Rudyard Kipling His life and work
Contents 1
Rudyard Kipling 1.1
1.2
Childhood (1865–1882)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.1.1
Education in Britain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.1.2
Return to India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Early adult life (1882–1914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.2.1
Return to London
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1.2.2
London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.2.3
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.2.4
Devon
8
1.2.5
Visits to South Africa
1.2.6
Sussex
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.7
'Peak of career' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.8
Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
First World War (1914–18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.3.1
Death of son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.4
After the war (1918–1936) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.5
Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.5.1
Posthumous reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.5.2
Links with camping and Scouting
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.5.3
Kipling's home at Burwash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.5.4
Reputation in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.3
2
1
1.6
Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.8
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
British Armed Forces
21
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.1.1
21
Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
ii
CONTENTS 2.1.2
Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.2.1
Command organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.2
Weapons of mass destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.3
UK Joint Expeditionary Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.3
Royal Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.4
Royal Marines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.5
British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.6
Royal Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.7
Civilian agencies of the Ministry of Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.7.1
Royal Fleet Auxiliary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.7.2
Ministry of Defence Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.7.3
Defence Equipment and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.7.4
UK Hydrographic Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.8.1
Role of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
British Raj
32
3.1
Geographical extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.2
Economic extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.3
British India and the Princely States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.3.1
Major provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.3.2
Minor provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.3.3
Princely states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.3.4
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
1858–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4.1
Aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857: Indian critiques, British response . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4.2
Demographic history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.4.3
Legal modernisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.4.4
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.4.5
Economic history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.4.6
1860s–1890s: New middle class, Indian National Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.4.7
1870s–1907: Social reformers, moderates vs. extremists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
3.4.8
Partition of Bengal (1905–1911) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
3.4.9
1906–1909: Muslim League, Minto-Morley reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.2
2.8 2.9
3
3.4
CONTENTS
iii
3.5
1914–1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.5.1
1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.5.2
1917–1919: Satyagraha, Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, Jallianwalla Bagh . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.5.3
1920s: Non-cooperation, Khilafat, Simon Commission, Jinnah's fourteen points . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5.4
1929–1937: Round Table conferences, Government of India Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5.5
1938–1941: World War II, Muslim League's Lahore Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5.6
1942–1945: Cripps mission, Quit India Resolution, INA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.5.7
1946: Elections, Cabinet mission, Direct Action Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.8
1947: Planning for partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.9
1947: Violence, partition, independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.6
Ideological impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.7
Famines, epidemics, public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.9
Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.10.1 Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.10.2 Specialised topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.10.3 Economic history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.10.4 Gazetteers, statistics and primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
4
5
The Jungle Book
62
4.1
Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.2
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.3
Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.4
Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Kim (novel)
67
5.1
Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
5.2
Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
5.2.1
The Mavericks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
5.3
Landmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
5.4
Critical assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.5
Dramatic adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
5.7.1
70
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
CONTENTS 5.7.2 5.8
6
7
8
9
Works of criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
The Man Who Would Be King
71
6.1
Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
6.2
Influence
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.3
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.4
In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Mandalay (poem)
74
7.1
Background to the poem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
7.2
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
7.3
In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.4
Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
Gunga Din
77
8.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.2
Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.5
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
The Gods of the Copybook Headings
79
9.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
9.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
9.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
10 The White Man's Burden
81
10.1 Poem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
10.2 History
82
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Differing interpretations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
10.4 Literary response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
CONTENTS
v
10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
10.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
11 If—
86
11.1 Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
11.2 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
11.3 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
11.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
12 Henry James
88
12.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
12.1.1 The early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
12.1.2 The middle years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
12.1.3 The late years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
12.1.4 James the playwright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
12.1.5 James' biographers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
12.2 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
12.2.1 Style and themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
12.2.2 Major novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
12.2.3 Shorter narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
12.2.4 Non-fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
12.3 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
12.3.1 Criticism, biographies and fictional treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
12.4 Henry James in fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.6 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
12.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 12.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 13 Poet laureate
103
13.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 13.2 By country
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
13.2.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 13.2.2 Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
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CONTENTS 13.2.3 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.4 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.5 India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
13.2.6 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.7 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.8 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.9 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.10 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.11 North Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 13.2.12 Saint Lucia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 13.2.13 Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 13.2.14 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 13.2.15 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 13.2.16 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 13.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 13.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 14 George Orwell
109
14.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 14.1.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 14.1.2 Policing in Burma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 14.1.3 London and Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 14.1.4 Southwold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 14.1.5 Teaching career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 14.1.6 Hampstead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 14.1.7 The Road to Wigan Pier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 14.1.8 The Spanish Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 14.1.9 Rest and recuperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 14.1.10 Second World War and Animal Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 14.1.11 Jura and Nineteen Eighty-Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 14.1.12 Final months and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 14.2 Literary career and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 14.2.1 Literary influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 14.2.2 Orwell as literary critic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 14.2.3 Reception and evaluations of Orwell's works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 14.2.4 Influence on language and writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 14.2.5 Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 14.3 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 14.3.1 Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
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14.3.2 Relationships and marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 14.3.3 Religious views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 14.3.4 Political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 14.3.5 Social interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 14.3.6 Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 14.4 Biographies of Orwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 14.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 14.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 14.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 14.9 Diaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 14.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 15 British Empire
137
15.1 Origins (1497–1583) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 15.1.1 Plantations of Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 15.2 “First”British Empire (1583–1783) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 15.2.1 Americas, Africa and the slave trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 15.2.2 Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 15.2.3 Global conflicts with France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 15.2.4 Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 15.3 Rise of the “Second”British Empire (1783–1815) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 15.3.1 Exploration of the Pacific
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
15.3.2 War with Napoleonic France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 15.3.3 Abolition of slavery
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.4 Britain's imperial century (1815–1914) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 15.4.1 East India Company in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 15.4.2 Rivalry with Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 15.4.3 Cape to Cairo
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.4.4 Changing status of the white colonies
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.5 World wars (1914–1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 15.5.1 First World War
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.5.2 Inter-war period
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.5.3 Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 15.6 Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.6.1 Initial disengagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.6.2 Suez and its aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 15.6.3 Wind of change 15.6.4 End of empire
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
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CONTENTS 15.7 Legacy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 15.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 15.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 16 MacDonald sisters
161
16.1 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.1 Alice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.2 Georgiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.3 Agnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.4 Louisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.2 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 17 John Lockwood Kipling
163
17.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 17.2 Main published works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 17.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 17.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 17.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 18 Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava
165
18.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 18.2 A natural diplomat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 18.3 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 18.4 Governor General of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 18.5 Russia and Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 18.6 Viceroy of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 18.7 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 18.8 Dufferin and the ghost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18.9 Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18.10Honorific eponyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 18.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 18.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 19 Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art
173
19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
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19.1.1 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 19.1.2 1900s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 19.1.3 Post-independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 19.2 Famous alumni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 19.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 19.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 20 Rudyard Lake
176
20.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 20.2 Attractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 20.3 Top Gear episode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 20.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 20.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 21 Edward Burne-Jones
178
21.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 21.2 Marriage and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 21.3 Artistic career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 21.3.1 Early years: Rossetti and Morris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 21.3.2 Decorative arts: Morris & Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 21.3.3 Illustration work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 21.3.4 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 21.3.5 Design for the theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 21.3.6 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 21.4 Honours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 21.5 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 21.6 Neglect and rediscovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 21.7 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 21.7.1 Stained and painted glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 21.7.2 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 21.7.3 Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 21.7.4 Decorative arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 21.7.5 Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 21.7.6 Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 21.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 21.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 21.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
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22 Edward Poynter
190
22.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 22.2 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 22.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 22.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 22.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 22.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 23 Stanley Baldwin
193
23.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 23.2 Early political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 23.3 Prime Minister First time: (1923–1924) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 23.4 Leader of the Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 23.5 Prime Minister Second time: (1924–1929) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 23.6 Leader of the Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 23.7 Lord President of the Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 23.7.1 Disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 23.8 Prime Minister Third time: (1935–1937) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 23.8.1 Rearmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 23.8.2 Abdication of Edward VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 23.9 Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 23.9.1 Leaving office and peerage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 23.9.2 Attitude to appeasement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 23.9.3 Letter to Lord Halifax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 23.9.4 Iron gates crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 23.9.5 Comments on politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 23.10Last years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 23.11Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 23.12Baldwin's governments as Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 23.12.1 First Government, May 1923 – January 1924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 23.12.2 Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 23.12.3 Second Cabinet, November 1924 – June 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 23.12.4 Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 23.12.5 Third Cabinet, June 1935 – May 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 23.12.6 Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 23.13In film, television and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 23.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 23.15Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 23.16References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
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23.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 24 Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art
210
24.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 24.1.1 Commercial Art Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 24.1.2 Later history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 24.2 Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 24.2.1 The Kipling connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 24.3 Notable alumni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 24.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 25 Amah (occupation)
213
25.1 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 25.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 25.3 Other meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 25.4 In English literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 25.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 25.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 25.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 26 National College of Arts
215
26.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 26.2 Departments
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
26.2.1 Department of Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 26.2.2 Department of Fine Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 26.2.3 Department of Communication Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 26.2.4 Department of Ceramics Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 26.2.5 Department of Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 26.2.6 Department of Textile Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 26.2.7 Department of Musicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26.2.8 Department of Film and Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26.2.9 Department of Multimedia Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26.2.10 Department of Fresco Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26.3 Societies and clubs* [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26.4 Lahore campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 26.5 Rawalpindi campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 26.6 The Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 26.7 Foreign Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 26.8 NCA in modern times
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
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CONTENTS 26.9 Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 26.9.1 Mayo School of Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 26.9.2 National College of Arts (1958 - present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 26.10Head of Department (HOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 26.10.1 Notable alumni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 26.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 26.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 26.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
27 Lahore Museum
225
27.1 Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.2 Scope Of Lahore Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.3 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 27.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 27.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 28 Civil and Military Gazette
227
28.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.2 Notable staff members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.2.1 Rudyard Kipling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.2.2 Mahbub Jamal Zahedi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 29 The Pioneer (newspaper)
229
29.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 29.1.1 Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 29.2 Columnists
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
29.2.1 Cartoonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 29.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 30 Chums (paper)
231
30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 30.1.1 Amalgamated Press buys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 30.2 Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 30.3 Sponsorship of youth organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 30.3.1 Chums Scouts & British Boy Scouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 30.3.2 British Boys Naval Brigade / National Naval Cadets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 30.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
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30.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 31 Plain Tales from the Hills
233
31.1 The stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 31.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 31.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 32 Under the Deodars
235
32.1 The Education of Otis Yeere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.2 At the Pit's Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.3 A Wayside Comedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.4 The Hill of Illusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.5 A Second-rate Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 32.6 Only a Subaltern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 32.7 In the Matter of a Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 32.8 The Enlightenments of Pagett, M. P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 32.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 33 The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales
237
33.1 The Phantom 'Rickshaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 33.2 My Own True Ghost Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 33.3 The Strange Ride of Morrowbie Jukes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 33.4 The Man Who Would Be King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 33.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 34 Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories
239
34.1 Wee Willie Winkie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 34.2 Baa, Baa, Black Sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 34.3 His Majesty the King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 34.4 The Drums of the Fore and Aft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 34.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 35 From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel
241
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Chapter 1
Rudyard Kipling “Kipling”redirects here. (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Kipling ropean empires recedes, he is recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced. That, and an increasing recognition of his extraordinarrative gifts, make him a force to be reckoned with.” Joseph Rudyard Kipling (/ˈrʌdjəd ˈkɪplɪŋ/ RUD-yəd KIP- nary * [14] * ling; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936) [1] was an English short-story writer, poet, and novelist. He wrote tales and poems of British soldiers in India and stories for children. He was born in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of 1.1 Childhood (1865–1882) British India, and was taken by his family to England when he was five years old.* [2] Kipling's works of fiction include The Jungle Book (1894), Kim (1901), and many short stories, including "The Man Who Would Be King" (1888).* [3] His poems include "Mandalay" (1890), "Gunga Din" (1890), "The Gods of the Copybook Headings" (1919), "The White Man's Burden" (1899), and "If—" (1910). He is regarded as a major innovator in the art of the short story;* [4] his children's books are classics of children's literature; and one critic described his work as exhibiting “a versatile and luminous narrative gift”.* [5]* [6] Kipling was one of the most popular writers in England, in both prose and verse, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.* [4] Henry James said: “Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius (as distinct from fine intelligence) that I have ever known.”* [4] In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize, and its youngest recipient to date.* [7] Among other honours, he was sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on several occasions for a knighthood, all of which he declined.* [8]
Malabar Point, Bombay, 1865.
Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865 in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling (née MacDonald) and John Lockwood Kipling.* [15] Alice (one of four remarkable Victorian sisters)* [16] was a vivacious woman* [17] about whom Lord Dufferin would say,“Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room.”* [4]* [18]* [19] Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal and Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the newly founded Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art in Bombay.* [17]
Kipling's subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age* [9]* [10] and the resulting contrasting views about him continued for much of the 20th century.* [11]* [12] George Orwell called him a “prophet of British imperialism".* [13] Literary critic Douglas Kerr wrote: “He [Kipling] is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary and John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at cultural history is far from settled. But as the age of the Eu- Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England. They 1
2
CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
married, and moved to India in 1865. They had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him. Alice's sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter. Kipling's most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the UK three times in the 1920s and 1930s.* [20]
century for people of British origin living in India) and so too would their son, though he spent the bulk of his life elsewhere. Complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction.”* [24]
Kipling referred to such conflicts; for example: “In the afternoon heats before we took our sleep, she (the Portuguese ayah, or nanny) or Meeta (the Hindu bearer, or male attendant) would tell us stories and Indian nursery songs all unforgotten, and we were sent into the dining-room after Kipling's birth home still stands on the campus of the J J we had been dressed, with the caution 'Speak English now School of Art in Bombay and for many years was used as the to Papa and Mamma.' So one spoke 'English', haltingly Dean's residence.* [21] Although the cottage bears a plaque translated out of the vernacular idiom that one thought and stating that this is the site where Kipling was born, the origi- dreamed in”.* [25] nal cottage may have been torn down decades ago and a new one built in its place. The wooden bungalow has been empty and locked up for years and is currently being refurbished 1.1.1 Education in Britain and converted into an art museum.* [22] Some historians and conservationists are also of the view that the bungalow merely marks a site close to the home of his birth, as the Kipling's days of “strong light and*darkness”in Bombay bungalow was built in 1882, about 15 years after Kipling's ended when he was five years old. [25] As was the cusbirth. Kipling seems to have also said so to the dean when tom in British India, he and his three-year-old sister Alice ( “Trix”) were taken to England—in their case to Southsea, he visited JJ School in the 1930s.* [23] Portsmouth—to live with a couple who boarded children of British nationals who were serving in India. For the next six years, from October 1871 to April 1877, the two children lived with the couple, Captain Pryse Agar Holloway, once an officer in the merchant navy, and Mrs Sarah Holloway, at their house, Lorne Lodge at 4 Campbell Road, Southsea.* [26]
Kipling's India: map of British India.
Kipling was to write of Bombay: Mother of Cities to me, For I was born in her gate, Between the palms and the sea, Where the world-end steamers wait.* [1] 1. ^“To the City of Bombay”, dedication to Seven Seas, by Rudyard Kipling, Macmillan & Co., 1894
In his autobiography, published some 65 years later, Kipling recalled the stay with horror, and wondered ironically if the combination of cruelty and neglect which he experienced there at the hands of Mrs. Holloway might not have hastened the onset of his literary life: “If you cross-examine a child of seven or eight on his day’s doings (specially when he wants to go to sleep) he will contradict himself very satisfactorily. If each contradiction be set down as a lie and retailed at breakfast, life is not easy. I have known a certain amount of bullying, but this was calculated torture—religious as well as scientific. Yet it made me give attention to the lies I soon found it necessary to tell: and this, I presume, is the foundation of literary effort”.* [25] Trix fared better at Lorne Lodge; Mrs. Holloway apparently hoped that Trix would eventually marry the Holloway son.* [27] The two Kipling children, however, did have relatives in England whom they could visit. They spent a month each Christmas with their maternal aunt Georgiana ( “Georgy”) and her husband at their house,“The Grange,” in Fulham, London, which Kipling was to call “a paradise which I verily believe saved me.”* [25]
In the spring of 1877, Alice returned from India and reAccording to Bernice M. Murphy,“Kipling’s parents con- moved the children from Lorne Lodge. Kipling remembers, sidered themselves Anglo-Indians (a term used in the 19th “Often and often afterwards, the beloved Aunt would ask
1.2. EARLY ADULT LIFE (1882–1914)
3 of beholding, I found myself at Bombay where I was born, moving among sights and smells that made me deliver in the vernacular sentences whose meaning I knew not. Other Indian-born boys have told me how the same thing happened to them.”* [25] This arrival changed Kipling, as he explains:“There were yet three or four days’rail to Lahore, where my people lived. After these, my English years fell away, nor ever, I think, came back in full strength”.* [25]
1.2
Early adult life (1882–1914)
Kipling spent nearly a decade, from 1883-89 in India and Pakistan, working for local newspapers such as the Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore and The Pioneer in Allahabad.* [25] Kipling's England: A map of England showing Kipling's homes.
me why I had never told any one how I was being treated. Children tell little more than animals, for what comes to them they accept as eternally established. Also, badlytreated children have a clear notion of what they are likely to get if they betray the secrets of a prison-house before they are clear of it”.* [25] In January 1878, Kipling was admitted to the United Services College at Westward Ho!, Devon, a school founded a few years earlier to prepare boys for the British Army. The school proved rough going for him at first, but later led Lahore Railway Station, 1880s. to firm friendships, and provided the setting for his schoolboy stories Stalky & Co. (1899).* [27] During his time there, Kipling also met and fell in love with Florence Garrard, who was boarding with Trix at Southsea (to which Trix had returned). Florence was to become the model for Maisie in Kipling's first novel, The Light that Failed (1891).* [27]
1.1.2
Return to India
Near the end of his time at the school, it was decided that he lacked the academic ability to get into Oxford University on a scholarship* [27] and his parents lacked the wherewithal to finance him,* [17] so Lockwood obtained a job for his son in Lahore, Punjab (now in Pakistan), where he was Princi- Bundi, Rajputana, where Kipling was inspired to write Kim pal of the Mayo College of Art and Curator of the Lahore Museum. Kipling was to be assistant editor of a small local The Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore, the newspaper newspaper, the Civil & Military Gazette. which Kipling was to call “mistress and most true love” He sailed for India on 20 September 1882 and arrived in ,* [25] appeared six days a week throughout the year exBombay on 18 October. He described this moment years cept for one-day breaks for Christmas and Easter. Stephen later: “So, at sixteen years and nine months, but look- Wheeler, the editor, worked Kipling hard, but Kipling's ing four or five years older, and adorned with real whiskers need to write was unstoppable. In 1886, he published his which the scandalised Mother abolished within one hour first collection of verse, Departmental Ditties. That year also
4
CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
brought a change of editors at the newspaper; Kay Robinson, the new editor, allowed more creative freedom and Kipling was asked to contribute short stories to the newspaper.* [5] In an article printed in the Chums boys' annual, an excolleague of Kipling's stated that ..."he never knew such a fellow for ink—he simply revelled in it, filling up his pen viciously, and then throwing the contents all over the office, so that it was almost dangerous to approach him”.* [28] The anecdote continues:“In the hot weather, when he (Kipling) wore only white trousers and a thin vest, he is said to have resembled a Dalmatian dog more than a human being, for he was spotted all over with ink in every direction.” During the summer of 1883, Kipling visited Shimla (then known as Simla), a well-known hill station and the summer capital of British India. By then it was established practice for the Viceroy of India and the government to move to Simla for six months, and the town became a “centre of power as well as pleasure”.* [5] Kipling's family became yearly visitors to Simla, and Lockwood Kipling was asked to serve in Christ Church there. Rudyard Kipling returned to Simla for his annual leave each year from 1885 to 1888, Kipling in his study at Naulakha, US, 1895. and the town featured prominently in many of the stories * that he wrote for the Gazette. [5] He describes this time: “My month’s leave at Simla, or whatever Hill Station my people went to, was pure joy— every golden hour counted. It began in heat and discomfort, by rail and road. It ended in the cool evening, with a wood fire in one’s bedroom, and next morn—thirty more of them ahead!—the early cup of tea, the Mother who brought it in, and the long talks of us all together again. One had leisure to work, too, at whatever play-work was in one’s head, and that was usually full.”* [25]
Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel.* [5]
Back in Lahore, some thirty-nine stories appeared in the Gazette between November 1886 and June 1887. Kipling included most of these stories in Plain Tales from the Hills, his first prose collection, which was published in Calcutta in January 1888, a month after his 22nd birthday. Kipling's time in Lahore, however, had come to an end. In November 1887, he was transferred to the Gazette's much larger sister newspaper, The Pioneer, in Allahabad in the United Provinces. In Allahabad, he worked as the Assistant editor of The Pioneer, and lived in Belvedere house, Allahabad from 1888-89.* [29]* [30]
1.2.1
Kipling was discharged from The Pioneer in early 1889, after a dispute. By this time, he had been increasingly thinking about the future. He sold the rights to his six volumes of stories for £200 and a small royalty, and the Plain Tales for £50; in addition, from The Pioneer, he received six-months' salary in lieu of notice.* [25]
Return to London
He decided to use this money to make his way to London, the literary centre of the British Empire. On 9 March 1889, Kipling left India, travelling first to San Francisco via Rangoon, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. He then travelled through the United States, writing articles for The Pioneer that were later published in From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel.* [31] Starting his American travels in San Francisco, Kipling journeyed north to Portland, Oregon; to Seattle, Washington; up into Canada, to Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia; back into the U.S. to Yellowstone National Park; down to Salt Lake City; then east to Omaha, Nebraska, and on to Chicago, Illinois; then to Beaver, Pennsylvania on the Ohio River to visit the Hill family; from there, he went to Chautauqua with Professor Hill, and later to Niagara Falls, Toronto, Washington, D.C., New York, and Boston.* [31]
Kipling's writing continued at a frenetic pace; in 1888, he published six collections of short stories: Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and White, Under the Deodars, The Phantom Rickshaw, and Wee Willie Winkie, containing a total of 41 stories, some quite long. In addition, as The Pioneer's special correspondent in the western region of Rajputana, he wrote many sketches that were later collected in Letters of Marque and published in From Sea to In the course of this journey, he met Mark Twain in Elmira,
1.2. EARLY ADULT LIFE (1882–1914) New York, and was deeply impressed. He then crossed the Atlantic, and reached Liverpool in October 1889. He soon made his début in the London literary world—to great acclaim.* [4]
1.2.2
London
5 writer and publishing agent, Wolcott Balestier, with whom he collaborated on a novel, The Naulahka (a title which he uncharacteristically misspelt; see below).* [17] In 1891, on the advice of his doctors, Kipling embarked on another sea voyage visiting South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and once again India.* [17] He cut short his plans for spending Christmas with his family in India when he heard of Balestier's sudden death from typhoid fever, and immediately decided to return to London. Before his return, he had used the telegram to propose to and be accepted by Wolcott's sister Caroline Starr Balestier (1862–1939), called“Carrie”, whom he had met a year earlier, and with whom he had apparently been having an intermittent romance.* [17] Meanwhile, late in 1891, his collection of short stories about the British in India, Life's Handicap, was published in London.* [33] On 18 January 1892, Carrie Balestier (aged 29) and Rudyard Kipling (aged 26) were married in London, in the “thick of an influenza epidemic, when the undertakers had run out of black horses and the dead had to be content with brown ones.”* [25] The wedding was held at All Souls Church, Langham Place. Henry James gave the bride away.
1.2.3
United States
A portrait of Kipling by John Collier, ca. 1891.
In London, Kipling had several stories accepted by magazines. He also found a place to live for the next two years at Villiers street, near Charing cross (the building was subsequently named Kipling House): Meantime, I had found me quarters in Villiers Street, Strand, which forty-six years ago was primitive and passionate in its habits and population. My rooms were small, not over-clean or well-kept, but from my desk I could look out of my window through the fanlight of Gatti’s Music-Hall entrance, across the street, almost on to its stage. The Charing Cross trains rumbled through my dreams on one side, the boom of the Strand on the other, while, before my windows, Father Thames under the Shot Tower walked up and down with his traffic.* [32]
Rudyard Kipling's America 1892–1896, 1899.
The couple settled upon a honeymoon that would take them In the next two years, he published a novel, The Light that first to the United States (including a stop at the Balestier Failed, had a nervous breakdown, and met an American family estate near Brattleboro, Vermont) and then on to
6
CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
Japan.* [17] When they arrived in Yokohama, Japan, they discovered that their bank, The New Oriental Banking Corporation, had failed. Taking this loss in their stride, they returned to the U.S., back to Vermont—Carrie by this time was pregnant with their first child—and rented a small cottage on a farm near Brattleboro for ten dollars a month.* [25]
in Haggard’s Nada the Lily, combined with the echo of this tale. After blocking out the main idea in my head, the pen took charge, and I watched it begin to write stories about Mowgli and animals, which later grew into the two Jungle Books ".* [25] With Josephine's arrival, Bliss Cottage was felt to be congested, so eventually the couple bought land 2 According to Kipling, “We furnished it with a simplicity —10 acres (40,000 m ) on a rocky hillside overlooking the that fore-ran the hire-purchase system. We bought, second Connecticut River—from Carrie's brother Beatty Balestier, and built their own house. or third hand, a huge, hot-air stove which we installed in the cellar. We cut generous holes in our thin floors for its Kipling named the house Naulakha, in honour of Woleight-inch [20 cm] tin pipes (why we were not burned in our cott and of their collaboration, and this time the name beds each week of the winter I never can understand) and was spelled correctly.* [17] From his early years in Lahore we were extraordinarily and self-centredly content.”* [25] (1882–87), Kipling had become enamored with the Mughal * In this house, which they called Bliss Cottage, their first architecture, [34] especially the Naulakha pavilion situated child, Josephine, was born “in three foot of snow on the in Lahore Fort, which eventually became an inspiration * night of 29 December 1892. Her Mother’s birthday being for the title of his novel as well as the house. [35] The the 31st and mine the 30th of the same month, we congrat- house still stands on Kipling Road, three miles (5 km) north of Brattleboro in Dummerston, Vermont: a big, seulated her on her sense of the fitness of things ...”* [25] cluded, dark-green house, with shingled roof and sides, which Kipling called his “ship”, and which brought him “sunshine and a mind at ease.”* [17] His seclusion in Vermont, combined with his healthy “sane clean life”, made Kipling both inventive and prolific.
Gilt title of the 1890 first American edition of Departmental Ditties and Barrack Room Ballads, which contained Mandalay and Gunga Din.
The cover of The Jungle Book first edition, 1894.
It was also in this cottage that the first dawnings of the Jungle Books came to Kipling: " . . workroom in the Bliss Cottage was seven feet by eight, and from December to April the snow lay level with its window-sill. It chanced that I had written a tale about Indian Forestry work which included a boy who had been brought up by wolves. In the stillness, and suspense, of the winter of ’92 some memory of the Masonic Lions of my childhood’s magazine, and a phrase
In the short span of four years, he produced, in addition to the Jungle Books, a collection of short stories (The Day's Work), a novel (Captains Courageous), and a profusion of poetry, including the volume The Seven Seas. The collection of Barrack-Room Ballads was issued in March 1892, first published individually for the most part in 1890, and containing his poems "Mandalay" and "Gunga Din". He especially enjoyed writing the Jungle Books —both masterpieces of imaginative writing—and enjoyed, too, corresponding with the many children who wrote to him about them.* [17] Life in New England The writing life in naulakha was occasionally interrupted by visitors, including his father, who visited soon after his retirement in 1893,* [17] and British writer Arthur Conan Doyle, who brought his golf-clubs, stayed for two days, and
1.2. EARLY ADULT LIFE (1882–1914)
7
gave Kipling an extended golf lesson.* [36]* [37] Kipling into set roles.* [17] In a letter to a friend who had beseemed to take to golf, occasionally practising with the local come engaged around this time, the 30‑year‑old Kipling Congregational minister, and even playing with red-painted offered this sombre counsel: marriage principally taught balls when the ground was covered in snow.* [15]* [37] “the tougher virtues—such as humility, restraint, order, and However, wintertime golf was “not altogether a success forethought.”* [40] because there were no limits to a drive; the ball might skid The Kiplings loved life in Vermont and might have lived out two miles (3 km) down the long slope to Connecticut river.” their lives there, were it not for two incidents—one of global * [15] politics, the other of family discord —that hastily ended From all accounts, Kipling loved the outdoors,* [17] not least of whose marvels in Vermont was the turning of the leaves each fall. He described this moment in a letter: “A little maple began it, flaming blood-red of a sudden where he stood against the dark green of a pine-belt. Next morning there was an answering signal from the swamp where the sumacs grow. Three days later, the hill-sides as fast as the eye could range were afire, and the roads paved, with crimson and gold. Then a wet wind blew, and ruined all the uniforms of that gorgeous army; and the oaks, who had held themselves in reserve, buckled on their dull and bronzed cuirasses and stood it out stiffly to the last blown leaf, till nothing remained but pencil-shadings of bare boughs, and one could see into the most private heart of the woods.” * [38]
their time there. By the early 1890s, the United Kingdom and Venezuela were in a border dispute involving British Guiana. The U.S. had made several offers to arbitrate, but in 1895 the new American Secretary of State Richard Olney upped the ante by arguing for the American “right”to arbitrate on grounds of sovereignty on the continent (see the Olney interpretation as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine).* [17] This raised hackles in the UK, and the situation grew into a major Anglo-American crisis, with talk of war on both sides.
Kipling in the United States (date unknown).
The Kiplings' first daughter Josephine, 1895. She died of pneumonia in 1899 aged 6.
Although the crisis led to greater U.S.-British cooperation, at the time Kipling was bewildered by what he felt was persistent anti-British sentiment in the U.S., especially in the press.* [17] He wrote in a letter that it felt like being“aimed at with a decanter across a friendly dinner table.”* [40] By January 1896, he had decided* [15] to end his family's “good wholesome life”in the U.S. and seek their fortunes elsewhere.
In February 1896, Elsie Kipling was born, the couple's second daughter. By this time, according to several biographers, their marital relationship was no longer lighthearted and spontaneous.* [39] Although they would always A family dispute became the final straw. For some time, remain loyal to each other, they seemed now to have fallen relations between Carrie and her brother Beatty Balestier
8
CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
had been strained, owing to his drinking and insolvency. In May 1896, an inebriated Beatty encountered Kipling on the street and threatened him with physical harm.* [17] The incident led to Beatty's eventual arrest, but in the subsequent hearing, and the resulting publicity, Kipling's privacy was destroyed, and he was left feeling miserable and exhausted. In July 1896, a week before the hearing was to resume, the Kiplings packed their belongings, left the United States, and returned to England.* [15]
To serve your captives' need; To wait, in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child. —The White Man's Burden* [1] 1. ^ Kipling, Rudyard. 1899. The White Man's Burden. Published simultaneously in The Times, London, and McClure's Magazine (U.S.) 12 February 1899 There was also foreboding in the poems, a sense that all could yet come to naught.* [41] Far-called, our navies melt away; On dune and headland sinks the fire: Lo, all our pomp of yesterday Is one with Nineveh and Tyre! Judge of the Nations, spare us yet. Lest we forget—lest we forget! —Recessional* [1] 1. ^ Kipling, Rudyard. 1897. Recessional. Published in The Times, London, July 1897
Kipling's Torquay house, with an English heritage blue plaque on the wall.
A prolific writer during his time in Torquay, he also wrote Stalky & Co., a collection of school stories (born of his experience at the United Services College in Westward Ho!) 1.2.4 Devon whose juvenile protagonists displayed a know-it-all, cynical outlook on patriotism and authority. According to his By September 1896, the Kiplings were in Torquay, Devon, family, Kipling enjoyed reading aloud stories from Stalky on the southwestern coast of England, in a hillside home & Co. to them, and often went into spasms of laughter over overlooking the English Channel. Although Kipling did not his own jokes.* [17] much care for his new house, whose design, he claimed, left its occupants feeling dispirited and gloomy, he managed to remain productive and socially active.* [17] 1.2.5 Visits to South Africa Kipling was now a famous man, and in the previous two or three years, had increasingly been making political pronouncements in his writings. The Kiplings had welcomed their first son, John, in August 1897. Kipling had begun work on two poems, "Recessional" (1897) and "The White Man's Burden" (1899) which were to create controversy when published. Regarded by some as anthems for enlightened and duty-bound empire-building (that captured the mood of the Victorian age), the poems equally were regarded by others as propaganda for brazenfaced imperialism and its attendant racial attitudes; still others saw irony in the poems and warnings of the perils of empire.* [17] Take up the White Man's burden— Send forth the best ye breed— Go, bind your sons to exile
In early 1898 the Kiplings travelled to South Africa for their winter holiday, thus beginning an annual tradition which (excepting the following year) was to last until 1908. They always stayed in“The Woolsack”, a house on Cecil Rhodes' estate at Groote Schuur (and now a student residence for the University of Cape Town); it was within walking distance of Rhodes' mansion.* [42] With his new reputation as Poet of the Empire, Kipling was warmly received by some of the most influential politicians of the Cape Colony, including Rhodes, Sir Alfred Milner, and Leander Starr Jameson. Kipling cultivated their friendship and came to admire the men and their politics. The period 1898–1910 was crucial in the history of South Africa and included the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the ensuing peace treaty, and the 1910 formation of the Union of South Africa. Back in England, Kipling wrote poetry
1.2. EARLY ADULT LIFE (1882–1914)
9
1.2.6
Sussex
In 1897, Kipling moved from Torquay to Rottingdean, East Sussex; first to North End House and later to The Elms.* [47] In 1902 Kipling bought Bateman's, a house built in 1634 and located in rural Burwash, East Sussex, England. Bateman's was Kipling's home from 1902 until his death in 1936.* [48] The house, along with the surrounding buildings, the mill and 33 acres (130,000 m2 ) was purchased for £9,300. It had no bathroom, no running water upstairs and no electricity, but Kipling loved it: “Behold us, lawful owners of a grey stone lichened house—A.D. 1634 over the door— beamed, panelled, with old oak staircase, and all untouched and unfaked. It is a good and peaceable place. We have loved it ever since our first sight of it.”(from a November 1902 letter).* [49]* [50] In the non-fiction realm he became involved in the debate over the British response to the rise in German naval power known as the Tirpitz Plan to build a fleet to challenge the Royal Navy, publishing a series of articles in 1898 which were collected as A Fleet in Being. On a visit to the United States in 1899, Kipling and Josephine developed pneumonia, from which she eventually died.
H.A. Gwynne, Julian Ralph, Perceval Landon, and Rudyard Kipling in South Africa, 1900–1901.
1.2.7
'Peak of career'
in support of the British cause in the Boer War and on his next visit to South Africa in early 1900, he became a correspondent for The Friend newspaper in Bloemfontein, which had been commandeered by Lord Roberts for British troops.* [43] Although his journalistic stint was to last only two weeks, it was Kipling's first work on a newspaper staff since he left The Pioneer in Allahabad more than ten years earlier.* [17] At The Friend he made lifelong friendships with Perceval Landon, H. A. Gwynne and others.* [44] He also wrote articles published more widely expressing his views on the conflict.* [45] Kipling penned an inscription for the Honoured Dead Memorial (Siege memorial) in Kimberley. During this period Kipling travelled throughout South Africa and told stories of these places through his poetry, such as the well known poem“Lichtenberg”which relates the story of a combatant and his journey towards death in a foreign land. Trooper Aberline’s sacrifice was to have an impact on the Boers and his legacy went far beyond his rusting cross in the Lichtenburg cemetery which lies close to that of Edith Mathews.* [46]
“He sat in defiance of municipal orders, astride the gun ZamZammeh, on her old platform, opposite the old Ajaibgher, the Wonder House, as the natives called the Lahore Museum.” -Kim
In the wake of his daughter's death, Kipling concentrated on collecting material for what would become Just So Stories for Little Children. That work was published in 1902, the year after Kim was first issued.* [51] The first decade of the 20th century saw Kipling at the height of his popularity. In 1906 he wrote the song “Land of our Birth, We Pledge to Thee”. Kipling wrote two science
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CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
fiction short stories, With the Night Mail (1905) and As Easy As A. B. C (1912), both set in the 21st century in Kipling's Aerial Board of Control universe. These read like modern hard science fiction,* [52] and introduced the literary technique known as indirect exposition, which would later become one of Heinlein's trademarks.* [51]
swastika printed on their covers associated with a picture of an elephant carrying a lotus flower, reflecting the influence of Indian culture. Kipling's use of the swastika was based on the Indian sun symbol conferring good luck and the Sanskrit word meaning “fortunate”or “well-being” .* [55]
In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. The prize citation said: “In consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author.”Nobel prizes had been established in 1901 and Kipling was the first Englishlanguage recipient. At the award ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December 1907, the Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Carl David af Wirsén, praised both Kipling and three centuries of English literature:
In a note to Edward Bok written after the death of Lockwood Kipling in 1911, Rudyard said: “I am sending with this for your acceptance, as some little memory of my father to whom you were so kind, the original of one of the plaques that he used to make for me. I thought it being the Swastika would be appropriate for your Swastika. May it bring you even more good fortune.”* [55] He used the swastika symbol in both right- and left-facing orientations, and it was in general use at the time.* [56]* [57]
The Swedish Academy, in awarding the Nobel Prize in Literature this year to Rudyard Kipling, desires to pay a tribute of homage to the literature of England, so rich in manifold glories, and to the greatest genius in the realm of narrative that that country has produced in our times.* [53] “Book-ending”this achievement was the publication of two connected poetry and story collections: Puck of Pook's Hill (1906), and Rewards and Fairies (1910). The latter contained the poem "If—". In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted the UK's favourite poem.* [54] This exhortation to self-control and stoicism is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.* [54]
Such was Kipling's popularity that he was asked by his friend Max Aitken to intervene in the 1911 Canadian election on behalf of the Conservatives.* [58] On 7 September 1911, the Montreal Daily Star newspaper published a frontpage appeal to all Canadians against the reciprocity agreement with the United States by Kipling who wrote: “It is her own soul that Canada risks today. Once that soul is pawned for any consideration, Canada must inevitably conform to the commercial, legal, financial, social and ethical standards which will be imposed on her by the sheer admitted weight of the United States.”* [58] Over the next week, Kipling's appeal was reprinted in every English newspaper in Canada, and is credited with helping to turn Canadian public opinion against the Liberal government that signed the reciprocity agreement.* [58] Kipling sympathised with the anti-Home Rule stance of Irish Unionists. He was friends with Edward Carson, the Dublin-born leader of Ulster Unionism, who raised the Ulster Volunteers to oppose “Home Rule”in Ireland. Kipling wrote the poem “Ulster”in 1912 reflecting this. Kipling was a staunch opponent of Bolshevism, a position which he shared with his friend Henry Rider Haggard. The two had bonded upon Kipling's arrival in London in 1889 largely on the strength of their shared opinions, and they remained lifelong friends. Many have wondered why he was never made Poet Laureate. Some claim that he was offered the post during the interregnum of 1892–96 and turned it down.
