literally. However, in the correct usage, the “river of tears” can be perceived as being metaphorical; therefore, the actual meaning of the sentence is a creative expression of a person crying so hard that an above average amount of tears were shed in the process. Sample Test Questions In the following questions; please select the answer that CORRECTLY expresses the idea that is intended by the conventional expressions used.
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321 1) A) The man was literally thrown to the wolves. B) The windshield factor was 20 below zero. C) They stood together, irregardless of the outcome. D) Scott got off scot free. 2) A) For all intents and purposes, I could care less. B) For all intensive purposes, I could care less. C) For all in tents and porpoises, I couldn’t care less. D) For all intents and purposes, I couldn’t care less. 3) A) You need to nip it in the bud, because it’s a doggy-‐dog world. B) You need to nip it in the bud, because it’s a dog-‐eat-‐dog world. C) You need to nip it in the butt, because it’s a dog-‐eat-‐cat world. D) You need to nip it in the butt, because it’s a doggy-‐dog world. 4) A) The statue of limitations had just expired, so he got off scott free. B) The statue of limitations had just expired, so he got off scot free. C) The statute of limitations had just expired, so he got off scott free. D) The statute of limitations had just expired, so he got off scot free. E) All of the sentences are incorrect. ANSWERS 1. D) An individual named Scott did not get punished for a crime the he committed. 2. D) For all practical purposes, the writer is completely apathetic about the situation at hand.
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322 3. B) You need to stop the undesirable behavior, because the world is an extremely competitive place. 4. D) The deadline for filing a lawsuit has passed, so the individual will not be punished for a crime that he has committed.
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323
Conventions of Punctuation There are many types of uses for the various forms of punctuation in the English language. There are also many times when these punctuation marks are misused. The more popular types of these misuses will now be discussed.
End of sentence punctuation There are three different punctuation marks used at the ends of sentences. They are the period (declarative and imperative), the exclamation point (exclamatory and imperative), and the question mark (interrogative). Using a different punctuation mark at the end of a sentence can drastically alter its meaning. •
I went to the store. (declarative sentence -‐ states a fact)
•
I went to the store! (exclamatory sentence -‐ expresses extreme emotion)
•
I went to the store? (interrogative sentence -‐ asks a question)
In addition, there are also imperative and imperative/exclamatory hybrid sentences. •
Go to the store. (imperative sentence -‐ a command)
•
Go to the store! (imperative/exclamatory -‐ a command expressing emotion)
There are many instances when the context requires that a sentence uses a specific form of punctuation, or else the intended meaning may be altered. Incorrect Usages 1. Did he go to the store. 2. "I went to the store!" he whispered quietly so that no one would hear. 3. Will she go to the store after she gets back from work.
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324 Correct Usages 1. Did he go to the store? 2. "I went to the store," he whispered quietly so that no one would hear. 3. Will she go to the store after she gets back from work? In the first example above, the sentence is worded in a way that only allows it to be an interrogative sentence; therefore, it MUST end with a question mark. In the second example above, the context makes it clear that the exclamation point is inappropriate for the quoted material within the sentence. In the final example, the sentence is constructed in a manner that requires a question mark at the end.
Punctuation within the sentence There are three types of punctuation used to indicate sharp breaks of thought within a sentence: colons, semicolons, and em dashes. Colons
Colons are used immediately after independent clauses in order to present a list, an individual thing, or a quote. •
He wanted three things from the store: grapes, nuts, and avocadoes.
•
John said it the best: "I don't care if you care about me caring."
•
The was only one thing that mattered: his money.
By far, the most common colon error is committed when the colon does not follow an independent clause. Incorrect Usage 1. The dessert was made from: bananas, cherries, and oranges. 2. The one thing we can do is: wait for the firemen to arrive. 3. Henry spoke these words and said that: "I am waiting for you to wait for me.
