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Rural domestic water consumption behavior: A case study in Ramjerd area, Fars province, I.R. Iran A.R. Keshavarzia, , M. Sharifzadehb, A.A. Kamgar Haghighia, S. Amina, Sh. Keshtkara, A. Bamdada Ã
a
Water Department, College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, I.R. Iran Agricultural Extension and Education, College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, I.R. Iran
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Identif Identifyin yingg the factors factors that that affect affect domesti domesticc water water demand demand and consum consumpti ption on is very very important in management of available regional water resources. In this study, relationships between water consumption and rural household activities are determined by comparing a snapshot snapshot of water consumption consumption with rural household household behavior of low, low, medium and high water consumers. In addition, the factors affecting water consumption in rural households are also determined. The data for this study were collected from a survey of 653 rural households households in 33 villages of Ramjerd Ramjerd area, Fars Province, Province, in southern southern Iran, using a simple random random sampli sampling ng techni technique que.. The daily daily water water consum consumpti ption on data for a 5-year 5-year period period (1999–2 (1999–2004) 004) were were use used. d. Res Result ultss of the study study reveale revealed d that that the daily daily averag averagee water water consumption for the area was found to be 121.7l per person per capita per day (Lpcd) (SD ¼ 59.2). 59.2). Water consum consumpti ption on was also also found found to be signifi significant cantly ly correl correlated ated with with explanatory variables such as ‘‘household size’’ and ‘‘age of household’s head’’. Finally, the results of discriminant function analysis showed that in rural households, garden size, greenho greenhouse use size, size, and garden garden wateri watering ng times times per month month with with tap treated treated water are associated with water consumption. & 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Received 6 May 2005 Received in revised form 28 December 2005 Accepted Accepted 16 January January 2006 Keywords:
Domestic water use Rural households Rural water consumption Ramjerd Iran
1.
Introdu oduction
Domest Domestic ic fresh fresh water water is a fundam fundamenta entall requir requiremen ementt for human welfare and economical activities. Water supply and treatment for drinking and domestic use are long processes and sometimes cost 10 times more than irrigation water due to limitations in available clean water resources (FPRWWD, ( FPRWWD, 2004). 2004 ). In Iran, Iran, mounta mountains ins and deserts deserts with with low avail availabi abilit lity y of suitable water account for 52% of the total 1.65 million km 2. Alth Althou ough gh the the long long-t -ter erm m aver averag agee prec precip ipit itat atio ion n is abou aboutt 250 mm/yr, mm/yr, most of the territory territory receives receives less than 100 mm/ yr of rainfall and the annual withdrawal of water has already exceeded exceeded the renewab renewable le water resources resources (FPR FPRWWD WWD,, 2004 2004). ). Correspondin Correspondingg author. author. Tel.: Tel.: +98 711 2286278; fax: +98711 2286130 2286130..
Ã
E-mail address:
[email protected] (A.R. Keshavarzi).