1.2.8
Freemasonry
According to the English magazine Masonic Illustrated, Kipling became a Freemason in about 1885, before the usual minimum age of 21.* [59] He was initiated into Hope A left-facing swastika in 1911, a symbol of good luck. and Perseverance Lodge No. 782 in Lahore. He later wrote Many older editions of Rudyard Kipling's books have a to The Times,“I was Secretary for some years of the Lodge
1.3. FIRST WORLD WAR (1914–18)
11
. . . , which included Brethren of at least four creeds. I was Kipling had scorn for those men who shirked duty in the entered [as an Apprentice] by a member from Brahmo So- First World War. In “The New Army in Training”* [65] maj, a Hindu, passed [to the degree of Fellow Craft] by a (1915), Kipling concluded the piece by saying: Mohammedan, and raised [to the degree of Master Mason] by an Englishman. Our Tyler was an Indian Jew.”Kipling This much we can realise, even though we received not only the three degrees of Craft Masonry, but are so close to it, the old safe instinct saves us also the side degrees of Mark Master Mason and Royal Ark from triumph and exultation. But what will be Mariner.* [60] the position in years to come of the young man who has deliberately elected to outcaste himself Kipling so loved his masonic experience that he memorifrom this all-embracing brotherhood? What of alised its ideals in his famous poem, “The Mother Lodge” his family, and, above all, what of his descen,* [61] and used the fraternity and its symbols as vital plot dants, when the books have been closed and the devices in his novella, The Man Who Would Be King. last balance struck of sacrifice and sorrow in every hamlet, village, parish, suburb, city, shire, district, province, and Dominion throughout the 1.3 First World War (1914–18) Empire? At the beginning of World War I, like many other writers, Kipling wrote pamphlets and poems which enthusiastically supported the UK's war aims of restoring Belgium after that kingdom had been occupied by Germany together with more generalised statements that Britain was standing up for the cause of good. In September 1914, Kipling was asked by the British government to write propaganda, an offer that he immediately accepted.* [62] Kipling's pamphlets and stories were very popular with the British people during the war with his major themes being glorifying the British military as the place for heroic men to be, German atrocities against Belgian civilians and the stories of women being brutalized by a horrific war unleashed by Germany, yet surviving and triumphing in spite of their suffering.* [62] Kipling was enraged by reports of the Rape of Belgium together with the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, which he saw as a deeply inhumane act, which led him to see the war as a crusade for civilization against barbarism.* [63] In a 1915 speech Kipling declared that“There was no crime, no cruelty, no abomination that the mind of men can conceive of which the German has not perpetrated, is not perpetrating, and will not perpetrate if he is allowed to go on...Today, there are only two divisions in the world...human beings and Germans.”* [63] Alongside his passionate antipathy towards Germany, Kipling was privately deeply critical of how the war was fought by the British Army as opposed to the war itself, which he ardently supported, complaining as early as October 1914 that Germany should have been defeated by now, and something must be wrong with the British Army.* [64] Kipling, who was shocked by the heavy losses that the BEF had taken by the autumn of 1914 blamed the entire pre-war generation of British politicians, who he argued had failed to learn the lessons of the Boer War and as a result, thousands of British soldiers were now paying with their lives for their failure in the fields of France and Belgium.* [64]
1.3.1
Death of son
Kipling's son John died in the First World War, at the Battle of Loos in September 1915, at age 18. John had initially wanted to join the Royal Navy, but having had his application turned down after a failed medical examination due to poor eyesight, he opted to apply for military service as an Army officer. But again, his eyesight was an issue during the medical examination. In fact, he tried twice to enlist, but was rejected. His father had been lifelong friends with Lord Roberts, commander-in-chief of the British Army, and colonel of the Irish Guards, and at Rudyard's request, John was accepted into the Irish Guards.* [62] He was sent to Loos two days into the battle in a reinforcement contingent. He was last seen stumbling through the mud blindly, screaming in agony after an exploding shell had ripped his face apart. A body identified as his was not found until 1992, although that identification has been challenged.* [66]* [67] After his son's death, Kipling wrote, “If any question why we died/ Tell them, because our fathers lied.”It is speculated that these words may reveal his feelings of guilt at his role in getting John a commission in the Irish Guards.* [68] Others, such as English professor Tracy Bilsing, contend that the line is referring to Kipling's disgust that British leaders failed to learn the lessons of the Boer War, and were not prepared for the struggle with Germany in 1914 with the “lie”of the“fathers”being that the British Army was prepared for any war before 1914 when it was not.* [69] John's death has been linked to Kipling's 1916 poem "My Boy Jack", notably in the play My Boy Jack and its subsequent television adaptation, along with the documentary Rudyard Kipling: A Remembrance Tale. However, the poem was originally published at the head of a story about the Battle of Jutland and appears to refer to a death at sea;
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CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
the 'Jack' referred to is probably a generic 'Jack Tar'.* [70] Kipling was said to help assuage his grief over the death of his son through reading the novels of Jane Austen aloud to his wife and daughter.* [71] During the war, he wrote a booklet The Fringes of the Fleet* [72] containing essays and poems on various nautical subjects of the war. Some of the poems were set to music by English composer Edward Elgar. Kipling became friends with a French soldier whose life had been saved in the First World War when his copy of Kim, which he had in his left breast pocket, stopped a bullet. The soldier presented Kipling with the book (with bullet still embedded) and his Croix de Guerre as a token of gratitude. They continued to correspond, and when the soldier, Maurice Hammoneau, had a son, Kipling insisted on returning the book and medal.* [73] On 1 August 1918, a poem—"The Old Volunteer” —appeared under his name in The Times. The next day he wrote to the newspaper to disclaim authorship, and a correction appeared. Although The Times employed a private detective to investigate (and the detective appears to have suspected Kipling himself of being the author), the identity of the hoaxer was never established.* [74]
1.4 After the war (1918–1936) Partly in response to John's death, Kipling joined Sir Fabian Ware's Imperial War Graves Commission (now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission), the group responsible for the garden-like British war graves that can be found to this day dotted along the former Western Front and all the other locations around the world where troops of the British Empire lie buried. His most significant contribution to the project was his selection of the biblical phrase“Their Name Liveth For Evermore”(Ecclesiasticus 44.14, KJV) found on the Stones of Remembrance in larger war cemeteries and his suggestion of the phrase“Known unto God” for the gravestones of unidentified servicemen. He chose the inscription “The Glorious Dead”on the Cenotaph, Whitehall, London. He also wrote a two-volume history of the Irish Guards, his son's regiment, that was published in 1923 and is considered to be one of the finest examples of regimental history.* [75] Kipling's moving short story, “The Gardener”, depicts visits to the war cemeteries, and the poem "The King's Pilgrimage" (1922) depicts a journey which King George V made, touring the cemeteries and memorials under construction by the Imperial War Graves Commission. With the increasing popularity of the automobile, Kipling became a motoring correspondent for the British press, and wrote enthusiastically of his trips around England and
Kipling, aged 60, on the cover of Time magazine, 27 September 1926.
abroad, even though he was usually driven by a chauffeur. After the war, Kipling was skeptical about the Fourteen Points and the League of Nations, but he had great hopes that the United States would abandon isolationism and that the post-war world would be dominated by an AngloFrench-American alliance.* [76] Kipling hoped that the United States would take on a League of Nations mandate for Armenia as the best way of preventing isolationism, and hoped that Theodore Roosevelt, whom Kipling admired, would once again become president.* [76] Kipling was saddened by Roosevelt's death in 1919, believing that his friend was the only American politician capable of keeping the United States in the “game”of world politics.* [77] In 1920 Kipling co-founded the Liberty League with Haggard and Lord Sydenham. This short-lived enterprise focused on promoting classic liberal ideals as a response to the rising power of Communist tendencies within Great Britain, or, as Kipling put it, “to combat the advance of Bolshevism”.* [78]* [79] In 1922 Kipling, who had made reference to the work of engineers in some of his poems, such as“The Sons of Martha”,“Sappers”, and“McAndrew's Hymn”,* [80] and in other writings such as short story anthologies, for instance The Day's Work,* [81] was asked by University of Toronto civil engineering professor Herbert E. T. Haultain for his assistance in developing a
1.5. DEATH AND LEGACY dignified obligation and ceremony for graduating engineering students. Kipling was enthusiastic in his response and shortly produced both, formally entitled "The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer". Today, engineering graduates all across Canada are presented with an iron ring at the ceremony as a reminder of their obligation to society.* [82]* [83] In 1922 Kipling also became Lord Rector of St Andrews University in Scotland, a three-year position. Kipling, who was a francophile, argued very strongly for an Anglo-French alliance to uphold the peace, calling Britain and France in 1920 the“twin fortresses of European civilization”.* [84] Along the same lines, Kipling repeatedly warned against revising the Treaty of Versailles in Germany's favor, which he predicated would lead to a new world war.* [84] An admirer of Raymond Poincaré, Kipling was one of the few British intellectuals who supported the French Occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 at a time when the British government and most public opinion was against the French position.* [85] In contrast to the popular British view of Poincaré as a cruel bully intent on impoverishing Germany by seeking unreasonable reparations, Kipling argued that Poincaré was only rightfully trying to preserve France as a great power in the face of an unfavorable situation.* [85] Kipling argued that even before 1914 Germany's larger economy and birthrate had made that country stronger than France, that with much of France devastated by the war and the French suffering heavy losses that the low French birthrate would have trouble replacing while Germany was mostly undamaged and with a higher birth rate, that it was madness for Britain to seek to pressure France to revise Versailles in Germany's favor.* [85] In 1924, Kipling was opposed to the Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald as “Bolshevism without bullets”, but believing that Labour was a Communist front organisation he took the view that “excited orders and instructions from Moscow”would expose Labour as such an organisation to the British people.* [86] Kipling's views were on the right and though he admired Benito Mussolini to a certain extent for a time in the 1920s, Kipling was against fascism, writing that Oswald Mosley was“a bounder and an arriviste"; by 1935 he called Mussolini a deranged and dangerous egomaniac and in 1933 wrote “The Hitlerites are out for blood”.* [87] Once the Nazis came to power and usurped the swastika, until that point a popular symbol of luck and success in the Western world, Kipling ordered that it should no longer adorn his books.* [55] In 1934 he published a short story in Strand Magazine,“Proofs of Holy Writ”, which postulated that William Shakespeare had helped to polish the prose of the King James Bible.* [88] Less than one year before his death Kipling gave a speech (titled“An Undefended Island” ) to The Royal Society of St George on 6 May 1935 warning of the danger which Nazi Germany posed to Britain.* [89]
13
Covers of two of Kipling's books from 1919 (l) and 1930 (r) showing the removal of the swastika
1.5
Death and legacy
Kipling kept writing until the early 1930s, but at a slower pace and with much less success than before. On the night of 12 January 1936, Kipling suffered a haemorrhage in his small intestine. He underwent surgery, but died less than a week later on 18 January 1936 at the age of 70 of a perforated duodenal ulcer.* [90]* [91] Kipling's death had in fact previously been incorrectly announced in a magazine, to which he wrote, “I've just read that I am dead. Don't forget to delete me from your list of subscribers.”* [92] The pallbearers at the funeral included Kipling's cousin, the UK Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, and the marble casket was covered by a Union flag.* [93] Kipling was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium, northwest London, and his ashes were buried in Poets' Corner, part of the South Transept of Westminster Abbey, next to the graves of Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy.* [93] In 2010 the International Astronomical Union approved that a crater on the planet Mercury would be named after Kipling—one of ten newly discovered impact craters observed by the MESSENGER spacecraft in 2008–9.* [94] In 2012, an extinct species of crocodile, Goniopholis kiplingi, was named in his honour, “in recognition for his enthusiasm for natural sciences”.* [95] More than 50 unpublished poems by Kipling were released for the first time in March 2013.* [96]
1.5.1
Posthumous reputation
Various writers, such as Edmund Candler, were strongly influenced by Kipling's writing. Kipling's stories for adults remain in print and have garnered high praise from writers as different as Poul Anderson, Jorge Luis Borges, and Randall Jarrell who wrote that,“After you have read Kipling's fifty or seventy-five best stories you realize that few men have written this many stories of this much merit, and that very few have written more and better stories.”* [97]
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CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
His children's stories remain popular; and his Jungle Books have been made into several movies. The first was made by producer Alexander Korda, and other films have been produced by the Walt Disney Company. A number of his poems were set to music by Percy Grainger. A series of short films based on some of his stories was broadcast by the BBC in 1964.* [98] Kipling's work is still popular today. The poet T. S. Eliot edited A Choice of Kipling's Verse (1941) with an introductory essay.* [99] Eliot was aware of the complaints that had been levelled against Kipling and he dismissed them one by one: that Kipling is 'a Tory' using his verse to transmit right wing political views, or 'a journalist' pandering to popular taste; while Eliot writes “I cannot find any justification for the charge that he held a doctrine of race superiority.”* [100] Eliot finds instead, An immense gift for using words, an amazing curiosity and power of observation with his mind and with all his senses, the mask of the entertainer, and beyond that a queer gift of second sight, of transmitting messages from elsewhere, a gift so disconcerting when we are made aware of it that thenceforth we are never sure when it is not present: all this makes Kipling a writer impossible wholly to understand and quite impossible to belittle. —T.S. Eliot* [101]
Of Kipling's verse, such as his Barrack-Room Ballads, Eliot writes“of a number of poets who have written great poetry, only... a very few whom I should call great verse writers. And unless I am mistaken, Kipling's position in this class is not only high, but unique.”* [102] In response to Eliot, George Orwell wrote a long consideration of Kipling's work for Horizon in 1942, noting that although as a“jingo imperialist”Kipling was“morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting”, his work had many qualities which ensured that while “every enlightened person has despised him ... nine-tenths of those enlightened persons are forgotten and Kipling is in some sense still there”. Orwell summarized that One reason for Kipling's power [was] his sense of responsibility, which made it possible for him to have a world-view, even though it happened to be a false one. Although he had no direct connexion with any political party, Kipling was a Conservative, a thing that does not exist nowadays. Those who now call themselves Conservatives are either Liberals, Fascists or the accomplices of Fascists. He identified himself with the ruling power and not with the
opposition. In a gifted writer this seems to us strange and even disgusting, but it did have the advantage of giving Kipling a certain grip on reality. The ruling power is always faced with the question, 'In such and such circumstances, what would you do?', whereas the opposition is not obliged to take responsibility or make any real decisions. Where it is a permanent and pensioned opposition, as in England, the quality of its thought deteriorates accordingly. Moreover, anyone who starts out with a pessimistic, reactionary view of life tends to be justified by events, for Utopia never arrives and 'the gods of the copybook headings', as Kipling himself put it, always return. Kipling sold out to the British governing class, not financially but emotionally. This warped his political judgement, for the British ruling class were not what he imagined, and it led him into abysses of folly and snobbery, but he gained a corresponding advantage from having at least tried to imagine what action and responsibility are like. It is a great thing in his favour that he is not witty, not 'daring', has no wish to épater les bourgeois. He dealt largely in platitudes, and since we live in a world of platitudes, much of what he said sticks. Even his worst follies seem less shallow and less irritating than the 'enlightened' utterances of the same period, such as Wilde's epigrams or the collection of cracker-mottoes at the end of Man and Superman. —George Orwell* [103]
The poet Alison Brackenbury writes that“Kipling is poetry’ s Dickens, an outsider and journalist with an unrivalled ear for sound and speech.”* [104] The English folksinger Peter Bellamy was a great lover of Kipling's poetry, much of which he believed to have been influenced by English traditional folk forms. He recorded several albums of Kipling's verse set to traditional airs, or to tunes of his own composition written in traditional style.* [105] Kipling is often quoted in discussions of contemporary political and social issues. Political singer-songwriter Billy Bragg, who attempts to reclaim English nationalism from the right-wing, has reclaimed Kipling for an inclusive sense of Englishness.* [106] Kipling's enduring relevance has been noted in the United States, as it has become involved in Afghanistan and other areas about which he wrote.* [107]* [108]* [109]
1.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.5.2
Links with camping and Scouting
1.5.3
Kipling's home at Burwash
15
at Bateman's', after visiting Kipling's Burwash home (Amis' father had lived in Burwash briefly in the 1960s) as part of In 1903, Kipling gave permission to Elizabeth Ford Holt a BBC television series on writers and their houses.* [113] to borrow themes from the Jungle Books to establish In 2003, actor Ralph Fiennes read excerpts from Kipling's Camp Mowglis, a summer camp for boys on the shores of works from the study in Bateman's, including, The Jungle Newfound Lake in New Hampshire. Throughout their lives, Book, Something Of Myself, Kim, and The Just So Stories, Kipling and his wife Carrie maintained an active interest in and poems, including “If... " and “My Boy Jack”, for a Camp Mowglis, which is still in operation and continues the CD published by the National Trust.* [114]* [115] traditions that Kipling inspired. Buildings at Mowglis have names such as Akela, Toomai, Baloo, and Panther. The campers are referred to as “the Pack,”from the youngest 1.5.4 Reputation in India “Cubs”to the oldest campers living in “Den.”* [110] Kipling's links with the Scouting movements were also In modern-day India, whence he drew much of his matestrong. Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, used rial, Kipling's reputation remains controversial, especially many themes from The Jungle Book stories and Kim in set- amongst modern nationalists and some post-colonial critting up his junior movement, the Wolf Cubs. These con- ics. Other contemporary Indian intellectuals such as Ashis nections still exist today, such as the continued popularity Nandy have taken a more nuanced view of his work. of "Kim's Game" in the Scouting movement. The move- Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent ment is named after Mowgli's adopted wolf family, and the India, always described Kipling's novel Kim as his favourite * * adult helpers of Wolf Cub Packs adopt names taken from book. [116] [117] The Jungle Book, especially the adult leader who is called G V Desani, an Indian writer of fiction, had a condescendAkela after the leader of the Seeonee wolf pack.* [111] ing opinion of Kipling. He alludes to Kipling in his novel, All About H. Hatterr: I happen to pick up R. Kipling's autobiographical “Kim”. Therein, this self-appointed whiteman's burden-bearing sherpa feller's stated how, in the Orient, blokes hit the road and think nothing of walking a thousand miles in search of something. Indian historian and writer Khushwant Singh wrote in 2001 that he considers Kipling's "If —" “the essence of the message of The Gita in English”,* [118] referring to the Bhagavad Gita, an ancient Indian scripture. Indian writer R. K. Narayan said, “Kipling, the supposed expert writer on India, showed a better understanding of the mind of the animals in the jungle than of the men in an Indian home or the marketplace.”* [119] Bateman's, Kipling's home in Burwash, East Sussex, is now a public museum dedicated to the author.
In November 2007 it was announced that Kipling's birth home in the campus of the J J School of Art in Bombay would be turned into a museum celebrating the author and his works.* [120]
After the death of Kipling's wife in 1939, his house, "Bateman's" in Burwash, East Sussex, South East England, where he had lived from 1902 until 1936, was bequeathed to the National Trust and is now a public museum dedicated to 1.6 Bibliography the author. Elsie Bambridge, his only child who lived to maturity, died childless in 1976, and also bequeathed her copy- Main article: Rudyard Kipling bibliography rights to the National Trust, which in turn donated them to the University of Sussex in Brighton (near Kipling's former Kipling's bibliography includes fiction (including novels and home of Burwash) to ensure better public access.* [112] short stories), non-fiction, and poetry. Several of his works Novelist and poet Sir Kingsley Amis wrote a poem, 'Kipling were collaborations.
16
1.7 See also • List of Nobel laureates in Literature • HMS Birkenhead (1845)
1.8 References [1] The Times, (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12 [2] Pinney, Thomas (September 2004). H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison, ed. ‘Kipling, (Joseph) Rudyard (1865– 1936)’(Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ed.). Oxford University Press. [3] For notes on the text of the Kipling piece, see http://www. kipling.org.uk/rg_wouldbeking_notes.htm [4] Rutherford, Andrew (1987). General Preface to the Editions of Rudyard Kipling, in “Puck of Pook's Hill and Rewards and Fairies”, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282575-5 [5] Rutherford, Andrew (1987). Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of “Plain Tales from the Hills”, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19281652-7 [6] James Joyce considered Tolstoy, Kipling and D'Annunzio to be the “three writers of the nineteenth century who had the greatest natural talents”, but that“he did not fulfill that promise”. He also noted that the three writers all“had semifanatic ideas about religion, or about patriotism.”Diary of David Fleischman, 21 July 1938, quoted in James Joyce by Richard Ellmann, p. 661, Oxford University Press (1983) ISBN 0-19-281465-6 [7] Alfred Nobel Foundation. “Who is the youngest ever to receive a Nobel Prize, and who is the oldest?". Nobelprize.com. p. 409. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006. [8] Birkenhead, Lord. 1978. Rudyard Kipling, Appendix B, “Honours and Awards”. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London; Random House Inc., New York [9] Lewis, Lisa. 1995. Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of“Just So Stories”, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp.xv-xlii. ISBN 0-19-282276-4 [10] Quigley, Isabel. 1987. Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of“The Complete Stalky & Co.”, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp. xiii–xxviii. ISBN 0-19-281660-8
CHAPTER 1. RUDYARD KIPLING
[13] Orwell, George (30 September 2006). “Essay on Kipling” . Archived from the original on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2006. [14] Douglas Kerr, University of Hong Kong. “Rudyard Kipling.”The Literary Encyclopedia. 30 May 2002. The Literary Dictionary Company. 26 September 2006 [15] Carrington, C.E. (Charles Edmund). 1955. Kipling: His Life and Work. Macmillan & Co.
Rudyard
[16] Flanders, Judith. 2005. A Circle of Sisters: Alice Kipling, Georgiana Burne-Jones, Agnes Poynter, and Louisa Baldwin. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. ISBN 0-39305210-9 [17] Gilmour, David. 2002. The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, NY [18] http://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/rg_rival1.htm [19] David Gilmour (11 June 2003). The long recessional : the imperial life of Rudyard Kipling. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9781466830004. Retrieved 27 July 2015. [20] thepotteries.org (13 January 2002). “did you know ....”. The potteries.org. Retrieved 2 October 2006. [21] Ahmed, Zubair (27 November 2007). “Kipling's India home to become museum”. BBC News. Retrieved 7 August 2015. [22] Sir J.J. College of Architecture (30 September 2006). “Campus”. Sir J. J. College of Architecture, Mumbai. Retrieved 2 October 2006. [23] Aklekar, Rajendra (12 August 2014). “Red tape keeps Kipling bungalow in disrepair”. Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 7 August 2015. [24] Murphy, Bernice M. (21 June 1999). “Rudyard Kipling – A Brief Biography”. School of English, The Queen's University of Belfast. Retrieved 6 October 2006. [25] Kipling, Rudyard (1935). “Something of myself”. public domain. Retrieved 6 September 2008.also: 1935/1990. Something of myself and other autobiographical writings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40584-X [26] Pinney, Thomas (1995). “Something of Myself”. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 6 March 2012."A Very Young Person” [27] Carpenter, Humphrey and Mari Prichard. 1984. Oxford Companion to Children's Literature. pp. 296–297 [28] Chums, No. 256, Vol. V, 4 August 1897, page 798
[11] Said, Edward. 1993. Culture and Imperialism. London: Chatto & Windus. Page 196. ISBN 0-679-75054-1.
[29] S, Neelam (8 June 2008). “Rudyard Kipling's Allahabad bungalow in shambles”. Hindustan Times. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
[12] Sandison, Alan. 1987. Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of Kim, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. pp. xiii–xxx. ISBN 0-19-281674-8
[30] "- Kipling, Rudyard,-−1865-1936--Homes & haunts-India--Allahabad (from the collection of William Carpenter)". Library of Congress USA. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
1.8. REFERENCES
17
[31] Pinney, Thomas (editor). Letters of Rudyard Kipling, volume 1. Macmillan & Co., London and NY
[54] Emma Jones (2004-10-01). The Literary Companion. Robson. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-86105-798-3.
[32] Kipling, Rudyard (1956) Kipling: a selection of his stories and poems, Volume 2 pp.349 Doubleday, 1956
[55] Michael Smith.“Kipling and the Swastika”. Kipling.org.
[33] John D. Coates (1997). “The Day's Work: Kipling and the Idea of Sacrifice”. p. 130. Fairleigh University Press [34] Robert D. Kaplan (1989) Lahore as Kipling Knew It. The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008 [35] Kipling, Rudyard (1996) Writings on Writing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44527-2. see pp. 36, 173 [36] Mallet, Phillip. 2003. Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 0-333-55721-2 [37] Ricketts, Harry. 1999. Rudyard Kipling: A life. Carroll and Graf Publishers Inc., New York. ISBN 0-7867-0711-9 [38] Kipling, Rudyard. 1920. Letters of Travel (1892–1920). Macmillan & Co. [39] Nicholson, Adam. 2001. Carrie Kipling 1862–1939 : The Hated Wife. Faber & Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-20835-5 [40] Pinney, Thomas (editor). Letters of Rudyard Kipling, volume 2. Macmillan & Co. [41] Snodgrass, Chris. 2002. A Companion to Victorian Poetry. Blackwell, Oxford [42]“Something of Myself”,pub. 1935, South Africa Chapter [43] The Friend newspaper, Orange Free State, South Africa [44] Carrington, C. E., (1955) The life of Rudyard Kipling, Doubleday & Co., Garden City, NY, p. 236 [45] Kipling, Rudyard (18 March 1900).“Kipling at Cape Town: Severe Arraignment of Treacherous Afrikanders and Demand for Condign Punishment By and By”(PDF). The New York Times. p. 21. [46] Craig Raine (ed.), Kipling, Selected Poetry (Penguin, 1992), pp. 214–215
[56] Schliemann, H, Troy and its remains, London: Murray, 1875, pp. 102, 119–20 [57] Boxer, Sarah (2000-06-29). “One of the World's Great Symbols Strives for a Comeback”. Think Tank (The New York Times). Retrieved 2012-05-07. [58] MacKenzie, David & Dutil, Patrice Canada 1911: The Decisive Election that Shaped the Country, Toronto: Dundurn, 2011 page 211. [59] Mackey, Albert G. (1946). Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, Vol. 1. Chicago: The Masonic History Co. [60] Our brother Rudyard Kipling. Masonic lecture [61] Mackey, above. [62] Bilsing, Tracey (Summer 2000). “The Process Of Manufacture of Rudyard Kipling’s Private Propaganda”(PDF). War Literature And The Arts. Retrieved 2013-08-15. [63] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 page 250. [64] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 page 251. [65] published by Macmillan and Co., Limited, in London [66] The Great War and its aftermath: The son who haunted Kipling; It was only his father's intervention that allowed John Kipling to serve on the Western Front—and the poet never got over his death. Now a TV drama is to retell the story. By Jonathan Brown, The Independent, 29 August 2006
[47] “Kipling.s Sussex: The Elms”. Kipling.org.
[67] By John Quinlan writing to National Inventory on War Memorials viewed at:
[48] “Bateman's: Jacobean house, home of Rudyard Kipling”. National Trust.org.
[68] Webb, George. Foreword to: Kipling, Rudyard. The Irish Guards in the Great War. 2 vols. (Spellmount, 1997), p. 9
[49] Carrington, C. E., (1955) The life of Rudyard Kipling, p. 286
[69] Bilsing, Tracey (Summer 2000). “1911 The Process Of Manufacture of Rudyard Kipling’s Private Propaganda” (PDF). War Literature And The Arts. Retrieved 2013-0815.
[50] mt (17 November 2005). “Link to National Trust Site for Bateman House”. Nationaltrust.org.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2010. [51] Writers History – Kipling Rudyard [52] Bennett, Arnold (1917). Books and Persons Being Comments on a Past Epoch 1908–1911. London: Chatto & Windus. [53] “Nobel Prize in Literature 1907 – presentation Speech”. Nobelprize.org.
[70] Southam, Brian (6 March 2010). “Notes on “My Boy Jack"". Retrieved 23 July 2011. [71] 'The Many Lovers of Miss Jane Austen', broadcast BBC2 9pm 23 December 2011 [72] The Fringes of the Fleet, Macmillan & Co., 1916
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[73] Original correspondence between Kipling and Maurice Hammoneau and his son Jean Hammoneau concerning the affair at the Library of Congress under the title: How “Kim”saved the life of a French soldier : a remarkable series of autograph letters of Rudyard Kipling, with the soldier's Croix de Guerre, 1918–1933. (LOC Ref#2007566938) . The library also possesses the actual French 389-page paperback edition of Kim that saved Hammoneau's life, (LOC Ref 2007581430)
[90] Harry Ricketts (December 2000). Rudyard Kipling: A Life. Carroll & Graf. pp. 388–. ISBN 978-0-7867-0830-7. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
[74] George Simmers. “A Kipling Hoax”.
[93] “History – Rudyard Kipling”. Westminster abbey.org.
[75] Kipling, Rudyard. The Irish Guards in the Great War. 2 vols. (London, 1923)
[94] – Article from the Red Orbit News network 16 March 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2010
[76] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 page 273.
[95] “Rudyard Kipling inspires naming of prehistoric crocodile” . BBC Online. 2011-03-20. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
[77] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 pages 273–274. [78] 'A Century of Spin' by David Miller and William Dinan, Pluto Press 2008 ISBN 978-0-7453-2688-7 [79] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 pages 275.
[91] Rudyard Kipling's Waltzing Ghost: The Literary Heritage of Brown's Hotel, paragraph 11, Sandra Jackson-Opoku, Literary Traveler [92] Carol Chernega (2011). “A Dream House: Exploring the Literary Homes of England”. p.90. Dog Ear Publishing.
[96] Flood, Alison (25 February 2013). “50 unseen Rudyard Kipling poems discovered”. London: The Guardian. Retrieved 26 February 2013. [97] Jarrell, Randall.“On Preparing to Read Kipling.”No Other Book: Selected Essays. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. [98] The Indian Tales of Rudyard Kipling at the Internet Movie Database [99] Eliot, 1941. Eliot's essay occupies 31 pages.
[100] Eliot, 1963. p. 29. [80] Kipling, Rudyard, The Definitive edition of Rudyard [101] Eliot, 1963. p. 22. Kipling's verse. Hodder & Stoughton. 1940 [81] Kipling, Rudyard, The Day's Work. New York : Doubleday [102] Eliot, 1963. p. 36. & McClure 1898 [103] Orwell, George (February 1942). “Rudyard Kipling”. Horizon. Retrieved 4 December 2013. [82] “The Iron Ring”. Ironring.ca. Retrieved 10 September 2008. [104] Brackenbury, Alison. “Poetry Hero: Rudyard Kipling”. Poetry News (The Poetry Society) (Spring 2011). Retrieved [83] “The Calling of an Engineer”. Ironring.ca. Retrieved 24 11 February 2013. November 2012. [105] Pareles, Jon (26 September 1991). “Peter Bellamy, 47; [84] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of British Folk Singer Who Wrote Opera”. The New York Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 Times. Retrieved 15 July 2014. pages 300. [106] Rhyme and Reason, BBC Radio 4, 25 January 2011 [85] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 [107] WORLD VIEW: Is Afghanistan turning into another Vietnam?, Johnathan Power, The Citizen, 31 December 2010 pages 300–301. [86] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of [108] Is America waxing or waning?, Andrew Sullivan, The Atlantic, 12 December 2010 Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 pages 293. [109] Rudyard Kipling, Official Poet of the 911 War [87] Gilmour, David The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of [110] “History of Mowglis”. Retrieved 26 November 2013. Rudyard Kipling, London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 [111] “ScoutBase UK: The Library – Scouting history – Me Too! pages 302 & 304. – The history of Cubbing in the United Kingdom 1916– [88] Short Stories from the Strand, The Folio Society, 1992 present”. Scoutbase.org.uk. Retrieved 10 September 2008. [89] Rudyard Kipling, War Stories and Poems (Oxford Paper- [112] Howard, Philip University library to have Kipling papers The backs, 1999), pp. xxiv–xxv Times, 16/9/77, p.1
1.9. FURTHER READING
[113] 'The Life of Kingsley Amis', Zachary Leader, Vintage, 2007 pp. 704–705 [114] “Personal touch brings Kipling's Sussex home to life”. The Argus. [115] “Rudyard Kipling Readings by Ralph Fiennes”.Allmusic. [116] Globalization and educational rights: an intercivilizational analysis, Joel H. Spring, pg.137 [117] Post independence voices in South Asian writings, Malashri Lal, Alamgīr Hashmī, Victor J. Ramraj, 2001. (Not surprisingly, a brief biographical aside practically identifies Nehru with Kim) [118] Khushwant Singh, Review of The Book of Prayer by Renuka Narayanan , 2001 [119] “When Malgudi man courted controversy”. The Hindu. Retrieved 13 October 2014 [120] Ahmed, Zubair (27 November 2007). “Kipling's India home to become museum”. BBC News. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
1.9 Further reading Biography and criticism • Allen, Charles (2007) Kipling Sahib: India and the Making of Rudyard Kipling, Abacus, 2007. ISBN 9780-349-11685-3
19 • Gilmour, David. (2003) The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52896-9 • Green, Roger Lancelyn, ed., (1971) Kipling: the Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul). • Gross, John, ed. (1972) Rudyard Kipling: the Man, his Work and his World (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson) • Harris, Brian (2014) “The Surprising Mr Kipling: An anthology and reassessment of the poetry of Rudyard Kipling (CreateSpace) ISBN 978-1-4942-2194-2 • Harris, Brian (2015) “The Two Sided Man”(CreateSpace) ISBN 1508712328. • Kemp, Sandra. (1988) Kipling's Hidden Narratives Oxford: Blackwell* Lycett, Andrew (1999). Rudyard Kipling. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0297-81907-0 • Lycett, Andrew (ed.) (2010). Kipling Abroad, I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-072-9 • Mallett, Phillip (2003) Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan • Montefiore, Jan (ed.) (2013) In Time's Eye: Essays on Rudyard Kipling Manchester: Manchester University Press
• Bauer, Helen Pike (1994) Rudyard Kipling: A Study of the Short Fiction New York: Twayne
• Narita, Tatsushi. T. S. Eliot and his Youth as 'A Literary Columbus'. Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan, 2011.
• Birkenhead, Lord (Frederick Smith, 2nd Earl of Birkenhead) (1978) Rudyard Kipling (Worthing: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd.) ISBN 978-0-29777535-5
• Ricketts, Harry. (2001) Rudyard Kipling: A Life New York: Da Capo Press ISBN 0-7867-0830-1
• Carrington, Charles (1955). Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work. London: Macmillan & Co. • David, C. (2007). Rudyard Kipling: a critical study, New Delhi, Anmol, 2007. ISBN 81-261-3101-2 • Dillingham, William B (2005) Rudyard Kipling: Hell and Heroism New York: Palgrave Macmillan • Eliot, T.S. (1941). A Choice of Kipling's Verse, made by T. S. Eliot with an essay on Rudyard Kipling. Faber and Faber. --- paperback edition 1963. • Gilbert, Elliot L. ed., (1965) Kipling and the Critics (New York: New York University Press)
• Rooney, Caroline, and Kaori Nagai, eds. Kipling and Beyond: Patriotism, Globalisation, and Postcolonialism (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 214 pages; scholarly essays on Kipling's “boy heroes of empire,”Kipling and C.L.R. James, and Kipling and the new American empire, etc. • Rutherford, Andrew, ed. (1964) Kipling's Mind and Art (Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd) • Sergeant, David,(2013) Kipling's Art of Fiction 1884– 1901 (Oxford: Oxford University Press) • Martin Seymour-Smith, Rudyard Kipling, (1990). Biography by a scholar who uses newly opened Kipling letters to argue he was a repressed homosexual who married Caroline Balestier although he was really in love with her brother Wolcott; critics call the book controversial.
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• Shippey, Tom,“Rudyard Kipling,”in: Cahier Calin: Makers of the Middle Ages. Essays in Honor of William Calin, ed. Richard Utz and Elizabeth Emery (Kalamazoo, MI: Studies in Medievalism, 2011), pp. 21–23.
• Rudyard Kipling: The Books I Leave Behind exhibition, related podcast, and digital images maintained by the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University
• Tompkins, J. M. S. (1959) The Art of Rudyard Kipling (London : Methuen) online edition
• Rudyard Kipling at Naulakha, by Charles Warren Stoddard, National Magazine, June 1905, with photos
• Walsh, Sue (2010) Kipling's Children's Literature: Language, Identity, and Constructions of Childhood Farnham: Ashgate
• The Works Of Rudyard Kipling One Volume Edition, PDFbooks, PDF version and mobile PDF version
• Wilson, Angus The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works New York: The Viking Press, 1978. ISBN 0-670-67701-9
1.10 External links Works • Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Rudyard Kipling at Internet Archive • Works by Rudyard Kipling at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • The Works of Rudyard Kipling at The University of Adelaide • 450 Poems by Rudyard Kipling HTML format, indexed • Works by Rudyard Kipling, HTML online. • Works by Rudyard Kipling (not public domain in USA, so not available on Wikisource) • Rudyard Kipling at University of Toronto Libraries Resources • Kipling reads 7 lines from his poem France (audio). • The Kipling Society website • • Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg, by John Palmer, 1915 biography • The Rudyard Kipling Collection maintained by Marlboro College.
• About Rudyard Kipling's Naulakha House, The Landmark Trust USA • Rudyard Kipling at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database • Rudyard Kipling in the Encyclopaedia of Science Fiction • The Rudyard Kipling Collections From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Chapter 2
British Armed Forces The British Armed Forces* [nb 3] form the military of the United Kingdom, tasked with defence of the country, its overseas territories and the Crown dependencies; as well as promoting the UK's wider interests, supporting international peacekeeping efforts, and providing humanitarian aid.* [6] They encompass: the Royal Navy, a blue-water navy with a fleet of 77 commissioned ships; the Royal Marines, a highly specialised amphibious light infantry force; the British Army, the UK's principal land warfare branch; and the Royal Air Force, a technologically sophisticated air force with a diverse operational fleet consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft.
2.1
History
Main article: Military history of the United Kingdom
Upon the Act of Union in 1707, the armed forces of England and Scotland were merged into the armed forces of the Kingdom of Great Britain. By 1815, with the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo Britain had risen to become the world's dominant superpower, and the British Empire subsequently presided over a period of relative peace, known as Pax Britannica, until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Between 1707 and 1914, British forces played The Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces is a prominent role in notable conflicts including the Seven the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, to whom members Years' War, the Napoleonic Wars and the Crimean War. of the forces swear allegiance.* [1] However the British parliament maintains the armed forces during times of peace The current structure of defence management in Britain was with the passing of quinquennial armed forces acts.* [7] The set in place in 1964 when the modern day Ministry of Dearmed forces are managed by the Defence Council of the fence (MoD) was created (an earlier form had existed since Ministry of Defence, headed by the Secretary of State for 1940). The MoD assumed the roles of the Admiralty, the War Office and the Air Ministry. Defence. The UK is an active and regular participant in NATO and other coalition operations. The country is also party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements. Recent operations have included wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the 2000 intervention in Sierra Leone, peacekeeping responsibilities in the Balkans and Cyprus, and participation in the UN-mandated no-fly zone over Libya. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained at Ascension Island, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Qatar and Cyprus.* [8]* [9] The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon under Operation Hurricane in 1952, becoming the third nation in the world to achieve the status of a nuclear power. As of 2015, Britain remains one of five recognised nuclear powers, with a total of 225 nuclear warheads. Of those, no more than 160 are deployed and active. Its nuclear deterrence system is based on Trident missiles on board ballistic missile submarines.
2.1.1
Cold War
Post–World War II economic and political decline, as well as changing attitudes in British society and government, were reflected by the Armed Forces' contracting global role.* [10]* [11]* [12] Britain's protracted decline was dramatically epitomised by its political defeat during the Suez War of 1956.* [13] The 1957 Defence White Paper abolished conscription and reduced the size of the Armed Forces from 690,000 to 375,000 by 1962.* [14] Seeking an inexpensive alternative to maintaining a large conventional military, the government pursued a doctrine of nuclear deterrence.* [15]* [16] This initially consisted of free-fall bombs operated by the RAF, but these were eventually superseded by the submarine-launched Polaris ballistic missile. While assurances had been made to the United States that Britain would maintain a presence "East of Suez", a process of gradual withdrawal from its eastern commitments was undertaken in the 1960s, primar-
21
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CHAPTER 2. BRITISH ARMED FORCES
ily for economic reasons.* [17]* [18] By the mid-1970s, 2.1.2 Recent history Britain had withdrawn permanently deployed forces from Aden, Bahrain, Malaysia, Mauritius, Oman, Sharjah, and Singapore. Agreements with Malta (expired 1979) and Four major reviews of the British Armed Forces have been conducted since the end of the Cold War. All three services South Africa (terminated 1975) also ended. experienced considerable reductions in manpower, equipment, and infrastructure during this period* [27] while restructuring to deliver a greater focus on expeditionary warfare. The Conservative government produced the Options for Change review in the 1990s, seeking to benefit from a perceived post–Cold War "peace dividend".* [28] Though the Soviet Union had disintegrated, a presence in Germany was retained in the reduced form of British Forces Germany. Experiences during the First Gulf War prompted renewed efforts to enhance joint operational cohesion and efficiency among the services by establishing a Permanent Joint Headquarters in 1996.* [29]* [30] The Vulcan Bomber was the backbone of the United Kingdom’s airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the Cold War.