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325 Correct Usage 1. The dessert was made from three different fruits: bananas, cherries, and oranges. 2. There is one thing we can do: wait for the firemen to arrive. 3. Henry spoke these words: "I am waiting for you to wait for me." In all of the above examples, the errors are corrected by reconstructing the sentence so that the colon follows an independent clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Semicolons
There are two uses for semicolons: to connect two independent clauses and to separate lists of three or more items if there are commas used in the components of the list. This second type of usage will be discussed in an upcoming portion of this article. Semicolons can connect two independent clauses and can be used to correct comma splices. The two clauses that are connected should be related. •
He fled the country because he lost the election; he feared for his life.
•
The little kitty was playing in the grass; it was so cute.
The most common semicolon error occurs when at least one of the items that it connects is not a complete independent clause. Incorrect Usage 1. John knew that he was funny; people laughing at his jokes. 2. The way to the store; five blocks to the south. Correct Usage 1. John knew that he was funny; people were always laughing at his jokes. 2. The way to the store was obvious; it was five blocks to the south. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 325
326 In the first example above, the final clause of the sentence is only a phrase; it is corrected by converting it into an independent clause. In the second example above, both elements of the sentence are phrases and need to be converted into independent clauses. Em dashes
Em dashes are used to distinguish parenthetical expressions from the rest of the sentence. Commas and parenthesis are also used to perform this function. •
The boy was not scared ̶ his father was only minutes away.
•
Kate joined in on the fun ̶ she had just finished her chores.
This usage of em dashes, parenthesis, and commas will be discussed in more detail in an upcoming section of this article.
Possessive Nouns and Pronouns When a noun or pronouns is possessive, an apostrophe and the letter s are attached to the end of the word. When a word is plural, then an apostrophe is added to the end of the word. Collective nouns (herd, flock, crowd, etc.) are singular. •
It was John's fault.
•
They loved all of the oranges' flavors; there were two dozen of them in the bag.
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The crowd's applause was deafening.
It is also important to note that there is no strict rule for adding an apostrophe and the letter s or just an apostrophe to singular nouns that end with the letter s. Thus, all of the sentences below could be considered correct depending on which authority is consulted.
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327 •
It was Mrs. Jones's cat.
•
It was Mrs. Jones' cat.
•
The canvas's size was enormous.
•
The canvas' size was enormous.
The most common error with apostrophes occurs when a collective noun is treated as though it were plural. Also, many errors occur when a plural noun is pluralized as though it is singular. Incorrect Usage 1. The ferocity of the herds' members was incredible. 2. The apple's colors ranged from light green to dark red. Correct Usage 1. The ferocity of the herd's members was incredible. 2. The apples' colors ranged from light green to dark red. In the first example, the word herd is a collective noun that needs to be treated like a singular noun when it is converted into possessive form; thus, an apostrophe followed by the letter s is needed in order for the sentence to be correct. In the last example, the word apples is a plural noun and only needs an apostrophe at the end in order to be correct.
Items in a series The various components of lists of two or more items need to be separated with commas. If the Oxford (serial) comma is used, then the final item of a list of three or more items also needs to be separated with a comma just before the conjunction near the end of the list. The majority of most English writers now utilize the Oxford comma.
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328 •
She loved to play with puppies, kitties, and bunnies. (with the Oxford comma)
•
She loved to play with puppies, kitties and bunnies. (without the Oxford comma)
The sample essay on the official ACT website uses the Oxford comma in the second and final paragraphs. http://www.actstudent.org/writing/sample/six.html Semicolons are used to separate the items in a list when the various items in the list contain commas. •
He loved to eat sweet, ripe oranges; small, delicate peas; and big, juicy steaks.
•
They had lived in San Diego, California; Portland, Oregon; and Houston, Texas.