0043-1354/$ 0043-1354/$ - see front matter matter & 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2006.01.021
From the total water consumption in Iran, 95% is used in agriculture, 4% for domestic water supply and 1% in industry (FAO, 1998). 1998). In rural areas, especially in arid and semi-arid regions access to a sustainable and adequate supply of clean water is critical. Therefore, determining the number of people who will be served, their per capita use, and the factors that affect the water consumption is very important in management of water resources appropriate as potable water. The domestic water furnished to each community can be classi classified fied accor accordin dingg to its ultimate ultimate use such such as domest domestic, ic, commerc commercial ial,, industr industrial ial,, public public,, loss loss and waste waste (Stee Steell and McGhee, McGh ee, 1979 1979). ). Domesti Domesticc water water consump consumptio tion n which which is a significant component of the total water use varies according to living standards of the consumers in urban and rural areas
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(Thomas, 1998). However, rural households use water for both indoor and outdoor purposes. Indoor water use includes consumption for drinking, cooking, hygiene (bathing, laundry, and cleaning), and miscellaneous purposes such as air conditioners. Outdoor activities include car washing, livestock watering, garden and small-scale greenhouse watering, and yard cleaning. Sobsey (2001) pointed out that the introduction of water supply and treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of the community is unlikely to be successful or sustainable. Sandiford et al. (1990) investigated the effect of distance from the source of water supply on domestic water consumption in rural areas of developing countries. Data analyzing from 1029 different households in Nicaragua collected between May 1986 and December 1988 showed that a decrease in the distance to the water source from 1000 to 10 m is associated with an increase in per capita water consumption of 20% (Sandiford et al., 1990). Also, there were major differences in the quantity of water used by piped and unpiped households (IIED, 2003). Results of the study conducted by Thompson et al. (2001) in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda showed that piped households used on average almost three times more water per capita than unpiped households. Hunnings (1996) showed that the quantity of water used depended on the number of people using the dwelling (household size), how water is used, level of maintenance of the water supply system, and some other factors such as level of education and age of the head of household. Also families with the mother having 6 years of elementary education used 17% more water than families where the mother had no formal education. The families with similar education for the father used 12% greater per capita water consumption (Sandiford et al., 1990). Other factors which affect rural water use are number of households and households’ size (Sandiford et al., 1990; Schefter, 1990). Results of a study conducted in Israel, Jordan, and Syria from 1975 to 1994 revealed that in Israel the increase in domestic water use could be statistically better explained by the growth of the number of households than by population growth (Martin, 1999). The result of the above study for Jordan and Syria, where an overall increase in household size could be observed, showed that the rate of growth of the number of households statistically accounted for a smaller portion of the increase in domestic water use
Caspian Sea
N
Tehran Villages Study Area
Fars
Ramjerd Area
Fig. 1 – A general map of Iran showing the location of the study area.
e c r u o s e r r e t a W
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e s u k h o s h c a n t e n o w s d e d r e e r v r a r i a a G G L Y C b
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b
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Table 2 – Indoor water consumption patterns
Facilities
n
%
Times/month SD
x¯
Bathing Air conditioner
492 362
93.2 68.6
30.85
36.31
—
—
Table 3 – Sample profile of domestic water consumption, by the households in Ramjerd, Iran
Water consumption groups Level
Usage (Lpcd)
Low Medium High
o80 80–150 4150
N
%
129 243 150
24.7 46.6 28.7
than the rate of population growth. Also, a study conducted by Gazzinelli et al. (1998) revealed that certain socio-economic factors, house quality, type of water source, and a utility index were significantly correlated with water use. The International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade, 1981–1990, emphasized primarily on technical aspects, while 1992 Dublin Principles, which were developed at a conference of water specialists, stressed that water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners, and policy-makers (including women) at all levels (Huggins, 2000). Although water management problems are the most important issue in Iran, little study has been conducted to solve them. In the present study attempts are made to determine factors affecting water consumption patterns and to identify strategies to reduce water use in rural districts in southern Iran. Various aspects of water consumption behavior, are also investigated. Specifically the aims of this study are determination of
relationships between water consumption and activities, comparing behavior of low, medium and high water consumers, and identification of factors affecting water consumption in rural households.
2.
Materials and methods
In this study, descriptive research methods are combined with a survey research. The survey instrument was a questionnaire addressing domestic water use patterns, and individual characteristics (i.e., age, education level, and household size).
Water resource Spring
Well
Ghanat
River
Pipe
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
492(100) 362(100)
A simple random sampling was performed to rural households of 33 villages of Ramjerd region, 30Km west of Marvdasht city and 60Km North of Shiraz, in the Fars Province. The region is known as center of agricultural production in Iran. Fig. 1 shows the location of the study area. Ten percent of the households in each village were selected randomly. The total number of samples selected was 653 rural households of which 522 complete responses were received. The data were collected between May 2004 and January 2005 by structural interviews. The daily water consumption data was for a 5-year period (1999–2004). The sources of domestic water supply in the study area include piped treated water supply, which is pumped from the Karst wells. Statistics used in this study were; frequency, percentage, means, standard deviation, one-way analysis of variance, Pearson correlation coefficient and discriminant function analysis using SPSS. 2.1.