An increasingly international role for the British Armed Forces has been pursued since the Cold War's end.* [31] This entailed the Armed Forces often constituting a major component in peacekeeping missions under the auspices of the United Nations or NATO, and other multinational operations. Consistent under-manning and the reduced size of the Armed Forces highlighted the problem of 'overstretch' during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.* [32] This reportedly contributed to personnel retention difficulties and challenged the military's ability to sustain its overseas commitments.* [32]* [33]* [34]
With a permanent presence east of Suez effectively reduced to Hong Kong (up to 1997) and Brunei, the Armed Forces reconfigured to focus on the responsibilities allocated to the services during the Cold War.* [12]* [19]* [20] Substantial forces thus became committed to NATO in Europe and elsewhere; by 1985, 72,929 personnel were stationed in Continental Europe.* [20]* [21]* [22] The British A Strategic Defence Review (SDR) —described as Army of the Rhine and RAF Germany consequently rep- “foreign-policy-led”—was published in 1998.* [35]* [36] resented the largest and most important overseas com- Expeditionary warfare and tri-service integration were cenmitments that the British Armed Forces had during this tral to the review, which sought to improve efficiency and period.* [23] The Royal Navy's fleet developed an anti- reduce expenditure by consolidating resources.* [37]* [38] submarine warfare specialisation, with a particular focus on Most of the Armed Forces' helicopters were collected countering Soviet submarines in the Eastern Atlantic and under a single command and a Joint Force Harrier was North Sea.* [19] In the process of this transition and due established in 2000, containing the Navy and RAF's fleet to economic constraints, four conventional aircraft carriers of Harrier Jump Jets. A Joint Rapid Reaction Force was and two “commando”carriers were decommissioned be- formed in 1999, with significant tri-service resources at its tween 1967 and 1984.* [24]* [25] With the cancellation of disposal.* [39] the CVA-01 project, three Invincible-class STOVL aircraft The first major post-11 September restructuring was ancarriers, originally designed as “Through-Deck Cruisers” nounced in the 2004 Delivering Security in a Changing , became their ultimate replacements.* [25] World: Future Capabilities review, continuing a vision of While this focus on NATO obligations increased in prominence during the 1970s, low-intensity conflicts in Northern Ireland and Oman emerged as the primary operational concerns of the British Armed Forces.* [26] These conflicts had followed a spate of insurgencies against British colonial occupation in Aden, Cyprus, Kenya and Malaysia.* [26] An undeclared war with Indonesia had also occurred in Borneo during the 1960s, and recurring civil unrest in the declining number of British colonies often required military assistance.
“mobility”and“expeditionary warfare”articulated in the SDR.* [40]* [41] Future equipment projects reflecting this direction featured in the review, including the procurement of two large aircraft carriers and a series of medium-sized vehicles for the Army. Reductions in manpower, equipment, and infrastructure were also announced. The decision to reduce the Army's regular infantry to 36 battalions (from 40) and amalgamate the remaining single-battalion regiments was controversial, especially in Scotland and among former soldiers.* [42] Envisaging a rebalanced composition
2.2. TODAY
23
David Cameron greets Nicolas Sarkozy at Lancaster House, London, before signing the Defence and Security Co-operation Treaty.
Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007
of more rapidly deployable light and medium forces, the review announced that a regiment of Challenger 2 main battle tanks and a regiment of AS-90 self-propelled artillery would be converted to lighter roles.* [41]* [43]
30,000 Volunteer Reserve personnel.* [2] This gives a total strength of 186,940 Service Personnel.* [2] In addition, all ex-Regular personnel retain a“statutory liability for service”and are liable to be recalled (under Section 52 of the Reserve Forces Act (RFA) 1996) for duty in a time of need, this is known as the Regular Reserve. However, MoD publications since April 2013 no longer report the entire strength of the Regular Reserve, instead they only give a figure for Regular Reserves who serve under a fixed-term reserve contract. These contracts are similar in nature to those of the Volunteer Reserve.* [4] As of 2014, regular Reserves serving under a fixed-term contract numbered 45,110 personnel in 2014.* [3] All personnel figures exclude the Military Provost Guard Service and the University Training Units; the University Royal Naval Unit, the Officers' Training Corps and the University Air Squadron.
There were more than 30,000 members of the British Armed Forces deployed abroad in January 2007, serving in various capacities.* [44]* [45] Peacekeeping, humanitarian aid, and disaster relief tasks increased in the 2000s, many under the auspices of the United Nations and NATO.* [46] The Armed Forces contributed to the international humanitarian and reconstruction efforts in the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami and 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.* [47]* [48] Within the United Kingdom, there were approximately 140,000 personnel stationed in England, 13,200 in Scotland, 7,000 in Northern Ireland, and 6,200 in Wales.* [49] The conflict in Northern Ireland had required the Armed Forces to provide "Military aid to the civil power" from 1969, with a presence that peaked at over 20,000 regular personnel in 1972.* [50] Sectarian and paramilitary violence subsided after the Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998.* [51] and the IRA declared an end to its campaign in 2005. Operational support for the Police Service of Northern Ireland, known as Operation Banner, officially ended on 1 August 2007, resulting in the reduction of the military presence to the size of a peacetime garrison.* [52]
Britain has the fifth or sixth-largest defence budget in the world,* [54] with the country spending more than countries like Germany or Japan but more or less comparable to that of France or Saudi Arabia. In September 2011, according to the Royal United Services Institute, current “planned levels of defence spending should be enough for the United Kingdom to maintain its position as one of the world's top military powers, as well as being one of NATO-Europe's top military powers. Its edge – not least its qualitative edge As a result of the Strategic Defence and Security Re- – in relation to rising Asian powers seems set to erode, but view conducted in October 2010, Prime Minister David will remain significant well into the 2020’s, and possibly Cameron signed a 50-year treaty with French President beyond.”* [55] Nicolas Sarkozy that would have the two countries coIn the 2013 Spending Review, the Chancellor of the Excheoperate intensively in military matters.* [53] quer, George Osborne, reinforced the government's commitment to the 2010 SDSR and stated the £38bn “black hole”in the defence budget had been filled, that at over 2% 2.2 Today of GDP, the defence budget will remain one of the largest in the world, the equipment budget will grow by 1% in real The British Armed Forces is a professional force with terms every year after 2015, that there will be further reduca strength in January 2015 of 156,940 Regular* [2] and tions in the civilian MoD workforce, PFI contracts signed in
24
CHAPTER 2. BRITISH ARMED FORCES
the last decade would be renegotiated, the way equipment Month Review in 2011).* [62] The department is controlled is purchased is to be overhauled, and a greater commitment by the Secretary of State for Defence and contains three to cyber warfare.* [56] deputy appointments: Minister of State for the Armed The Royal Air Force established an air transport and re- Forces, Minister for Defence Procurement, and Minister for fuelling hub at Al-Minhad in the United Arab Emirates in Veterans' Affairs. 2013. The following year, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office announced it would expand the UK's naval facilities in Bahrain to support larger Royal Navy ships deployed to the Persian Gulf. Once complete, it will be the UK's first permanent military base located East of Suez since it withdrew from the region in 1971. The base will reportedly be large enough to accommodate Type 45 destroyers and Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers.* [57]* [58]* [59]
2.2.1
Command organisation
Responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees: the Defence Council, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Defence Management Board and three single-service boards. The Defence Council, composed of senior representatives of the services and the Ministry of Defence, provides the “formal legal basis for the conduct of defence”. The three constituent singleservice committees (Admiralty Board, Army Board and Air Force Board) are chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Admiral, Air Chief Marshal or General. Before the practice was discontinued in the 1990s, those who were appointed to the position of CDS had been elevated to the most senior rank in their respective service (a 5-star rank).* [63] The CDS, along with the Permanent Under Secretary, are the principal advisers to the departmental minister. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the First Sea Lord, the Chief of the General Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff.
As Sovereign and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is Head of the Armed Forces* [60] and their Commander-inChief.* [1] Long-standing constitutional convention, however, has vested de facto executive authority, by the exercise of Royal Prerogative powers, in the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Defence, and the Prime Minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces. The Queen, however, remains the ultimate authority of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance to the monarch. It has been claimed that this includes the power to prevent un- Personnel are based in a number of overseas territories, constitutional use of the armed forces, including its nuclear though internal security for the majority is provided solely by small police forces. Garrisons and facilities exist weapons.* [61] in Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, and the Sovereign Base Areas in Cyprus.* [9] These deployments accounted for over 5,000 personnel in 2006.* [44] Locally raised units are maintained in Bermuda (The Bermuda Regiment), the Falkland Islands (Falkland Islands Defence Force), and Gibraltar (Royal Gibraltar Regiment). Though their primary mission is “home defence”, individuals have volunteered for operational duties. The Royal Gibraltar Regiment has recently mobilised section-sized units for attachment to regiments deployed to Iraq.* [64]* [65]
2.2.2 The Ministry of Defence building in central London: headquarters of the Armed Forces
The Ministry of Defence is the Government department and highest level of military headquarters charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the Armed Forces; it currently employs over 60,000 civilians as of 2014. This number will be reduced to just 55,000 by 2015 (a reduction of 25,000 as per the October 2010 SDSR) and then again to 48,000 by 2020 (a reduction of 7,000 as per the Three
Weapons of mass destruction
Main article: United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction The United Kingdom is one of only five recognised nuclear weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty and maintains an independent nuclear deterrent, currently consisting of four Vanguard-class ballistic missile submarines. This is known as the UK Trident programme and delivers a 'continuous at sea deterrent' capability.* [66] Nomenclature of the UK deterrent is after the UGM-133 Trident II
2.3. ROYAL NAVY
25 with other nations' armed forces. Of variable size, it is intended to be the basis of all the UK armed forces' combined joint training; a framework into which other nations will fit. It will be the core of the UK's contribution to any military action, whether NATO, coalition or independent. Together with Command and Control elements including HQ Allied Rapid Reaction Corps and the maritime component HQ at Northwood, the force is designed to meet the UK's obligations to NATO.
2.3
Royal Navy
Main article: Royal Navy The Royal Navy is a technologically sophisticated naval
A Trident II SLBM being launched from a Vanguard class ballistic missile submarine.
submarine-launched ballistic missile that is used to deliver the nuclear warheads. Estimates of the United Kingdom's nuclear stockpile put it at approximately 225 nuclear warheads in total, with 160 of those being active. A successor programme is currently in its early stages with a final decision to be made in 2016. It primarily seeks to replace the Vangaurd-class submarines with a new generation of SSBNs, however, the programme will also extend the life of the UGM-133 Trident II ballistic missiles, refurbish the nuclear warheads and modernise existing infrastructure associated with the deterrent.* [67] Former weapons of mass destruction possessed by the United Kingdom include both biological and chemical weapons. These were renounced in 1956 and subsequently destroyed.
2.2.3
UK Joint Expeditionary Force
The UK Joint Expeditionary Force, not to be confused with the similarly named UK-French Combined Joint Expeditionary Force, was announced in December 2012 by the Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir David Richards.* [68] It is designed to be an integrated joint force, with capabilities across the spectrum at sea, on land and in the air, with the aspiration being greater levels of integration than previously achieved especially when combined
HMS Daring (D32), the first of six Type 45 guided missile destroyers
force,* [69] and as of April 2015 consists of 77 commissioned ships. Command of deployable assets is exercised by the Fleet Commander of the Naval Service.* [70] Personnel matters are the responsibility of the Second Sea Lord/Commander-in-Chief Naval Home Command, an appointment usually held by a vice-admiral.* [71] The Surface Fleet consists of amphibious warfare ships,
26
CHAPTER 2. BRITISH ARMED FORCES
destroyers, frigates, patrol vessels, mine-countermeasure vessels, and other miscellaneous vessels. The Surface Fleet has been structured around a single fleet since the abolition of the Eastern and Western fleets in 1971.* [72] The recently built Type 45 destroyers are technologically advanced airdefence destroyers. The Royal Navy is building two Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers, embarking an air-group including the advanced fifth-generation multi-role fighter, the F-35B.* [73] A submarine service has existed within the Royal Navy for more than 100 years. The Submarine Service's four Vanguard-class nuclear-powered submarines carry Lockheed Martin's Trident II ballistic missiles, forming the United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent. The service possessed a combined fleet of diesel-electric and nuclear-powered submarines until the early 1990s. Following the Options for Change defence review, the Upholder class dieselelectric submarines were withdrawn and the attack submarine flotilla is now exclusively nuclear-powered. Seven Astute class nuclear-powered attack submarines have been ordered, with two completed, and four under construction. The Astute class are the most advanced and largest fleet submarines ever built for the Royal Navy, and will maintain Britain's nuclear-powered submarine fleet capabilities for decades to come.
2.4 Royal Marines Main article: Royal Marines The Royal Marines are the Royal Navy's amphibious troops. Consisting of a single manoeuvre brigade (3 Commando) and various independent units, the Royal Marines specialise in amphibious, arctic, and mountain warfare.* [74] Contained within 3 Commando Brigade are three attached army units; 1st Battalion, The Rifles, an infantry battalion based at Beachley Barracks near Chepstow (from April 2008), 29 Commando Regiment Royal Artillery, an artillery regiment based in Plymouth, and 24 Commando Regiment Royal Engineers.* [75] The Commando Logistic Regiment consists of personnel from the Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Navy.* [76]
The Challenger 2, the British Army's Dorchester Armoured main battle tank.
two divisions (1st Armoured and 3rd Mechanised) and eight brigades.* [79]* [80] Within the United Kingdom, operational and non-deployable units are administered by three regionally defined “regenerative”divisions (2nd, 4th, and 5th) and London District.* [81] The Army has 50 battalions (36 regular and 14 territorial) of regular and territorial infantry, organised into 17 regiments.* [82] The majority of infantry regiments contains multiple regular and territorial battalions. Modern infantry have diverse capabilities and this is reflected in the varied roles assigned to them. There are four operational roles that infantry battalions can fulfil: air assault, armoured infantry, mechanised infantry, and light role infantry. Regiments and battalions e.g.: the Parachute Regiment, exist within every corps of the Army, functioning as administrative or tactical formations. Armoured regiments are equivalent to an infantry battalion. There are 11 armoured regiments within the regular army, of which six are designated as "Armoured" and five as "Formation Reconnaissance". With the exception of the Household Cavalry, armoured regiments and their Territorial counterparts are grouped under the Royal Armoured Corps. Arms and support units are also formed into similar collectives organised around specific purposes, such as the Corps of Royal Engineers, Army Air Corps and Royal Army Medical Corps.* [83]
2.6 2.5 British Army Main article: British Army The British Army is made up of the Regular Army and the Army Reserve. The army has a single command structure based at Andover and known as “Army Headquarters”.* [77]* [78] Deployable combat formations consist of
Royal Air Force
Main article: Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force has a large operational fleet that fulfils various roles, consisting of both fixed-wing and rotary aircraft.* [84] Frontline aircraft are controlled by Air Command, which is organised into three groups defined by function: 1 Group (Air Combat), 2 Group (Air Support)* [85] and 22 Group (training aircraft and ground facilities).* [85]
2.7. CIVILIAN AGENCIES OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
The Eurofighter Typhoon, air superiority fighter and multirole combat aircraft.
In addition 83 Expeditionary Air Group directs formations in the Middle East. Deployable formations consist of Expeditionary Air Wings and squadrons—the basic unit of the Air Force.* [86]* [87] Independent flights are deployed to facilities in Afghanistan, the Falkland Islands, Iraq, and the United States.* [88]
27
RFA Argus (A135) (left), the fleets aviation training and hospital ship
through its three Bay-class landing ship dock vessels. It is manned by 1,850 civilian personnel and is funded and run by the Ministry of Defence.
2.7.2
Ministry of Defence Police
The Royal Air Forces operates multi-role and single-role • The Ministry of Defence Police. fighters, reconnaissance and patrol aircraft, tankers, transports, helicopters, unmanned aerial vehicles, and various types of training aircraft.* [89] Ground units are also maintained by the Royal Air Force, most prominently the RAF 2.7.3 Defence Equipment and Support Police and the Royal Air Force Regiment (RAF Regt). The • The Defence Equipment and Support (DE&S) is the Royal Air Force Regiment essentially functions as the local merged procurement and support organisation within ground defence force of the RAF.* [90] Roled principally the UK Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom). It as ground defence for RAF facilities, the regiment contains came into being on 2 April 2007, bringing together the nine regular squadrons, supported by five squadrons of the MoD's Defence Procurement Agency and the Defence Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment. By March 2008, the Logistics Organisation under the leadership of Genthree remaining“Air Defence”squadrons had disbanded or eral Sir Kevin O'Donoghue as the first Chief of Dere-roled and their responsibilities transferred to the British fence Materiel. As of 2012 it has a civilian and milArmy's Royal Artillery.* [91] itary workforce of approx. 20,000 personnel. DE&S is overseen by the Minister for Defence Equipment, Support and Technology. 2.7 Civilian agencies of the Ministry
of Defence 2.7.4 The British Armed Forces are supported by civilian agencies owned by the MoD. Although they are civilian, they play a vital role in supporting Armed Forces operations, and in certain circumstances are under military discipline.
2.7.1
Royal Fleet Auxiliary
UK Hydrographic Office
• The UK Hydrographic Office (or UKHO) is an organisation within the UK government responsible for providing navigational and other hydrographic information for national, civil and defence requirements. The UKHO is located in Taunton, Somerset on Admiralty Way and has a workforce of approximately 1000 staff.
The 13 ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) primarily serve to replenish Royal Navy warships at sea, and also For more Information about Civilian Agencies of or within augment the Royal Navy's amphibious warfare capabilities the MoD see Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom).
28
2.8 Recruitment
CHAPTER 2. BRITISH ARMED FORCES recruited from outside the United Kingdom. In total, Black and Minority Ethnic persons represent 7.1% of all service personnel, an increase from 6.6% in 2010.* [94]
Further information: Recruitment in the British Army All three services of the British Armed Forces recruit pri- Since the year 2000, sexual orientation has not been a factor considered in recruitment, and homosexuals can serve openly in the armed forces. All branches of the forces have actively recruited at Gay Pride events.* [95]* [96] The forces keep no formal figures concerning the number of gay and lesbian serving soldiers, saying that the sexual orientation of personnel is considered irrelevant and not monitored.* [97]
2.8.1
Role of women
Women have been integrated into the British Armed Forces since the early 1990s; however, they remain excluded from primarily combat units in the Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Air Force Regiment.* [98] As of 1 April 2014, there are approximately 15,840 women serving in the Armed Forces, representing 9.9% of all service personnel.* [94] The first female military pilot was Flight Lieutenant Julie Ann Gibson while Flight Lieutenants Jo Salter and Kirsty Moore were the first fast-jet pilots, the former flying a Tornado GR1 on missions patrolling the then Northern Iraqi No-Fly Zone.* [99] Flight Lieutenant Juliette Fleming and Squadron Leader Nikki Thomas recently were the first Tornado GR4 crew.* [100] While enforcing the Libyan No-Fly Zone, Flight Lieutenant Helen Seymour was identified as the first female Eurofighter Typhoon pilot.* [101] In August 2011, it was announced that a female Lieutenant Commander, Sarah West, was to command the frigate HMS Portland.* [102] One of the most recognisable recruiting posters of the British Army; from World War I featuring Kitchener.
marily from within the United Kingdom, although citizens from the Commonwealth of Nations and the Republic of Ireland are equally eligible to join.* [92] The minimum recruitment age is 16 years (although personnel may not serve on armed operations below 18 years, and if under 18 must also have parental consent to join); the maximum recruitment age depends whether the application is for a regular or reserve role; there are further variations in age limit for different corps/regiments. The normal term of engagement is 22 years; however, the minimum service required before resignation is 4 years, plus, in the case of the Army, any service person below the age of 18.* [93] At present, the yearly intake into the armed forces is 11,880 (per the 12 months to 31 March 2014).* [94] Excluding the Brigade of Gurkhas and the Royal Irish Regiment, as of 1 April 2014 there are approximately 11,200 Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) persons serving as Regulars across the three service branches - of those, 6,610 were
2.9
See also
• Banknotes of the British Armed Forces • Common Security and Defence Policy • Military of Scotland • Military of the Falkland Islands • The Lancaster House Treaties (2010) • Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces • Network-enabled capability - British military concept of achieving enhanced military effect through the better use of information systems. Similar to the US concept of Network-centric warfare • Joint Rapid Reaction Force • Sponsored Reserves
2.11. REFERENCES
2.10 Notes [1] Figure is current as of 1 January 2015. It excludes personnel of the Military Provost Guard Service.* [2]Reserve personnel 75,110* [nb 2]Percent of GDP 2.1%; FY 201415International Institute for Strategic Studies (11 February 2015). The Military Balance 2015. London: Routledge. ISBN 1857437667. [2] Figure is current as of 1 January 2015. It includes 30,000 Volunteer Reserve personnel* [2] and 45,110 Regular Reserve personnel.* [3] Since April 2013, MoD publications no longer report the entire strength of the Regular Reserve, instead, only Regular Reserves serving under a fixed-term reserve contract are counted. These contracts are similar in nature to the Volunteer Reserve.* [4] The figure for Volunteer Reserve personnel excludes the University Training Units.ExpendituresBudget £45 billion; FY 201516* [5] (~$69 billion)Exchange rate as of 2 June 2015 [3] Also referred to as Her Majesty's Armed Forces, the Armed Forces of the Crown, and the Armed Forces of the United Kingdom.
29
[15] Lee (1996), Aspects of British Political History 1914-1995, 273 [16] Pierre (1972), Nuclear Politics: the British experience with an independent strategic force: 1939-1970, p100 [17] Hack (2000), Defence and Decolonisation in South-East Asia: Britain, Malaya, Singapore, 1941-1968, p285 [18] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p345 [19] Vanguard to Trident 1945-2000, royal-navy.mod.uk [20] Kennedy (2004), British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 19002000: Influence and Actions, p193 [21] Focus on Europe, raf.mod.uk, p15-16 [22] dasa.mod.uk 1998 Publication Archived February 3, 2007 at the Wayback Machine [23] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p421 [24] Kennedy (2004), British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 19002000: Influence and Actions, p246 [25] Harding (2005), The Royal Navy 1930-2000: innovation and defence, p220
2.11 References
[26] Chandler & Beckett (2003), pp350-351
[1] Parliament Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, 20 March 2012
[27] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p358
[2] gov.uk MoD - quarterly personnel report, table 3 page 8. 1 January 2015.
[29] Strachan (2006), Big Wars And Small Wars: The British Army And the Lessons of War in the Twentieth Century, p158
[3] gov.uk MoD – reserves and cadet strengths, table 1a-page 10. April 2014. [4] gov.uk MoD - reserves and cadet strengths, table 4 page 13. See note 2. April 2014. [5] 2015 Budget (18 March 2015) - see Chart 1 on page 6
[28] Hollowell (2003), Britain Since 1945, p16
[30] Frantzen (2005), Nato And Peace Support Operations, 1991– 1999: Policies And Doctrines, p104 [31] Frantzen (2005), NATO and Peace Support Operations, 1991–1999: policies and doctrines, p95
[6] The Mission of the Armed Forces, armedforces.co.uk
[32] Dorman (2005), Overstretch: Modern Army's weakness, news.bbc.co.uk
[7] Wikisource:Bill of Rights 1689
[33] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p434
[8] Permanent Joint Operating Bases, northwood.mod.uk
[34] BBC (2007), Military 'faces retention crisis', news.bbc.co.uk
[9] House of Commons Hansard, publications.parliament.uk
[35] Chandler & Beckett (2003), P418
[10] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p343
[36] Kennedy, British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000: Influence and Actions, p261
[11] Colman (2005), A 'Special Relationship'?: Harold Wilson, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Anglo-American Relations' at the Summit', 1964–68, p77
[37] Hansard (1998), tions.parliament.uk
[12] Focus on Europe, raf.mod.uk
[38] Chandler & Beckett (2003), p418
[13] Johnman & Gorst (1997), The Suez Crisis, p166
[39] Permanent Joint Headquarters, armedforces.co.uk
[14] Lider (1985), British Military Thought After World War II, p525
[40] BBC (2004), news.bbc.co.uk
The
House
armed
of
Commons,
forces
of
the
publica-
future,
30
CHAPTER 2. BRITISH ARMED FORCES
[41] Delivering Security in a Changing World Future Capabilities, mod.uk Archived 5 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine
[62] Looking into the Black Hole: Is the UK Defence Budget Crisis Really Over?, rusi.org, Malcolm Chalmers, September 2011
[42] BBC News (2004), Hoon confirms super-regiment plan, news.bbc.co.uk
[63] Hansard (1998), House of Commons Written Answers, publications.parliament.uk
[43] Future Army Structure, armedforces.co.uk Archived 27 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
[64] The Royal Gibraltar Regiment, 1rg.gi
[44] House of Commons Hansard, publications.parliament.uk Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[65] More soldiers from Royal Gibraltar Regiment in overseas duties in regiment's history, www.panorama.gi
[45] Where are British troops and why?, news.bbc.co.uk
[66] Royal Navy - Continuous at sea deterrent, navy.mod.uk, Accessed 6 December 2014
[46] Ministry of Defence Policy Paper No.2 - Multinational Defence Co-operation, mod.uk Archived 21 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
[67] “The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent” (PDF). Ministry of Defence. 4 December 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
[47] Operation Garron, operations.mod.uk
[68] Speech Chief of the Defence Staff General Sir David Richards Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), 17 December 2012
[48] Pakistan Earthquake Relief Operations: Chronology of Events, operations.mod.uk [49] Numbers of UK armed forces committed to Northern Ireland, dasa.mod.uk Archived 9 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine [50] Jackson, Ireland, 1798-1998: Politics and War, p.404
royal-
[69]“Royal Navy”. royalnavy.mod.uk. Retrieved October 2014. [70] Fleet Command and Organisation, armedforces.co.uk [71] Archived 16 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
[51] BBC News, Good Friday Agreement, news.bbc.co.uk
[72] Hampshire (1975), The Royal Navy Since 1945: its transition to the nuclear age, p248
[52] BBC News (2006), Troop withdrawal plan published, news.bbc.co.uk
[73] “MoD confirms £3.8bn carrier order”. BBC News. 25 July 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
[53] Wintour, Patrick (2 November 2010). “Britain and France sign landmark 50-year defence deal”. The Guardian (London).
[74] BBC News (2002), news.bbc.co.uk
[54] The Military Balance 2014: Top 15 Defence Budgets 2013 (IISS)
UK's mountain warfare elite,
[75] The Commando Role for 1 RIFLER, army.mod.uk Archived 19 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
[55] RUSI Briefing Paper. Published September 2011 P. 18
[76] Commando Logistic Regiment, royalnavy.mod.uk Archived 16 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
[56] Spending Review 2013: Osborne on defence 26 June 2013 Archived 9 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
[77] Army Command reorganization Defence Marketing Intelligence, 10 November 2011
[57] “East of Suez, West from Helmand: British Expeditionary Force and the next SDSR”(PDF). Oxford Research Group. December 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
[78] Higher Command Archived 24 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine
[58] “A Return to East of Suez? UK Military Deployment to the Gulf”. Royal United Services Institute. April 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2015. [59] “The New East of Suez Question: Damage Limitation after Failure Over Syria”. Royal United Services Institute. 19 September 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2015. [60] Queen and Armed Forces, royal.gov.uk. [61] “Whose hand is on the button?". BBC. 2 December 2008. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
[79] Divisions and Brigades, army.mod.uk Archived 19 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine [80] Number of Regiments, Infantry battalions & Major Headquarters, in the Regular & Territorial Army at 1 April each year, dasa.mod.uk Archived 20 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine [81] HQ Land Forces, armedforces.co.uk/ [82] The Mercian Regiment was formed in August 2007, to become the final regiment created as a result of the infantry amalgamations under FAS
2.12. EXTERNAL LINKS
[83] Arms and Services, army.mod.uk Archived 19 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine [84] Nick Harvey, Minister of State for the Armed Forces (31 January 2012).“Military Aircraft”. Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons. [85] RAF - Structure, raf.mod.uk [86] Transforming the Royal Air Force, raf.mod.uk [87] Royal Air Force Squadrons, raf.mod.uk Archived 19 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine [88] Aircraft Order of Battle, scramble.nl Archived 25 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine [89] Royal Air Force - Equipment, .raf.mod.uk [90] The Royal Air Force Regiment, raf.mod.uk Archived 5 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine [91] RAF Regiment, armedforces.co.uk [92] Evans (2005), How British Army is fast becoming foreign legion, timesonline.co.uk [93] BBC News (2007), Recruitment Age for Army Raised, news.bbc.co.uk [94] UK Armed Forces Quarterly Personnel Report, gov.uk, 1 April 2014 [95] “Army marches with Pride parade”. BBC News. 27 August 2005. Retrieved 6 November 2009. [96] “The LGBT community in the Armed Forces”. London Gay Pride official website. 11 June 2008. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2009. [97] Leake, Jonathan; Philip Cardy (28 August 2005). “Army on parade for gay recruits”. London: The Times. Retrieved 6 November 2009. [98] Women in the Armed Forces, mod.uk Archived 29 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine [99] Haynes, Deborah (23 May 2009). “The Top Gun girl and the Tornado fast jet”. The Times (London). [100] Tornados and Taliban are all in a day's work. This is Devon (2009-12-29). Retrieved on 2013-08-24. [101] Collins, Nick (24 March 2011). “First woman to fly Typhoon enforces no-fly-zone”. The Daily Telegraph (London). [102] “Royal Navy appoints first female warship commander”. BBC News. 8 August 2011.
31
2.12
External links
• British Ministry of Defence (gov.uk) • Defence Academy (.da.mod.uk)
of
the
United
Kingdom
• NAO - MoD budget, equipment plan 2013 to 2023 (nao.org.uk) • Royal Navy official website (royalnavy.mod.uk) • Royal Marines official webpage (royalnavy.mod.uk) • British Army official website (army.mod.uk) • Royal Air Force official website (raf.mod.uk)
Chapter 3
British Raj This article is about the rule of the British Crown from 1858 to 1947 over the Indian Subcontinent.. For the previous rule of East India Company which existed from 1757 to 1858, see Company rule in India. “British Empire in India”redirects here. For other uses, see British India (disambiguation). “Indian Empire”redirects here. For other Indian empires, see History of India. The British Raj (rāj, meaning “rule”in Hindi)* [2] was the rule of Great Britain in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947.* [3] The term can also refer to the period of dominion.* [3]* [4] The region under British control — commonly called India—included areas directly administered by Britain as well as the princely states ruled by individual rulers under the paramountcy of the British Crown. The region is now less commonly also called British India or the Indian Empire.* [5] The Empire of India was officially created by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli for Queen Victoria in 1876. As India, it was a founding member of the League of Nations, a participating nation in the Summer Olympics in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936, and a founding member of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945.* [6] The system of governance was instituted on June 28, 1858, when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria* [7] (and who, in 1876, was proclaimed Empress of India), and lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Union of India (later the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the eastern half of which, still later, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh). At the inception of the Raj in 1858, Lower Burma was already a part of British India; Upper Burma was added in 1886, and the resulting union, Burma, was administered as an autonomous province until 1937, when it became a separate British colony, gaining its own independence in 1948.
3.1
Geographical extent
An 1909 map of the British Indian Empire
The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, with exceptions such as Goa and Pondicherry.* [8] In addition, at various times, it included Aden (from 1858 to 1937),* [9] Lower Burma (from 1858 to 1937), Upper Burma (from 1886 to 1937), British Somaliland (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and Singapore (briefly from 1858 to 1867). Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf were theoretically princely states as well as Presidencies and provinces of British India until 1946 and used the rupee as their unit of currency.* [10] Among other countries in the region, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798.* [11] The kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states.* [12]* [13] The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese
32
3.3. BRITISH INDIA AND THE PRINCELY STATES
33
Treaty of 1861; however, the issue of sovereignty was mits that much of his interpretation is still highly controverleft undefined.* [14] The Maldive Islands were a British sial among many historians.* [18] protectorate from 1887 to 1965 but not part of British India.
3.2 Economic extent
3.3
British India and the Princely States
Main articles: Presidencies and provinces of British India and Princely state India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: British India and the Native States (or Princely States).* [19] In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:
British Raj coins during Edward VII and George V, Indian Museum
(1.) The expression “British India”shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the GovernorGeneral of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. (2.) The expression “India”shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.* [1]
In 1780, the conservative British politician Edmund Burke raised the issue of India's position: he vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of “plunder”and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of the Mughal Empire.* [15] Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and of imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible Bengal famine of 1770, which killed a third of In general, the term “British India”had been used (and the people of Bengal.* [16] is still used) to refer also to the regions under the rule P. J. Marshall shows that recent scholarship has reinter- of the* British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. [20] The term has also been used to refer to the preted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign “British in India”.* [21] Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy.* [17] He argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past, which largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation.
The terms“Indian Empire”and“Empire of India”(like the term “British Empire”) were not used in legislation. The monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victoria's Queen's Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words “Indian Empire”on the cover and “Empire of India”on the in* Many historians agree that the East India Company inher- side. [22] In addition, an order of knighthood, the Most ited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. produce of Indian cultivators.* [15] Instead of the Indian na- Suzerainty over 175 princely states, some of the largest and tionalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing most important, was exercised (in the name of the British power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Mar- Crown) by the central government of British India under shall presents the interpretation (supported by many schol- the Viceroy; the remaining approximately 500 states were ars in India and the West) that the British were not in full dependents of the provincial governments of British India control but instead were players in what was primarily an under a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or Chief CommisIndian play and in which their rise to power depended upon sioner (as the case might have been).* [23] A clear distincexcellent co-operation with Indian elites.* [17] Marshall ad- tion between“dominion”and“suzerainty”was supplied by
34
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.* [23]
were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India (i.e. the presidencies and provinces), as they were not directly under British rule. The larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had; in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under 3.3.1 Major provinces British control.* [27] The British also exercised a general influence over the states' internal politics, in part through the Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the great At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of majority were very small and contracted out the business of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor government to the British. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 square kilometres (10 square or a Lieutenant-Governor. miles).* [26] During the partition of Bengal (1905–1913 ) the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was re- 3.3.4 Organization united with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.* [24] Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (usually called the Indian Mutiny by the British), the Government of India Act 1858 made changes in the governance of India at three lev3.3.2 Minor provinces els: In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a Chief Commissioner:* [25]
1. in the imperial government in London, 2. in the central government in Calcutta, and
3.3.3
Princely states
3. in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces).* [28]
Main article: Princely state A Princely State, also called a Native State or an Indian In London, it provided for a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India and a fifteen-member Council of India, whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before.* [29] Although the Secretary of State formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. The Act envisaged a system of “double government”in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. However, the Secretary of State also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated.* [30] From 1858 until 1947, twenty seven individuals served as Secretary of State for India and directed the India Office; these included: Sir Charles Wood (1859–1866), 1909 Map of the British Indian Empire, showing British India in Marquess of Salisbury (1874–1878; later Prime Minister of two shades of pink and the princely states in yellow. Britain), John Morley (1905–1910; initiator of the MintoMorley Reforms), E. S. Montagu (1917–1922; an archiState, was a nominally sovereign entity with an indigenous tect of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms), and Frederick Indian ruler, subject to a subsidiary alliance.* [26] There Pethick-Lawrence (1945–1947; head of the 1946 Cabinet
3.3. BRITISH INDIA AND THE PRINCELY STATES Mission to India). The size of the advisory Council was reduced over the next half-century, but its powers remained unchanged. In 1907, for the first time, two Indians were appointed to the Council.* [31] They were K.G. Gupta and Syed Hussain Bilgrami. In Calcutta, the Governor-General remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the Viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states; he was, however, now responsible to the Secretary of State in London and through him to Parliament. A system of “double government”had already been in place during the Company's rule in India from the time of Pitt's India Act of 1784. The Governor-General in the capital, Calcutta, and the Governor in a subordinate presidency (Madras or Bombay) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of “Governor-General-in-Council”(i.e. the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). The Company's system of“double government”had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been intermittent feuding between the Governor-General and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance.* [32] However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead, so he requested the“portfolio system”of an Executive Council in which the business of each government department (the“portfolio”) was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single council member.* [31] Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, but important decisions required the consent of the Governor-General and, in the absence of such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the Indian Councils Act 1861. If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed official) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed non-official) and serving only in an advisory capacity.* [33] All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the Secretary of State in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second Secretary of State, to describe the Government of India as“a despotism controlled from home”.* [31] Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls
35 after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by Sayyid Ahmad Khan, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative.* [34] Even so, the "... tiny advances in the practice of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion, which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion”.* [35] Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British Parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.* [36] With the promulgation of the Government of India Act 1935, the Council of India was abolished with effect from 1 April 1937 and a modified system of government enacted. The Secretary of State for India represented the Government of India in the UK. He was assisted by a body of advisers numbering from 8-12 individuals, at least half of whom were required to have held office in India for a minimum of 10 years, and had not relinquished office earlier than two years prior to their appointment as advisers to the Secretary of State.* [37] The Viceroy and Governor-General of India, a Crown appointee, typically held office for five years though there was no fixed tenure, and received an annual salary of Rs. 250,800 p.a. (£18,810 p.a.).* [37]* [38] He headed the Viceroy's Executive Council, each member of which had responsibility for a department of the central administration. From 1 April 1937, the position of Governor-General in Council, which the Viceroy and Governor-General concurrently held in the capacity of representing the Crown in relations with the Indian princely states, was replaced by the designation of “HM Representative for the Exercise of the Functions of the Crown in its Relations with the Indian States,”or the “Crown Representative.”The Executive Council was greatly expanded during the Second World War, and in 1947 comprised 14 Members (Secretaries), each of whom earned a salary of Rs. 66,000 p.a. (£4950 p.a.). The portfolios in 1946-1947 were: • External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations • Home and Information and Broadcasting • Food and Agriculture • Transport and Railways • Labour • Industries and Supplies, • Works, Mines and Power • Education • Defence
36 • Finance • Commerce • Communications • Health • Law Until 1946, the Viceroy held the portfolio for External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, as well as heading the Political Department in his capacity as the Crown Representative. Each department was headed by a Secretary excepting the Railway Department, which was headed by a Chief Commissioner of Railways under a Secretary.* [39] The Viceroy and Governor-General was also the head of the bicameral Indian Legislature, consisting of an upper house (the Council of State) and a lower house (the Legislative Assembly). The Viceroy was the head of the Council of State, while the Legislative Assembly, which was first opened in 1921, was headed by an elected President (appointed by the Viceroy from 1921-1925). The Council of State consisted of 58 members (32 elected, 26 nominated), while the Legislative Assembly comprised 141 members (26 nominated officials, 13 others nominated and 102 elected). The Council of State existed in five-year periods and the Legislative Assembly for three-year periods, though either could be dissolved earlier or later by the Viceroy. The Indian Legislature was empowered to make laws for all persons resident in British India including all British subjects resident in India, and for all British Indian subjects residing outside India. With the assent of the King-Emperor and after copies of a proposed enactment had been submitted to both houses of the British Parliament, the Viceroy could overrule the legislature and directly enact any measures in the perceived interests of British India or its residents if the need arose.* [40] Effective from 1 April 1936, the Government of India Act created the new provinces of Sind (separated from the Bombay Presidency) and Orissa (separated from the Province of Bihar and Orissa). Burma and Aden became separate Crown Colonies under the Act from 1 April 1937, thereby ceasing to be part of the Indian Empire. From 1937 onwards, British India was divided into 17 administrations: the three Presidencies of Madras, Bombay and Bengal, and the 14 provinces of the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Orissa, Sind, British Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Panth Piploda. The Presidencies and the first eight provinces were each under a Governor, while the latter six provinces were each under a Chief Commissioner. The Viceroy directly governed the Chief Commissioner provinces through each respective Chief Commis-
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ sioner, while the Presidencies and the provinces under Governors were allowed greater autonomy under the Government of India Act.* [41]* [42] Each Presidency or province headed by a Governor had either a provincial bicameral legislature (in the Presidencies, the United Provinces, Bihar and Assam) or a unicameral legislature (in the Punjab, Central Provinces and Berar, NWFP, Orissa and Sind). The Governor of each presidency or province represented the Crown in his capacity, and was assisted by a ministers appointed from the members of each provincial legislature. Each provincial legislature had a life of five years, barring any special circumstances such as wartime conditions. All bills passed by the provincial legislature were either signed or rejected by the Governor, who could also issue proclamations or promulgate ordinances while the legislature was in recess, as the need arose.* [42] Each province or presidency comprised a number of divisions, each headed by a Commissioner and subdivided into districts, which were the basic administrative units and each headed by a Collector and Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner; in 1947, British India comprised 230 districts.* [42]
3.4
1858–1914
Main article: History of the British Raj
3.4.1
Aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857: Indian critiques, British response
• Lakshmibai, The Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the Indian Mutiny of 1857, who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse. • Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founder of the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College, later the Aligarh Muslim University, wrote one of the early critiques, The Causes of the Indian Mutiny. • An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as Empress of India, 30 years after the Great Uprising. Although the Great Uprising of 1857 had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. After the rebellion, the British became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion, and from it three main lessons were drawn. At a more practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians—not just between British army officers and their Indian staff but in
3.4. 1858–1914 civilian life as well. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded.* [43] New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on, the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947.* [44] The 1861 Census had revealed that the English population in India was 125,945. Of these only about 41,862 were civilians as compared with about 84,083 European officers and men of the Army.* [45] In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 Natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.* [46]
37
3.4.2
Demographic history
Main articles: Demography of India, Demographics of Burma, Demographics of Pakistan and Demographics of Bangladesh The population of the territory that became the British Raj was 100 million by 1600 and remained nearly stationary until the 19th century. The population of the Raj reached 255 million according to the first census taken in 1881 of India.* [47]* [48]* [49]* [50] Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, growth rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Bombay, and Calcutta.* [51] Mortality rates fell in 1920-45 era, primarily due to biological immunization. Other factors included rising incomes and better living conditions, improved better nutrition, a safer and cleaner environmental, and better official health policies and medical care.* [52] Severe overcrowding in the cities caused major public health problems, as noted in an official report from 1938:* [53]
Viceroy Lord Canning meets Maharaja Ranbir Singh of Jammu & Kashmir, 9 March 1860.