A common error occurs when the Oxford comma is used with a list of two that employs a conjunction or when a comma is omitted in a list of two items that does not use a conjunction. In addition, a semicolon is often incorrectly used to separate the items of a list when a comma is required. Incorrect Usage 1. The man liked to eat bananas, and peaches. 2. She loved sweet chewy raisins. 3. The girl liked to draw pictures of monkeys, horses; whales, dogs, and cats. Correct Usage 1. The man liked to eat bananas and peaches. 2. She loved sweet, chewy raisins. OR She loved sweet and chewy raisins. 3. The girl liked to draw pictures of monkeys, horses, whales, dogs, and cats. In the first example, the comma is unnecessary. In the second example, the list of two can be separated with either a conjunction or a comma. In the last example, the semicolon needs to be replaced with a comma. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 328
329 Nonrestrictive and parenthetical elements Nonrestrictive and parenthetical elements are set off from the rest of the sentence by using parentheses, em dashes, or commas. Parenthesis are the strongest method of setting of such elements that have little if any relation to the rest of the sentence. Em dashes are not quite as strong as parenthesis and are usually used for material that is at least somewhat relevant to the context of the sentence. Commas are the weakest and set off material that is very relevant to the sentence. •
The mouse played (although it had been distracted numerous times) with the cheese.
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The mouse played ̶ it was quite fond of playing with its food ̶ with the cheese.
•
The mouse played, and kept playing, with the cheese.
In the above examples, all of the parenthetical elements have been correctly set off from the sentences by using the three types of punctuation used for this type of situation. Incorrect Usage •
The mouse (in the garage) was killed by a mousetrap.
•
His cousin ̶ Bob ̶ was a very large man.
Correct Usage •
The mouse in the garage was killed by a mousetrap.
•
His cousin Bob was a very large man. (If subject has more than one cousin)
•
His cousin, Bob, was a very large man. (If subject has only one cousin)
In the first example, the prepositional phrase in the garage is a restrictive element of the sentence and should not be set off with any type of punctuation. In the second example, comma usage is determined by how many cousins the subject
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330 has. If the subject more than one cousin, then the word Bob is a restrictive element and should not be separated with commas. If the subject has only one cousin, then the word Bob is an nonrestrictive element and needs to be set off with commas. Restrictive or essential elements
Restrictive elements are necessary elements of a sentence that are needed in order for the meaning of the sentence to be perfectly clear. They are not separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. •
The store that was near the pizza restaurant was burned down.
•
A woman who was in the store saw the arsonist.
In the first example above, the phrase that was near the pizza store tells the reader which particular store was burned down. In the second example above, the phrase who was in the store lets the reader know which woman saw the arsonist. Both of these phrases are essential so that the reader has all of the detail needed to understand the concepts expressed by these sentences. Incorrect Examples 1. The security guard, who worked the night shift at the mall, was fat. 2. The mall, which was near the city zoo, was being renovated since the other malls in town were doing much better. Correct Examples 1. The security guard who worked the night shift at the mall was fat. 2. The mall that was near the city zoo was being renovated since the other malls in town were doing much better.
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331 In the first example above, the phrase who worked the night shift at the mall is an essential element that lets the reader know which security guard is the subject of the sentence; therefore, it should not be separated from the rest of the sentences with commas. In the second example above, the phrase which was near the city zoo is a restrictive element that lets the reader know which mall is being talked about in the sentence; thus, it should not be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.
Unnecessary punctuation There are many ways that punctuation can be used incorrectly in a sentence; however, there are a few situations that are very common. These more popular errors will now be discussed. Unnecessary apostrophes
Oftentimes, a writer will add an apostrophe when creating the plural form of a word. Incorrect Examples 1. The girl's played in the backyard. 2. There were many different kinds of football's at the store. Correct Examples 1. The girls played in the backyard. 2. There were many different kinds of footballs at the store. In the first example above, the word girls has an unnecessary apostrophe. In order to fix this sentence, the apostrophe needs to be removed. In the second example, the word footballs contains an unnecessary apostrophe that needs to be removed.
