Santrock Section 5 (Chapter 9) Middle and Late Childhood

Section 5: Middle and Late Childhood

EXERCISE NOTE: 

Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood 1 Physical Changes and Health

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Exercise - plays an important role in children’s growth and development Percentage of children involved in daily P.E. programs in schools decreased from 80% (1969) to 20% (1999) Television watching is linked with low activity and obesity in children more fatigued and more active children aerobic exercise

HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE Middle and late childhood – time of excellent health 2 to 3 inches and 5 to 7 pound – growth per year

Accidents and Injuries 4 feet, 9 inches – women 4 feet, 10 ¼ inches – men

Injuries - are the leading cause of death during middle and late childhood

head – proportional to the body

Motor vehicle accidents - are most common cause of severe injury

waist – proportional to the height

Overweight Children

NOTE:   

Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases Ossification of bones Boys have a greater number of muscle cells and are typically stronger than girls

Overweight - child is a risk factor for being obese as an adult Girls - are more likely than boys to be overweight Changes in diet and total caloric intake - may be one reason for increasing obesity rates

THE BRAIN Body mass index – categorizes an individual to be obese, NOTE:  

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Brain volume stabilizes Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex o Improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive control Thickening of cerebral cortex Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease o Shift from larger areas to smaller, more focal areas o Due to synaptic pruning

overweight, and at risk of overweight that computed by formula that takes into account the height and weight of a child.

NOTE:       

Raises risks for many medical and psychological problems Pulmonary problems, such as sleep apnea diabetes, high blood pressure Low self-esteem, depression, exclusion from peer groups

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Cardiovascular Diseases

NOTE:

Cardiovascular diseases – uncommon NOTE:

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Gross motor skills become smoother and more coordinated o Boys usually outperform girls on gross motor skills Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood o Increased myelination of the central nervous system o Girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skills

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Many elementary-school children already possess risk factors for cardiovascular disease

Cancer Cancer - is the 2nd leading cause of death in children 5–14 years old

Leukemia - most common child cancer - cancer in which bone marrow manufactures an abundance of abnormal white blood cells

Other types of cancer: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

bone lymph nodes kidney brain muscles nervous system

2 CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES

Possible Causes:    

Genetics (many tend to run in families) Environmental influences Problems in integrating information from multiple brain regions Difficulties in brain structures and functions

Intervention: 

Improving reading ability through intensive instruction

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Syndrome (ADHD) ADHD – a disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity

Inactive – difficulty in focusing on any one thing that they may be

SCOPE OF DISABILITIES

bored with a task after a few minutes

Hyperactive – show high levels of physical activity Impulsive – difficulty in curbing their actions Possible Causes:    

Learning Disabilities Learning disability – difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, reading, thinking, writing, and spelling

boys ˃ girls – stats of learning disabilities Definition of learning disability includes three components:   

Minimum IQ level Significant difficulty in a school-related area Exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological deficits

Three types of learning disabilities: 1. Dyslexia – category reserved for individuals who have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell 2. Dysgraphia – learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting - may write very slowly - writing products are illegible - make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to match up sounds with letter

3. Dyscalculia – aka developmental arithmetic disorder - learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation

Genetics Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development Later peak for cerebral cortex thickening

ADHD Treatment:   

Stimulant medication (Ritalin or Adderall) is helpful Combination of medication and behavior management seems to work best Exercise may reduce ADHD symptoms

NOTE: 

Critics argue that physicians are too quick to prescribe medications

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Emotional and behavioral disorders – serious, persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, as well as other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) – aka pervasive developmental disorder

- range from severe disorder labeled autistic disorder to the milder syndrome called Asperger syndrome - characterized by problem in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors.