It was also felt that both the princes and the large landholders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words, “breakwaters in a storm”.* [43] They too were rewarded in the new British Raj by being officially recognised in the treaties each state now signed with the Crown.* [44] At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land-reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh).* [44] Lastly, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until the rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on suttee by Lord William Bentinck.* [43] It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion.* [44]
In the urban and industrial areas ... cramped sites, the high values of land and the necessity for the worker to live in the vicinity of his work ... all tend to intensify congestion and overcrowding. In the busiest centres houses are built close together, eave touching eave, and frequently back to back .... Indeed space is so valuable that, in place of streets and roads, winding lanes provide the only approach to the houses. Neglect of sanitation is often evidenced by heaps of rotting garbage and pools of sewage, whilst the absence of latrines enhance the general pollution of air and soil.
3.4.3
Legal modernisation
Singha argues that after 1857 the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. New legislation merged the Crown and the old East India Company courts and introduced a new penal code as well as new codes of civil and criminal procedure, based largely on English law. In the 1860s–1880s the Raj set up compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages, as well as adoptions, property deeds, and wills. The goal was to create a stable, usable public record and verifiable identities. However, there was opposition from both Muslim and Hindu elements who complained that the new procedures for census-taking and
38
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
The University of Calcutta, established 1857, is one of the three oldest modern state universities in India.
Increasingly officials discovered that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily. There were few new social interventions, especially not in matters dealing with religion, even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows).* [44] Indeed, Murshid argues that women were in some ways more restricted by the modernisation of the laws. They remained tied to the strictures of their religion, caste, and customs, but now with an overlay of British Victorian attitudes. Their inheritance rights to own and manage property were curtailed; the new English laws were somewhat harsher. Court rulings restricted the rights of second wives and their children regarding inheritance. A woman had to belong to either a father or a husband to have any rights.* [55]
and 1835). Bentinck favoured the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for“useful learning.”However, Bentinck's proposals were rejected by London officials.* [56]* [57] Under Macaulay, thousands of elementary and secondary schools were opened though they usually had an all-male student body. Universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established in 1857, just before the Rebellion. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil service appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top-level positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree.* [58] The government, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 universities and colleges of higher education by 1911; they enrolled 36,000 students (over 90% men). By 1939 the number of institutions had doubled and enrolment reached 145,000. The curriculum followed classical British standards of the sort set by Oxford and Cambridge and stressed English literature and European history. Nevertheless, by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism.* [59]
3.4.4
3.4.5
Elephant Carriage of the Maharaja of Rewa, Delhi Durbar of 1903.
registration threatened to uncover female privacy. Purdah rules prohibited women from saying their husband's name or having their photograph taken. An all-India census was conducted between 1868 and 1871, often using total numbers of females in a household rather than individual names. Select groups which the Raj reformers wanted to monitor statistically included those reputed to practice female infanticide, prostitutes, lepers, and eunuchs.* [54]
Education
Main article: History of education in the Indian subcontinent § Colonial Era During the time of the East India Company, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing ideas previously put forward by Lord William Bentinck (the governor general between 1828
Economic history
The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%.* [60] The result was, on average, no long-term change in per capita income levels, though cost of living had grown higher. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw
3.4. 1858–1914
39 Railways
One Mohur depicting Queen Victoria (1862).
materials for Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee and tea.* [61] India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than 5% in the colonial period.* [62] Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school (following Nehru) arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.* [63] Extent of Great Indian Peninsular Railway network in 1870. The GIPR was one of the largest rail companies at that time.
Industry The entrepreneur Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.* [64] In the 1890s, he launched plans to move into heavy industry using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but, aware of Britain's declining position against the US and Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India. It promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell.* [65] The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), now headed by his son Dorabji Tata (1859– 1932), opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908. It used American technology, not British* [66] and became the leading iron and steel producer in India, with 120,000 employees in 1945. TISCO became India's proud symbol of technical skill, managerial competence, entrepreneurial flair, and high pay for industrial workers.* [67] The Tata family, like most of India's big businessmen, were Indian nationalists but did not trust the Congress because it seemed too aggressively hostile to the Raj, too socialist, and too supportive of trade unions.* [68]
The railway network in 1909, when it was the fourth largest railway network in the world.
British India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. The railways at first were privately owned and operated. It was run by British administrators, engineers and craftsmen. At first, only the unskilled workers were Indians.* [69] The East India Company (and later the colonial government) encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to five percent during the initial years of operation. The companies were to build and
40
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ GIPR and EIR were nationalised.* [75]* [76]
Headrick shows that until the 1930s, both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive engineers. The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms.* [76] The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair “The most magnificent railway station in the world.”says the locomotives. TISCO steel could not obtain orders for rails caption of the stereographic tourist picture of Victoria Terminus, until the war emergency.* [77] Bombay, which was completed in 1888.
The Second World War severely crippled the railways as rolling stock was diverted to the Middle East, and the operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the government railway* workshops were converted into munitions workshops. [78] After independence in 1947, forty-two separate having the option to buy them earlier.* [70] railway systems, including thirty-two lines owned by the Two new railway companies, Great Indian Peninsular Rail- former Indian princely states, were amalgamated to form way (GIPR) and East Indian Railway (EIR) began in 1853– a single nationalised unit named the Indian Railways. 54 to construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta. The first passenger railway line in North India between Al- India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well built system delahabad and Kanpur opened in 1859. signed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857), with In 1854, Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the overbuilt and too expensive for the small amount of freight principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government traffic it carried. However, it did capture the imagination of guarantees, investment flowed in and a series of new rail the Indians, who saw their railways as the symbol of an incompanies were established, leading to rapid expansion of dustrial modernity—but one that was not realised until after the rail system in India.* [71] Soon several large princely Independence. Christensen (1996), who looked at colonial states built their own rail systems and the network spread to purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versusthe regions that became the modern-day states of Assam, public interests, concluded that making the railways a creaRajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The route mileage of this ture of the state hindered success because railway expenses network increased from 1,349 kilometres (838 mi) in 1860 had to go through the same time-consuming and political to 25,495 kilometres (15,842 mi) in 1880, mostly radiating budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of and Calcutta.* [72] the railways or their passengers.* [79] Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers.* [73] The system Irrigation was heavily built, using a wide gauge, sturdy tracks and strong bridges. By 1900 India had a full range of rail serMain article: Irrigation in India vices with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, metre and narrow gauge networks. In 1900, the government took over the GIPR network, while the com- The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including pany continued to manage it.* [73] During the First World canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegWar, the railways were used to transport troops and grains raphy, roads and ports.* [80]* [81]* [82] The Ganges Canal to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, reached 350 miles from Hardwar to Cawnpore, and supMesopotamia, and East Africa. With shipments of equip- plied thousands of miles of distribution canals. By 1900 ment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became the Raj had the largest irrigation system in the world. One much more difficult; critical workers entered the army; success story was Assam, a jungle in 1840 that by 1900 had workshops were converted to making artillery; some loco- 4,000,000 acres under cultivation, especially in tea plantamotives and cars were shipped to the Middle East. The rail- tions. In all, the amount of irrigated land multiplied by a ways could barely keep up with the increased demand.* [74] factor of eight. Historian David Gilmour says: By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated for lack of maintenance and were not profitable. In 1923, both By the 1870s the peasantry in the districts irri-
3.4. 1858–1914 gated by the Ganges Canal were visibly better fed, housed and dressed than before; by the end of the century the new network of canals in the Punjab at producing even more prosperous peasantry there.* [83] Policies In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British Crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain.* [84] In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological revolution underway in Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England.* [85] Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back, just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. Massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government railway jobs and pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil service for the first time. The Indian Civil Service was prestigious and paid well, but it remained politically neutral.* [86] Imports of British cotton covered 55% of the Indian market by 1875.* [87] Industrial production as it developed in European factories was unknown until the 1850s when the first cotton mills were opened in Bombay, posing a challenge to the cottage-based home production system based on family labour.* [88]
41 of India's population; with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national income during Mogul times compared with 1% at the end of the colonial period. The percentage of national income for the village economy increased from 44% during Mogul times to 54% by the end of colonial period. India's per capita GDP decreased from $550 in 1700 to $520 by 1857, although it later increased to $618, by 1947.* [89]
3.4.6
1860s–1890s: New middle class, Indian National Congress
By 1880, a new middle class had arisen in India and spread thinly across the country.* [90] Moreover, there was a growing solidarity among its members, created by the “joint stimuli of encouragement and irritation.”* [90] The encouragement felt by this class came from its success in education and its ability to avail itself of the benefits of that education such as employment in the Indian Civil Service.* [91] It came too from Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858 in which she had declared, “We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects.”* [92] Indians were especially encouraged when Canada was granted dominion status in 1867 and established an autonomous democratic constitution.* [92] Lastly, the encouragement came from the work of contemporaneous Oriental scholars like Monier Monier-Williams and Max Müller, who in their works had been presenting ancient India as a great civilisation.* [90] Irritation, on the other hand, came not just from incidents of racial discrimination at the hands of the British in India, but also from governmental actions like the use of Indian troops in imperial campaigns (e.g. in the Second Anglo-Afghan War) and the attempts to control the vernacular press (e.g. in the Vernacular Press Act of 1878).* [90] It was, however, Viceroy Lord Ripon's partial reversal of the Ilbert Bill (1883), a legislative measure that had proposed putting Indian judges in the Bengal Presidency on equal footing with British ones, that transformed the discontent into political action.* [91] On 28 December 1885, professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class—many educated at the new British-founded universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers, especially the utilitarians assembled in Bombay. The seventy men founded the Indian National Congress; Womesh Chandra Bonerjee was elected the first president. The membership comprised a westernised elite, and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base.
During its first twenty years, the Congress primarily debated British policy toward India; however, its debates created a Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most new Indian outlook that held Great Britain responsible for The Queen's Own Madras Sappers and Miners, 1896
42
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
draining India of its wealth. Britain did this, the nationalists claimed, by unfair trade, by the restraint on indigenous Indian industry, and by the use of Indian taxes to pay the high salaries of the British civil servants in India.* [93]
3.4.7
Commerce and Industry Department; promotion of industry; revised land revenue policies; lowering taxes; setting up agricultural banks; creating an Agricultural Department; sponsoring agricultural research; establishing an Imperial Library; creating an Imperial Cadet Corps; new famine codes; and, indeed, reducing the smoke nuisance in Cal1870s–1907: Social reformers, moder- cutta.* [99]
ates vs. extremists Thomas Baring was appointed by Prime Minister William E. Gladstone as Viceroy of India 1872-1876. Baring's major accomplishments came as an energetic reformer who was dedicated to upgrading the quality of government in the British Raj. He began large scale famine relief, reduced taxes, and overcame bureaucratic obstacles in an effort to reduce both starvation and widespread social unrest.* [94] Social reform was in the air by the 1880s. For example, Pandita Ramabai, poet, Sanskrit scholar, and a champion of the emancipation of Indian women, took up the cause of widow remarriage, especially of Brahamin widows, later converted to Christianity.* [95] By 1900 reform movements had taken root within the Indian National Congress. Congress member Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society, which lobbied for legislative reform (for example, for a law to permit the remarriage of Hindu child widows), and whose members took vows of poverty, and worked among the untouchable community.* [96]
Trouble emerged for Curzon when he divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the Bengal Province, into the Muslim-majority province of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the Hindu-majority province of West Bengal (present-day Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha). Curzon's act, the Partition of Bengal —which some considered administratively felicitous, communally charged, sowed the seeds of division among Indians in Bengal and, which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, but never acted upon—was to transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly.* [100]
The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (the Bhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi (“buy Indian”) camBy 1905, a deep gulf opened between the moderates, led paign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath * by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new Banerjee, and involved boycott of British goods. [101] “extremists”who not only advocated agitation, but also re- The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan garded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from Bande Mataram (“Hail to the Mother”), which invoked a nationalism. Prominent among the extremists was Bal Gan- mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and gadhar Tilak, who attempted to mobilise Indians by appeal- the Hindu goddess Kali. Sri Aurobindo never went beyond ing to an explicitly Hindu political identity, displayed, for the law when he edited the Bande Mataram magazine; it example, in the annual public Ganapati festivals that he in- preached independence but within the bounds of peace as augurated in western India.* [97] far as possible. Its goal was Passive Resistance.* [102] The
3.4.8
Partition of Bengal (1905–1911)
Main article: Partition of Bengal (1905) The then Viceroy, Lord Curzon (1899–1905) was unusually energetic in pursuit of efficiency and reform.* [98] His agenda included the creation of the North-West Frontier Province; small changes in the Civil Service; speeding up the operations of the secretariat; setting up a gold standard to ensure a stable currency; creation of a Railway Board; irrigation reform; reduction of peasant debts; lowering the cost of telegrams; archaeological research and the preservation of antiquities; improvements in the universities; police reforms; upgrading the roles of the Native States; a new
unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when students returned home to their villages and towns. Some engaged in robbery to fund terrorist activities such as bombing public buildings, but the conspiracies generally failed in the face of intense police work.* [103] The Swadeshi boycott movement cut imports of British textiles by 25%. The swadeshi cloth, although more expensive and somewhat less comfortable than its Lancashire competitor, was worn as a mark of national pride by people all over India.* [104]
3.5. 1914–1947
3.4.9
1906–1909: Muslim League, Minto- Indian Army took part in the war, primarily in Iraq and the Middle East. Their participation had a wider cultural Morley reforms
Main article: All-India Muslim League The Hindu protests against the partition of Bengal led the Muslim elite in India to organise in 1906 the All India Muslim League. The League favoured the partition of Bengal, since it gave them a Muslim majority in the eastern half. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased. The Muslim elite, including Dacca Nawab and Khwaja Salimullah, expected that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.* [105] The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members. The Indian Councils Act 1909, known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Minto was viceroy) – gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures. Upper class Indians, rich landowners and businessmen were favoured. The Muslim community was made a separate electorate and granted double representation. The goals were quite conservative but they did advance the elective principle.* [106] The partition of Bengal was rescinded in 1911 and announced at the Delhi Durbar at which King George V came in person and was crowned Emperor of India. He announced the capital would be moved from Calcutta to Delhi, a Moslem stronghold. Morley was especially vigilant in crushing revolutionary groups.* [107]
3.5 1914–1947 3.5.1
43
1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact
The First World War would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Shortly prior to the outbreak of war, the Government of India had indicated that they could furnish two divisions plus a cavalry brigade, with a further division in case of emergency.* [108] Some 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British
fallout as news spread how bravely soldiers fought and died alongside British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia.* [109] India's international profile rose during the 1920s, as it became a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participated, under the name, “Les Indes Anglaises”(British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.* [110] Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, the war led to calls for greater self-government for Indians.* [109]
After the 1906 split between the moderates and the extremists, organised political activity by the Congress had remained fragmented until 1914, when Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison and began to sound out other Congress leaders about possible re-unification. That, however, had to wait until the demise of Tilak's principal moderate opponents, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta, in 1915, whereupon an agreement was reached for Tilak's ousted group to re-enter the Congress.* [109] In the 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress, Tilak's supporters were able to push through a more radical resolution which asked for the British to declare that it was their, “aim and intention ... to confer self-government on India at an early date.”* [109] Soon, other such rumblings began to appear in public pronouncements: in 1917, in the Imperial Legislative Council, Madan Mohan Malaviya spoke of the expectations the war had generated in India, “I venture to say that the war has put the clock ... fifty years forward ... (The) reforms after the war will have to be such, ... as will satisfy the aspirations of her (India's) people to take their legitimate part in the administration of their own country.” * [109] The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Turkish Sultan, or Khalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the “religious neutrality”of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.* [111] In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following
44 among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of“Young Party”Muslims from the United Provinces (UP), most prominently, two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali, who had embraced the PanIslamic cause;* [111] however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal, nonetheless, at the time, the“Lucknow Pact”, was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British.* [111] During 1916, two Home Rule Leagues were founded within the Indian National Congress by Tilak and Annie Besant, respectively, to promote Home Rule among Indians, and also to elevate the stature of the founders within the Congress itself.* [112] Mrs. Besant, for her part, was also keen to demonstrate the superiority of this new form of organised agitation, which had achieved some success in the Irish home rule movement, to the political violence that had intermittently plagued the subcontinent during the years 1907–1914.* [112] The two Leagues focused their attention on complementary geographical regions: Tilak's in western India, in the southern Bombay presidency, and Mrs. Besant's in the rest of the country, but especially in the Madras Presidency and in regions like Sind and Gujarat that had hitherto been considered politically dormant by the Congress.* [112] Both leagues rapidly acquired new members – approximately thirty thousand each in a little over a year – and began to publish inexpensive newspapers. Their propaganda also turned to posters, pamphlets, and political-religious songs, and later to mass meetings, which not only attracted greater numbers than in earlier Congress sessions, but also entirely new social groups such as nonBrahmins, traders, farmers, students, and lower-level government workers.* [112] Although they did not achieve the magnitude or character of a nationwide mass movement, the Home Rule leagues both deepened and widened organised political agitation for self-rule in India. The British authorities reacted by imposing restrictions on the Leagues, including shutting out students from meetings and banning the two leaders from travelling to certain provinces.* [112] The year 1915 also saw the return of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to India. Already known in India as a result of his civil liberties protests on behalf of the Indians in South Africa, Gandhi followed the advice of his mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale and chose not to make any public pronouncements during the first year of his return, but instead spent the year travelling, observing the country first-hand, and writing.* [113] Earlier, during his
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ South Africa sojourn, Gandhi, a lawyer by profession, had represented an Indian community, which, although small, was sufficiently diverse to be a microcosm of India itself. In tackling the challenge of holding this community together and simultaneously confronting the colonial authority, he had created a technique of non-violent resistance, which he labelled Satyagraha (or, Striving for Truth).* [114] For Gandhi, Satyagraha was different from "passive resistance", by then a familiar technique of social protest, which he regarded as a practical strategy adopted by the weak in the face of superior force; Satyagraha, on the other hand, was for him the “last resort of those strong enough in their commitment to truth to undergo suffering in its cause.” * [114] Ahimsa or “non-violence”, which formed the underpinning of Satyagraha, came to represent the twin pillar, with Truth, of Gandhi's unorthodox religious outlook on life.* [114] During the years 1907–1914, Gandhi tested the technique of Satyagraha in a number of protests on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa against the unjust racial laws.* [114] Also, during his time in South Africa, in his essay, Hind Swaraj, (1909), Gandhi formulated his vision of Swaraj, or “self-rule”for India based on three vital ingredients: solidarity between Indians of different faiths, but most of all between Hindus and Muslims; the removal of untouchability from Indian society; and the exercise of swadeshi – the boycott of manufactured foreign goods and the revival of Indian cottage industry.* [113] The first two, he felt, were essential for India to be an egalitarian and tolerant society, one befitting the principles of Truth and Ahimsa, while the last, by making Indians more self-reliant, would break the cycle of dependence that was not only perpetrating the direction and tenor of the British rule in India, but also the British commitment to it.* [113] At least until 1920, the British presence itself, was not a stumbling block in Gandhi's conception of swaraj; rather, it was the inability of Indians to create a modern society.* [113]
3.5.2
1917–1919: Chelmsford Bagh
Satyagraha, Montagureforms, Jallianwalla
Gandhi made his political debut in India in 1917 in Champaran district in Bihar, near the Nepal border, where he was invited by a group of disgruntled tenant farmers who, for many years, had been forced into planting indigo (for dyes) on a portion of their land and then selling it at below-market prices to the British planters who had leased them the land.* [116] Upon his arrival in the district, Gandhi was joined by other agitators, including a young Congress leader, Rajendra Prasad, from Bihar, who would become a loyal supporter of Gandhi and go on to play a prominent role
3.5. 1914–1947
45
Gandhi at the time of the Kheda Satyagraha, 1918
in the Indian independence movement. When Gandhi was ordered to leave by the local British authorities, he refused on moral grounds, setting up his refusal as a form of individual Satyagraha. Soon, under pressure from the Viceroy in Delhi who was anxious to maintain domestic peace during war-time, the provincial government rescinded Gandhi's expulsion order, and later agreed to an official enquiry into the case. Although, the British planters eventually gave in, they were not won over to the farmers' cause, and thereby did not produce the optimal outcome of a Satyagraha that Gandhi had hoped for; similarly, the farmers themselves, although pleased at the resolution, responded less than enthusiastically to the concurrent projects of rural empowerment and education that Gandhi had inaugurated in keeping with his ideal of swaraj. The following year Gandhi launched two more Satyagrahas – both in his native Gujarat – one in the rural Kaira district where land-owning farmers were protesting increased land-revenue and the other in the city of Ahmedabad, where workers in an Indian-owned textile mill were distressed about their low wages. The satyagraha in Ahmedabad took the form of Gandhi fasting and supporting the workers in a strike, which eventually led to
Edwin Montagu, left, the Secretary of State for India, whose report, led to the Government of India Act 1919, also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
a settlement. In Kaira, in contrast, although the farmers' cause received publicity from Gandhi's presence, the satyagraha itself, which consisted of the farmers' collective decision to withhold payment, was not immediately successful, as the British authorities refused to back down. The agitation in Kaira gained for Gandhi another lifelong lieutenant in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who had organised the farmers, and who too would go on to play a leadership role in the Indian independence movement.* [117] Champaran, Kaira, and Ahmedabad were important milestones in the history of Gandhi's new methods of social protest in India. In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realisation,
46
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ gressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.”* [118] Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.
Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia, had led the previous Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the “risks involved in denuding India of troops.”* [109] Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently, in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act, which allowed it to intern politiHeadlines about the Rowlatt Bills (1919) from a nationalist news- cally dangerous dissidents without due process, and added paper in India. Although all non-official Indians on the Legislative to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – Council voted against the Rowlatt Bills, the government was able to both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the force their passage by using its majority.* [115] press.* [119] It was under the Defence of India act that the Ali brothers were imprisoned in 1916, and Annie Besant, a European woman, and ordinarily more problematic to imprison, in 1917.* [119] Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and, simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists, and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its war-time powers could be extended into peace time.* [119] The Jallianwalla Bagh in 1919, a few months after the massacre which had occurred on 13 April
after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion.* [118] Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but, most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of“increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the pro-
Consequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu, announced the new constitutional reforms, a committee chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating “revolutionary conspiracies”, with the unstated goal of extending the government's war-time powers.* [118] The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab.* [118] To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war-time authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects,* [118] and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.* [115] With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By the end of 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war.* [120] The increased taxes
3.5. 1914–1947 coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920.* [120] Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis,* [121] and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces,* [121] a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation.* [120] The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes,* [121] and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.* [122] To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills.* [115] Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration,“I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary.”* [118] In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was, nevertheless, able to use of its“official majority” to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919.* [118] However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of“anarchical and revolutionary movements”, dropping entirely the second bill involving modification the Indian Penal Code.* [118] Even so, when it was passed, the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India, and brought Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.* [115] Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.* [123] After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919.* [123] The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the“official majority”in unfavourable votes.* [123] Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces.* [123] The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like ed-
47 ucation, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.* [123] The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps. A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.* [123] In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.* [123] Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of “communal representation”, an integral part of the Minto-Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils.* [123] The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.* [123] Its scope was unsatisfactory to the Indian political leadership, famously expressed by Annie Beasant as something “unworthy of England to offer and India to accept”.* [124] The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or “Amritsar massacre”, took place in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of Amritsar. After days of unrest Brigadier-General Reginald E.H. Dyer forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men, women, and children without warning. Casualty estimates vary widely, with the Government of India reporting 379 dead, with 1,100 wounded.* [125] The Indian National Congress estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj.* [126] Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India.* [127]
48
3.5.3
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
1920s: Non-cooperation, Khilafat, Si- they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provinmon Commission, Jinnah's fourteen cial governments to hand back confiscated land. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the Quit points
India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly In 1920, after the British government refused to back down, disappearing in much of the countryside.* [130] Gandhi began his campaign of non-cooperation, prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours, to re- In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament sign from civil service, and to again boycott British goods. passed the Government of India Act 1935, which authoIn addition, Gandhi reorganised the Congress, transform- rised the establishment of independent legislative asseming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to blies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a ceneven the poorest Indians. Although Gandhi halted the non- tral government incorporating both the British provinces cooperation movement in 1922 after the violent incident at and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim miChauri Chaura, the movement revived again, in the mid- norities. The future Constitution of independent India was 1920s. based on this act.* [131] However, it divided the electorate The visit, in 1928, of the British Simon Commission, into 19 religious and social categories, e.g., Moslems, Sikhs, charged with instituting constitutional reform in India, re- Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, Landholders, Comsulted in widespread protests throughout the country.* [128] merce and Industry, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, etc., each Earlier, in 1925, non-violent protests of the Congress had of which was given separate representation in the Provinresumed too, this time in Gujarat, and led by Patel, who or- cial Legislative Assemblies. A voter could cast a vote only ganised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes; for candidates in his own category. the success of this protest, the Bardoli Satyagraha, brought The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian Gandhi back into the fold of active politics.* [128] provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the 3.5.4 1929–1937: Round Table conferences, rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. These states remained under the full control of their Government of India Act hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare At its annual session in Lahore, the Indian National for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership * Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, issued from 473,000 in 1935 to 4.5 million in 1939. [132] a demand for Purna Swaraj (Hindi: “complete indepen- In the 1937 elections Congress won victories in seven dence”), or Purna Swarajya. The declaration was drafted of the eleven provinces of British India.* [133] Congress by the Congress Working Committee, which included governments, with wide powers, were formed in these Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. provinces. The widespread voter support for the Indian NaGandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil tional Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had disobedience, culminating in 1930 with the Salt Satyagraha, seen the Congress as a small elitist body.* [134] in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt, by marching to the sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Although, many, including Gandhi, were 3.5.5 1938–1941: World War II, Muslim arrested, the British government eventually gave in, and in League's Lahore Resolution 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the Round Table Conferences. While the Muslim League was a small elite group in 1927 In local terms, British control rested on the Indian Civil Service, but it faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and the continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was loyal divided between the Empire and independence.* [129] The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937
with only 1300 members, it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses, reaching 500,000 members in Bengal in 1944, 200,000 in Punjab, and hundreds of thousands elsewhere.* [135] Jinnah now was well positioned to negotiate with the British from a position of power.* [136] With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces, Bengal, Sind and the Punjab.* [137]
3.5. 1914–1947 Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. On 24 March 1940 in Lahore, the League passed the "Lahore Resolution", demanding that, “the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the NorthWestern and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.”Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Ab'ul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A. K. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal, Sikander Hyat Khan of the landlord-dominated Punjab Unionist Party, and Abd al-Ghaffar Khan of the pro-Congress Khudai Khidmatgar (popularly, “red shirts”) in the North West Frontier Province, the British, over the next six years, were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.* [138]
49 Africa. Casualties were moderate (in terms of the world war), with 24,000 killed; 64,000 wounded; 12,000 missing (probably dead), and 60,000 captured at Singapore in 1942.* [142]* [143] London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army, which had the effect of erasing India's national debt. It ended the war with a surplus of £1,300 million. In addition, heavy British spending on munitions produced in India (such as uniforms, rifles, machine-guns, field artillery, and ammunition) led to a rapid expansion of industrial output, such as textiles (up 16%), steel (up 18%), chemicals (up 30%). Small warships were built, and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. The railway system, with 700,000 employees, was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared.* [144]
3.5.6
1942–1945: Cripps mission, Quit India Resolution, INA
The Congress was secular and strongly opposed having any religious state.* [135] It insisted there was a natural unity to India, and repeatedly blamed the British for “divide and rule”tactics based on prompting Muslims to think of themselves as alien from Hindus. Jinnah rejected the notion of a united India, and emphasised that religious communities were more basic than an artificial nationalism. He proclaimed the Two-Nation Theory,* [139] stating at Lahore on 22 March 1940: “Islam and Hinduism ... are not religions in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, litterateurs. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different ... To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state.”* [140] While the regular Indian army in 1939 included about 220,000 native troops, it expanded tenfold during the war* [141] and small naval and air force units were created. Over two million Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army. They played a major role in numerous campaigns, especially in the Middle East and North
Subhas Chandra Bose (second from left) with Heinrich Himmler (right), 1942.
The British government sent the Cripps' mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended. Top officials in Britain, most notably Prime Minister Winston Churchill, did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.* [145] Congress launched the“Quit India”movement in July 1942 demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national, provincial and local Congress leaders, holding tens of thousands of them until 1945. The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. The large war-time British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks;* [146] nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.* [146] In other
50
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive, however it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943. It did not slow down the British war effort or recruiting for the army.* [147] Earlier, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the Indian National Congress in the late 1920s and 1930s, had risen to become Congress President from 1938 to 1939.* [148] However, he was ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the high command,* [149] and subsequently placed under house arrest by the British before escaping from India in early 1941.* [150] He turned to Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan for help in gaining India's independence by force.* [151] With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured by the Japanese in the Battle of Singapore. As the war turned against them, the Japanese came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, and in addition, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind, presided by Bose.* [151] Bose's effort, however, was short lived. In 1945 the British army first halted and then reversed the Japanese U-Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose's Indian National Army was driven down the Malay Peninsula, and surrendered with the recapture of Singapore. Bose died soon thereafter from third degree burns received after attempting to escape in an overloaded Japanese plane which crashed in Taiwan,* [152] which many Indians believe did not happen.* [153]* [154]* [155] Although Bose was unsuccessful, he roused patriotic feelings in India.* [156]
3.5.7
1946: Elections, Cabinet mission, Direct Action Day
See also: Interim Government of India In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.* [157] The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.* [157] Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of
Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India meeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Far left is Lord Pethick Lawrence; far right is Sir Stafford Cripps.
Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers.* [158] The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences, created positive propaganda for the Congress, which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.* [159] The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout British India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.* [160]
3.5.8
1947: Planning for partition
Later that year, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, and conscious that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India,* [161] By the end of 1945, he and the Commander-inChief of India, General Auckinleck were advising that there was a real threat in 1946 of largescale anti-British disorder amounting to even a well-organised rising aiming to expel the British by paralysing the administration.* [137]* [162]
3.5. 1914–1947
51 longer the resources, nor the necessary prestige or confidence in ourselves.* [163] decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.* [137]
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.* [162] In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Sardar Patel, Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad Percentage of Hindus by district. Map of British Indian Empire, on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Mus1909. lim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi's views.* [137] The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new nation of India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslimmajority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.* [164]
3.5.9
1947: Violence, partition, independence
On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan (later IsPercentage of Muslims by district. Map of British Indian Empire, lamic Republic of Pakistan) came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in 1909. Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, the Union of India, (later Republic of India) came into be...it was clear to Attlee that everything depended on the ing with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi and spirit and reliability of the Indian Army: Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its “Provided that they do their duty, armed insurfirst Governor General.* [165] rection in India would not be an insoluble probThe great majority of Indians remained in place with indelem.* [137] If, however, the Indian Army was to pendence, but in border areas millions of people (Muslim, go the other way, the picture would be very difSikh, and Hindu) relocated across the newly drawn borders. ferent ... In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh reThus, Wavell concluded, if the army and the police“failed” gions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and BiBritain would be forced to go. In theory, it might be possible har, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, to revive and reinvigorate the services, and rule for another the violence was more limited. In all, somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borfifteen to twenty years, but: ders, among both the refugee and resident populations of It is a fallacy to suppose that the solution lies the three faiths, died in the violence.* [166] Other estimates in trying to maintain status quo. We have no of the number of deaths are as high as 1,500,000.
52
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
3.6 Ideological impact
1876–1878.* [188]
At independence and since India has maintained such central British institutions as parliamentary government, oneperson, one-vote and the rule of law through nonpartisan courts.* [15] They retained as well the institutional arrangements of the Raj such as district administration, universities and stock exchanges. One major change was the rejection of separate princely states. Metcalf shows that over the course of two centuries, British intellectuals and Indian specialists made the highest priority bringing peace, unity and good government to India.* [167] They offered many competing methods to reach the goal. For example, Cornwallis recommended turning Bengali Zamindar into the sort of English landlords that controlled local affairs in England.* [167] Munro proposed to deal directly with the peasants. Sir William Jones and the Orientalists promoted Sanskrit, while Macaulay promoted the English language.* [168] Zinkin argues that in the long-run, what matters most about the legacy of the Raj is the British political ideologies which the Indians took over after 1947, especially the belief in unity, democracy, the rule of law and a certain equality beyond caste and creed.* [167] Zinkin sees this not just in the Congress party but also among Hindu Nationalists in the Bharatiya Janata Party, which specifically emphasises Hindu traditions.* [169]* [170]
3.7 Famines, health
epidemics,
public
Main article: Famine in India § British rule See also: Category:Famines in British India.
Having been criticised for the badly bungled relief-effort during the Orissa famine of 1866,* [189] British authorities began to discuss famine policy soon afterwards, and in early 1868 Sir William Muir, Lieutenant-Governor of the North Western Provinces, issued a famous order stating that:* [190] "... every District officer would be held personally responsible that no deaths occurred from starvation which could have been avoided by any exertion or arrangement on his part or that of his subordinates.” The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.* [191] Estimated deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917.* [192] The Third Pandemic of plague started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading disease to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.* [193] Waldemar Haffkine, who mainly worked in India, became the first microbiologist to develop and deploy vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the Haffkine Institute. Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century.* [194] Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta, finally proved in 1898 that mosquitoes transmit malaria, while on assignment in the Deccan at Secunderabad, where the Center for Tropical and Communicable Diseases is now named in his honour.* [195]
In 1881, around 120,000 leprosy patients existed in India. The central government passed the Lepers Act of 1898, which provided legal provision for forcible confinement of leprosy sufferers in India.* [196] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination.* [197] Mass vaccination in India resulted in a major decline in smallpox mortality by the end of the 19th century.* [198] In 1849 nearly 13% of all Famines in India (Estimated deaths in millions) Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox.* [199] Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from * During the British Raj, India experienced some of the smallpox. [200] worst famines ever recorded, including the Great Famine Sir Robert Grant directed his attention to establishing a sysof 1876–1878, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people tematic institution in Bombay for imparting medical knowldied* [185] and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which edge to the natives.* [201] In 1860, Grant Medical Col1.25 to 10 million people died.* [186] Recent research, in- lege became one of the four recognised colleges for teachcluding work by Mike Davis and Amartya Sen,* [187] argue ing courses leading to degrees (alongside Elphinstone Colthat famines in India were made more severe British policy lege, Deccan College and Government Law College, Mumin India. An El Niño event caused the Indian famine of bai).* [17]
According to Angus Maddison, “The British contributed to public health by introducing smallpox vaccination, establishing Western medicine and training modern doctors, by killing rats, and establishing quarantine procedures. As a result, the death rate fell and the population of India grew by 1947 to more than two-and-a- half times its size in 1757.” * [171]
3.9. NOTES AND REFERENCES
3.8 See also • List of Governors-General of India
53
[10] Subodh Kapoor (January 2002). The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious ..., Volume 6. Cosmo Publications. p. 1599. ISBN 81-7755-257-0.
• Company rule in India
[11] Codrington, 1926, Chapter X:Transition to British administration
• Indian independence movement
[12] “Nepal.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
• Western imperialism in Asia
[13] “Bhutan.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
• Interim Government of India • Colonial India • Glossary of the British Raj (Urdu words)
[14]“Sikkim.”Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 August 2007 . [15] “Britain in India, Ideology and Economics to 1900”. Fsmitha. F. Smith. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
[1] Interpretation Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 63), s. 18.
[16] Rajat Kanta Ray, “Indian Society and the Establishment of British Supremacy, 1765–1818”, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: vol. 2, “The Eighteenth Century”ed. by P. J. Marshall, (1998), pp. 508–29
[2] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: from Skr. rāj: to reign, rule; cognate with L. rēx, rēg-is, OIr. rī, rīg king (see RICH).
[17] “IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE ON INDIA: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL (1757–1857)" (PDF). Nios.ac.uk. NIOS. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
[3] Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition (June 2008), on-line edition (September 2011): “spec. In full British Raj. Direct rule in India by the British (1858–1947); this period of dominion.”
[18] P.J. Marshall, “The British in Asia: Trade to Dominion, 1700–1765”, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: vol. 2, The Eighteenth Century”ed. by P. J. Marshall, (1998), pp. 487–507
[4] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989. Examples: 1955 Times 25 Aug 9/7 It was effective against the British raj in India, and the conclusion drawn here is that the British knew that they were wrong. 1969 R. MILLAR Kut xv. 288 Sir Stanley Maude had taken command in Mesopotamia, displacing the raj of antique Indian Army commanders. 1975 H. R. ISAACS in H. M. Patel et al. Say not the Struggle Nought Availeth 251 The post-independence régime in all its incarnations since the passing of the British Raj.