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332 Unnecessary quotation marks
A writer will often use quotation marks on material that is not a direct quote. These unnecessary quotes are placed so that these words will receive more emphasis. Incorrect Examples 1. He said that he saw a "light at the end of the tunnel." 2. He said that the "party" which he attended last night was very lame. Correct Examples 1. He said that he saw a light at the end of the tunnel. 2. He said that the party which he attended last night was very lame. In the above examples, there are no direct quotations; however, quotations marks are used to add emphasis. Merely remove these unnecessary quotation marks, and both sentences will be grammatically correct. Incorrect comma usage
Commas are frequently misused by either omitting them in necessary places or by placing them in unnecessary places. Commas are often omitted in necessary places when they are not placed before a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence. This is probably the most frequent mistake made by writers of the English language. If
the writer does not have the seven
coordinating conjunctions memorized, then this mistake will continue throughout everything that a writer creates. However, if the independent clauses are very short, then the comma becomes optional. •
He decided to go to the store, and then he decided to go to the movies.
•
She went to the downtown museum, so she could photograph some of the art.
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333 •
He slept so she cooked breakfast.
In addition, writers often omit commas after the end of a dependent clause that begins a complex sentence. These commas are very necessary in order for a sentence to maintain clarity. •
After she went to the store, she went to the movies.
•
Before he went to the movies, he took a walk in the park.
Writers will often place unnecessary commas in sentences. This situation usually occurs when a writer places a comma before a second verb in a sentence that has only one subject; however, this sort of error also occurs when a writer places a comma before a subordinating conjunction that precedes a subordinating clause at the end of a complex sentence. •
She went to the store and then took a walk in the park.
•
He went to the museum before he went to the store.
In the first example above, there is only one subject, so there is no need for a comma before the conjunction and. In the second example, the conjunction before is a subordinating conjunction and does not require a comma directly before it. Incorrect Usages 1. He went to the downtown zoo and then he went to the pet store. 2. He went to the downtown zoo, and then went to the pet store. 3. After she went to the downtown zoo she went to the pet store. 4. She went to the downtown zoo, after she went to the pet store. Correct Usages 1. He went to the downtown zoo, and then he went to the pet store. 2. He went to the downtown zoo and then went to the pet store. Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 333
334 3. After she went to the downtown zoo, she went to the pet store. 4. She went to the downtown zoo after she went to the pet store. In the first example, two independent clauses are connected by the coordinating conjunction and; therefore, a comma is required before the word and. In the second example, there is only one subject, so there is no need for a comma before the word and. In the third example, a subordinating clause begins a complex sentence; therefore, a comma is needed after the clause. In the last example, a subordinating clause ends a complex sentence; therefore, no comma is needed. In order to know when to correctly use commas in compound and complex sentences, the writer MUST have the seven coordinating conjunctions memorized. The seven coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These seven words can be easily memorized by using the acronym FANBOYS.
All other conjunctions that are commonly used to connect sentences are
subordinating conjunctions. Important exception
It is imperative to note that the word so is a coordinating conjunction; however, when it is combined with the word that, it becomes a two-word subordinating conjunction. Therefore, correct comma placement is indicated in these two examples. •
Rebecca drove to the lake so that she could see her uncle.
•
Rebecca drove to the lake, so she could see her uncle.
Excess exclamation points
Only one exclamation point is needed at any single point in a sentence. To use more than one at a single location is grammatically incorrect. Incorrect Usage 1. They went to the store, and then they went to the movies!!!! Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 334
335 2. "Hey!!!" she yelled. "Get over here right now!!" Correct Usage 1. They went to the store, and then they went to the movies! 2. "Hey!" she yelled. "Get over here right now!" In the examples above, multiple exclamation points are used at single locations. In order to correct these sentences, omit the extra exclamation points. Incorrect quotation mark placement
Oftentimes, a writer will incorrectly place punctuation outside of a set of quotation marks at the end of a quote. Incorrect Usage 1. "Hello there," he said. "Let's go to the store". 2. "Hey there"! she said. "Let's go to the mall." Correct Usage 1. "Hello there," he said. "Let's go to the store." 2. "Hey there!" she said. "Let's go to the mall." In the first example above, a period is placed outside of the quotation marks; therefore, in order to correct the sentence, the period should be placed within the quotes. In the second example, an exclamation point is placed outside of the quotes; therefore, it needs to be placed inside the quotes so that the sentence will be correct. Hyphen, En dash, and Em dash usage
There is much confusion over these three closely related punctuation marks, and they are commonly confused an a wide variety of ways. Therefore, the specific
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336 usages for each type of mark will be presented so that a comprehensive understanding may be gained. The hyphen is used to connect two adjectives in a way that allows for a combined meaning of the two words. It is also used to connect two or three words that have been combined to produce a single idea. •
It was a low-‐budget project that required clear-‐headed thinking.