Socio-economic characteristics of the study area
The cultural structure of the villages in the area of the study is mostly dominated by rural and traditional attributes. A majority of the households in all villages of the study area belong to the category of small to medium farmers with intensive farming. Major agricultural products in the area are wheat, rice and corn, which are cultivated by semi-mechanized and/or traditionally labored methods. The agricultural water in the study area is provided by dam, river and agricultural wells. The agricultural lands are usually irrigated by lined canals, which are discharged from the Doroodzan dam and are drained by drainage networks. In addition to the agricultural activities, some of the households are keeping the livestock in their house and/or in the farm. All villages have primary school with regular classes. Some also have secondary school. Some of the villages have medical facilities with non-resident staff. The dominant religion of the people in the study area is Islam.
3.
Results and discussion
The study subjects were categorized in such a way as to overrepresent households with low, medium and high consumers. Tables 1 and 2 provide descriptive statistics for the sample population including sample size for each variable, mean, and standard deviation.
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a
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b
À
Basic characteristics of the study area
As previously mentioned, household activities were categorized into indoor and outdoor activities. Outdoor activities requiring water usage are gardening, greenhouse cultivation, and animal husbandry (Table 1). According to Table 1, 53.1% (n ¼ 362) of sampled households had gardens, 19.7% ( n ¼ 121) had greenhouses and 46.7% (n ¼ 247) kept livestock near their house. The most important water source for the above activities was tap treated water, providing 93.8%, 100% and 93.9% of water for the above activities, respectively. As shown in Table 2, participant indoor activities were grouped into bathing and having air conditioners. Members of 93.2% (n ¼ 492) of the households in this study bathed in their own house and 68.6% (n ¼ 362) of homes had air conditioner. In this study, the mean water consumption was 121.70 l per person per capita per day (Lpcd) (SD ¼ 59.18 Lpcd, n ¼ 522). In order to examine the reasons for observed differences, households were divided into three groups: low ( o80Lpcd), medium (80–150Lpcd) and high (4150Lpcd) water use, as shown in Table 3. According to this table, the percentage of water consumption groups are classified as; 24.7%, 46.6% and 28.7%, respectively for low, medium and high consumers. To understand relationship between water consumption in rural households and variables affecting the consumption, a correlation matrix is constructed using 15 variables (Table 4). As it can be seen from the correlation matrix, there was a significant correlation between water consumption and such variables as size of household and age of the head of household. The most important variable affecting water consumption was household size which had a significant negative correlation with water consumption (r ¼ À 0 29, po0 05). That is, in households with larger families, average water consumption per person is reduced. This is consistent with the assumption that some water uses are relatively independent of the size of the family (e.g., outdoor uses, uses for cooking, cleaning, etc.), so that while total water use per household rises, per capita water use falls as family size grows. Similar findings have been reported by Schefter (1990) and Martin (1999), emphasizing that domestic water consumption is influenced by the increase in the number of single-family homes. The association between water consumption and household size demonstrated that increase in water consumption can be better explained by the growth of the number of households than by population growth. Another variable which showed a statistically significant correlation with domestic water consumption was head of household’s age. Table 4 shows that there is a positive significant relationship between head of household’s age and amount of domestic water consumption (r ¼ 0 17, po0 05). This may be the result of different attitudes toward environmental issues, where older individuals possess less information about and give less attention to water conservation. Table 4 also reveals that the number of livestock kept in each household had the expected positive correlation with water consumption (r ¼ 0 11), but this relation was not statistically significant. This result was due to the fact that different groups of water consumers were not different in number of domestic unit kept in their own houses. Addition:
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b
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Table 5 – Comparison of mean scores of characteristics among three groups of domestic water consumers
Variable
Water consumption groups
Low
Medium
21.25a 5.31a 4.64a 8.65a 19.34a 4.85a 2.00a 3.97a 30.39a 177.50a 6.65a 6.36 b 44.11a
20.00a 5.79a 4.02a 9.33a 15.53a 4.86a 2.14a 3.26a 33.56a 230.56a 5.97a 6.16b 46.71a
Ã
Garden area Garden watering times/month Greenhouse area Greenhouse watering times Livestock no. Livestock water use Livestock washing Car washing times/month Bathing times/month Yard area Yard washing times/month Household size Household’s head age
High
Ã
F
p
0.54 0.55 0.17 0.31 1.99 0.08 0.04 0.54 1.15 0.92 0.56 20.48 6.13
0.57 0.57 0.84 0.73 0.13 0.91 0.95 0.58 0.31 0.39 0.57 0.00 0.00
Ã
15.44a 5.29a 4.79a 8.41a 29.82a 4.90a 2.24a 3.00a 27.65a 186.72a 5.61a 5.02a 49.66b
Note : Mean scores that share common superscript in each row were not significantly different at po0 05 level on Tukey post hoc tests. :
Ã
The dimensions are in Lpcd.
Table 6 – Water consumption in rural communities of different regions
Profiles
Rural communities
Average water consumption
Hunnings (1996) Gazzinelli et al. (1998) Gazzinelli et al. (1998) Hartung (2001) Hartung (2001) Hartung (2001) Hartung (2001)
Virginia, USA Latin America Rural African China Sri Lankans South India East African
Milestone report (2001) FPRWWD (2004)
Kyenjojo, Uganda Fars Province, Iran
284 Lpcd 40 Lpcd 1–25 Lpcd 89 Lpcd 36–54 Lpcd 14–42 Lpcd 5–23 Lpcd (from October to December) and 6–19 Lpcd from (January to April) 11–23 Lpcd 250 L pcd (Shiraz city average water consumption is 325 Lpcd) 121.70 Lpcd
This study
Ramjerd area
ally, the major livestock were usually taken to the farm of the owner during the day; hence, most of the water is consumed by these animals during the day from the field water resources, e.g., agricultural wells. To better understand the relation between water consumption patterns and some independent variables, one-way Anova statistics was used to compare rural households’ activities with respect to three groups of users. The results, shown in Table 5, reveal that water consumption is significantly different among participants of different household size (F ¼ 20 48, po0 05). In other words, households with higher per capita water consumption were those with smaller families ðx¯ ¼ 5 02Þ. This finding confirms the results of Schefter (1990) and Martin (1999). According to the findings in Table 5, per capita consumption was higher where the head of household was older ðx¯ ¼ 49 66Þ (F ¼ 6 13, po0 05). The variability of water consumption depends normally on water availability and cultural behavior or habits of water consumers (Milestone Report, 2001). But generally the range of domestic water use has been reported as 75–380Lpcd (Steel :
:
:
:
:
:
and McGhee, 1979). While it is believed that the amount of indoor water use remains fairly constant throughout the year, outdoor residential water use varies greatly depending on geographical location and seasonal variation. Since wastewater consists primarily of effluent flow from indoor uses, decreased indoor water use will also result in less wastewater and fewer treatment problems. In Table 6, the average water consumption in rural area of different regions in the world is reported. Table 6 indicates that the water consumption is highly based on some behavioral and cultural aspects. Building a predictive model of group membership based on observed characteristics of each case, a discriminant function was generated to determine variables affecting rural water consumption levels. Of 15 variables studied in this research, 3 variables were entered into the model as factors affecting and determining water use behavior. The water consumption model for the 3 variables is represented by following relationship. WC ¼ À 0 882GA þ 0 872GWTM þ 1 66GHA :
:
:
;
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where WC is the water consumption (Lpcd); GA the garden area (m2), GWTM the garden watering times/month, and GHA the greenhouse area (m2), Wilk’s Lambda ¼ 0.30, sig. ¼ 0.62, 2 w ¼ 1 77. The value of the Lambda Coefficient (0.30) and its significance (40.05) show that statistically there is no difference between discriminant scores and households, which grouped as low, medium and high water consumers. In other words, the model is not able to differentiate between these three groups. Therefore, additional variables need to be considered for the determination of the difference between the groups. :
4.