[19] “India”. World Digital Library. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
3.9 Notes and references
[5] [6]
[7] [8]
[9]
[20] 1. Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume IV, published under the authority of the Secretary of State for India-in-Council, 1909, Oxford University Press. page 5. Quote: “The history of British India falls, as observed by Sir C. P. Ilbert in his Government of India, into three periods. From the beginning of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century the East India Company is a trading corporation, existing on the sufferance of the native powers and in rivalry The names “Empire of India”and “Federation of India” with the merchant companies of Holland and France. Durwere also in use. ing the next century the Company acquires and consolidates its dominion, shares its sovereignty in increasing proportions Mansergh, Nicholas, Constitutional relations between Britain with the Crown, and gradually loses its mercantile privileges and India, London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, p. xxx, and functions. After the mutiny of 1857 the remaining powretrieved 19 September 2013 Quote: India Executive Couners of the Company are transferred to the Crown, and then cil: Sir Ramaswami Mudaliar, Sir Firoz Khan Noon and Sir follows an era of peace in which India awakens to new life V. T. Krishnamachari served as India's delegates to the Lonand progress.”2. The Statutes: From the Twentieth Year of don Commonwealth Meeting, April 1945, and the U.N. San King Henry the Third to the ... by Robert Harry Drayton, Francisco Conference on International Organisation, April– Statutes of the Realm – Law – 1770 Page 211 (3) “Save as June 1945.” otherwise expressly provided in this Act, the law of British India and of the several parts thereof existing immediately Kaul, Chandrika. “From Empire to Independence: The before the appointed ...”3. Edney, M.E. (1997) Mapping British Raj in India 1858–1947”. Retrieved 3 March 2011. an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765–1843, University of Chicago Press. 480 pages. “The Geography of British India, Political & Physical ISBN 978-0-226-18488-3 4. Hawes, C.J. (1996) Poor Re(1882)". Archive.org. UK Archives. Retrieved 2 August lations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British In2014. dia, 1773–1833. Routledge, 217 pages. ISBN 978-0-7007Marshall (2001), p. 384 0425-5.
54
[21] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. II 1908, p. 463,470 Quote1: “Before passing on to the political history of British India, which properly begins with the Anglo-French Wars in the Carnatic, ... (p.463)" Quote2: “The political history of the British in India begins in the eighteenth century with the French Wars in the Carnatic. (p.471)"
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
[45] European Madness and Gender in Nineteenth-century British India. Social History of Medicine 1996 9(3):357– 382. [46] Robinson, Ronald Edward, & John Gallagher. 1968. Africa and the Victorians: The Climax of Imperialism. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday
[22] British Indian Passport of Muhammad Ali Jinnah [23] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 60 [24] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 46 [25] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1907, p. 56 [26] Markovits, Claude (2004). A history of modern India, 1480– 1950. Anthem Press. pp. 386–409. ISBN 9781843310044. [27] “Provinces of British India”. Worldstatesmen.org. Worldstatesmen. Retrieved 2 August 2014. [28] Robin J. Moore,“Imperial India, 1858–1914”, pp 422–46 [29] Moore, “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, p. 424 [30] Brown 1994, p. 96 [31] Moore, “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, p. 426 [32] Moore 2001a, p. 426 [33] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 104 [34] Peers 2006, p. 76 [35] Bayly 1990, p. 195 [36] Peers 2006, p. 72, Bayly 1990, p. 72 [37] pg 103-105, “India – Government and Constitution,”The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmillan, New York
[47] Anatole Romaniuk,“Glimpses of Indian Historical Demography.”Canadian Studies in Population 40.3-4 (2014): 248251. Online [48] Parameswara Krishnan, Glimpses of Indian Historical Demography (Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation 2010) ISBN 978-8176466387 [49] Kingsley Davis, The Population of India and Pakistan (Princeton University Press, 1951). [50] Kingsley Davis,“The population of India.”Far Eastern Survey (1943): 76-79. in JSTOR [51] J.H. Khan,“Population growth and demographic change in India,”Asian Profile (2004) 32#5 pp 441-460 [52] Ira Klein, “Population growth and mortality in British India: Part II: The demographic revolution,”Indian Economic Social History Review (1990) 27#1 pp 33-63 doi: 10.1177/001946469002700102 Online [53] Klein, “Population growth and mortality in British India: Part II: The demographic revolution,”p 42 [54] Radhika Singha, “Colonial Law and Infrastructural Power: Reconstructing Community, Locating the Female Subject” , Studies in History, (Feb 2003), 19#1 pp. 87–126 online [55] Tazeen M. Murshid, “Law and Female Autonomy in Colonial India”, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh: Humanities, (June 2002), 47#1 pp. 25–42
[38] pg 133-134, “India – Currency, Weights and Measures,” The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmil- [56] Suresh Chandra Ghosh,“Bentinck, Macaulay and the introlan, New York duction of English education in India”, History of Education, (March 1995) 24#1 pp. 17–24 [39] pg 106-107, “India – Government and Constitution,”The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmillan, [57] Spear, Percival (1938). “Bentinck and Education”. CamNew York bridge Historical Journal 6 (1): 78–101. JSTOR 3020849. [40] pg 106-107, “India – Government and Constitution,”The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmillan, New York [41] pg 104-105, “India – Government and Constitution,”The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmillan, New York [42] pg 108,“India – Government and Constitution,”The Statesman's Year-Book 1947, Steinberg, S.H., Macmillan, New York [43] Spear 1990, p. 147 [44] Spear 1990, pp. 147–148
[58] Moore, “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, p. 431 [59] Zareer Masani, Indian Tales of the Raj (1988) p. 89 [60] B. R. Tomlinson, The Economy of Modern India, 1860– 1970 (1996) p. 5 [61] B. H. Tomlinson, “India and the British Empire, 1880– 1935”, Indian Economic and Social History Review, (Oct 1975), 12#4 pp. 337–380 [62] Madison, Angus (2006). The world economy, Volumes 1– 2. OECD Publishing. p. 638. doi:10.1787/456125276116. ISBN 92-64-02261-9. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
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[63] Peter Robb, “British Rule and Indian “Improvement”, Economic History Review (Nov 1981), 34#4 pp. 507–523 in JSTOR [64] F. H. Brown and B. R. Tomlinson, “Tata, Jamshed Nasarwanji (1839–1904)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) Retrieved 28 Jan 2012 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/ 36421 [65] Vinay Bahl,“The Emergence of Large-Scale Steel Industry in India Under British Colonial Rule, 1880–1907”, Indian Economic and Social History Review, (Oct 1994) 31#4 pp. 413–460 [66] Daniel R. Headrick, The tentacles of progress: technology transfer in the age of imperialism, 1850–1940, (1988) pp. 291–2 [67] Vinay Bahl, Making of the Indian Working Class: A Case of the Tata Iron & Steel Company, 1880–1946 (1995) ch 8
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[79] R. O. Christensen, “The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870–1920: Part I, Financial Efficiency and Standards of Service”, Journal of Transport History (September 1981) 2#2, pp. 1–15. [80] Neil Charlesworth, British Rule and the Indian Economy, 1800-1914 (1981) pp 23-37 [81] Ian Stone, Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (2002) pp 27880 [82] for the historiography, see Rohan D’Souza, “Water in British India: the making of a‘colonial hydrology’.”History Compass (2006) 4#4 pp: 621-628. online [83] David Gilmour (2007). The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 9. [84] (Stein 2001, p. 259)
[68] Claude Markovits, Indian Business and Nationalist Politics 1931–39: The Indigenous Capitalist Class and the Rise of the Congress Party (Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp. 160–66
[85] Laura Bear, Lines of the nation: Indian Railway workers, bureaucracy, and the intimate historical self (2007) – pp. 25– 28
[69] I. D. Derbyshire, “Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914”, Modern Asian Studies, (1987), 21#3 pp. 521–545 in JSTOR
[86] Arudra Burra, “The Indian Civil Service and the nationalist movement: neutrality, politics and continuity”, Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, (Nov 2010), 48#4 pp. 404–432
[70] R.R. Bhandari (2005). Indian Railways: Glorious 150 years. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. 1–19. ISBN 81-230-1254-3.
[87] B. R. Tomlinson, The economy of modern India, 1860–1970 (1996) p 109
[71] Thorner, Daniel (2005). “The pattern of railway development in India”. In Kerr, Ian J. Railways in Modern India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 80–96. ISBN 0-19-567292-5.
[88] Judith Brown, Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (1994) p. 12 [89] Angus Maddison, The World Economy, pages 109–112, (2001)
[72] Hurd, John (2005). “Railways”. In Kerr, Ian J. Railways in Modern India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 147–172–96. ISBN 0-19-567292-5.
[90] (Spear 1990, p. 169)
[73] “History of Indian Railways”. Irfca.org. IRFCA. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
[92] (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri & Datta 1950, p. 888)
[91] (Spear 1990, p. 170)
[93] (Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 100) [74] Daniel R. Headrick, The tentacles of progress: technology transfer in the age of imperialism, 1850–1940, (1988) pp. 78–79 [75] Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1863. p. 690. [76] Khan, Shaheed (18 April 2002).“The great Indian Railway bazaar”. The Hindu. [77] Headrick, The tentacles of progress: technology transfer in the age of imperialism, 1850–1940, (1988) pp. 81–82, 291. [78] Wainwright, A. Marin (1994). Inheritance of Empire. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-275-94733-0.
[94] James S. Olson and Robert S. Shadle, Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (1996) p 116 [95] Helen S. Dyer, Pandita Ramabai: the story of her life (1900) online [96] David Ludden, India and South Asia: a short history (2002) p.197 [97] Stanley A. Wolpert, Tilak and Gokhale: revolution and reform in the making of modern India (1962) p 67 [98] Michael Edwardes, High Noon of Empire: India under Curzon (1965) p 77 [99] Moore, “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, p. 435
56
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[100] John R. McLane, “The Decision to Partition Bengal in [128] (Markovits 2004, pp. 373–374) 1905”, Indian Economic and Social History Review, July [129] David C. Potter,“Manpower Shortage and the End of Colo1965, 2#3, pp. 221–237 nialism: The Case of Indian Civil Service”, Modern Asian [101] V. Sankaran Nair, Swadeshi movement: The beginnings of Studies, (Jan 1973) 7#1 pp. 47–73 student unrest in South India (1985) excerpt and text search [130] Simon Epstein,“District Officers in Decline: The Erosion of [102] Peter Heehs, The lives of Sri Aurobindo (2008) p. 184 British Authority in the Bombay Countryside, 1919 to 1947” , Modern Asian Studies, (May 1982) 16#3 pp. 493–518 [103] (Bandyopadhyay 2005, p. 260) [131] (Low 1993, pp. 40, 156) [104] Wolpert, A New History of India, pp. 275–276 [132] Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire: [105] Ludden (2002), pp. 200–201 1781–1997 (2008) p. 394 [106] Manmath Nath Das (1964). India under Morley and Minto: [133] (Low 1993, p. 154) politics behind revolution, repression and reforms. G. Allen and Unwin. Retrieved 21 February 2012. [134] Andrew Muldoon, “Politics, Intelligence and Elections in Late Colonial India: Congress and the Raj in 1937”, Jour[107] (Robb 2004, p. 174) nal of the Canadian Historical Association (2009), 20#2 pp. 160–188; Muldoon, Empire, politics and the creation of the [108] India's contribution to the Great War. Calcutta: Govt of In1935 India Act: last act of the Raj (2009) dia. 1923. p. 74. [109] Brown 1994, pp. 197–198 [110] Olympic Games Antwerp. 1920: Official Report. [111] Brown 1994, pp. 200–201
[135] “India and Pakistan win independence”. History.com. History. Retrieved 2 August 2014. [136] Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007) p. 43
[113] Brown 1994, pp. 214–215
[137] Dr Chandrika Kaul (3 March 2011). “From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947”. BBC – History. BBC. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
[114] Brown 1994, pp. 210–213
[138] (Robb 2002, p. 190)
[115] Spear 1990, p. 190
[139] Stephen P. Cohen, The idea of Pakistan (2004) p. 28
[116] Brown 1994, pp. 216–217
[140] D. N. Panigrahi, India's partition: the story of imperialism in retreat (2004) pp. 151–2
[112] Brown 1994, p. 199
[117] Balraj Krishna, India's Bismarck, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (2007) ch. 2 [141] Recruitment was especially active in the Punjab province of British India, under the leadership of the then Premier [118] Brown 1994, pp. 203–204 Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, who believed in cooperating with the British to achieve eventual independence for the In[119] Brown 1994, pp. 201–202 dian nation. For details of various recruitment drives by Sir Sikandar between 1939 and 1942, see Omer Tarin and [120] Brown 1994, pp. 195–196 Neal Dando, 'Memoirs of the Second World War: Major [121] Stein 2001, p. 304 Shaukat Hayat Khan' (Critique) in Durbar:Journal of the Indian Military Historical Society, UK, Vol 27, No 3, Au[122] Ludden 2002, p. 208 tumn 2010, pp. 136–137; and Speech of November 1941, at http://www.harappa.com/mom/may99.htm/ Retrieved 28 [123] Brown 1994, pp. 205–207 April 2012 [124] Chhabra 2005, p. 2 [142] Roy, Kaushik (2009). “Military Loyalty in the Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Indian Army during World [125] Nick Lloyd, The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of War II”. Journal of Military History 73 (2). One Fateful Day (2011) p. 180 [126] Derek Sayer, “British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre [143] Alan Jeffreys, and Patrick Rose, eds. The Indian Army 1939–47: Experience and Development (Farnham: Ashgate, 1919–1920”, Past & Present, May 1991, Issue 131, pp. 2012), 244pp online review 130–164 [127] Brain Bond, “Amritsar 1919”, History Today, Sept 1963, [144] John F. Riddick, The history of British India: a chronology Vol. 13 Issue 10, pp. 666–676 (2006) p. 142
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[145] Shyam Ratna Gupta, “New Light on the Cripps Mission”, [164] “The Road to Partition 1939–1947”. NationIndia Quarterly, (Jan 1972), Vol. 28 Issue 1, p. 69–74 alarchives.gov.uk Classroom Resources. National Archives. Retrieved 2 August 2014. [146] (Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 206–207) [165] Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh, The Partition of India [147] Bandyopadhyay 2004, pp. 418–420 (2009), passim [148] Stein 2010, pp. 305,325": Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose were among those who, impatient with Gandhi's pro- [166] Maria Misra, Vishnu's crowded temple: India since the Great Rebellion (2008) p 237 grammes and methods, looked upon socialism as an alternative for nationalistic policies capable of meeting the coun[167] “Ideology and Empire in Eighteenth-Century India: the try's economic and social needs, as well as a link to potential British in Bengal”. History.ac.uk. History. Retrieved 2 international support. (p. 325) (p. 345)" August 2014. [149] Low 2002, p. 297. [168] Thomas R. Metcalf, The New Cambridge History of India: [150] Low 2002, p. 313. Ideologies of the Raj (1995), pp 10–12, 34–35 [151] Low 1993, pp. 31–31. [152] Wolpert 2006, p. 69. [153] Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 427. [154] Bayly & Harper 2007, p. 2.
[169] Maurice Zinkin,“Legacies of the Raj”, Asian Affairs, (Oct 1995, 26#3) online [170] Y. K. Malik and V. B. Singh, Hindu Nationalists in India: the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (Westview Press, 1994), p 14
[155] Bose, Sugata (2011), His Majesty's Opponent: Subhas Chan- [171] Angus Maddison (2006). "Class structure and economic dra Bose and India's Struggle against Empire, Harvard Unigrowth: India and Pakistan since the Moghuls". Taylor & versity Press, p. 320, ISBN 978-0-674-04754-9, retrieved Francis. p.53. ISBN 0-415-38259-9 21 September 2013 [172] Craig A. Lockard (2010). "Societies, Networks, and Transi[156] Stein 2001, pp. 345. tions, Volume 3". Cengage Learning. p.610. ISBN 1-43908534-X [157] (Judd 2004, pp. 172–173) [158] (Judd 2004, pp. 170–171)
[173] Bose 1918, pp. 79–81.
[159] (Judd 2004, p. 172)
[174] Rai 2008, pp. 263–281.
[160] Sarvepalli Gopal (1976). Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography. [175] Koomar 2009, pp. 13–14. Harvard University Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-674-473102. Retrieved 21 February 2012. [176] Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 528. [161] Hyam 2007, p. 106
[177] Grove 2007, p. 80.
[162] “Indian Independence”. British Library: Help for Re[178] Grove 2007, p. 83. searchers. British Library. Retrieved 2 August 2014. portal to educational sources available in the India Office Records [179] Fieldhouse 1996, p. 132. [163] Brown 1994, p. 330 Quote: “India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for British India recognised that neither international opinion no their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the raj, even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so.”Sarkar 1983, p. 418 Quote: “With a war weary army and people and a ravaged economy, Britain would have had to retreat; the Labour victory only quickened the process somewhat.”Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 212 Quote: “More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India.”
[180] Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 529. [181] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, p. 488. [182] Davis 2001, p. 7. [183] Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, pp. 530. [184] Desai, Raychaudhuri & Kumar 1983, p. 531. [185] Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 978-1-85984-739-8 pg 7 [186] Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 978-1-85984-739-8 pg 173 [187] Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. ISBN 978-0-38572027-4 ch 7
58
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ
[188] Ó Gráda, C.: "Famine: A Short History". Princeton University Press. [189] Hall-Matthews 2008, p. 1 [190] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III 1907, p. 478 [191] John Pike (24 July 2011). “Cholera- Biological Weapons” . Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 29 April 2012. [192] The 1832 Cholera Epidemic in New York State, By G. William Beardslee [193] Infectious Diseases: encemag.org
Plague Through History,
sci-
[194] Malaria – Medical History of British India, National Library of Scotland 2007 [195] “Biography of Ronald Ross”. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 15 June 2007. [196] Leprosy – Medical History of British India, National Library of Scotland 2007 [197] “Other histories of smallpox in South Asia”. Smallpoxhistory.ucl.ac.uk. 18 July 2006. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2012. [198]“Feature Story: Smallpox”. Vigyanprasar.gov.in. Retrieved 29 April 2012. [199] Smallpox and Vaccination in British India During the Last Seventy Years, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1945 January; 38(3): 135–140. [200] Smallpox – some unknown heroes in smallpox eradication [201] “Sir JJ Group of Hospitals”. Grantmedicalcollegejjhospital.org. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
3.10 Bibliography 3.10.1
Surveys
• Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2003), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-30787-1 • Copland, Ian (2001), India 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire (Seminar Studies in History Series), Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. 160, ISBN 978-0-582-38173-5 • Coupland, Reginald. India: A Re-Statement (Oxford University Press, 1945), evaluation of the Raj, emphasising government. online edition • Dodwell H. H., ed. The Cambridge History of India. Volume 6: The Indian Empire 1858–1918. With Chapters on the Development of Administration 1818–1858 (1932) 660pp online edition; also published as vol 5 of the Cambridge History of the British Empire • James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) • Judd, Dennis (2004), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 280, ISBN 978-0-19-280358-0. • Kumar, Dharma, and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume 2: c. 1757– 2003 (2010), 1114pp; articles by scholars ISBN 97881-250-2731-7 • Louis, William Roger, and Judith M. Brown, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire (5 vol 1999– 2001), with numerous articles on the Raj • Ludden, David. India And South Asia: A Short History (2002) • Metcalf, Barbara (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1
• Bandhu, Deep Chand. History of Indian National Congress (2003) 405pp
• Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopaedia
• Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans. Pp. xx, 548., ISBN 978-81250-2596-2.
• Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, 400 pp., Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press., ISBN 978-0521-00254-7.
• Bayly, C. A. (1990), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 248, ISBN 978-0-521-38650-0.
• Markovits, Claude (ed) (2005), A History of Modern India 1480–1950 (Anthem South Asian Studies), Anthem Press. Pp. 607, ISBN 978-1-84331-152-2.
• Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 978-0-19-873113-9.
• Moon, Penderel. The British Conquest and Dominion of India (2 vol. 1989) 1235pp; the fullest scholarly history of political and military events from a British top-down perspective;
3.10. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Peers, Douglas M. (2006), India under Colonial Rule 1700–1885, Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. xvi, 163, ISBN 0-582-31738-X. • Riddick, John F. The history of British India: a chronology (2006) excerpt and text search, covers 1599–1947 • Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998), covers 1599–1947 • Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002) • Smith, Vincent A. (1958) The Oxford History of India (3rd ed.) the Raj section was written by Percival Spear • Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298, ISBN 978-0-14-013836-8. online edition • Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432, ISBN 978-0-19-565446-2. • Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search • Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 544, ISBN 978-0-19-516678-1.
3.10.2
Specialised topics
• Baker, David, Colonialism in an Indian Hinterland: The Central Provinces, 1820–1920, Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 374, ISBN 978-019-563049-7, JSTOR 2059781 • Bayly, C. A. (2000), Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 426, ISBN 978-0-521-66360-1 • Bayly, Christopher; Harper, Timothy (2007), Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-67402153-2, retrieved 21 September 2013 • Bayly, Christopher; Harper, Timothy (2005), Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941– 1945, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-67401748-1, retrieved 22 September 2013 • Brown, Judith M. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope (1991), scholarly biography
59 • Brown, Judith M.; Louis, Wm. Roger, eds. (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 978-0-19-924679-3 • Carrington, Michael. Officers, Gentlemen, and Murderers: Lord Curzon's campaign against “collisions” between Indians and Europeans, 1899 –1905, Modern Asian Studies / Volume 47 / Issue 03 / May 2013, pp. 780 – 819. • Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan (1998), Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State in India, 1850–1950, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge University Press. Pp. 400, ISBN 978-0-521-59692-3. • Chatterji, Joya (1993), Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947, Cambridge University Press. Pp. 323, ISBN 978-0-521-52328-8. • Copland, Ian (2002), Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917–1947, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge University Press. Pp. 316, ISBN 978-0-521-89436-4. • Manmath Nath Das (1964). India under Morley and Minto: politics behind revolution, repression and reforms. G. Allen and Unwin. • Dewey, Clive. Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service (2003) • Ewing, Ann. “Administering India: The Indian Civil Service”, History Today, June 1982, 32#6 pp. 43–48, covers 1858–1947 • Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. University of California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 978-0-520-06249-8. • Gilmour, David. The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (2007) Excerpt and text search • Gilmour, David. Curzon: Imperial Statesman (2006) excerpt and text search • Gopal, Sarvepalli (1 January 1976). Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography. Harvard U. Press. ISBN 9780-674-47310-2. Retrieved 21 February 2012. • Sarvepalli Gopal (1953). The viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, 1880–1884. Oxford U. Press. Retrieved 21 February 2012. • Gould, William (2004), Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India, Cambridge U. Press. Pp. 320.
60 • Gopal, Sarvepalli. British Policy in India 1858–1905 (2008) • Gopal, Sarvepalli. Viceroyalty of Lord Irwin 1926– 1931 (1957) • Jalal, Ayesha (1993), The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge U. Press, 334 pages. • Kaminsky, Arnold P. The India Office, 1880–1910 (1986) excerpt and text search, focus on officials in London • Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, Yale U. Press, 250 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-12078-3 • Klein, Ira (2000), “Materialism, Mutiny and Modernization in British India”, Modern Asian Studies 34 (3): 545–580 • Kumar, Deepak. Science and the Raj: A Study of British India (2006) • Low, D. A. (2002), Britain and Indian Nationalism: The Imprint of Ambiguity 1929–1942, Cambridge University Press. Pp. 374, ISBN 978-0-521-89261-2. • Lipsett, Chaldwell. Lord Curzon in India 1898–1903 (1903) excerpt and text search 128pp • MacMillan, Margaret. Women of the Raj: The Mothers, Wives, and Daughters of the British Empire in India (2007) • Metcalf, Thomas R. (1991), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870, Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352, ISBN 978-81-85054-99-5 • Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN 978-0521-58937-6 • Moor-Gilbert, Bart. Writing India, 1757–1990: The Literature of British India (1996) on fiction written in English • Moore, Robin J. “Imperial India, 1858–1914”, in Porter, ed. Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, (2001a), pp. 422–446 • Moore, Robin J. “India in the 1940s”, in Robin Winks, ed. Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, (2001b), pp. 231–242 • Porter, Andrew, ed. (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6
CHAPTER 3. BRITISH RAJ • Masood Ashraf Raja. Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-547811-2 • Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324, ISBN 978-0521-03989-5 • Read, Anthony, and David Fisher; The Proudest Day: India's Long Road to Independence (W. W. Norton, 1999) online edition; detailed scholarly history of 1940–47 • Venkataramani, M. S.; Shrivastava, B. K. Quit India: The American Response to the • Shaikh, Farzana (1989), Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860 —1947, Cambridge University Press. Pp. 272., ISBN 978-0-521-36328-0. • Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal, eds. (1999), Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent, Oxford University Press. Pp. 420, ISBN 978-0-19-579051-1. • Thatcher, Mary. Respected Memsahibs: an Anthology (Hardinge Simpole, 2008) • Tinker, Hugh (1968), “India in the First World War and after”Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1918–19: From War to Peace. (Oct., 1968), pp. 89–107, ISSN 0022-0094. • Voigt, Johannes. India in The Second World War (1988) • Wainwright, A. Martin (1993), Inheritance of Empire: Britain, India, and the Balance of Power in Asia, 1938–55, Praeger Publishers. Pp. xvi, 256, ISBN 978-0-275-94733-0. • Wolpert, Stanley A. Jinnah of Pakistan (2005) • Wolpert, Stanley (2007), “India: British Imperial Power 1858–1947 (Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920; Prelude to Independence, 1920–1947)", Encyclopædia Britannica. • Wolpert, Stanley A. Tilak and Gokhale: revolution and reform in the making of modern India (1962) full text online
3.10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
3.10.3
Economic history
• Anstey, Vera. The economic development of India (4th ed. 1952), 677pp; thorough scholarly coverage; focus on 20th century down to 1939 • Chaudhary, Latika, et al. eds. A New Economic History of Colonial India (2015) • Derbyshire, I. D. (1987), “Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860– 1914”, Population Studies 21 (3): 521–545, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00009197, JSTOR 312641 • Dutt, Romesh C. The Economic History of India under early British Rule, first published 1902, 2001 edition by Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-24493-0 • Lockwood, David. The Indian Bourgeoisie: A Political History of the Indian Capitalist Class in the Early Twentieth Century (I.B. Tauris, 2012) 315 pages; focus on Indian entrepreneurs who benefited from the Raj, but ultimately sided with the Indian National Congress. • Roy, Tirthankar (2002), “Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link”, The Journal of Economic Perspectives 16 (3): 109– 130, doi:10.1257/089533002760278749, JSTOR 3216953 • Simmons, Colin (1985), "'De-Industrialization', Industrialization and the Indian Economy, c. 1850– 1947”, Modern Asian Studies 19 (3): 593–622, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00007745, JSTOR 312453 • Tomlinson, B. R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996) excerpt and text search • Tomlinson, B. H. “India and the British Empire, 1880–1935”, Indian Economic and Social History Review, (Oct 1975), 12#4 pp. 337–380
3.10.4
Gazetteers, statistics and primary sources
• Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1912). Responsible government in the dominions. The Clarendon press., major primary source • Indian Year-book for 1862: A review of social, intellectual, and religious progress in India and Ceylon (1863), ed. by John Murdoch online edition 1861 edition
61 • The Year-book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the colonies and India: a statistical record of the resources and trade of the colonial and Indian possessions of the British Empire (2nd. ed. 1893) India, pp. 375–462 online edition • The Imperial Gazetteer of India (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. online edition • Statistical abstract relating to British India, from 1895– 96 to 1904–05 (London, 1906) full text online, • The Cyclopedia of India: biographical, historical, administrative, commercial (1908) complete text online, business history, biographies, illustrations • The Indian year book: 1914 (1914) snippets
Chapter 4
The Jungle Book For other uses, see The Jungle Book (disambiguation). The Jungle Book (1894) is a collection of stories by English author Rudyard Kipling. The stories were first published in magazines in 1893–94. The original publications contain illustrations, some by Rudyard's father, John Lockwood Kipling. Kipling was born in India and spent the first six years of his childhood there. After about ten years in England, he went back to India and worked there for about sixand-a-half years. These stories were written when Kipling lived in Vermont.* [1] There is evidence that it was written for his daughter Josephine, who died in 1899 aged six, after a rare first edition of the book with a poignant handwritten note by the author to his young daughter was discovered at the National Trust's Wimpole Hall in Cambridgeshire in 2010.* [2]
originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the Memory Game from Kim in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. Akela, the head wolf in The Jungle Book, has become a senior figure in the movement, the name being traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack.
4.1
Chapters
The complete book, having passed into the public domain, is on-line at Project Gutenberg's official website and elsewhere. Each of the even-numbered items below is an epigrammatic poem related to the previous story.
The tales in the book (and also those in The Second Jungle Book which followed in 1895, and which includes five further stories about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to give moral lessons. The verses of The Law of the Jungle, for example, lay down rules for the safety of individuals, families and communities. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or “heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle.”* [3] Other readers have interpreted the work as allegories of the politics and society of the time.* [4] The best-known of them are the three stories revolving around the adventures of an abandoned “man cub”Mowgli who is raised by wolves in the Indian jungle. The most famous of the other four stories are probably "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi", the story of a heroic mongoose, and "Toomai of the Elephants", the tale of a young elephant-handler. As with much of Kipling's work, each of the stories is preceded by a piece of verse, and succeeded by another. The Jungle Book, because of its moral tone, came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling after a direct petition of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had
62
1. "Mowgli's Brothers": A boy is raised by wolves in the Indian jungle with the help of Baloo the bear and Bagheera the black panther, and then has to fight the tiger Shere Khan. This story has also been published as a short book in its own right: Night-Song in the Jungle 2.“Hunting-Song of the Seeonee Pack” 3. "Kaa's Hunting": This story takes place before Mowgli fights Shere Khan. When Mowgli is abducted by monkeys, Baloo and Bagheera set out to rescue him with the aid of Chil the kite and Kaa the python. Maxims of Baloo. 4.“Road Song of the Bandar-Log” 5. "Tiger! Tiger!": Mowgli returns to the human village and is adopted by Messua and her husband who believe him to be their long-lost son Nathoo. But he has trouble adjusting to human life, and Shere Khan still wants to kill him. The story's title is taken from the poem "The Tyger" by William Blake. 6.“Mowgli's Song”
4.3. ADAPTATIONS 7.“The White Seal": Kotick, a rare white-furred northern fur seal, searches for a new home for his people, where they will not be hunted by humans. The “animal language”words and names in this story are a phonetic spelling of Russian spoken with an Aleut accent, for example the hero's name“Kotick”(Котик) is an affectionate diminutive of “cat”(Кот); also “Stareek!" (Старик!) means “old man!", “Ochen scoochnie”(said by Kotick) to mean “I am very lonesome”is the phonetic pronunciation of Очень скучный which actually means“very boring”. Likewise,“holluschick”(plural -ie) is "холостяк", (pl. -и) which means “bachelor”and is used in the story for “unmarried”young adult seals. 8.“Lukannon” 9. "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi": Rikki-Tikki the mongoose defends a human family living in India against a pair of cobras. This story has also been published as a short book.
63 • Chuchundra – A muskrat • Darzee – A tailorbird • Father Wolf – The father wolf who raised Mowgli as his own cub • Grey brother – One of Mother and Father Wolf's cubs • Hathi – An Indian elephant • Ikki – An Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (mentioned only) • Kaa – An Indian python • Karait – A common krait • Kotick – A white seal • Mang – A bat • Mor – An Indian peafowl
10.“Darzee's Chaunt”
• Mowgli – Main character, the young jungle boy
11. "Toomai of the Elephants": Toomai, a ten-year-old boy who helps to tend working elephants, is told that he will never be a full-fledged elephant-handler until he has seen the elephants dance. This story has also been published as a short book.
• Nag – A male black cobra
12.“Shiv and the Grasshopper”
• Raksha – The Mother wolf who raised Mowgli as her own cub
13.“Her Majesty's Servants”(originally titled “Servants of the Queen”): On the night before a military parade a British soldier eavesdrops on a conversation between the camp animals. 14.“Parade-Song of the Camp Animals”parodies several well-known songs and poems, including Bonnie Dundee.
• Nagaina – A female king cobra, Nag's mate • Pappu - A cat
• Rikki-Tikki-Tavi – An Indian mongoose • Sea Catch – A northern fur seal and Kotick's father • Sea Cow – A Steller's sea cow • Sea Vitch – A walrus • Shere Khan—A royal Bengal tiger
4.2 Characters Main article: The Jungle Book characters In alphabetical order: • Akela – An Indian wolf • Bagheera – A melanistic (black) panther • Baloo—A sloth bear • Bandar-log – A tribe of monkeys • Chil – A kite (renamed “Rann”in US editions)
• Tabaqui – An Indian jackal
4.3
Adaptations
The book's text has often been abridged or adapted for younger readers, and there have also been several comic book adaptations. • Marvel Comics published several Jungle Book adaptations by Mary Jo Duffy and Gil Kane in the pages of Marvel Fanfare (vol. 1). These strips were collected in the 2007 one-shot Marvel Illustrated: The Jungle Book.
64 • The DC Comics Elseworlds' story, "Superman: The Feral Man of Steel", is based loosely on the Jungle Book stories, as well as the Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan stories. The infant Superman, like Mowgli, is raised by wolves, and takes the name K'l'l. Bagheera, Akela, and Shere Khan all make appearances. The character is later given the civilised name of 'Clark' by Lois Lane, and is captured along with his friends, and used for profit by Lex Luthor, who is also eventually slain.* [5] • Bill Willingham's Eisner Award-winning comic book series Fables, published by Vertigo Comics, features the Jungle Book's Mowgli, Bagheera and Shere Khan; though their characterisation remains true to Kipling's stories, Willingham and artist Mark Buckingham also make oblique references to the 1967 Disney animation in dialogue and artwork. The series amalgamates characters from fairy tales and folklore, as well as children's literature; Shere Kahn, for instance, is shot dead by Snow White, whilst Mowgli is employed as a spy by Big Bad Wolf. • Neil Gaiman's The Graveyard Book is inspired by The Jungle Book. It follows a baby boy who is found and brought up by the dead in a cemetery. It has many scenes that can be directly linked back to Kipling, but with Gaiman's dark twist. Mr. Gaiman has spoken in some detail about this on his website.* [6] • Jungle Book (1942) – directed by Zoltán Korda, starring Sabu Dastagir as Mowgli. • Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book (1994) – starring Jason Scott Lee as Mowgli. The second Jungle Book film produced by Disney. • The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli and Baloo (1997) – starring Jamie Williams as Mowgli. • The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story (1998) – starring Brandon Baker as Mowgli. • The Jungle Book, an adaptation that began production in September 2007 and continued for two years.* [7] • Walt Disney Animation Studios' 1967 animated film version, inspired by the Mowgli stories, was extremely popular, though it took great liberties with the plot, characters and the pronunciation of the characters' names. These characterisations were further used in the 1990 animated series TaleSpin, which featured several anthropomorphic characters loosely based on those from the film in a comic aviation-industry setting. After the film's success, DisneyToon Studios later produced a theatrical sequel, The Jungle Book 2, in 2003.
CHAPTER 4. THE JUNGLE BOOK
Heroes of the Soviet animation film on a postal stamp of Russia
• In 1967, another animated adaptation was released in the Soviet Union called Mowgli (Russian: Маугли; published as Adventures of Mowgli in the US), also known as the 'heroic' version of the story. Five animated shorts of about 20 minutes each were released between 1967 and 1971, and combined into a single 96-minute feature film in 1973. It's also very close to the book's storyline, and one of the few adaptations which has Bagheera as a female panther. It also features stories from The Second Jungle Book, such as Red Dog and a simplified version of The King's Ankus. • Chuck Jones's made for-TV cartoons Mowgli's Brothers, Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal stick to the original storylines more closely than most adaptations.* [8]* [9]* [10] • There was a Japanese anime television series called Jungle Book Shonen Mowgli broadcast in 1989. Its adaptation represents a compromise between the original stories and the Walt Disney version. Many of Kipling's stories are adapted into the series, but many elements are combined and changed to suit more modern sensibilities. For instance, Akela, the wolf pack alpha eventually steps aside, but instead of being threatened with death, he stays on as the new leader's advisor. Also, there is an Indian family in the series which includes Rikki-Tikki-Tavi as a pet mongoose. Finally at the series' conclusion, Mowgli leaves the jungle for human civilisation, but still keeps strong ties with his animal friends. • Stuart Paterson wrote a stage adaptation in 2004, first produced by the Birmingham Old Rep in 2004 and published in 2007 by Nick Hern Books.* [11] • In 2006 the Orlando Shakespeare Theater commissioned a unique adaptation for their Theater For Young Audiences series. • A new adaptation written by Leonard Joseph Dunham was premiered by the Hunger Artists Theatre Company in Fullerton, California, on 12 September 2008.* [12]
4.6. REFERENCES • A 2008 BBC Radio adaptation, directed by Chris Wallis and starring Nisha K. Nayar as Mowgli, Eartha Kitt as Kaa, Freddie Jones as Baloo and Jonathan Hyde as Bagheera, with music by John Mayer.* [13]* [14] • Australian composer Percy Grainger, an avid Kipling reader wrote a Jungle Book cycle, which was published in 1958. • Walt Disney Pictures is developing a live-action/CGI adaptation with Justin Marks penning the screenplay and Jon Favreau directing the film for an April 15, 2016 release. The film's cast includes Neel Sethi as Mowgli, Bill Murray as Baloo, Idris Elba as Shere Khan, Ben Kingsley as Bagheera, Christopher Walken as King Louie, Giancarlo Esposito as Akela, Scarlett Johansson as Kaa and Lupita Nyong'o as Raksha. • Warner Bros. is also developing a live-action version titled Jungle Book: Origins, with Steve Kloves writing and Andy Serkis set to direct. Serkis will also be providing the voice of Baloo. The film will be released on October 6, 2017. The film's cast includes Benedict Cumberbatch as Shere Khan, Christian Bale as Bagheera, Cate Blanchett as Kaa, Naomie Harris as Raksha, Tom Hollander as Tabaqui, Eddie Marsan as Papa Wolf, Peter Mullan as Akela, and Rohan Chand as Mowgli.
65 • Pench National Park, near Seoni (Seeonee) is said to be the forest where the Seeonee wolf pack lives.
4.6
References
[1] Rao, K. Bhaskara (1967) Rudyard Kipling's India. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press [2] “Kipling first edition with author's poignant note found”. BBC News. Retrieved 26 February 2013 [3] The Long Recessional: the Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling, David Gilmour, Pimlico, 2003 ISBN 0-7126-6518-8 [4] Hjejle, Benedicte 1983 'Kipling, Britisk Indien og Mowglihistorieine', Feitskrifi til Kristof Glamann, edited by Ole Fddbek and Niels Thomson. Odense, Denmark: Odense Universitetsforlag. pp. 87–114. [5] Superman Annual No.6 (1994) [6] Neil Gaiman's Journal, February 13, 2008 [7] “BBC, Pathe team for 'Jungle Book' – Entertainment News, Film News, Media – Variety”. Variety. [8] “The White Seal (TV 1975) – IMDB”. Retrieved 12 April 2013. [9] “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (TV 1975) – IMDB”. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
4.4 Controversies
[10] “Mowgli's Brothers (TV 1976) – IMDB”. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
A letter written and signed by Rudyard Kipling in 1895 was put up for auction in 2013 by Andrusier. In this letter, Kipling confesses plagiarism in the Jungle Book: “I am afraid that all that code in its outlines has been manufactured to meet 'the necessities of the case': though a little of it is bodily taken from (Southern) Esquimaux rules for the division of spoils,”Kipling wrote in the letter.“In fact, it is extremely possible that I have helped myself promiscuously but at present cannot remember from whose stories I have stolen.”* [15]
[11] Stuart Paterson – complete guide to the Playwright and Plays
4.5 See also
4.7
[12] Hunger Artists – Show Archives [13] “BBC Radio 4 Extra - Rudyard Kipling - The Jungle Book - Episode guide”. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-02. [14] “Radio”. Nishanayar.com. Retrieved 2014-08-02. [15] Flood, Alison (31 May 2013). “Rudyard Kipling 'admitted to plagiarism in Jungle Book'". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 31 May 2013.