•
Her mother-‐in-‐law had just bought an up-‐to-‐date gardening manual.
The hyphen is also used to connect numbers and fractions as words. It is also used after the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-. •
One-‐third of twenty-‐one is seven.
•
His ex-‐wife has an all-‐inclusive plan for self-‐righteousness.
The en dash is used to connect two items that are related to each other by distance. •
He read pages 34 ̵ 56
•
He read from the September ̵ December issue of the journal.
The em dash is used to set off nonrestrictive elements in a sentence. This welldefined usage ̶ as well as its relationship to parentheses and commas ̶ was explained on pages 4 ̵ 5 of this article. Incorrect Usages 1. He thought that he was finished with pages 56-‐58 of the script. 2. Doug bred rabbits in the fall-‐and guinea pigs in the spring-‐on his farm. 3. His ex ̶ wife was very upset with him. 4. They found thirty ̵ four errors in the text. Correct Usages Take your S AT prep to the next level. Visit www.learnerator.com 336
337 1. He thought that he was finished with pages 56 ̵ 58 of the script. 2. Doug bred rabbits in the fall ̶ and guinea pigs in the spring ̶ on his farm. 3. His ex-‐wife was very upset with him. 4. They found thirty-‐four errors in the text. In the first example, a hyphen is used to connect two items that are related by distance; thus, the sentence requires an en dash in order to be correct. In the second example, hyphens are used to set off a parenthetical expression from the rest of the sentence; thus, en dashes may be used in order to make this sentence correct. In the third example, an em dash is used in a common expression that requires a hyphen. In the final example, an en dash is used for a written expression of numbers; therefore, a hyphen needs to be used. Sample Test Questions
1) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation. A) Her mother read the book. B) Her mother read the book? C) Her mother read the book D) Her mother read the book! 2) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation. A) Elizabeth only wanted three things: money, fun, and candy. B) She knew what she wanted; she spent her time acquiring them. C) There was no time for amateurs; however, they insisted on being there. D) The middle of the night; it was a time for reflection. 3) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation.
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338 A) It was John's fault. B) It was Johns fault. C) It is John's fault. D) It is his fault. 4) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation. A) They wanted beets, yams, and radishes. B) They wanted beets; yams and radishes. C) They wanted beets, yams, radishes, and cucumbers. D) They wanted three things: beets, yams, and radishes. 5) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation. A) The cat over by the window was the cutest cat in the house. B) The cat, over by the window, was the only cat in the house. C) The cat was the cutest cat in the house. D) The cat over by the window was the only cat in the house. E) The cat was the only cat in the house. 6) Identify which sentence contains an INCORRECT usage of punctuation. A) The girl's played in the field. B) The girls played in the field. C) The girls played and played in the field. D) The girls played. E) The girls played baseball in the field. ANSWERS
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339 1. C) This sentence needs some type of punctuation at its end. 2. D) The first section of this sentence is not an independent clause; therefore, it cannot be separated by another independent clause with a semicolon. 3. B) The word Johns is the possessive form of a proper noun and requires an apostrophe before the letter s. 4. B) A semicolon is used incorrectly in a list of three items. 5. D) Since the cat is the only cat in the house, the phrase over by the window is nonrestrictive and should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas. 6. A) The word girl's is not possessive and does not need an apostrophe.
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