Autistic disorder – a severe spectrum disorder that has its onset in the first three years of life - includes deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior

Asperger syndrome – a relatively mild ASD in which the child has relatively good verbal language, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships

Causes:   

Genetics Brain dysfunction with abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters Mutations – missing or duplicated pieces of DNA on chromosome 16

Classification – important ability in concrete operational thought - can move up and down a level, and up and down and across within the system

Evaluating Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

EDUCATIONAL ISSUES 1975 – laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled

Criticism: 

children

Individualized Education Plan (IEP) - written statement that is

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specifically tailored for the disabled student

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) - a setting that is as similar as possible to that of non-disabled children Inclusion- educating a child with special education needs in the regular classroom

Piaget proposed that various aspects of a stage should emerge together o Some concrete abilities do not appear at the same time Education and culture exert stronger influences on children’s development than Piaget believed

Neo-Piagetians – argue that Piaget got some things right, but that theory needs considerable revision - more emphasis on attention, memory, and strategy use

INFORMATION PROCESSING

3 COGNITIVE CHANGES PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY Concrete Operational Stage Concrete operational stage -

ages 7 to 11 children can perform concrete operations and reason logically reasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examples ability to classify things into different sets and consider their interrelationships

operations – reversible mental actions

Memory long-term memory – relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood

KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERTISE… Expertise – ability to remember, reason and solve problems - affects ability to remember, reason, and solve problems NOTE: 

Older children usually have more expertise about a subject than younger children do

STRATEGIES… Strategies – deliberate and mental activities to improve the processing of information

concrete operations – operations that are applied to real, Strats:

concrete objects

- coordinates information about width and height

Seriation - the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension Transitivity – the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

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Encourage children to engage in mental imagery. Motivate children to remember material by understanding rather than by memorizing it. Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link early and often. Embed memory-relevant language when instructing children.

FUZZY TRACE THEORY… Fuzzy trace theory – states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace and (2) gist. - older children’s better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information

Verbatim memory trace – precise details of the information

NOTE:  

Limited to other children Limited knowledge about their own memory.

Brainstorming – a technique in which individuals are encourage to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other’s ideas, and say practically what comes to their mind

Gist – central idea of the information

INTELLIGENCE Thinking

Intelligence – problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to everyday life.

Aspects of thinking 1. Critical Thinking – thinking reflectively and productively,

2.

are different from each other

The Binet Test

Creative Thinking – the ability to think in novel and

Binet Tests – designed to identify children with difficulty learning in

unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions to problems  Convergent thinking – produces one correct answer

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Divergent thinking - produces many different answers to the same question

3.

Individual differences – stable, consistent ways in which people

and evaluating evidence  Mindfulness – being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life’s everyday activities and tasks

Scientific Thinking 

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children tend to: o ask fundamental questions about reality o place a great deal of emphasis on causal mechanisms o be more influenced by chance events than by overall patterns o maintain old theories regardless of evidence tools of scientific thought are not routinely taught in schools

school

1905 Scale – consisted of 30 questions on topics ranging from the ability to touch one’s ear to the ability to draw designs from memory and define abstract concepts

Mental age (MA) -

an individual’s level of mental development

relative to others

Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Stanford-Binet Tests – revised version of the Binet test - revised to analyze an individual’s response in five content areas : fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual spatial reasoning, and working memory

normal distribution— a bell-shaped curve Strategies for Fostering Creativity:        

Encourage brainstorming Provide environments that stimulate creativity Don’t overcontrol students Encourage internal motivation Build children’s confidence Guide children to be persistent and delay gratification Encourage children to take intellectual risks Introduce children to creative people

Metacognition Metacognition – cognition about cognition - knowing about knowing - knowledge about strategies

- symmetrical, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range

The Wechsler Scales Wechsler Scales - give scores on several composite indices - three versions for different age groups Include: 1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Third Ed. - 2 years and 6 months to 7 years and 3 months Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 4 ed. - 6 to 16 years

3.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – 3 ed.

Metamemory – knowledge about memory 5 to 6 years of age – familiar items are easier to learn

th

2.

rd

Types of Intelligence

o

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - intelligence comes in three forms: 1. Analytical intelligence – ability to analyze, judge,

o

2. 3.

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evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence – ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence – ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind – people learn best what they can so in a way that uses their stronger intelligences

Cons: o o o

Motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in multiple domains Contributed to interest in assessing intelligence and classroom learning Multiple-intelligence views may have taken the concept of specific intelligences too far Research has not yet supported the different types Are there other types of intelligences?