External links
• Works of Rudyard Kipling
• The Jungle Book Collection: a website demonstrating the variety of merchandise related to the book and film versions of The Jungle Book.
• The Jungle Book characters
•
• The Third Jungle Book
• The Jungle Book at Project Gutenberg
• Feral children in mythology and fiction
• The Jungle Book public domain audiobook at LibriVox
• Just So Stories
66 • Boom Kat Dance: a website describing the dance adaptation of The Jungle Book by Boom Kat Dance Company.
CHAPTER 4. THE JUNGLE BOOK
Chapter 5
Kim (novel) Kim is a novel by Nobel Prize-winning English author Rudyard Kipling. It was first published serially in McClure's Magazine from December 1900 to October 1901 as well as in Cassell's Magazine from January to November 1901, and first published in book form by Macmillan & Co. Ltd in October 1901. The story unfolds against the backdrop of The Great Game, the political conflict between Russia and Britain in Central Asia. It is set after the Second Afghan War which ended in 1881, but before the Third, probably in the period 1893 to 1898.* [1]
is recruited by Mahbub Ali to carry a message to the head of British intelligence in Umballa. Kim's trip with the lama along the Grand Trunk Road is the first great adventure in the novel.
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Kim No. 78 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.* [3] In 2003 the book was listed on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's “best-loved novel.”* [4]
Lurgan Sahib, at his jewellery shop in Simla. As part of his training, Kim looks at a tray full of mixed objects and notes which have been added or taken away, a pastime still called Kim's Game, also called the Jewel Game.
By chance, Kim's father's regimental chaplain identifies Kim by his Masonic certificate, which he wears around his neck, and Kim is forcibly separated from the lama. The lama insists that Kim should comply with the chaplain's plan because he believes it is in Kim's best interests, and the boy is sent to a top English school in Lucknow. The lama funds The novel is notable for its detailed portrait of the people, Kim's education. culture, and varied religions of India. “The book presents Throughout his years at school, Kim remains in contact with a vivid picture of India, its teeming populations, religions, the holy man he has come to love. Kim also retains contact and superstitions, and the life of the bazaars and the road.” with his secret service connections and is trained in espi* [2] onage (to be a surveyor) while on vacation from school by
After three years of schooling, Kim is given a government appointment so that he can begin his role in the Great Game. Before this appointment begins however, he is granted time 5.1 Plot summary to take a much-deserved break. Kim rejoins the lama and at the behest of Kim's superior, Hurree Chunder Mookherjee, Kim (Kimball O'Hara)* [5] is the orphaned son of an Irish they make a trip to the Himalayas. Here the espionage and soldier and a poor Irish mother who have both died in spiritual threads of the story collide, with the lama unwitpoverty. Living a vagabond existence in India under British tingly falling into conflict with Russian intelligence agents. rule in the late 19th century, Kim earns his living by begging and running small errands on the streets of Lahore. He Kim obtains maps, papers, and other important items from occasionally works for Mahbub Ali, a Pashtun horse trader the Russians working to undermine British control of the who is one of the native operatives of the British secret ser- region. Mookherjee befriends the Russians under cover, vice. Kim is so immersed in the local culture, few realise acting as a guide and ensures that they do not recover the he is a white child, though he carries a packet of documents lost items. Kim, aided by some porters and villagers, helps from his father entrusted to him by an Indian woman who to rescue the lama. cared for him. The lama realises that he has gone astray. His search for Kim befriends an aged Tibetan Lama who is on a quest to free himself from the Wheel of Things by finding the legendary River of the Arrow. Kim becomes his chela, or disciple, and accompanies him on his journey. On the way, Kim incidentally learns about parts of the Great Game and
the “River of the Arrow”should be taking place in the plains, not in the mountains, and he orders the porters to take them back. Here Kim and the lama are nursed back to health after their arduous journey. Kim delivers the Russian documents to Hurree, and a concerned Mahbub Ali comes
67
68 to check on Kim. The lama finds his river, and achieves Enlightenment. The reader is left to decide whether Kim will henceforth follow the prideful road of the Great Game, the spiritual way of Tibetan Buddhism, or a combination of the two. Kim himself has this to say: “I am not a Sahib. I am thy chela.” (Meaning, “I am not a master. I am your servant.”)
5.2 Characters
CHAPTER 5. KIM (NOVEL)
5.2.1
The Mavericks
Her Majesty's Royal Loyal Musketeers, also known as“The Mavericks”is a fictional Irish Regiment of the British Army also mentioned in the novella “The Mutiny of the Mavericks”. The nickname is from the Bull in their colors. Mavericks are stubborn, unbranded cattle that are hard to keep in the herd, much like the independent-minded troops of the regiment. They seem to be a tough regiment with a fierce reputation because in “Kim”they are respectfully known by the natives as the “Red Bullock Men”.
• Kimball “Kim”O'Hara – is an orphan son of an Irish soldier, the protagonist; “A poor white, the poorest Cap Badge: A crowned gold Irish Harp. of the poor” Regimental Badge: A red Bull furieux [A Heraldry term • Teshoo Lama – a Tibetan Lama, the former abbot of that combines the terms Salient (depicted rearing upon its the Such-zen monastery in the western Himalayas, on hind legs and striking with its hooves) and Enragé (“maddened”- depicted red-eyed, nostrils flared, and baring its a spiritual journey teeth)]. • Mahbub Ali – a famous Ghilzai Pashtun horse trader Regimental Colours: A white field with the Cap Badge set and spy for the British.* [6] in the center on a blue rounded and the red Bulls set in the • Colonel Creighton – British Army officer, ethnologist corners. and spy Battle Honours (Mentioned in “The Mutiny of the Mavericks”): Vittoria (sic), Salamanca, Toulouse, Waterloo, • Lurgan Sahib – a Simla gem trader and master spy Moodkee (sic), Ferozshah (sic), Sobraon, Inkerman, The • Hurree Chunder Mookherjee (Hurree Babu, also Alma, and Sebastopol (sic). the Babu) – a Bengali intelligence operative working The battle honours should be listed by date, but some of for the British; Kim's direct superior the battles are out of order. There is also some mention of the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and the wars in Afghanistan in • the Kulu woman (the Sahiba)- an old hill Rajput noble passing, but it is unclear whether they are Honours or just lady settled near Saharanpur in the plains. campaigns the regiment served in. • the Woman of Shamlegh (Lispeth) who helps Kim and the Lama to evade the Russian spies and return to the plains 5.3 Landmarks • the old soldier – a Sikh Risaldar (native officer) who had been loyal to the British during the Mutiny. • Reverend Arthur Bennett – the Church of England chaplain of the Mavericks, the Irish regiment to which Kim's father belonged • Father Victor – the Roman Catholic chaplain of the Mavericks • a Lucknow prostitute whom Kim pays to help disguise him
• Kipling's father John Lockwood Kipling was the curator of the old, original Lahore Museum, and is described in the scene where Kim meets the Lama. The present Lahore Museum building was completed later. • The gun in front of the Lahore Museum described in the first chapter is an existing piece called Zamzama, sometimes referred to as Kim's gun.
• Huneefa – a sorceress who performs a devil invocation ritual to protect Kim
• The 'Gate of the Harpies' where Mahbub Ali is made unconscious and searched by the treacherous prostitute 'Flower of Delight' and her 'smooth-faced Kashmiri' pimp, still exists in the old city of Lahore, Pakistan. It is known as the 'Heera Mandi' and is in the Taxali Gate area. Prostitution is still a common trade there.* [7]
• E.23 – a spy for the British whom Kim helps avoid capture
• Kim dreams of a“Red bull in a green field”which he recognises when he sees a military formation ensign of
• a Kamboh farmer whose sick child Kim helps to cure
5.5. DRAMATIC ADAPTATIONS
69 In a reissue of the novel in 1959 by Macmillan, the reviewer opines“Kim is a book worked at three levels. It is a tale of adventure...It is the drama of a boy having entirely his boy's own way... and it is the mystical exegesis of this pattern of behaviour...”This reviewer concludes "Kim will endure because it is a beginning like all masterly ends..”* [15]* [16]
5.5
Dramatic adaptations For the main article about the film, see Kim (1950 film)
The Zam-Zammah in front of the Lahore Museum, as described in the opening lines of the novel.
a bull on a green background. The formation ensign is still used by a military formation in Ambala Cantonment in India. Even in the book the formation ensign belonged to an establishment in Ambala. A yellow bull in a red field is the sleeve patch for the Delhi and Rajasthan Area formation of the Indian Army.* [8] • The Jang-i-Lat sahib (Urdu:War Lord/Commanderin-Chief)who comes to dinner to Col. Creighton's house, is in fact based on the real British Indian Army general, Field Marshal Lord Roberts of Kandahar, who was known to both John Lockwood and Rudyard Kipling.* [9] • St Xavier's School, Lucknow, where Kim is sent to study, is in fact based on the La Martiniere Lucknow college.* [10] • The small Simla shop of Lurgan sahib, with all its antiques and curios etc, was based on a real shop, once run in Simla's bazaar by AM Jacob , a person who might have been the model for Lurgan himself.* [11]
5.4 Critical assessment Considered by many to be Kipling's masterpiece, opinion appears varied about its consideration as children's literature or not.* [12]* [13] Roger Sale, in his history of children's literature, concludes "Kim is the apotheosis of the Victorian cult of childhood, but it shines now as bright as ever, long after the Empire's collapse...”* [14]
• An MGM film adaptation of the novel, directed by Victor Saville and produced by Leon Gordon, was released in 1950. It was adapted by Helen Deutsch and Leon Gordon, and starred Errol Flynn, Dean Stockwell, Paul Lukas, Robert Douglas, Thomas Gomez and Cecil Kellaway. It featured a music score by André Previn. • In 1960, a one-hour color adaptation of Kim was televised on NBC's anthology series The Shirley Temple Show. Tony Haig portrayed Kim, Michael Rennie played Captain Creighton, and Alan Napier played Colonel Devlin. The episode has been released on DVD. • A London Films television film version Kim was made in 1984. It was directed by John Howard Davies and starred Peter O'Toole, Bryan Brown, John RhysDavies, Julian Glover and Ravi Sheth as Kim. It has been released on DVD. • Poul Anderson's novel Game of Empire, the last of his Dominic Flandry series, is loosely modeled on Kim, with the plot transferred to a Science-Fictional setting. • Tim Powers' 2001 novel Declare uses Kim for inspiration and epigraphs. • Steven Gould's 2011 novel 7th Sigma is heavily based on Kim,* [17] featuring a young boy named Kim who is raised by a martial arts teacher and becomes involved in intelligence work, eventually becoming a trained agent. Quotes from Kipling's Kim are used as chapter headers.
5.6
References
[1] Ann Parry, “Recovering the Connection between Kim and Contemporary History”, in Kipling, Rudyard, Kim (2002), p. 310.
70
CHAPTER 5. KIM (NOVEL)
[2]“Kim”. in: The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature. Ed. Margaret Drabble and Jenny Stringer. Oxford University Press, 2007. Oxford Reference Online. [3] “100 Best Novels”. Modern Library. Retrieved 31 October 2012 [4] “BBC – The Big Read”. BBC. April 2003, Retrieved 31 October 2012 [5] Kim [6] See for details, Omer Tarin 'My Quest for Mahbub Ali' in the Kipling Journal pub by the Kipling Society June 2008, pp 10-22 [7] O Tarin, in the 'Kipling Journal' UK, June 2008, aa [8] http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/ Heraldry/Patches/399-Area-Badges.html [9] Peter Hopkirk in Quest for Kim:In Search of Kipling's Great Game London:J Murray, 1996 [10] Hopkirk, aa [11] Hopkirk, aa [12] Roger Blackwell Bailey, PhD. “Landmarks in the History of Children's Literature”. Retrieved 21 September 2006. [13] Laura Laffrado.“Teaching American Children's Literature” . Western Washington University. Retrieved 21 September 2006. [14] Roger Sale, Fairy Tales and After: from Snow White to E.B. White”Harvard Univ. Press, 1978. p.221 ISBN 0-67429157-3 [15] Times Literary Supplement, Friday, 29 May 1959 [16] Rudyard Kipling Kim Illustrated by Stuart Tresilian. Macmillan, 1959. [17] http://booktionary.blogspot.com/2011/07/ interview-steven-gould-author-of-7th.html
5.7.2
Works of criticism
• Benedetti, Amedeo, Il Kim di Kipling. In: “LG Argomenti”, Genova, Erga, a. XLIII (2007), n. 4, pp. 17–21. • Hopkirk, Peter, Quest for Kim: in Search of Kipling's Great Game (London: John Murray, 1996). [ISBN 0-7195-5560-4] The author visits the locations of the novel and discusses the real-life personages that may have possibly inspired its characters. • Wilson, Angus, The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works, (New York, The Viking Press: 1977). [ISBN 0-670-67701-9]
5.8
External links
Sources • Kim available at Internet Archive (scanned books, illustrated) • • Kim at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML) • Kim at Read book online(plain text) • Kim public domain audiobook at LibriVox Criticism • "Kim, by Rudyard Kipling”, by Ian Mackean. Literary analysis. • Kerr, Douglas. Kim. The Literary Encyclopedia. 21 March 2002. Accessed 19 May 2008.
5.7 Bibliography
• “Artist of empire: Kipling and Kim”, The Hudson Review, Winter 2003 by Clara Clairborne Park.
5.7.1
• Kim: Study Guide”, from eNotes
Editions
The Sussex edition is standard for Kipling's works. Noted critical editions include:
• Kim, reviewed in The Atlantic, 1901. • Kim; Rudyard Kipling's Fascinating Story of India, reviewed in The New York Times, 1901.
• Kipling, Rudyard. Kim (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987). [ISBN: 0-14-018352-3] With an introduction Other and notes by famed postcolonial critic Edward Said. • Kipling, Rudyard, Kim, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2002). [ISBN 0-393-96650-X] A modern edition with extensive notes, essays, maps and references.
• Kim travels • On the trail of Kipling's Kim, itinerary on Wikivoyage
Chapter 6
The Man Who Would Be King For the 1975 film based on this story, see The Man Who ers, Daniel Dravot and Peachey Carnehan. He rather likes Would Be King (film). them, but then stops them from blackmailing a minor rajah. A few months later they appear at his office in Lahore. "The Man Who Would Be King" (1888) is a novella by They tell him their plan. They have been “Soldier, sailor, compositor [typesetter], photographer... [railroad] engineRudyard Kipling. It is about two British adventurers in British India who become kings of Kafiristan, a remote part drivers, petty contractors,”and more, and have decided India is not big enough for them. The next day they will go of Afghanistan. The story was inspired by the exploits of James Brooke, an Englishman who became the first White off to Kafiristan to set themselves up as kings. Dravot can pass as a native, and they have twenty Martini-Henry rifles Rajah of Sarawak in Borneo; and by the travels of American adventurer Josiah Harlan, who was granted the title Prince (then perhaps the best in the world). They plan to find a of Ghor in perpetuity for himself and his descendants. It king or chief, help him defeat his enemies, then take over incorporates a number of other factual elements such as lo- for themselves. They ask the narrator for the use of any cating the story in eastern Afghanistan's Kafiristan and the books or maps of the area–as a favour, because they are European-like appearance of many of Kafiristan's Nuristani fellow Freemasons, and because he spoiled their blackmail people, and an ending modelled on the return of the head scheme. of the explorer Adolf Schlagintweit to colonial administra- Two years later, on a scorching hot summer night, Carnetors.* [1] han creeps into the narrator's office. He is a broken man, a The story was first published in The Phantom Rickshaw and crippled beggar clad in rags and he tells an amazing story. other Eerie Tales (Volume Five of the Indian Railway Li- Dravot and Carnehan succeeded in becoming kings: findbrary, published by A. H. Wheeler & Co of Allahabad in ing the Kafirs, who turn out to be white (“so hairy and 1888). It also appeared in Wee Willie Winkie and Other white and fair it was just shaking hands with old friends”), Child Stories in 1895, and in numerous later editions of that mustering an army, taking over villages, and dreaming of building a unified nation. The Kafirs (pagans, not Muslims) collection. were impressed by the rifles and Dravot's lack of fear of A radio adaption was broadcast on the show Escape on 7 their idols, and acclaimed him as a god, the reincarnation or July 1947 and again on 1 August 1948. In 1975, it was descendant of Alexander the Great. The Kafirs practised a adapted by director John Huston into a feature film of the form of Masonic ritual, and Dravot's reputation was further same name, starring Sean Connery and Michael Caine as cemented when he showed knowledge of Masonic secrets the adventurers and Christopher Plummer as Kipling. that only the oldest priest remembered. As early as 1954, Humphrey Bogart expressed the desire to Their schemes were dashed when Dravot decided to marry star in The Man Who Would Be King and was in talks with a Kafir girl. Terrified at marrying a god, the girl bit Dravot director John Huston.* [2] when he tried to kiss her. Seeing him bleed, the priests cried that he was “Neither God nor Devil but a man!" Most of the Kafirs turned against Dravot and Carnehan. A few of his men remained loyal, but the army defected and the two 6.1 Plot summary kings were captured. Dravot, wearing his crown, stood on a rope bridge over a The narrator of the story is a British journalist in India gorge while the Kafirs cut the ropes, and he fell to his death. —Kipling himself, in all but name. While on a tour of Carnehan was crucified between two pine trees. When he some Indian native states he meets two scruffy adventur71
72
CHAPTER 6. THE MAN WHO WOULD BE KING side in mutilated English as “oi Man huwdbi Kin”. The Sleeper recalls the story as“one of the best stories in the world”.* [7]
survived for a day, the Kafirs considered it a miracle and let him go. He begged his way back to India. As proof of his tale, Carnehan shows the narrator Dravot's head, still wearing the golden crown. Carnehan leaves carrying the head. The next day the narrator sees him crawling along the road in the noon sun, with his hat off and gone mad. The narrator sends him to the local asylum. When he inquires two days later, he learns that Carnehan has died of sunstroke (“half an hour bare-headed in the sun at midday...”). No belongings were found with him.* [3]
6.2 Influence As a young man the would-be poet T. S. Eliot, already an ardent admirer of Kipling, wrote a short story called “The Man Who Was King”. Published in 1905 in the Smith Academy Record, a school magazine of the school he was attending as a day-boy, the story explicitly shows how the prospective poet was concerned with his own unique version of the “King”.* [4]* [5]
6.3 Response J. M. Barrie described the story as “the most audacious thing in fiction”. Additional critical responses are collected in Bloom's Rudyard Kipling.* [6]
6.4 In popular culture • The Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Storyteller" was based on the short story, according to Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Companion. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Déjà Q" the omnipotent Q, stripped of his powers and left to live as a mortal human, sarcastically refers to himself as “The king who would be man.” •“The Man Who Would Be King”, a 2004 song written by Peter Doherty and Carl Barât of The Libertines, appears in their self-titled second album. The songwriters are known fans of Kipling and his work. It reflects on the story, as two friends – who seem to be at the top – drift away from each other and begin to despise each other, mirroring the bandmates' turbulent relationship and eventual splitting of the band shortly after the album's release. • In H. G. Wells' The Sleeper Awakes, the Sleeper identifies a cylinder (“a modern substitute for books”) with“The Man Who Would Be King”written on the
• The two main characters appear in the graphic novel Scarlet Traces. • The Man Who Would Be King was adapted into a movie released in 1975, starring Sean Connery as Dravot and Michael Caine as Carnehan with Christopher Plummer as Kipling. • The title of the 2003 popular science book by J. Michael Bailey, The Man Who Would Be Queen, plays on Kipling's title. • Daniel Dravot appears in Kim Newman's Anno Dracula series as a functionary of the secret Diogenes Club. •“The Man Who Would be King”is a song by Dio on the album Master of the Moon • In the video game Civilization V, the achievement for completing the game on any difficulty with Alexander the Great is named“The Man Who Would Be King.” • The 2000 DreamWorks movie The Road to El Dorado is loosely based on the story. • The 20th episode of season 6 of Supernatural is titled “The Man Who Would Be King”. • The 9th track on Iron Maiden's fifteenth studio album, The Final Frontier, is entitled“The Man Who Would Be King”. The song has no apparent connection with the novella apart from the title. • In the video game Borderlands 2, one of the main missions is called 'The Man Who Would Be Jack' as a reference to the story. • In the album History Will Absolve Me by Billy Woods the third track is called “The Man Who Would Be King” • In the Jimmy Buffett book Salty Piece of Land, the movie version starring Sean Connery and Michael Caine is referenced several times as a significant plot line to the story. • In the book Rags and Bones, the short-story “Losing Her Divinity”by Garth Nix is based on the story.
6.5
Notes
[1] Tajikistan & The High Pamirs: A Companion and Guide, Robert Middleton & Huw Thomas, Odyssey, 2008, ISBN 962-217-773-5
6.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
[2] http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-33816_162-57464351/ bogart-bacall-grace-person-to-person-a-look-back/?tag= showDoorFlexGridLeft;flexGridModule[] [3]“Plot Summary of “The Man Who Would Be King”in Harold Bloom, ed. Rudyard Kipling, Chelsea House, 2004. pp. 18–22. [4] Narita, Tatsushi. “Young T. S. Eliot as a Transpacific 'Literary Columbus': Eliot on Kipling's Short Story”. Beyond Binarism: Discontinuities and Displacements: Studies in Comparative Literature, ed. Eduardo F. Coutinho. Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano, 2009, pp. 230–237 [5] Narita, Tatsushi. T. S. Eliot and his Youth as 'A Literary Columbus'. Nagoya: Kougaku Shuppan, 2011. [6] Bloom, Harold, ed. Rudyard Kipling Chelsea House, 2004. [7] Wells, H. G.“The Sleeper Awakes”. Ed. Patrick Parringer. England: Penguin Classics, 2005. p 56.
6.6 Further reading • Narita, Tatsushi. “Young T. S. Eliot as a Transpacific 'Literary Columbus': Eliot on Kipling's Short Story”. Beyond Binarism: Discontinuities and Displacements: Studies in Comparative Literature, ed. Eduardo F. Coutinho. Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano, 2009, pp. 230–237. • Narita, Tatsushi.“Fiction and Fact in T.S. Eliot's 'The Man Who Was King.'" Notes and Queries (Pembroke College, Oxford University), v. 39, no.2 (1992):191– 192
6.7 External links • Full text at Project Gutenberg • The Man Who Would Be King public domain audiobook at LibriVox • 'The Son of God Goes Forth to War': Biblical Imagery in Rudyard Kipling's The Man Who Would Be King by Larry J. Kreitzer.
73
Chapter 7
Mandalay (poem) Irrawaddy Flotilla Company (IFC). Rangoon to Mandalay was a 700 km trip each way. During the Third AngloBurmese War of 1885 9,000 British and Indian soldiers had been transported by a fleet of paddle steamers (“the old flotilla”of the poem) and other boats from Rangoon to Mandalay. Guerrilla warfare followed the occupation of Mandalay and British regiments remained in Burma for several years.
Samuel Bourne. 1870. Moulmein from the Great Pagoda
“Mandalay” is a poem by Rudyard Kipling that was first published in the collection Barrack-Room Ballads, and Other Verses, the first series, published in 1892. The poem colourfully illustrates the nostalgia and longing of a soldier of the British Empire for Asia's exoticism, and generally for the countries and cultures located “East of Suez”, as compared to the cold, damp and foggy climates and to the social disciplines and conventions of the UK and Northern Europe.
7.1 Background to the poem The Mandalay referred to in this poem was the sometime capital city of Burma, which was a British protectorate from 1885 to 1948. It mentions the "old Moulmein pagoda", Moulmein being the Anglicised version of present-day Mawlamyine, in South eastern Burma, on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Martaban.
“Where the old flotilla lay”. British soldiers disembarking from paddle steamers in Mandalay on 28 November 1885, Third Anglo-Burmese War. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912).
Rudyard Kipling's poem“Mandalay”was written in March or April 1890, when the British poet was 24 years old. He had arrived in England in October the previous year, after seven years in India. He had taken an eastward route home, traveling by steamship from Calcutta to Japan, then to San Francisco, then across the United States, in company with his friends Alex and “Ted”(Edmonia) Hill. Rangoon had been the first port of call after Calcutta; then there was an unscheduled stop at Moulmein. It is plain that Kipling was struck by the beauty of the Burmese girls. He wrote at the time:
The British troops stationed in Burma were taken up (or down) the Irrawaddy River by paddle steamers run by the 74
I love the Burman with the blind favouritism
7.2. TEXT born of first impression. When I die I will be a Burman …and I will always walk about with a pretty almond-coloured girl who shall laugh and jest too, as a young maiden ought. She shall not pull a sari over her head when a man looks at her and glare suggestively from behind it, nor shall she tramp behind me when I walk: for these are the customs of India. She shall look all the world between the eyes, in honesty and good fellowship, and I will teach her not to defile her pretty mouth with chopped tobacco in a cabbage leaf, but to inhale good cigarettes of Egypt's best brand. Kipling claimed that when in Moulmein, he had paid no attention to the pagoda his poem later made famous, because he was so struck by a Burmese beauty on the steps. The attraction seems to have been common among the English: Maung Htin Aung, in his essay on George Orwell's Burmese Days (those days that produced the novel Burmese Days) notes: “Even that proud conqueror of Ava, Lord Dufferin, although he was received with dark looks by the Burmese during his state visit to Mandalay early in 1886, wrote back to a friend in England, extolling the grace, charm and freedom of Burmese women.”
7.2 Text By the old Moulmein Pagoda, lookin' lazy at the sea, There's a Burma girl a-settin', and I know she thinks o' me; For the wind is in the palm-trees, and the Temple-bells they say: “Come you back, you British soldier; come you back to Mandalay!" Come you back to Mandalay, Where the old Flotilla lay: Can't you 'ear their paddles chunkin' from Rangoon to Mandalay? On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! 'Er petticoat was yaller an' 'er little cap was green, An' 'er name was Supi-yaw-lat - jes' the same as Theebaw's Queen, An' I seed her first a-smokin' of a whackin' white cheroot, An' a-wastin' Christian kisses on an 'eathen idol's foot: Bloomin' idol made o' mud Wot they called the Great Gawd Budd Plucky lot she cared for idols When I kissed 'er where she stud! On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China
75 'crost the Bay! When the mist was on the rice-fields an' the sun was droppin' slow, She'd git 'er little banjo and she'd sing “Kulla-lo-lo!" With 'er arm upon my shoulder an' 'er cheek agin my cheek We useter watch the steamers an' the hathis pilin' teak. Elephants a-pilin' teak In the sludgy, squdgy creek, Where the silence 'ung that 'eavy you was 'arf afraid to speak! On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! But that's all above be'ind me - long ago an' fur away, An' there ain't no buses runnin' from the Bank to Mandalay; An' I'm learnin' 'ere in London what the ten-year soldier tells: “If you've 'eard the East a-callin', you won't never 'eed naught else.” No! You won't 'eed nothin' else But them spicy garlic smells, An' the sunshine an' the palm-trees an' the tinkly Templebells; On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! I am sick o' wastin' leather on these gritty pavin'-stones, An' the blasted English drizzle wakes the fever in my bones; Tho' I walks with fifty 'ousemaids outer Chelsea to the Strand, An' they talks a lot o' lovin', but what do they understand? Beefy face an' grubby 'and Law! Wot do they understand? I've a neater, sweeter maiden in a cleaner, greener land! On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China 'crost the Bay! Ship me somewhere's east of Suez, where the best is like the worst, Where there aren't no Ten Commandments an' a man can raise a thirst; For the Temple-bells are callin', an' it's there that I would be --By the old Moulmein Pagoda, lookin' lazy at the sea; On the road to Mandalay, Where the old Flotilla lay, With our sick beneath the awnings when we went to Mandalay! On the road to Mandalay, Where the flyin' fishes play, An' the dawn comes up like thunder outer China
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CHAPTER 7. MANDALAY (POEM) End”and “Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny”.
'crost the Bay!
7.3 In popular culture
“Blackmore's Night”has a song called“Way to Mandalay” .
The poem is quoted in the 1992 movie The Last of His Tribe. During a campfire, Dr. Saxton Pope, played by David Ogden Stiers, gives expression to most of the poem in dramatic fashion.* [1] In The Wizard of Oz, the Cowardly Lion quotes Mandalay during his famous “Courage”speech. “What makes the dawn come up like THUNDER?! – Courage.”* [2] In Noël Coward's 1950 musical Ace of Clubs, Harry, a sailor knowing every world's port, confesses in his song, I like America, that he'd "exploded the myth__Of those Flying Fith__On the Road to Mandalay.”* [3]
7.5
See also
• 1892 in poetry • 1892 in literature • The Gods of the Copybook Headings
7.6
References
[1] The Last of His Tribe - 1992, The poem is given dramatic representation for 1 minute 10 seconds from 51:10 A sung rendition of the poem is performed in an episode to 52:20 into the movie: https://www.youtube.com/watch? of Rumpole of the Bailey, “Rumpole and the Show Folk” v=IqVArigvh_Q. *
. [4]
Two parodic quotes (“takes a heap of loving”and “on the road to where the flying fishes play”) appear in a nonsense poem, “A Few Lines”, written by Groucho Marx for Animal Crackers. * [5]
[2] American Rhetoric: Movie Speech “The Wizard of Oz” (1939), The Cowardly Lion On Courage.
7.4 Songs
[4] > under ALLUSIONS tab > Rumpole quotes from Rudyard Kipling's poem Mandalay.
Kipling's text was adapted for the song "On the Road to Mandalay" by Oley Speaks (among others). The song was popularised by Peter Dawson. It appears in the album Come Fly with Me by Frank Sinatra. The song is published with only first, second and last verse of the poem, with the chorus; although singers sometimes omit the second verse. The Kipling family objected to Sinatra's version of the song. When the album was initially released in the UK, the song “French Foreign Legion”replaced“Mandalay”, whilst apparently the song“Chicago” (and“It Happened in Monterey”on some pressings) were used in other parts of the British Commonwealth. Sinatra sang the song in Australia, in 1959, and relayed the story of the Kipling family objection to the song. In 2008, in the Family Guy episode Tales of a Third Grade Nothing, Frank Sinatra Jr. and Seth MacFarlane spoofed the song. There is also a song of Russian singer Vera Matveeva“On the road to Mandalay”translated by E. Polonskaya. A Danish translation by Karl Friis Møller became popular in Denmark in 1961 where it was performed by the quartet Four Jacks. Bertolt Brecht referred to Kipling′s poem in his“Mandalay Song”, which was set to music by Kurt Weill for “Happy
[3] According to the Noël Coward Society, this song originated in 1949, and went into Ace Of Clubs the following year. ( 'Songfacts' webpage contains published lyrics.)
[5] “A Few Lines”, by Groucho Marx; within full page of information on “Animal Crackers”.
7.7
External links
• Full text of the poem at Wikisource
Chapter 8
Gunga Din This article is about the poem by Rudyard Kipling. For the film based on the poem, see Gunga Din (film). For The Libertines' song, see Anthems for Doomed Youth.
8.2
Adaptations
The poem inspired a 1939 adventure film of the same name from RKO Radio Pictures starring Cary Grant, Victor "Gunga Din" (1892) is a poem by Rudyard Kipling, set in McLaglen, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., Joan Fontaine, and Sam British India. It was the inspiration for a 1939 film of the Jaffe in the title role. The movie was remade in 1961 as same title. Sergeants 3, starring the Rat Pack. The locale was moved from British-colonial India to the old West. The Gunga Din character was played in this film by Sammy Davis, Jr.. 8.1 Background Many elements of the 1939 film were also incorporated into Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom.* [1] “Tho' I've belted you and flayed you, A much shorter animated version of the poem and film was By the livin' Gawd that made you, made as an episode of The Famous Adventures of Mr. MaYou're a better man than I am, Gunga Din!” goo, with the ultra-myopic Mister Magoo in the title role. He was voiced by Jim Backus. “ ” In 1958, Bobby Darin wrote and recorded the song“That's the Way Love Is”in which, referring to the unsolved riddle of love, he sings“And if ya come up with the answer, You're from “Gunga Din”. a better man, sir, than I …Gunga Din”. * [2] View the full poem on Wikisource. In 1962, Sonny Gianotta recorded a novelty song“The Last Blast of the Blasted Bugler”based on Gunga Din. The poem is a rhyming narrative from the point of view of an English soldier in India, about an Indian water-bearer In 1963, Flanders and Swann recorded “At the Drop of (a bhishti) who saves the soldier's life but is soon shot and Another Hat”, which in the song“Sounding Brass”includes killed. In the final three lines, the soldier regrets the abuse the line,“The object is to Gunga-din your neighbor”. This he dealt to Din and admits that Din is the better man of the means to one up your neighbour in the context of the song. two for sacrificing his own life to save another. The poem was published as one of the set of martial poems called the In 1966, Jim Croce adapted the poem into a song for his album Facets. Barrack-Room Ballads. In contrast to Kipling's later poem "The White Man's Bur- In 1969, The Byrds recorded a song named “Gunga Din” den", “Gunga Din”(/ˌɡʌŋɡə ˈdɪn/) is named after the In- written by Byrds drummer Gene Parsons for the 1969 Byrds dian, portraying him as a heroic character who is not afraid “Ballad of Easy Rider”album. In 1973, the TV show M.A.S.H. shows Hawkeye Pierce reciting part of this poem in the episode, “Dear Dad... Three”. Also in 1973, Gunga Din was included in the title song of the film "'The Adventures of Barry McKenzie sung Although “Din”is frequently pronounced to rhyme with by Smacka Fitzgibbon. “Barry McKenzie was a better man “bin”, the rhymes within the poem make it clear that it than you are, Gunga Din”. should be pronounced /ˈdin/ to rhyme with “green”. In 1996, the TV show Animaniacs parodied the poem in the to face danger on the battlefield as he tends to wounded men. The English soldiers who order Din around and beat him for not bringing them water fast enough are presented as being callous and shallow, and ultimately inferior to him.
77
78 episode “Gunga Dot”narrated by Tony Jay. In 1998, Ian Gillan recorded a song named “Gunga Din” on the album Dreamcatcher. In December 2012, in the Downton Abbey's special Christmas episode, Isobel Crawley preempts a marriage proposal from a slightly inebriated Dr. Clarkson with the retort: “Are you thinking of getting married Dr. Clarkson? Because if you are, you're a better man than I am, Gunga Din.” In 2015 British rock band The Libertines released a song titled Gunga Din, their first in 11 years. The band are big Kipling fans and have referenced his poems in previous songs.
8.3 See also • No Heaven for Gunga Din, with a similar theme about the treatment of native servants by colonial military officers.
8.4 References [1] Jaap van Ginnekan, Screening Difference: How Hollywood's Blockbuster Films Imagine Race, Ethnicity, and Culture, p.143. ISBN 978-0-7425-5584-6“Spielberg conceded that Gunga Din was one of the major sources of inspiration for the second Indiana Jones movie, and it does indeed contain many of the same elements.” [2] Bobby Darin “That's The Way Love Is”
8.5 Sources • George Robinson: Gunga Din (article on the 1939 Hollywood film). Soldiers of the Queen (journal of the Victorian Military Society). September 1994.
8.6 External links • The full text of “Gunga Din” at Wikisource • Text of the poem from Bartleby.com
CHAPTER 8. GUNGA DIN
Chapter 9
The Gods of the Copybook Headings 9.1
Text
The Gods of the Copybook Headings AS I PASS through my incarnations in every age and race, I make my proper prostrations to the Gods of the Market Place. Peering through reverent fingers I watch them flourish and fall, And the Gods of the Copybook Headings, I notice, outlast them all.
A page from a 19th-century copybook, in which the printed headings have been copied. The homily is paraphrased from a 17thcentury sermon of Isaac Barrow, Against Detraction —“Good nature like a bee, collects honey from every herb. Ill nature, like a spider, sucks poison from the flowers.”
“The Gods of the Copybook Headings” is a poem published by Rudyard Kipling in 1919, which, editor Andrew Rutherford said, contained “age-old, unfashionable wisdom”that Kipling saw as having been forgotten by society and replaced by “habits of wishful thinking.”* [1] The “copybook headings”to which the title refers were proverbs or maxims, extolling virtues such as honesty or fair dealing that were printed at the top of the pages of 19thcentury British students' special notebook pages, called copybooks. The school-children had to write them by hand repeatedly down the page. The work has been described as“beautifully captur[ing] the thinking of Schumpeter and Keynes.”* [2] David Gilmour says that while topics of the work are the “usual subjects” , the commentary “sound better in verse”* [3] while Alice Ramos says that they are “far removed from Horace's elegant succinctness”but do “make the same point with some force.”* [4] 79
We were living in trees when they met us. They showed us each in turn That Water would certainly wet us, as Fire would certainly burn: But we found them lacking in Uplift, Vision and Breadth of Mind, So we left them to teach the Gorillas while we followed the March of Mankind. We moved as the Spirit listed. They never altered their pace, Being neither cloud nor wind-borne like the Gods of the Market Place, But they always caught up with our progress, and presently word would come That a tribe had been wiped off its icefield, or the lights had gone out in Rome. With the Hopes that our World is built on they were utterly out of touch, They denied that the Moon was Stilton; they denied she was even Dutch; They denied that Wishes were Horses; they denied that a Pig had Wings;
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CHAPTER 9. THE GODS OF THE COPYBOOK HEADINGS So we worshipped the Gods of the Market Who promised these beautiful things.
And that after this is accomplished, and the brave new world begins When all men are paid for existing and no man must pay for his sins,
When the Cambrian measures were forming, They promised perpetual peace.
As surely as Water will wet us, as surely as Fire will burn,
They swore, if we gave them our weapons, that the wars of the tribes would cease.
The Gods of the Copybook Headings with terror and slaughter return!
But when we disarmed They sold us and delivered us bound to our foe, And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: “Stick to the Devil you know.” On the first Feminian Sandstones we were promised the Fuller Life (Which started by loving our neighbour and ended by loving his wife) Till our women had no more children and the men lost reason and faith, And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: “The Wages of Sin is Death.” In the Carboniferous Epoch we were promised abundance for all, By robbing selected Peter to pay for collective Paul; But, though we had plenty of money, there was nothing our money could buy, And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: “If you don't work you die.” Then the Gods of the Market tumbled, and their smooth-tongued wizards withdrew And the hearts of the meanest were humbled and began to believe it was true That All is not Gold that Glitters, and Two and Two make Four And the Gods of the Copybook Headings limped up to explain it once more. As it will be in the future, it was at the birth of Man There are only four things certain since Social Progress began. That the Dog returns to his Vomit and the Sow returns to her Mire, And the burnt Fool's bandaged finger goes wabbling back to the Fire;
9.2
External links
• Full Text at kipling.org.uk • The Gods of the Copybook Headings by Rudyard Kipling, 1865-1936 (includes a reading in MP3 format)
9.3
References
[1] Andrew Rutherford (ed.). War Stories and Poems - Rudyard Kipling,. Retrieved 2012-12-11. [2] John C. Bogle (2010-10-26). Don't Count on It!: Reflections on Investment Illusions, Capitalism, “Mutual ... Retrieved 2012-12-11. [3] David Gilmour. The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling. Retrieved 2012-12-11. [4] Alice Ramos. Beauty, Art, and the Polis. Retrieved 201212-11.