Conclusions
Water conservation is important in ensuring a sustainable future for rural households especially in arid and semi arid regions like Fars province in Iran. Investigating rural domestic water consumption pattern in the study area showed that household size and age of the household’s head affect per capita water consumption. Other descriptive and behavioral variables were not shown to be statistically significant in explaining the pattern of water consumption. Finally, the results of discriminant function analysis showed that in rural households, three factors garden size, greenhouse size, and garden watering times per month with tap treated water are associated with water consumption. Also, the relationship between household’s head education and water consumption was found to be negative. It is obvious that the higher the educational level of the individual, the more is the concern to use water for hygiene. Furthermore, factors such as religious obligations, average and marginal tap water price, personal and household income, and climate condition should be considered in future studies.
Acknowledgments The authors thank Professor John J. Boland from the Johns Hopkins University for reading the manuscript and his constructive comments and suggestions. Also the authors gratefully acknowledge the support given by Fars Province Rural Water and Wastewater Department and Water Department (FPRWWD) and staffs of Agricultural College, Shiraz University.
R E F E R E N C E S
FAO, 1998. The state of food and agriculture in Islamic Republic of Iran. FAO Agriculture Series No. 31. Fars Province Rural Water and Wastewater Department (FPRWWD), 2004. Annual Report. Gazzinelli, A., Souza, M.C.C., Nascimento, I.I., Sa, I.R., Cadete, M.M.M., Kloos, H., 1998. Domestic water use in a rural village in minas gerais, Brazil, with an emphasis on spatial patterns, sharing of water, and factors in water use. Pub. Med. 14 (2), 265–277. Hartung, H., 2001. Water for Bukoro and Ndego. Water security issues in Ruwandan resettlement villages. Mimeographs Prepared for the Domestic Roof Water Harvesting Study, Component C. Huggins, C., 2000. Rural water tenure in East Africa: A Comparative Study of Legal Regimes and Community Responses to Changing Tenure Patterns in Tanzania and Kenya. Research Fellow African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), Nairobi, Kenya. Hunnings, J., 1996. Household wastewater treatment and septic systems. Fact Sheet No.3, Publication Number 442-903,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), 2003. Domestic water use results. Available online: http:// www.iied.org/sarl/dow/pdf/uganda/chapter4.pdf . Martin, N., 1999. Population, households and domestic water use in countries of the Mediterranean Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank, Gaza and Israel). International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Report, Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria. Milestone Report, 2001. Domestic roof-water harvesting and water security in the humid tropics. Milestone Report D 5, Lanka Rainwater Harvesting Forum. Sandiford, P., Gorter, A.C., Orozco, J.G., Pauw, J.P., 1990. Determinants of domestic water use in rural Nicaragua. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 93 (6), 383–389. Schefter, J.E., 1990. Domestic water use in the United States, 1960–85. In: National Water Summary 1987—Hydrologic Events and Water Supply and Use US Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 2350, pp. 71–80. Sobsey, M.D., 2001. Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains from Improved Water Supply. University of California, Chapel Hill, USA. Available online: www.who.int. Steel, E.W., McGhee, T.G., 1979. Water Supply and Sewerage, fifth edition. McGraw-Hill book Company, New York. Thomas, T., 1998. Definition of water security (personnel communication) Trivandram Planning Meeting, August 1998. Thompson, J., Porras, I.T., Tumwine, J.K., Mujwahuzi, M.R., KatuiKatua, M., Johnstone, N., Wood, L., 2001. 30 years of Change in Domestic Water Use & Environmental Health in East Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development. Russell Press, Nottingham.