Interpeting Differences in IQ Scores A. Influences of Genetics: 

Frames of the mind: 1. Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express meaning Occupations : authors, journalists, speakers

2. Mathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operations Occupations : scientist, engineers, accountants 

3. Spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally Occupations : architects, sailors, artists

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Heritability – the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics o Heritability of intelligence is about .75 o Problems:  Heritability index is only as good as the data entered into the analysis  Assumes we can treat genetic and environmental influences as separate One strategy is to compare the IQs of identical and fraternal twins Most researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept

B. Environmental Influences:   

Occupations : surgeons, dancers, athletes, craftspeople 5. Musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone Occupations : composers, musicians, sensitive listeners 6. Interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively with others

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Occupations : teachers, mental health professionals 7. Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself Occupations : theologians, psychologists

C.

Group Differences: 

8. Naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems

Occupations : farmers, botanists, ecologists, lansdcapers D.

Evaluating the MI Approach

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Heredity and genetics versus environment (increasingly higher scores suggest role of education) Flynn effect Bell curve: U.S. is developing large underclass of intellectually deprived Racial and cultural bias Use and misuse of IQ tests Classifying types of mental retardation Classification as being gifted

Evaluating Multiple-Intelligence Approaches: 

Pros: o

Stimulated teachers to think more broadly about children’s competencies

E.

On average, African American schoolchildren score 10 to 15 points lower on IQ tests than White American schoolchildren o Gap has begun to narrow as African Americans have gained social, economic, and educational opportunities

Culture-Fair Tests - tests that are intended to be free of cultural bias  

Controversies and issues in intelligence:

Communication of parents Schooling Flynn Effect: rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world o Increasing levels of education attained by more people o Explosion of available information Interventions designed to help children at risk for impoverished intelligence

Items that are familiar to children from all backgrounds Nonverbal intelligence tests

Using Intelligence Tests:   

Avoid stereotyping and expectations Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score

EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE

Mental Retardation Mental retardation – a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ (usually below 70) on a traditional test of intelligence, and has a difficulty adapting to everyday life

Categories: 1. Mild - 55 to 70 - able to live independently as adults - work at variety of jobs 2.

4 LANGUAGE

Moderate - 40 to 54 - attain a second-grade level - support themselves as adult through some types of labor

3.

Severe - 25 to 39 - talk and accomplish simple tasks - require extensive support

During middle and late childhood: 

Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized Rapid increase in vocabulary and grammar skills Improved logical reasoning/analytical skills

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Metalinguistic Awareness

Causes: 1. Organic retardation - caused by genetic disorder or by brain damage - organic – refers to the tissues or organs of the body - 0 to 50 2.

VOCABULARY, GRAMMMAR, AND METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS

Cultural-familial retardation - Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage - 50 to 70

- knowledge about language - knowing what a preposition is or the ability to discuss the sounds of language - improves significantly during elementary school years

READING NOTE: 

Children with a large vocabulary have an advantage in learning to read

Two approaches to teaching reading: 1. Whole-language approach -

Giftedness -

Giftedness – people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or superior talent for something

2.

Phonics approach -

Three criteria: 1. Precocity – master earlier than peers, inborn high ability 2.

Marching to their

own drummer

reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning recognize whole words; use context to guess at meaning reading is connected with listening and writing skills

-

– minimal

reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds research suggests that instruction in phonics should be emphasized, although both methods can be beneficial

scaffolding, resist explicit instruction

A passion to master – obsessive interest

3. NOTED:  

Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and environment Many experts argue that education programs for gifted children need a significant overhaul

WRITING Note:  

Children often invent spellings Corrections should be selective and done in positive ways

BILINGUALISM NOTE:    

Learning a second language is easiest for children U.S. students are far behind other countries in learning multiple languages Ability to speak two languages has a positive effect on child’s cognitive development Bilingual children perform better on tests of: o Control of attention (focus) o Concept formation o Analytic reasoning o Cognitive flexibility o Cognitive complexity