Chapter 10
The White Man's Burden For the book by William Easterly, see William Easterly. “White Man's Burden”redirects here. For the 1995 film, see White Man's Burden (film). "The White Man's Burden" is a poem by the English
A cartoon by William H. Walker satirizing the concept of the white man's burden, from an 1899 edition of Life magazine
This 1890s' advertisement for soap uses the theme of the white man's burden, encouraging white people to teach cleanliness.
poet Rudyard Kipling. It was originally published in the popular magazine McClure's in 1899, with the subtitle The United States and the Philippine Islands.* [1] The poem was originally written for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, but exchanged for "Recessional"; Kipling changed the text of “Burden”to reflect the subject of American colonization of the Philippines, recently won from Spain in the Spanish– American War.* [2] The poem consists of seven stanzas, following a regular rhyme scheme. At face value it appears to be a rhetorical command to white men to colonize and rule
other nations for the benefit of those people (both the people and the duty may be seen as representing the“burden” of the title). Although Kipling's poem mixed exhortation of empire with somber warnings of the costs involved, imperialists within the United States of America understood the phrase“white man's burden”as justifying imperialism as a noble enterprise.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] Because of its theme and title, it has become emblematic both of Eurocentric racism and of
81
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CHAPTER 10. THE WHITE MAN'S BURDEN
Western aspirations to improve and industrialise the devel- 10.2 History oping world.* [8]* [9]* [10] A century after its publication, the poem still rouses strong emotions, and can be analyzed The poem first appeared in the United States on Februfrom a variety of perspectives. ary 5, 1899, in McLure's newspapers such as the New York Sun, during the Battle of Manila. On the following day, the United States Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris, which asserted its jurisdiction over the Philippines.* [14] 10.1 Poem On February 7, Senator Benjamin Tillman read three stanzas from “The White Man's Burden”on the floor of the Original title: “The White Man's Burden: The United States United States Senate—to argue that the U.S should rescind and The Philippine Islands”* [11]* [12]* [13] its claim to the Philippines. “Why,”Tillman asked, “are Take up the White Man's burden, Send forth the best ye we bent on forcing upon them a civilization not suited to them and which only means in their view degradation and breed a loss of self-respect, which is worse than the loss of life Go bind your sons to exile, to serve your captives' need; itself?"* [15] To wait in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild— Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half-devil and half-child. Take up the White Man's burden, In patience to abide, To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain To seek another's profit, And work another's gain. Take up the White Man's burden, The savage wars of peace — Fill full the mouth of Famine And bid the sickness cease; And when your goal is nearest The end for others sought, Watch sloth and heathen Folly Bring all your hopes to nought. Take up the White Man's burden, No tawdry rule of kings, But toil of serf and sweeper, The tale of common things. The ports ye shall not enter, The roads ye shall not tread, Go mark* [1] them with your living, And mark them with your dead. Take up the White Man's burden And reap his old reward: The blame of those ye better, The hate of those ye guard— The cry of hosts ye humour (Ah, slowly!) toward the light: — “Why brought he us from bondage, Our loved Egyptian night?" Take up the White Man's burden, Ye dare not stoop to less — Nor call too loud on Freedom To cloke your weariness; By all ye cry or whisper, By all ye leave or do, The silent, sullen peoples Shall weigh your gods and you. Take up the White Man's burden, Have done with childish days— The lightly proferred laurel, The easy, ungrudged praise. Comes now, to search your manhood, through all the thankless years Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom, The judgment of your peers!
The poem was widely distributed in the United States and began “The Kipling Boom”, a wave of Kipling publicity in the newspapers.* [16]
10.3
Differing interpretations
The white man's burden, 1898 Detroit Journal cartoon
One view proposes that whites have an obligation to rule over, and encourage the cultural development of people from other cultural backgrounds until they can take their place in the world economically and socially. The term “the white man's burden”has been interpreted by some as racist, or possibly taken as a metaphor for a condescending view of“undeveloped”national culture and economic traditions, identified as a sense of European ascendancy which has been called "cultural imperialism".
An alternative interpretation is the philanthropic view: “The implication, of course, was that the Empire existed not for the benefit —economic or strategic or otherwise —of 1. ^ In the original published version, this Britain itself, but in order that primitive peoples, incapable http://www.unz.org/Pub/ of self-government, could, with British guidance, eventuword is “make”. McClures-1899feb-00290 ally become civilized (and Christianized). The truth of this
10.4. LITERARY RESPONSE
83
doctrine was accepted naively by some, and hypocritically that he was not really an imperialist at all.”* [24] by others, but it served in any case to legitimize Britain's acquisition of portions of central Africa and her domination, in concert with other European powers, of China.”* [17] 10.4 Literary response On the face of it, the poem conveys a positive view of the idea that “The White Man”, generally accepted to mean the colonial powers (Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Russia, Italy and the United States), had a duty to civilize the more brutish and barbaric parts of the world. It begins by describing the colonized Filipinos as “new-caught, sullen peoples, half devil and half child”. Although a belief in the virtues of empire was widespread at the time, there were also many dissenters; the publication of the poem caused a flurry of arguments from both sides, most notably from Mark Twain and Henry James.* [18] While Kipling may have intended the piece as a form of satire, much of Kipling's other writing does suggest that he genuinely believed in the “beneficent role”which the introduction of Western ideas could play in lifting nonWestern peoples out of poverty and ignorance.* [19]* [20] Lines 3–5, and other parts of the poem suggest that it is not just the native people who are held in captivity, but also the “functionaries of empire”, who are caught in colonial service and may die while helping other races less fortunate than themselves (hence “burden”).
Several parodies and other of critical works have used themes or quotes collected from Kipling's poem. Early examples include Henry Labouchère's poem “The Brown Man's Burden,”(1899)* [25] and H. T. Johnson's April 1899 popular response, entitled“The Black Man's Burden”. A “Black Man's Burden Association”was organised with the goal of demonstrating that mistreatment of brown people in the Philippines was an extension of the mistreatment of black Americans at home.* [26] Ernest Crosby wrote a poem,“The Real White Man's Burden”(1902).* [27] E. D. Morel, a British journalist in the Congo Free State, drew attention to the brutality of imperialism in 1903. His article,“The Black Man's Burden”* [28] was published in 1903. In another article, also entitled “The Black Man's Burden,”* [29] he describes his view of both the White and Black Man's Burdens.* [30]
West-Indian American writer Hubert Harrison's response entitled“The Black Man's Burden”* [31] from When Africa An analysis focused on the social status and background Awakes was published in New York in 1920.* [32] of colonial officers active at the time is lacking; as is one of the Christian missionary movement, also quite active at the time in parts of the world under colonial rule (e.g. 10.5 See also the Christian and Missionary Alliance) which also emphasised the theme of aiding those less fortunate. Several • The Gods of the Copybook Headings authors note that Kipling offered the poem to Theodore • Industrial Revolution Roosevelt to help persuade many doubting Americans to seize the Philippines.* [21]* [22] His work with regards to • 1899 in literature British colonialism in India had become widely popular in the United States. The poem could be viewed as a way • 1899 in poetry for Kipling to share the virtues of British colonialism with • Colonialism Americans. In September 1898 Kipling wrote to Roosevelt, stating 'Now go in and put all the weight of your influ• List of the works of Rudyard Kipling ence into hanging on permanently to the whole Philippines. • Orientalism America has gone and stuck a pickaxe into the foundations of a rotten house and she is morally bound to build the house • White savior narrative in film over again from the foundations or have it fall about her ears'.* [23] He forwarded the poem to Roosevelt in November of the same year, just after Roosevelt was elected Gov10.6 Notes ernor of New York. The Norton Anthology of English Literature argues the poem is in line with Kipling's strong imperialism and a belief of a “Divine Burden to reign God's Empire on Earth.”* [2] According to journalist Steve Sailer, however, the far-right writer John Derbyshire has described Kipling as “an imperialist utterly without any illusions about what being an imperialist actually means. Which, in some ways, means
[1]“The White Man's Burden”. McClure's Magazine 12 (Feb. 1899). [2] Stephen Greenblatt (ed.), Norton Anthology of English Literature, New York 2006 ISBN 0-393-92532-3. [3] Zwick, Jim (December 16, 2005). Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898–1935.
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CHAPTER 10. THE WHITE MAN'S BURDEN
[4] Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03081-9. p. 5: "...imperialist editors came out in favor of retaining the entire archipelago (using) higher-sounding justifications related to the “white man's burden.” [5] Judd, Denis (June 1997).“Diamonds are forever: Kipling's imperialism; poems of Rudyard Kipling”. History Today 47 (6): 37.: “Theodore Roosevelt...thought the verses 'rather poor poetry, but good sense from the expansionist standpoint'. Henry Cabot Lodge told Roosevelt in turn: 'I like it. I think it is better poetry than you say'.” [6] Examples of justification for imperialism based on Kipling's poem include the following (originally published 1899– 1902): • Opinion archive, International Herald Tribune (February 4, 1999). “In Our Pages: 100, 75 and 50 Years Ago; 1899: Kipling's Plea”. International Herald Tribune: 6.: “An extraordinary sensation has been created by Mr. Rudyard Kipling's new poem, The White Man's Burden, just published in a New York magazine. It is regarded as the strongest argument yet published in favor of expansion.” • Dixon, Thomas (1902). The Leopard's Spots – A Romance of the White Man's Burden 1865–1900.. Full text of a novel by Thomas Dixon praising the Ku Klux Klan, published online by The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. [7] Pimentel, Benjamin (October 26, 2003). The Philippines; “Liberator”Was Really a Colonizer; Bush's revisionist history. The San Francisco Chronicle. p. D3.: charactising the poem as a “call to imperial conquest”.
[16] Herman, Shadowing the White Man's Burden (2010), pp. 23–24. [17] David Cody, “The growth of the British Empire”, VictorianWeb, (Paragraph 4) [18] John V. Denson (1999). The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories. Transaction Publishers. pp. 405–406. ISBN 978-0-7658-0487-7(note ff. 28 & 33). [19] Langer, William (1935). A Critique of Imperialism. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, Inc. p. 6. [20] Demkin, Stephen (1996). Manifest destiny – Lecture notes. USA: Delaware County Community Collage. [21] Wolpert, Stanley (2006) [22] Brantlinger, Patrick (2007) “Kipling's 'The White Man's Burden' and its Afterlives”English Literature in Transition 1880–1920, 50.2, pp. 172–191 [23] Kipling, Rudyard (1990) The Letters of Rudyard Kipling, ed. Thomas Pinney London, Macmillan, Vol II, p. 350 [24] Sailer, Steve (2001). "What Will Happen In Afghanistan?". Published by United Press International. 26 September 2001. [25] Labouchère, Henry (1899). “The Brown Man's Burden” an anti-imperialist parody of Kipling's poem. [26] http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5476/ [27] Crosby, Ernest (1902). The Real White Man's Burden. Funk and Wagnalls Company. pp. 32–35. Published online by History Matters, American Social History Project, CUNY and George Mason University. [28] “The Black Man's Burden”
[8]“Eurocentrism”. In Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Ed. Thomas M. Leonard, Taylor & Francis, 2006, ISBN 0-415-97662-6, p. 636.
[29] “The Black Man's Burden”
[9] Chisholm, Michael (1982). Modern World Development: A Geographical Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield, 1982, ISBN 0-389-20320-3, p.12.
[31] “The Black Man's Burden”
[30] Morel, Edmund (1903). The Black Man's Burden. Fordham University.
[32] http://www.expo98.msu.edu/people/Harrison.htm [10] Mama, Amina (1995). Beyond the Masks: Race, Gender, and Subjectivity. Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-415-03544-9, p. 39. [11] Modern History Sourcebook: Rudyard Kipling, The White Man's Burden, 1899. New York: Fordham University. [12] Kipling, Rudyard (1929). Rudyard Kipling’s Verse: Definitive Edition. Garden city, New York: Doubleday. [13] Original published version [14] Herman, Shadowing the White Man's Burden (2010), p. 45. [15] Herman, Shadowing the White Man's Burden (2010), pp. 41–42.
10.7
References
• A Companion to Victorian Poetry, Alison Chapman; Blackwell, Oxford, 2002. • Chisholm, Michael (1982). Modern World Development: A Geographical Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield, 1982, ISBN 0-389-20320-3. • Cody, David. The growth of the British Empire. The Victorian Web, University Scholars Program, National University of Singapore, November 2000.
10.8. EXTERNAL LINKS • Crosby, Ernest (1902). The Real White Man's Burden. Funk and Wagnalls Company, 32–35. • Dixon, Thomas (1902). The Leopard's Spots – A Romance of the White Man's Burden 1865–1900. • Encyclopedia of India. Ed. Stanley Wolpert. Vol. 3. Detroit: charles Scribner's Sons, 2006, p. 35–36. 4 vols. •“Eurocentrism”. In Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Ed. Thomas M. Leonard, Taylor & Francis, 2006, ISBN 0-415-97662-6. • Greenblatt, Stephen (ed.). Norton Anthology of English Literature, New York 2006 ISBN 0-393-92532-3 • Kipling. Fordham University. Full text of the poem. • Labouchère, Henry (1899). “The Brown Man's Burden”. • Mama, Amina (1995). Beyond the Masks: Race, Gender, and Subjectivity. Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-41503544-9. • Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899– 1903. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03081-9. • Murphy, Gretchen (2010). Shadowing the White Man’ s Burden: U.S. Imperialism and the Problem of the Color Line. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9619-1 • Pimentel, Benjamin (October 26, 2003).“The Philippines;“Liberator”Was Really a Colonizer; Bush's revisionist history”. The San Francisco Chronicle: D3. • Sailer, Steve (2001). “What Will Happen In Afghanistan?". United Press International, 26 September 2001. •“The White Man's Burden.”McClure's Magazine 12 (Feb. 1899). • The Shining. Jack Nicholson's character Jack, uses the phrase to refer to whiskey.
10.8 External links • The text of the poem at Fordham University
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Chapter 11
If— For other uses, see If (disambiguation). "If—" is a poem by British Nobel laureate Rudyard Kipling, written in 1895 * [1] and first published in Rewards and Fairies, 1910. It is a tribute to Leander Starr Jameson. The poem is written in the form of paternal advice to the poet's son, John.* [2] As poetry, “If—" is a literary example of Victorian-era stoicism.* [3] John was killed at the Battle of Loos in 1915. * [2] The well-known Indian historian and writer Khushwant Singh claims that Kipling's “If—" is “the essence of the message of The Gita in English.”* [4]
11.1 Publication The initial publication of the poem “If —" was in the “Brother Square Toes”chapter of the book Rewards and Fairies (1910), a collection of Kipling's poetry and shortstory fiction. In the posthumously published autobiography Something of Myself (1937), Kipling said that his poetic inspiration for the poem was the military actions of Leander Starr Jameson,* [5] leader of the failed Jameson Raid (December 1895 – January 1896) against the Transvaal Republic to overthrow the Boer Government of Paul Kruger some 15 years prior to its publication. The failure of that mercenary coup d’état aggravated the political tensions between Great Britain and the Boers, which led to the Second Boer War (1899–1902).* [6]* [7]
11.2 Text If If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you, If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too; If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,
Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies, Or being hated, don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise: If you can dream—and not make dreams your master; If you can think—and not make thoughts your aim; If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same; If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken, And stoop and build ’em up with worn-out tools: If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings And never breathe a word about your loss; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them: “Hold on!” If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’worth of distance run, Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And—which is more—you’ll be a Man, my son.
11.3
Reception
As an evocation of Victorian-era stoicism—the“stiff upper lip”self-discipline, which popular culture rendered into a British national virtue and character trait, “If—" remains a valid cultural currency.* [8] The British cultural-artefact status of the poem is evidenced by the parodies of the poem, and by its popularity among Britons.* [9]* [10] In India, a framed copy of the poem was affixed to the wall before the study desk in the cabins of the officer cadets at the National Defence Academy, at Pune and Indian Naval 86
11.7. EXTERNAL LINKS Academy, at Ezhimala. In Britain, the third and fourth lines of the second stanza of the poem: “If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster / and treat those two impostors just the same”are written on the wall of the players’entrance to the Centre Court at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, where the Wimbledon Championships are held.* [2]
11.4 In popular culture The poem was adapted and performed as a song by Joni Mitchell on her 2007 album Shine.* [11] It was also performed by Roger Whittaker under the title “A Song for Erik”. 'If—' is also referrred to in the song 'If (When You Go)' by Judie Tzuke from the album Moon on a Mirrorball, as well as in the second verse of "Sowing Season", a song by rock band Brand New on their album The Devil and God Are Raging Inside Me.
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[3] Osborne, Kristen (28 April 2013). McKeever, Christine, ed. “Rudyard Kipling: Poems Study Guide: Summary and Analysis of “If—"". GradeSaver. Retrieved 29 May 2013. [4] Khushwant Singh, Review of The Book of Prayer by Renuka Narayanan, 2001 [5] Kipling, Rudyard.“Something of Myself.”Rudyard Kipling: Something of Myself and Other Autobiographical Writings. Ed. Thomas Pinney. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991. 111. Print. [6]“The New Britannica Encyclopædia”, 15th Edition, volume 6, pp. 489–90. [7] Halsall, Paul (July 1998). “Rudyard Kipling: If”. Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham University. Retrieved 6 November 2011. [8] “Spartans and Stoics – Stiff Upper Lip”. ICONS of England. Culture24. Retrieved 20 February 2011. [9] Jones, Emma (2004). The Literary Companion. Robson. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-86105-798-3.
The poem is recited in full by actor Ricky Tomlinson in the title role of the 2001 film, Mike Bassett: England Manager. [10] Robinson, Mike (2002). Literature and Tourism. The Thomson Corporation. p. 61. ISBN 1-84480-074-1.
There is a classical translation in French by André Maurois, then interpreter with the British Army during the First [11] http://jonimitchell.com/music/song.cfm?id=311 World War. It was published in “Les silences du colonel Bramble”(1921), chap. XIV (Collection Poche, pp. 93s.). [12] http://www.simpsonsarchive.com/episodes/7F17.html Abraham Simpson quotes the poem to his son Homer in The Simpsons second season episode“Old Money,”eliding the first half of the third stanza and the final two lines. Homer responds to the line “You'll be a man, my son”by saying, “You'll be a bonehead!"* [12]
11.7
External links
• Works related to If— at Wikisource • Reading of “If—" on Wikicommons
11.5 See also • Invictus • The Man in the Arena • Desiderata • The Gods of the Copybook Headings
11.6 References [1] If poem was written in 1895 by Rudyard Kipling, originally first printed in Circa in 1895 [2] Wansell, Geoffrey (20 February 2009). “The remarkable story behind Rudyard Kipling's 'If' – and the swashbuckling renegade who inspired it”. Mail Online. Associated Newspapers. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
• If public domain audiobook at LibriVox • Authentic digital editions archive of “If—" • Audio recording of “If—" with text
Chapter 12
Henry James For other people named Henry James, see Henry James painting. His imaginative use of point of view, interior (disambiguation). monologue and unreliable narrators brought a new depth to Henry James, OM (15 April 1843 – 28 February 1916) narrative fiction. James contributed significantly to literary criticism, particularly in his insistence that writers be allowed the greatest possible freedom in presenting their view of the world. James claimed that a text must first and foremost be realistic and contain a representation of life that is recognisable to its readers. Good novels, to James, show life in action and are, most importantly, interesting. In addition to his voluminous works of fiction he published articles and books of travel, biography, autobiography, and criticism, and wrote plays. James alternated between America and Europe for the first twenty years of his life; eventually he settled in England, becoming a British subject in 1915, one year before his death. James was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1911, 1912, and 1916.* [1]
Henry James in 1890
was an American writer who spent most of his writing career in Britain. He is regarded as one of the key figures of 19th-century literary realism. He was the son of Henry James, Sr. and the brother of philosopher and psychologist William James and diarist Alice James. He is best known for a number of novels showing Americans encountering Europe and Europeans. His method of writing from a character's point of view allowed him to explore issues related to consciousness and perception, and his style in later works has been compared to impressionist
12.1
Life
12.1.1
The early years
James was born at 2 Washington Place in New York City on 15 April 1843. His parents were Mary Walsh and Henry James, Sr. His father was intelligent, steadfastly congenial, and a lecturer and philosopher who had inherited independent means from his father, an Albany, NY banker and investor. Mary came from a wealthy family long settled in New York City, and her sister Katherine lived with the family for an extended period of time. Henry, Jr. had three brothers, William who was one year his senior and younger brothers Wilkinson and Robertson. His younger sister was Alice. The family first lived in Albany and then moved to Fourteenth Street in New York City when James was still a young boy. His education was calculated by his father to expose him to many influences, primarily scientific and philo-
88
12.1. LIFE
Henry James at eleven years old with his father, Henry James, Sr. —1854 daguerreotype by Mathew Brady
sophical; it was described as “extraordinarily haphazard and promiscuous.”James did not share the usual education in Latin and Greek classics. Between 1855 and 1860, the James' household traveled to London, Paris, Geneva, Boulogne-sur-Mer and Newport, Rhode Island, according to the father's current interests and publishing ventures, retreating to the United States when funds were low. Henry studied primarily with tutors and briefly attended a few schools while the family traveled in Europe. Their longest stays were in France, where Henry began to feel at home and became fluent in French. In 1860 the family returned to Newport. There Henry became a friend of the painter John La Farge, who introduced him to French literature, and in particular, to Balzac. James later called Balzac his “greatest master,”and said that he had learned more about the craft of fiction from him than from anyone else.* [2] In the autumn of 1861 Henry received an injury, probably to his back, while fighting a fire. This injury, which resurfaced at times throughout his life, made him unfit for military service in the American Civil War.* [2]
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Grave marking Henry James in Cambridge Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts
In 1862 he attended Harvard Law School, but realized that he was not interested in studying law. He pursued his interest in literature and associated with authors and critics William Dean Howells and Charles Eliot Norton in Boston and Cambridge, formed lifelong friendships with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., the future Supreme Court Justice, and with James and Annie Fields, his first professional mentors. His first published work was a review of a stage performance, “Miss Maggie Mitchell in Fanchon the Cricket," published in 1863.* [3] About a year later, A Tragedy of Error, his first short story, was published. James's first payment was for an appreciation of Sir Walter Scott's novels, written for the North American Review. He wrote fiction and non-fiction pieces for The Nation and Atlantic Monthly, where Fields was editor. In 1870 he published his first novel, Watch and Ward.
During a fourteen-month trip through Europe in 1869-70 he met Ruskin, Dickens, Matthew Arnold, William Morris, and George Eliot. Rome impressed him profoundly. “Here I am then in the Eternal City,”he wrote to his In 1864 the James family moved to Boston, Massachusetts brother William. “At last—for the first time—I live!"* [4] to be near William, who had enrolled first in the Lawrence He attempted to support himself as a free-lance writer in Scientific School at Harvard and then in the medical school. Rome, and then secured a position as Paris correspondent
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for the New York Tribune, through the influence of its editor John Hay. When these efforts failed he returned to New York City. Between 1874-1875 he published Transatlantic Sketches, A Passionate Pilgrim, and Roderick Hudson. During this early period in his career he was influenced by Hawthorne.* [5]
The period from 1881 to 1883 was marked by several losses. His mother died in 1881, followed by his father a few months later, and then by his brother Wilkie. Emerson, an old family friend, died in 1882. His friend Turgenev died in 1883.
In 1869 he settled in London. There he established relationships with Macmillan and other publishers, who paid for serial installments that they would later publish in book form. The audience for these serialized novels were largely made up of middle-class women, and James struggled to fashion serious literary work within the strictures imposed by editors' and publishers' notions of what was suitable for young women to read. He lived in rented room but was able to join gentlemen's clubs that had libraries and where he could entertain male friends. He was introduced to English society by Henry Adams and Charles Milnes Gaskell, the latter introducing him to the The Travellers' and the Reform Clubs.* [6]* [7]
12.1.2
In the fall of 1875 he moved to the Latin Quarter of Paris. Aside from two trips to America, he spent the next three decades—the rest of his life—in Europe. In Paris he met Zola, Alphonse Daudet, Maupassant, Turgenev, and others.* [8] He stayed in Paris only a year before moving to London. In England he met the leading figures of politics and culture. He continued to be a prolific writer, producing The American (1877), The Europeans (1878), a revision of Watch and Ward (1878), French Poets and Novelists (1878), Hawthorne (1879), and several shorter works of fiction. In 1878“Daisy Miller”established his fame on both sides of the Atlantic. It drew notice perhaps mostly because it depicted a woman whose behavior is outside the social norms of Europe. He also began his first masterpiece,* [9] The Portrait of a Lady, which would appear in 1881.
In 1884 James made another visit to Paris. There he met again with Zola, Daudet, and Goncourt. He had been following the careers of the French “realist”or “naturalist”writers, and was increasingly influenced by them.* [14] In 1886 he published The Bostonians and The Princess Casamassima, both influenced by the French writers he'd studied assiduously. Critical reaction and sales were poor. He wrote to Howells that the books had hurt his career rather than helped because they had “reduced the desire, and demand, for my productions to zero”.* [15] During this time he became friends with Robert Louis Stevenson, John Singer Sargent, Edmund Gosse, George du Maurier, Paul Bourget, and Constance Fenimore Woolson. His third novel from the 1880s was The Tragic Muse. Although he was following the precepts of Zola in his novels of the 80s, their tone and attitude are closer to the fiction of Alphonse Daudet.* [16] The lack of critical and financial success for his novels during this period led him to try writing for the theater.* [17] (His dramatic works and his experiences with theater are discussed below.) After the failure of Guy Domville James was near despair and thoughts of death plagued him.* [18] The years spent on dramatic works were not entirely a loss. As he moved into the last phase of his career he found ways to adapt dramatic techniques into the novel form. In the late 80s and throughout the 90s James made several trips through Europe. He spent a long stay in Italy in 1887. In that year“The Aspern Papers”, and The Reverberator were published. In 18971898 he moved to Rye, Sussex, and wrote“The Turn of the Screw”. 1899-1900 saw the publication of The Awkward Age and The Sacred Fount.
In 1877 he first visited Wenlock Abbey in Shropshire, home of his friend Charles Milnes Gaskell whom he had met through Henry Adams. He was much inspired by the darkly romantic Abbey and the surrounding countryside, which features in his essay Abbeys and Castles. * [10] In particular the gloomy monastic fishponds behind the Abbey are 12.1.3 said to have inspired the lake in Turn of the Screw. * [11] While living in London, James continued to follow the careers of the “French realists”, Émile Zola in particular. Their stylistic methods influenced his own work in the years to come.* [12] Hawthorne's influence on him faded during this period, replaced by George Eliot and Ivan Turgenev.* [13] 1879-1882 saw the publication of The Europeans, Washington Square, Confidence, and The Portrait of a Lady. He visited America in 1882-1883, then returned to London.
The middle years
The late years
During 1902-1904 he wrote The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, and The Golden Bowl. In 1905 he revisited America and lectured on Balzac. In 1906-1910 he published The American Scene and edited the“New York Edition,”a twenty-four volume collection of his works. In 1910 his brother William died. In 1913 he wrote his autobiographies, A Small Boy and Others, and Notes of a Son and Brother. After the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 he did war work. In 1915 he became a British subject. In 1916 he was awarded the Order of Merit. He died
12.1. LIFE
91
on February 28, 1916 in Chelsea, London. His ashes were fiction, which partly freed him from his fears. Other biograburied in Cambridge cemetery in Massachusetts. phers and scholars have not accepted this account, however; the more common view being that of F.O. Matthiessen, who wrote: “Instead of being crushed by the collapse of his hopes [for the theatre]... he felt a resurgence of new en12.1.4 James the playwright ergy.”* [22]* [23]* [24] At several points in his career James wrote plays, beginning with one-act plays written for periodicals in 1869 and 12.1.5 1871* [19] and a dramatization of his popular novella Daisy Miller in 1882.* [20] From 1890 to 1892, having received a bequest that freed him from magazine publication, he made a strenuous effort to succeed on the London stage, writing a half-dozen plays of which only one, a dramatization of his novel The American, was produced. This play was performed for several years by a touring repertory company and had a respectable run in London, but did not earn very much money for James. His other plays written at this time were not produced. In 1893, however, he responded to a request from actor-manager George Alexander for a serious play for the opening of his renovated St. James's Theatre, and wrote a long drama, Guy Domville, which Alexander produced. There was a noisy uproar on the opening night, 5 January 1895, with hissing from the gallery when James took his bow after the final curtain, and the author was considerably upset. The play received moderately good reviews and had a modest run of four weeks before being taken off to make way for Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest, which Alexander thought would have better prospects for the coming season.
James' biographers
After the stresses and disappointment of these efforts James insisted that he would write no more for the theater, but within weeks had agreed to write a curtain-raiser for Ellen Terry. This became the one-act "Summersoft", which he later rewrote into a short story, "Covering End", and then expanded into a full-length play, The High Bid, which had a brief run in London in 1907, when James made another concerted effort to write for the stage. He wrote three new plays, two of which were in production when the death of Edward VII 6 May 1910, plunged London into mourning and theaters closed. Discouraged by failing health and the stresses of theatrical work, James did not renew his efforts in the theater, but recycled his plays as successful novels. The Outcry was a best-seller in the United States when it was published in 1911. During the years 1890–1893 when he was most engaged with the theater, James wrote a good deal of theatrical criticism and assisted Elizabeth Robins and others in translating and producing Henrik Ibsen for James at sixteen years old the first time in London.* [21] Leon Edel argued in his psychoanalytic biography that James was traumatized by the opening night uproar that greeted Guy Domville, and that it plunged him into a prolonged depression. The successful later novels, in Edel's view, were the result of a kind of self-analysis, expressed in
James regularly rejected suggestions that he marry, and after settling in London proclaimed himself“a bachelor.”F. W. Dupee, in several well-regarded volumes on the James family, originated the theory that he had been in love with his cousin Mary (“Minnie”) Temple, but that a neu-
92 rotic fear of sex kept him from admitting such affections: “James's invalidism ... was itself the symptom of some fear of or scruple against sexual love on his part.”Dupee used an episode from James's memoir A Small Boy and Others, recounting a dream of a Napoleonic image in the Louvre, to exemplify James's romanticism about Europe, a Napoleonic fantasy into which he fled.* [25]* [26] Dupee had not had access to the James family papers and worked principally from James's published memoir of his older brother, William, and the limited collection of letters edited by Percy Lubbock, heavily weighted toward James's last years. His account therefore moved directly from James's childhood, when he trailed after his older brother, to elderly invalidism. As more material became available to scholars, including the diaries of contemporaries and hundreds of affectionate and sometimes erotic letters written by James to younger men, the picture of neurotic celibacy gave way to a portrait of a closeted homosexual, although as author Terry Eagleton has stated, "... gay critics debate exactly how repressed his (probable) homosexuality was ...”* [27] James's letters to expatriate American sculptor Hendrik Christian Andersen have attracted particular attention. James met the 27-year-old Andersen in Rome in 1899, when James was 56, and wrote letters to Andersen that are intensely emotional: “I hold you, dearest boy, in my innermost love, & count on your feeling me—in every throb of your soul”. In a letter of 6 May 1904, to his brother William, James referred to himself as “always your hopelessly celibate even though sexagenarian Henry”.* [28] How accurate that description might have been is the subject of contention among James's biographers,* [29]* [nb 1] but the letters to Andersen were occasionally quasi-erotic: “I put, my dear boy, my arm around you, & feel the pulsation, thereby, as it were, of our excellent future & your admirable endowment.”* [30] To his homosexual friend Howard Sturgis, James could write: “I repeat, almost to indiscretion, that I could live with you. Meanwhile I can only try to live without you.”* [31] His many letters to the many young gay men among his close male friends are more forthcoming. In a letter to Howard Sturgis, following a long visit, James refers jocularly to their “happy little congress of two”* [32] and in letters to Hugh Walpole he pursues convoluted jokes and puns about their relationship, referring to himself as an elephant who“paws you oh so benevolently”and winds about Walpole his“well meaning old trunk”.* [33] His letters to Walter Berry printed by the Black Sun Press have long been celebrated for their lightly veiled eroticism.* [34] He corresponded in almost equally extravagant language with his many female friends, writing, for example, to fellow-novelist Lucy Clifford: “Dearest Lucy! What shall
CHAPTER 12. HENRY JAMES I say? when I love you so very, very much, and see you nine times for once that I see Others! Therefore I think that—if you want it made clear to the meanest intelligence—I love you more than I love Others.”* [35] To his New York friend Mary Cadwalader Jones: “Dearest Mary Cadwalader. I yearn over you, but I yearn in vain; & your long silence really breaks my heart, mystifies, depresses, almost alarms me, to the point even of making me wonder if poor unconscious & doting old Célimare [Jones's pet name for James] has 'done' anything, in some dark somnambulism of the spirit, which has ... given you a bad moment, or a wrong impression, or a 'colourable pretext' ... However these things may be, he loves you as tenderly as ever; nothing, to the end of time, will ever detach him from you, & he remembers those Eleventh St. matutinal intimes hours, those telephonic matinées, as the most romantic of his life ...”* [36] His long friendship with American novelist Constance Fenimore Woolson, in whose house he lived for a number of weeks in Italy in 1887, and his shock and grief over her suicide in 1894, are discussed in detail in Leon Edel's biography and play a central role in a study by Lyndall Gordon. (Edel conjectured that Woolson was in love with James and killed herself in part because of his coldness, but Woolson's biographers have strongly objected to Edel's account.)* [nb 2]
12.2
Works
Main article: Henry James bibliography
12.2.1
Style and themes
James is one of the major figures of trans-Atlantic literature. His works frequently juxtapose characters from the Old World (Europe), embodying a feudal civilization that is beautiful, often corrupt, and alluring, and from the New World (United States), where people are often brash, open, and assertive and embody the virtues—freedom and a more highly evolved moral character—of the new American society. James explores this clash of personalities and cultures, in stories of personal relationships in which power is exercised well or badly. His protagonists were often young American women facing oppression or abuse, and as his secretary Theodora Bosanquet remarked in her monograph Henry James at Work: When he walked out of the refuge of his study and into the world and looked around him, he saw a place of torment, where creatures of prey perpetually thrust their claws into the quivering flesh of doomed, defenseless children of light
12.2. WORKS
93 In its intense focus on the consciousness of his major characters, James's later work foreshadows extensive developments in 20th century fiction.* [41]* [nb 3] Indeed, he might have influenced stream-of-consciousness writers such as Virginia Woolf, who not only read some of his novels but also wrote essays about them.* [42] Both contemporary and modern readers have found the late style difficult and unnecessary; his friend Edith Wharton, who admired him greatly, said that there were passages in his work that were all but incomprehensible.* [43] H.G. Wells harshly portrayed James as a hippopotamus laboriously attempting to pick up a pea that has got into a corner of its cage.* [44] The “late James”style was ably parodied by Max Beerbohm in“The Mote in the Middle Distance”.* [45] He was afflicted with a stutter and compensated by speaking slowly and deliberately.* [46]
More important for his work overall may have been his position as an expatriate, and in other ways an outsider, living in Europe. While he came from middle-class and provincial beginnings (seen from the perspective of European polite society) he worked very hard to gain access to all levels of society, and the settings of his fiction range from working class to aristocratic, and often describe the efforts of middle-class Americans to make their way in European capitals. He confessed he got some of his best story ideas from gossip at the dinner table or at country house weekends.* [nb 4] He worked for a living, however, and lacked the experiPortrait of Henry James, charcoal drawing by John Singer Sargent ences of select schools, university, and army service, the (1912) common bonds of masculine society. He was furthermore a man whose tastes and interests were, according to the prevailing standards of Victorian era Anglo-American cul... His novels are a repeated exposure of this ture, rather feminine, and who was shadowed by the cloud wickedness, a reiterated and passionate plea for of prejudice that then and later accompanied suspicions of the fullest freedom of development, unimperiled his homosexuality.* [47]* [nb 5] Edmund Wilson famously by reckless and barbarous stupidity.* [37] compared James's objectivity to Shakespeare's:
Critics have jokingly described three phases in the development of James's prose: “James I, James II, and The Old Pretender.”* [38] He wrote short stories and plays. Finally, in his third and last period he returned to the long, serialised novel. Beginning in the second period, but most noticeably in the third, he increasingly abandoned direct statement in favour of frequent double negatives, and complex descriptive imagery. Single paragraphs began to run for page after page, in which an initial noun would be succeeded by pronouns surrounded by clouds of adjectives and prepositional clauses, far from their original referents, and verbs would be deferred and then preceded by a series of adverbs. The overall effect could be a vivid evocation of a scene as perceived by a sensitive observer. It has been debated whether this change of style was engendered by James' shifting from writing to dictating to a typist,* [39] a change made during the composition of What Maisie Knew.* [40]
One would be in a position to appreciate James better if one compared him with the dramatists of the seventeenth century —Racine and Molière, whom he resembles in form as well as in point of view, and even Shakespeare, when allowances are made for the most extreme differences in subject and form. These poets are not, like Dickens and Hardy, writers of melodrama—either humorous or pessimistic, nor secretaries of society like Balzac, nor prophets like Tolstoy: they are occupied simply with the presentation of conflicts of moral character, which they do not concern themselves about softening or averting. They do not indict society for these situations: they regard them as universal and inevitable. They do not even blame God for allowing them: they accept them as the conditions of life.* [48]
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It is also possible to see many of James's stories as psychological thought-experiments. In his preface to the New York edition of The American he describes the development of the story in his mind as exactly such: the “situation”of an American, “some robust but insidiously beguiled and betrayed, some cruelly wronged, compatriot...” with the focus of the story being on the response of this wronged man.* [49] The Portrait of a Lady may be an experiment to see what happens when an idealistic young woman suddenly becomes very rich. In many of his tales, characters seem to exemplify alternate futures and possibilities, as most markedly in "The Jolly Corner", in which the protagonist and a ghost-doppelganger live alternate American and European lives; and in others, like The Ambassadors, an older James seems fondly to regard his own younger self facing a crucial moment.* [nb 6]
12.2.2
Major novels
talented sculptor. Although the book shows some signs of immaturity—this was James's first serious attempt at a fulllength novel—it has attracted favourable comment due to the vivid realisation of the three major characters: Roderick Hudson, superbly gifted but unstable and unreliable; Rowland Mallet, Roderick's limited but much more mature friend and patron; and Christina Light, one of James's most enchanting and maddening femmes fatales. The pair of Hudson and Mallet has been seen as representing the two sides of James's own nature: the wildly imaginative artist and the brooding conscientious mentor.* [50] In The Portrait of a Lady (1881) James concluded the first phase of his career with a novel that remains his most popular piece of long fiction. The story is of a spirited young American woman, Isabel Archer, who “affronts her destiny”and finds it overwhelming. She inherits a large amount of money and subsequently becomes the victim of Machiavellian scheming by two American expatriates. The narrative is set mainly in Europe, especially in England and Italy. Generally regarded as the masterpiece of his early phase, The Portrait of a Lady is described as a psychological novel, exploring the minds of his characters, and almost a work of social science, exploring the differences between Europeans and Americans, the old and the new worlds.* [51] The second period of James's career, which extends from the publication of The Portrait of a Lady through the end of the nineteenth century, features less popular novels including the The Princess Casamassima, published serially in The Atlantic Monthly from 1885-1886, and The Bostonians, published serially in The Century Magazine during the same period. This period also featured James's celebrated novella, The Turn of the Screw.
“Portrait of Henry James”, oil painting by John Singer Sargent (1913)
The first period of James's fiction, usually considered to have culminated in The Portrait of a Lady, concentrated on the contrast between Europe and America. The style of these novels is generally straightforward and, though personally characteristic, well within the norms of 19th century fiction. Roderick Hudson (1875) is a Künstlerroman that traces the development of the title character, an extremely
The third period of James's career reached its most significant achievement in three novels published just around the start of the 20th century: The Wings of the Dove (1902), The Ambassadors (1903), and The Golden Bowl (1904). Critic F. O. Matthiessen called this “trilogy”James's major phase, and these novels have certainly received intense critical study. It was the second-written of the books, The Wings of the Dove (1902) that was the first published. This novel tells the story of Milly Theale, an American heiress stricken with a serious disease, and her impact on the people around her. Some of these people befriend Milly with honourable motives, while others are more self-interested. James stated in his autobiographical books that Milly was based on Minny Temple, his beloved cousin who died at an early age of tuberculosis. He said that he attempted in the novel to wrap her memory in the “beauty and dignity of art”.* [52]
12.2. WORKS
95 Nathaniel Hawthorne, which has been the subject of critical debate. Richard Brodhead has suggested that the study was emblematic of James's struggle with Hawthorne's influence, and constituted an effort to place the elder writer “at a disadvantage.”* [53] Gordon Fraser, meanwhile, has suggested that the study was part of a more commercial effort by James to introduce himself to British readers as Hawthorne's natural successor.* [54] When James assembled the New York Edition of his fiction in his final years, he wrote a series of prefaces that subjected his own work to searching, occasionally harsh criticism.* [nb 8]
Lamb House in Rye, East Sussex, where James lived from 1897
12.2.3
Shorter narratives
James was particularly interested in what he called the “beautiful and blest nouvelle", or the longer form of short narrative. Still, he produced a number of very short stories in which he achieved notable compression of sometimes complex subjects. The following narratives are representative of James's achievement in the shorter forms of fiction.* [nb 7] • "A Tragedy of Error" (1864), short story • "The Story of a Year" (1865), short story • A Passionate Pilgrim (1871), novella • Madame de Mauves (1874), novella • Daisy Miller (1878), novella • The Aspern Papers (1888), novella
Photograph of Henry James (1897)
• The Lesson of the Master (1888), novella
For most of his life James harboured ambitions for success as a playwright. He converted his novel The American into a play that enjoyed modest returns in the early 1890s. In all he wrote about a dozen plays, most of which went unproduced. His costume drama Guy Domville failed disastrously on its opening night in 1895. James then largely abandoned his efforts to conquer the stage and returned to his fiction. In his Notebooks he maintained that his theatrical experiment benefited his novels and tales by helping him dramatise his characters' thoughts and emotions. James produced a small but valuable amount of theatrical criticism, including perceptive appreciations of Henrik Ibsen.* [55]* [nb 9]
• "The Figure in the Carpet" (1896), short story • The Beast in the Jungle (1903), novella
12.2.4
Non-fiction
Beyond his fiction, James was one of the more important literary critics in the history of the novel. In his classic essay The Art of Fiction (1884), he argued against rigid prescriptions on the novelist's choice of subject and method of treatment. He maintained that the widest possible freedom in content and approach would help ensure narrative fiction's continued vitality. James wrote many valuable critical articles on other novelists; typical is his book-length study of
With his wide-ranging artistic interests, James occasionally wrote on the visual arts. Perhaps his most valuable contribution was his favourable assessment of fellow expatriate John Singer Sargent, a painter whose critical status has im-
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proved markedly in recent decades. James also wrote sometimes charming, sometimes brooding articles about various places he visited and lived in. His most famous books of travel writing include Italian Hours (an example of the charming approach) and The American Scene (most definitely on the brooding side).* [nb 10] James was one of the great letter-writers of any era. More than ten thousand of his personal letters are extant, and over three thousand have been published in a large number of collections. A complete edition of James's letters began publication in 2006, edited by Pierre Walker and Greg Zacharias. As of 2014, eight volumes have been published, covering the period from 1855 to 1880.* [56] James's correspondents included celebrated contemporaries like Robert Louis Stevenson, Edith Wharton and Joseph Conrad, along with many others in his wide circle of friends and acquaintances. The letters range from the “mere twaddle of graciousness”* [57]* [nb 11] to serious discussions of artistic, social and personal issues. Very late in life James began a series of autobiographical works: A Small Boy and Others, Notes of a Son and Brother, and the unfinished The Middle Years. These books portray the development of a classic observer who was passionately interested in artistic creation but was somewhat Interior view of Lamb House, James's residence from 1897 until his reticent about participating fully in the life around him.* [nb death in 1916 (1898) 12] Henry James was only 22 when he wrote The Noble School about him,“Despite the scruples and delicate complexities of Fiction for The Nation's first issue in 1865. He wrote, in of James his work suffers from a major defect: the absence all, over 200 essays and book, art, and theatre reviews for of life.”* [62] And Virginia Woolf, writing to Lytton Strathe magazine.* [58] chey, asked,“Please tell me what you find in Henry James. ...we have his works here, and I read, and I can't find anything but faintly tinged rose water, urbane and sleek, but 12.3 Reception vulgar and pale as Walter Lamb. Is there really any sense in it?"* [63]
12.3.1
Criticism, biographies and fictional Despite these criticisms, James is now valued for his psychological and moral realism, his masterful creation of treatments
character, his low-key but playful humour, and his assured James's work has remained steadily popular with the limited command of the language. In his 1983 book, The Novels of audience of educated readers to whom he spoke during his Henry James, Edward Wagenknecht offers an assessment lifetime, and has remained firmly in the canon, but, after his that echoes Theodora Bosanquet's: death, some American critics, such as Van Wyck Brooks, “To be completely great,”Henry James wrote expressed hostility towards James for his long expatriain an early review, “a work of art must lift up tion and eventual naturalisation as a British subject.* [59] Other critics like E.M. Forster complained about what they the heart,”and his own novels do this to an outsaw as James's squeamishness in the treatment of sex and standing degree ... More than sixty years after other possibly controversial material, or dismissed his style his death, the great novelist who sometimes proas difficult and obscure, relying heavily on extremely long fessed to have no opinions stands foursquare in sentences and excessively latinate language.* [60] Similarly the great Christian humanistic and democratic Oscar Wilde once criticised him for writing“fiction as if it tradition. The men and women who, at the height were a painful duty”.* [61] Vernon Parrington, composing of World War II, raided the secondhand shops a canon of American literature, condemned James for havfor his out-of-print books knew what they were ing cut himself off from America. Jorge Luis Borges wrote about. For no writer ever raised a braver banner
12.6. CITATIONS to which all who love freedom might adhere.* [64] William Dean Howells saw James as a representative of a new realist school of literary art which broke with the English romantic tradition epitomised by the works of Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray. Howells wrote that realism found “its chief exemplar in Mr. James... A novelist he is not, after the old fashion, or after any fashion but his own.”* [65]
12.4 Henry James in fiction Henry James has been the subject of a number of novels and stories, including the following:* [66] • Author, Author by David Lodge • The Master by Colm Toibin • Lions at Lamb House by Edwin M. Yoder • Felony by Emma Tennant • Dictation by Cynthia Ozick • The James Boys by Richard Liebmann-Smith • The Open door, by Elizabeth Maguire • The Great Divide by Rex Hunter* [67] • The Master at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, 1914-1916, by Joyce Carol Oates • The Typewriter’s Tale, by Michael Heyns • Henry James’Midnight Song, by Carol de Chellis Hill • The Fifth Heart, by Dan Simmons
97
[3] See James's prefaces, Horne's study of his revisions for The New York Edition, Edward Wagenknecht's The Novels of Henry James (1983) among many discussions of the changes in James's narrative technique and style over the course of his career. [4] James's prefaces to the New York Edition of his fiction often discuss such origins for his stories. See, for instance, the preface to The Spoils of Poynton. [5] James himself noted his “outsider”status. In a letter of 2 October 1901, to W. Morton Fullerton, James talked of the “essential loneliness of my life”as“the deepest thing”about him.* [47] [6] Millicent Bell explores such themes in her monograph Meaning in Henry James [7] For further critical analysis of these narratives, see the referenced editions of James's tales and The Turn of the Screw. The referenced books of criticism also discuss many of James's short narratives. [8] See the referenced editions of James's criticism and the related articles in the“Literary criticism”part of the“Notable works by James”section for further discussion of his critical essays. [9] For a general discussion of James's efforts as a playwright, see Edel's referenced edition of his plays. [10] Further information about these works can be found in the related articles in the “Travel writings”and “Visual arts criticism”parts of the “Notable works by James”section and in the referenced editions of James's travel writings. [11] Further information on James's letters can be found at The Online Calendar of Henry James's Letters. For more information on the complete edition of James's letters, see The Henry James Scholar's Guide to Web Sites. [12] See the referenced edition of James's autobiographical books by F.W. Dupee, which includes a critical introduction, an extensive index, and notes.
^James was also an eager poet - his peak after his famous David Lodge also wrote a long essay about writing about failure Guy Domville in which supposedly many poems were Henry James in his collection The Year of Henry James: written(F.W.Dupee), most revolving around negative conThe Story of a Novel. notations (possibly due to his state of depression following abject failure of his premièr play on its opening night of 1895) like death, darkness etc. Sadly most of these have 12.5 Notes been lost, but his more popular works such as 'In the darkness' and 'death bejewel'd' have remained. [1] See volume four of Edel's referenced biography, pp. 306– 316, for a particularly long and inconclusive discussion on the subject. See also Bradley (1999) and (2000). [2] See e.g. Cheryl Torsney, Constance Fenimore Woolson: The Grief of Artistry (1989, “Edel's text ... a convention-laden male fantasy”).
12.6
Citations
[1] http://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_ people.php?id=4537
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[2] Powers 1970, p. 11.
[32] Gunter and Jobe (2001) p.125
[3] Novick (1996) p. 431
[33] Gunter and Jobe (2001) p.179
[4] Powers 1970, p. 12.
[34] Black Sun Press (1927)
[5] Powers 1970, p.16.
[35] Demoor and Chisholm (1999) p.79
[6] Gamble, Cynthia 2008, John Ruskin, Henry James and the Shropshire Lads, London: New European Publications
[36] Gunter (2000) p. 146
[7] Gamble, Cynthia, 2015 - (in production) Wenlock Abbey 1857-1919: A Shropshire Country House and the Milnes Gaskell Family, Ellingham Press. [8] Powers 1970, p. 14. [9] Powers 1970, p. 15. [10] Gamble, Cynthia 2008, John Ruskin, Henry James and the Shropshire Lads, London: New European Publications [11] Gamble, Cynthia, 2015 Wenlock Abbey 1857-1919: A Shropshire Country House and the Milnes Gaskell Family, Ellingham Press.
[37] Bosanquet (1982) pp. 275–276 [38] Guedalla, Philip (1921). Supers & Supermen: Studies in Politics, History and Letters, p. 45. Alfred A. Knopf. Retrieved 27 January 2014. [39] Miller, James E., Jr., ed. (1972). Theory of Fiction: Henry James, pp. 268-69. University of Nebraska Press. Retrieved 27 February 2014. [40] Edel, Leon, ed. (1984). Henry James: Letters, Vol. IV, 1895-1916, p. 4. Harvard University Press. Retrieved 17 February 2014. [41] Wagenknecht (1983).
[12] Powers, p. 17
[42] Woolf (March 2003) pp. 33, 39–40, 58, 86, 215, 301, 351.
[13] Powers 1970, p. 16.
[43] Edith Wharton (1925) pp. 90–91
[14] Powers 1970, p. 17.
[44] H.G. Wells, Boon (1915) p. 101.
[15] Edel 1955, p. 55.
[45] Beerbohm, Max (1922). “The Mote in the Middle Distance.”In A Christmas Garland, p. 1. E.P. Dutton & Company. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
[16] Powers 1970, p. 19 [17] Powers 1970, p. 20 [18] Powers 1970, p. 28 [19] Edel (1990) pp. 75, 89 [20] Edel (1990) p.121 [21] Novick (2007) pp.15–160 et passim. [22] Matthiessen and Murdoch (1981) p. 179. [23] Bradley (1999) p. 21, n [24] Novick (2007) pp. 219–225 et passim. [25] Dupee (1949) [26] Dupee (1951) [27] Terry Eagleton (24 June 2006)“The asperity papers”. (review of David Lodge The Year of Henry James: The Story of a Novel.) The Guardian . [28] Ignas Skrupskelis and Elizabeth Bradley (1994) p. 271.
[46] Famous People Who Stutter. Minnesota State University – Mankato. [47] Leon Edel (1984) volume 4, p. 170 [48] Dabney (1983) pp. 128–129 [49] The American, 1907, p. vi-vii [50] Kraft (1969) p. 68. [51] Brownstein (2004) [52] Posnock (1987) p. 114 [53] Richard Brodhead. The School of Hawthorne (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 137. [54] Gordon Fraser.“Anxiety of Audience: Economies of Readership in James's Hawthorne.”The Henry James Review 34, no. 1 (2013): 1-2. [55] Wade (1948) pp. 243–260.
[30] Zorzi (2004)
[56] https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/Catalog/ ProductSearch.aspx?ExtendedSearch=false& SearchOnLoad=true&rhl=The+Complete+Letters+ of+Henry+James&sj=721&rhdcid=721
[31] Gunter and Jobe (2001)
[57] Edel (1983) volume 4 p. 208
[29] Edel, 306-316
12.7. REFERENCES
99
[60] Forster (1956) pp. 153–163
• Marysa Demoor and Monty Chisholm, editors. (1999) Bravest of Women and Finest of Friends: Henry James's Letters to Lucy Clifford, University of Victoria (1999), p. 79 ISBN 0-920604-67-6
[61] Oscar Wilde Quotes – Page 6. BrainyQuote. Retrieved on 10 August 2011.
• F.W. Dupee. (1951) Henry James William Sloane Associates, The American Men of Letters Series.
[58] Heuvel (1990) p. 5 [59] Brooks (1925)
[62] Borges and de Torres (1971) p. 55. [63] Reading Experience Database Display Record. Can-redlec.library.dal.ca. Retrieved on 10 August 2011. [64] Wagenknecht (1983) pp. 261–262 [65] Lauter (2010) p. 364. [66] http://blog.loa.org/2010/09/ henry-james-as-fictional-character.html [67] Australia, Writing. “Writing Australia Unpublished Manuscript Award 2013 - Shortlist Announcement”.
12.7 References • Harold Bloom. (1 January 2009) [2001]. Henry James. Infobase Publishing, originally published by Chelsea House. ISBN 978-1-4381-1601-3. • Jorge Luis Borges and Esther Zemborain de Torres. (1971) An Introduction to American Literature. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. • Theodora Bosanquet, (1982) Henry James At Work. Haskell House Publishers Inc. pp. 275–276. ISBN 0-8383-0009-X • John R. Bradley, ed. (1999) Henry James and HomoErotic Desire. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-31221764-1 • John R. Bradley. (2000)Henry James on Stage and Screen Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-79214-9 • John R. Bradley. (2000) Henry James's Permanent Adolescence. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-33391874-6 • Van Wyck Brooks (1925) The Pilgrimage of Henry James. • Gabriel Brownstein. (2004)“Introduction,”in James, Henry. Portrait of a Lady, Barnes & Noble Classics series, Spark Educational Publishing. • Lewis Dabney, ed. (1983) The Portable Edmund Wilson. ISBN 0-14-015098-6
• Leon Edel, ed. (1955) The Selected Letters of Henry James New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Vol. 1 • Leon Edel, ed. (1983) Henry James Letters. • Leon Edel, ed. (1990). The Complete Plays of Henry James. New York Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-504379-0 • E.M. Forster. (1956). Aspects of the Novel ISBN 0674-38780-5 • Susan Gunter, ed. (2000) Dear Munificent Friends: Henry James's Letters to Four Women University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11010-1 • Susan E. Gunter and Steven H. Jobe, editors (2001) Dearly Beloved Friends: Henry James's Letters to Younger Men University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472-11009-8 • Katrina Vanden Heuvel. (1990) The Nation 1865– 1990, Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-001-1 • James Kraft. (1969). The early tales of Henry James. Southern Illinois University Press. • Paul Lauter. (2010) A companion to American literature and culture. Chichester; Malden, MA: WileyBlackwell. p. 364. ISBN 0-631-20892-5 • Percy Lubbock, ed. (1920). The Letters of Henry James, vol. 1. New York: Scribner. • F. O. Matthiessen and Kenneth Murdock, editors. (1981) The Notebooks of Henry James. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-51104-9 • Sheldon M. Novick. (1996) Henry James: The Young Master. Random House. ISBN 0-394-58655-7 • Sheldon M. Novick. (2007) Henry James: The Mature Master. Random House; 2007. ISBN 978-0-67945023-8. • Ross Posnock. (1987) “James, Browning, and the Theatrical Self,”in Neuman, Mark and Payne, Michael. Self, sign, and symbol. Bucknell University Press.
100 • Lyall H. Powers (1970). Henry James: An Introduction and Interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston • Ignas Skrupskelis and Elizabeth Bradley, editors. (1994) The Correspondence of William James: Volume 3, William and Henry. 1897-1910. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
CHAPTER 12. HENRY JAMES • Henry James: The Untried Years 1843–1870 by Leon Edel (1953) • Henry James: The Conquest of London 1870–1881 by Leon Edel (1962) ISBN 0-380-39651-3 • Henry James: The Middle Years 1882–1895 by Leon Edel (1962) ISBN 0-380-39669-6
• Allan Wade, ed. (1948) Henry James: The Scenic Art, Notes on Acting and the Drama 1872–1901.
• Henry James: The Treacherous Years 1895–1901 by Leon Edel (1969) ISBN 0-380-39677-7
• Edward Wagenknecht (1983). The Novels of Henry James.
• Henry James: The Master 1901–1916 by Leon Edel (1972) ISBN 0-380-39677-7
• Edith Wharton (1925) The Writing of Fiction.
• Henry James: A Life by Leon Edel (1985) ISBN 0060154594. One-volume abridgment of Edel's fivevolume biography, listed above.
• Virginia Woolf. (March 2003) A Writer's Diary: Being Extracts from the Diary of Virginia Woolf. Harcourt. p. 33, 39–40, 58, 86, 215, 301, 351. ISBN 978-0-15-602791-5. • H.G. Wells, Boon. (1915) The Mind of the Race, The Wild Asses of the Devil, and The Last Trump. London: T. Fisher Unwin p. 101. • Rosella Mamoli Zorzi, ed. (2004) Beloved Boy: Letters to Hendrik C. Andersen, 1899–1915. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2270-4
12.8 Further reading General
• Henry James: The Young Master by Sheldon M. Novick (1996) ISBN 0812978838 • Henry James: The Mature Master by Sheldon M. Novick (2007) ISBN 0679450238 • Henry James: The Imagination of Genius by Fred Kaplan (1992) ISBN 0-688-09021-4 • A Private Life of Henry James: Two Women and His Art by Lyndall Gordon (1998) ISBN 0-393-04711-3 • House of Wits: An Intimate Portrait of the James Family by Paul Fisher (2008) ISBN 1616793376 • The James Family: A Group Biography by F. O. Matthiessen (0394742435) ISBN 0679450238
• A Bibliography of Henry James: Third Edition by Leon Letters Edel, Dan Laurence and James Rambeau (1982) ISBN 1-58456-005-3 • Theatre and Friendship by Elizabeth Robins. London: • A Henry James Encyclopedia by Robert L. Gale (1989) Jonathan Cape, 1932. ISBN 0-313-25846-5 • Henry James: Letters edited by Leon Edel (four vols., • A Henry James Chronology by Edgar F. Harden (2005) 1974–1984) ISBN 1403942293 • Henry James: A Life in Letters edited by Philip Horne (1999) ISBN 0-670-88563-0 Autobiography • A Small Boy and Others: A Critical Edition edited by Peter Collister (2011) ISBN 0813930820
• The Complete Letters of Henry James,1855–1872 edited by Pierre A. Walker and Greg Zacharias (two vols., University of Nebraska Press, 2006)
• Notes of a Son and Brother and The Middle Years: A Critical Edition edited by Peter Collister (2011) ISBN 0813930847
• The Complete Letters of Henry James, 1872–1876 edited by Pierre A. Walker and Greg W. Zacharias (three vols., University of Nebraska Press, 2008)
Biography
Editions
12.8. FURTHER READING • Complete Stories 1864–1874 (Jean Strouse, ed, Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-70-3 • Complete Stories 1874–1884 (William Vance, ed, Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-63-5 • Complete Stories 1884–1891 (Edward Said, ed, Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-64-2 • Complete Stories 1892–1898 (John Hollander, David Bromwich, Denis Donoghue, eds, Library of America, 1996) ISBN 978-1-883011-09-3 • Complete Stories 1898–1910 (John Hollander, David Bromwich, Denis Donoghue, eds, Library of America, 1996) ISBN 978-1-883011-10-9 •
Novels 1871–1880: Watch and Ward, Roderick Hudson, The American, The Europeans, Confidence (William T. Stafford, ed., Library of America, 1983) ISBN 978-0-940450-13-4
• Novels 1881–1886: Washington Square, The Portrait of a Lady, The Bostonians (William T. Stafford, ed, Library of America, 1985) ISBN 978-0-940450-30-1 • Novels 1886–1890: The Princess Casamassima, The Reverberator, The Tragic Muse (Daniel Mark Fogel, ed, Library of America, 1989) ISBN 978-0-94045056-1 • Novels 1896–1899: The Other House, The Spoils of Poynton, What Maisie Knew, The Awkward Age (Myra Jehlen, ed, Library of America, 2003) ISBN 978-1931082-30-3 • Novels 1901–1902: The Sacred Fount, The Wings of the Dove (Leo Bersani, ed, Library of America, 2006) ISBN 978-1-931082-88-4
101 • The Complete Notebooks of Henry James edited by Leon Edel and Lyall Powers (1987) ISBN 0-19503782-0 • The Complete Plays of Henry James edited by Leon Edel (1991) ISBN 0195043790 • Henry James: Autobiography edited by F.W. Dupee (1956) • The American: an Authoritative Text, Backgrounds and Sources, Criticism edited by James Tuttleton (1978) ISBN 0-393-09091-4 • The Ambassadors: An Authoritative Text, The Author on the Novel, Criticism edited by S.P. Rosenbaum (1994) ISBN 0-393-96314-4 • The Turn of the Screw: Authoritative Text, Contexts, Criticism edited by Deborah Esch and Jonathan Warren (1999) ISBN 0-393-95904-X • The Portrait of a Lady: An Authoritative Text, Henry James and the Novel, Reviews and Criticism edited by Robert Bamberg (2003) ISBN 0-393-96646-1 • The Wings of the Dove: Authoritative Text, The Author and the Novel, Criticism edited by J. Donald Crowley and Richard Hocks (2003) ISBN 0-393-97881-8 • Tales of Henry James: The Texts of the Tales, the Author on His Craft, Criticism edited by Christof Wegelin and Henry Wonham (2003) ISBN 0-393-97710-2 • The Portable Henry James, New Edition edited by John Auchard (2004) ISBN 0-14-243767-0 • Henry James on Culture: Collected Essays on Politics and the American Social Scene edited by Pierre Walker (1999) ISBN 0-8032-2589-X
• Collected Travel Writings, Great Britain and America: English Hours; The American Scene; Other Travels edited by Richard Howard (Library of America, 1993) Criticism ISBN 978-0-940450-76-9 • Collected Travel Writings, The Continent: A Little Tour in France, Italian Hours, Other Travels edited by Richard Howard (Library of America, 1993) ISBN 0940450-77-1
• The Novels of Henry James by Oscar Cargill (1961)
• Literary Criticism Volume One: Essays on Literature, American Writers, English Writers edited by Leon Edel and Mark Wilson (Library of America, 1984) ISBN 978-0-940450-22-6
• Modern Critical Views: Henry James edited by Harold Bloom (1987) ISBN 0-87754-696-7
• Literary Criticism Volume Two: French Writers, Other European Writers, The Prefaces to the New York Edition edited by Leon Edel and Mark Wilson (Library of America, 1984) ISBN 978-0-940450-23-3
• The Tales of Henry James by Edward Wagenknecht (1984) ISBN 0-8044-2957-X
• A Companion to Henry James Studies edited by Daniel Mark Fogel (1993) ISBN 0-313-25792-2 • Henry James's Europe: Heritage and Transfer edited by Dennis Tredy, Annick Duperray and Adrian Harding (2011) ISBN 978-1-906924-36-2
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• Echec et écriture. Essai sur les nouvelles de Henry James by Annick Duperray (1992) • Henry James: A Collection of Critical Essays edited by Ruth Yeazell (1994) ISBN 0-13-380973-0 • The Cambridge Companion to Henry James edited by Jonathan Freedman (1998) ISBN 0-521-49924-0 • The Novel Art: Elevations of American Fiction after Henry James by Mark McGurl (2001) ISBN 0-69108899-3 • Henry James and the Visual by Kendall Johnson (2007) ISBN 0-521-88066-1 • False Positions: The Representational Logics of Henry James's Fiction. by Julie Rivkin. (1996) ISBN 0-80472617-5 • 'Henry James's Critique of the Beautiful Life,' by R.R. Reno in Azure, Spring 2010, • Approaches to Teaching Henry James's Daisy Miller and The Turn of the Screw edited by Kimberly C. Reed and Peter G. Beidler (2005) ISBN 0-87352-921-9 • Henry James and Modern Moral Life by Robert B. Pippin (1999) ISBN 0-521-65230-8 •“Friction with the Market": Henry James and the Profession of Authorship by Michael Anesko (1986) ISBN 0-19-504034-1
12.9 External links • Works by Henry James at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Henry James at Internet Archive • Works by Henry James at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • Works by Henry James at Open Library • The Henry James Scholar's Guide to Web Sites • The Ladder—a Henry James Web Site • Henry James (I) at the Internet Movie Database • Henry James at Find a Grave • Henry James Timeline • Sheldon Novick's Henry James Page • The Henry James Collection From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Chapter 13
Poet laureate Laureate,* [2] which is designated by a “Presenting Partners”group from within the community; the Minnesota Poet Laureate chosen by the League of Minnesota Poets (est. 1934);* [3] the Northampton Poet Laureate* [4] chosen by the Northampton Arts Council,* [5] and the Martha's Vineyard Poet Laureate chosen by ten judges representing the Martha's Vineyard Poetry Society. Over a dozen national governments continue the poet laureate tradition.
13.1
Background
In ancient Greece, the laurel was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes. This custom, first revived in Padua for Albertino Mussato,* [6] was followed by Petrarch's own crowning ceremony in the audience hall of the medieval senatorial palazzo on the Campidoglio on 8 April 1341.* [7] Because the Renaissance figures who were attempting to revive the Classical tradition lacked detailed knowledge of the Roman precedent they were attempting to emulate, these ceremonies took on the character of doctoral candidatures.* [8] As the concept of the poet laureate has spread, the term “laureate”has come in English to signify recognition for preeminence or superlative achievement (cf. Nobel lauA depiction of Torquato Tasso from a German encyclopedia, 1905. reate). As a royal degree in rhetoric, poet laureate was Note the laurel crown. awarded at European universities in the Middle Ages. The term might also refer to the holder of such a degree, which A poet laureate (plural: poets laureate) is a poet of- recognized skill in rhetoric, grammar and language. ficially appointed by a government or conferring institution, who is often expected to compose poems for special events and occasions. The Italians Albertino Mussato 13.2 By country and Francesco Petrarca were the first to be crowned poets laureate after the classical age, respectively in 1315 and 1342. In Britain, the term dates from the appointment of 13.2.1 Canada Bernard André by Henry VII of England. In modern times, the title may also be conferred by an organization such as Main article: Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate the Poetry Foundation, which has a designated Children's Poet Laureate.* [1] Other examples are the Pikes Peak Poet The Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate is appointed 103
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as an officer of the Library of Parliament. The position alternates between an English and French speaking laureate. Candidates must be able to write in both English and French, have a substantial publication history (including poetry) displaying literary excellence and have written work reflecting Canada, among other criteria.
13.2.7
Ireland
The closest equivalent is the title Saoi ["wise one"] held by up to seven members at a time of Aosdána, an official body of those engaged in fine arts, literature, and music. Poets awarded the title include Máire Mhac an tSaoi, Anthony Cronin, and Seamus Heaney.
The first laureate was George Bowering, in 2002. In 2004, the title was transferred to Pauline Michel, in 2006 to John Steffler until December 3, 2008, to Pierre DesRuisseaux on April 28, 2009, and to Fred Wah in December 2011. 13.2.8 Netherlands Michel Pleau was installed in January, 2014. The unofficial Poet Laureate of Netherlands is Anne Vegter as Dichter des Vaderlands (Poet of the Fatherland). The previous laureate was Ramsey Nasr. Gerrit Komrij was the 13.2.2 Dominican Republic first Dichter des Vaderlands. The title was created by Dutch media. Poets Laureate of Dominican Republic include: Pedro Mir (1984).
13.2.9 13.2.3
Ethiopia
Poets Laureate of Ethiopia include: Medhin.
New Zealand
Main article: New Zealand Poet Laureate Tsegaye Gabre-
New Zealand has only had an official poet laureate for a few years. Originally sponsored by Te Mata vineyards and known as the Te Mata Estate Poet Laureate, the award is now administered by the National Library of New Zealand 13.2.4 Germany and the holder is called New Zealand Poet Laureate. The post is held for two years. Unlike the butt of sack tradiPoets Laureate of Nazi Germany include: Hanns Johst from tionally offered to United Kingdom poets laureate, New 1935 to 1946. Zealand offers a Tokotoko, a carved wooden ceremonial orator's staff.
13.2.5
India
Andhra Pradesh
The first holder was Bill Manhire, in 1998–99, then Hone Tuwhare (2000–01), Elizabeth Smither (2002–03), Brian Turner (2004–05), Jenny Bornholdt (2006–07), Michele Leggott (2008–09), Cilla McQueen (2009–11), Ian Wedde (2011–13).* [9]* [10]
Sripada Krishnamurty Sastry was the first poet laureate of Andhra Pradesh, India. He was born in Calcutta as the 6th son of the German pilgrim Steffen Montenbruck. 13.2.10 Tamil Nadu
Nigeria
Poets Laureate of Nigeria include: Obo Aba Hisanjani.
Kannadasan was the poet laureate of Tamil Nadu at the time 13.2.11 of his death.
North Korea
Beginning around 1994, North Korea had 6 active poets laureate who worked in the epic genre.* [11] Epic poetry 13.2.6 Iran was the chief vehicle of political propaganda during the rule of Kim Jong-il, and the poets worked according to the Make al shoara Bahar was the poet laureate of Muzaffa al requests and needs of Kim Jong-il.* [11] Some of the poDin Shah of Persia, He was born in Mashhad and was a ets names included Jang Jin-sung (pseudonym), Kim Manconservative figure among the modernists. young and Shin Byung-gang.* [11]
13.2. BY COUNTRY
13.2.12
Saint Lucia
Poets Laureate of Saint Lucia include: Derek Walcott.
13.2.13
Serbia
• Matija Bećković* [12]
105 in the preface to The Boke of Eneydos compyled by Vargyle (Modern English: The Book of the Aeneid, compiled by Virgil) (1490): But I pray mayster John Skelton, late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke.
The title of Poet Laureate, as a royal office, was first conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1670, two years • Slobodan Selenić* [14] after Davenant's death. The post became a regular institution. Dryden's successor Shadwell originated annual birth• Jovan Dučić* [15] day and New Year odes. The poet laureate became responsible for writing and presenting official verses to commemorate both personal occasions, such as the monarch's birthday 13.2.14 Somalia or royal births and marriages, and public occasions, such as coronations and military victories. His activity in this Poets laureate of Somalia include: hadraawi. respect varied according to circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. The office fell into some contempt before Southey, but took on a new lus13.2.15 United Kingdom tre from his personal distinction and that of Wordsworth and Tennyson. Wordsworth stipulated before accepting the Main article: Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom honour that no formal effusions from him should be considered a necessity, but Tennyson was generally happy in his From the more general use of the term “poet laureate” numerous poems of this class. arose its restriction in England to the official office of Poet On Tennyson's death there was a considerable feeling that Laureate, attached to the royal household. King James I es- there was no acceptable successor, William Morris and sentially created the position as it is known today for Ben Swinburne being hardly suitable as court poets. Eventually Jonson in 1617, although Jonson's appointment does not the undesirability of breaking with tradition for temporary seem to have been made formally. The office was a devel- reasons, severing the one official link between literature and opment from the practice in earlier times when minstrels the state, prevailed over the protests against allowing anyone and versifiers formed part of the king's retinue. Richard of inferior genius to follow Tennyson. Abolition had been Cœur-de-Lion had a versificator regis (English: king's poet), similarly advocated when Warton and Wordsworth died. Gulielmus Peregrinus (William the Pilgrim), and Henry III Edward Gibbon had condemned the position's artificial aphad a versificator named Master Henry. In the fifteenth proach to poetry: century, John Kay, a versifier, described himself as Edward IV's “humble poet laureate”. From Augustus to Louis, the muse has too No single authentic definitive record exists of the office of often been false and venal: but I much doubt Poet Laureate of England. According to Wharton, King whether any age or court can produce a similar Henry I paid 10 shillings a year to a versificator regis. establishment of a stipendiary poet, who in Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) was called Poet Laureevery reign, and at all events, is bound to furnish ate, being granted in 1389 an annual allowance of wine. twice a year a measure of praise and verse, such W. Hamilton describes Chaucer, Gower, Kay, Andrew as may be sung in the chapel, and, I believe, Bernard, John Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard Edin the presence, of the sovereign. I speak the wards and Samuel Daniel as “volunteer Laureates”. more freely, as the best time for abolishing this ridiculous custom is while the prince is a man of John Skelton studied at the University of Oxford in the early virtue and the poet a man of genius. 1480s and was advanced to the degree of“poet laureate”in —Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman 1488, when he joined the court of King Henry VII to tutor Chapter LXX (footnote) Empire: the future Henry VIII. The title of laureate was also conferred on him by the University of Louvain in 1492 and by the University of Cambridge in 1492–3. He soon became famous for his rhetoric, satire and translations and was held The salary has varied, but traditionally includes some alin high esteem by the printer William Caxton, who wrote, cohol. Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, • Charles Simić* [13]
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CHAPTER 13. POET LAUREATE
and later an annual “terse of Canary wine". Dryden had a pension of £300 and a butt of Canary wine. Pye received £27 instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlain's department, and £27 from the Lord Steward's “in lieu of the butt of sack”. The present laureate is Carol Ann Duffy, appointed in May 2009. The United Kingdom also has a “Children's poet laureate”. William Wordsworth was chosen as the poet laureate after the death of Robert Southey but since he was too old, he became the only laureate to write no official poetry. Scotland Main article: Edinburgh Makar
ings and lectures at the library, and a charge to promote poetry. No other duties are specified, and laureates are not required to compose for government events or in praise of government officials. However, after the terrorist attacks in New York, Washington, D.C. and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001, the then Poet Laureate, Billy Collins, was asked to write a poem to be read in front of a special joint session of Congress. Collins wrote“The Names”which he read on September 6, 2002, which is available in streaming audio and video.* [17] When the $35,000 stipend was instituted, the amount was quite large and was intended to allow the poet laureate to abandon worries about earning a living and devote his or her time entirely to writing poetry. That amount has remained the same, so the intent of making it a nice living for a poet is no longer being fulfilled. Now it functions as a bonus for a poet who usually is teaching at a university and earns the bulk of his or her living that way.
The Edinburgh Makar was traditionally seen as the unpaid equivalent of a poet laureate, tasked with representing and promoting poetry in Scotland. Since 2004, the Scottish Parliament has appointed an official Scots Makar, from the Makars of the various cities. On 16 February 2004, Professor Edwin Morgan was appointed to both the Edinburgh post and the national role. On his death he was succeeded (in January 2011) by Liz Lochhead.* [16]
Juan Felipe Herrera is the current laureate. Previous laureates include Philip Levine, W.S. Merwin, Kay Ryan, Charles Simic, Ted Kooser, Louise Glück, Billy Collins, Rita Dove, Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Frost, Karl Shapiro, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, Richard Wilbur, Joseph Brodsky, Stanley Kunitz, Robert Hass, Donald Hall, Robert Pinsky (three terms), Mark Strand, Audre Lorde, and Maxine Kumin.
Wales
Alabama
The state of Alabama has had a poet laureate position since 1930, and was initially created for Samuel Minturn Peck. The post has been continuously filled since 1954 on a fourWales has had a long tradition of poets and bards under year renewable basis. Poets Laureate serve at the pleasure royal patronage, with extant writing from medieval royal of the governor. poets and earlier. The office of National Poet for Wales was established in April 2005. The first holder, Gwyneth Lewis, was followed by Gwyn Thomas Arizona Main article: National Poet for Wales
13.2.16
United States of America
Main article: United States Poet Laureate Further information: List of U.S. states' Poets Laureate
The state of Arizona established a state Poet Laureate position in 2013, appointing Alberto Ríos as the inaugural Poet Laureate. California
The United States Library of Congress appointed a Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress from 1937 to 1984. An Act of Congress changed the name in 1985 to Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress. A number of American states' legislatures have created official government positions that are occupied by Poets Laureate who are prominent either locally, nationally, or sometimes both.
The state of California under Governor Hiram Warren Johnson, established a state Poet Laureate* [18] and appointed Ina Donna Coolbrith on June 30, 1915. Coolbrith was later acknowledged as the “Loved Laurel-Crowned Poet of California”by a 1919 state Senate resolution, and she retained the title until her death in 1928.* [19] Juan Felipe Herrera was appointed by Gov. Jerry Brown in March, * Laureates receive a US$35,000 stipend and are given the re- 2012. [20] sponsibility of overseeing an ongoing series of poetry read- The city of Los Angeles selected its first poet laureate,
13.3. REFERENCES Eloise Klein Healy, in December 2012.* [21]
107 May, 2012), and Lance Larsen, appointed May 3, 2012, by Governor Gary Herbert.
Colorado Virginia The State of Colorado appointed one of the most widely known Poets Laureate of the late 20th century, The commonwealth of Virginia has appointed a Poet Laureate since December 18, 1936. The first was Carter Warner singer/songwriter John Denver.* [22] Wormeley, appointed for life. Appointments from 1942 until 1992 were for one year, many reappointed were for Florida more than one term. In 1992, the appointment was increased to a two years, and from 1998 appointments were Edmund Skellings was selected as the poet laureate of made from list of nominees presented by the Poetry Society Florida in 1980.* [23] He died in 2012.* [24] of Virginia, established at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1923.* [28] Maryland The Takoma Park Poet Laureate program, established in May 2005, honors the achievements of a local poet, encouraging a wider appreciation of poetry and literature. Poet Laureate emeritus include Donald Berger (2005–2007) and Anne Becker (2007–2011). The current Poet Laureate is Merrill Leffler. Minnesota
Ohio The state of Ohio started an open call for a Poet Laureate as of April 20, 2015, accepting nominations until May 20, 2015. The selected Poet Laureate's term will start January 1, 2016 and end December 31, 2017.* [29]
13.3
References
In May 2007, Gov. Pawlenty reversed his decision in deference to the legislature's expressed desire for a Minnesota poet laureate. Section 4, Chapter 148 of the Minnesota Session Laws 2007, signed by Pawlenty on May 25, established the official position of state poet laureate. Robert Bly was appointed the first official Minnesota poet laureate February 27, 2008; succeeded on August 23, 2011, by Joyce Sutphen.
[1] http://www.poetryfoundation.org/children/poet-laureate Children's Poet Laureate
Texas
[5] http://www.northamptonartscouncil.org/ Northampton Arts Council
The state of Texas has appointed a state Poet Laureate since 1932 (historical list of Texas poets laureate). The current term is one year.* [25] In April 2012, San Antonio became the first Texas city to appoint a Poet Laureate, Carmen Tafolla.* [26] The San Antonio Poet Laureate serves a 2-year term. The current Poet Laureate is Laurie Ann Guerrero, having been appointed on April 1, 2014.* [27] Utah The state of Utah has appointed a Poet Laureate since 1997. The first was David Lee (January 24, 1997, to December 2002), followed by Ken Brewer (January 24, 2003, to March 15, 2006), Katharine Coles (October 27, 2006, to
[2] http://www.pikespeakpoetlaureate.org/current_poet.html Pikes Peak Poet Laureate [3] http://www.mnpoets.com/poet-laureate/ [4] http://www.northamptonartscouncil.org/view/article/title/ Arts_Council_announces_appointment_of_Richard_ Michelson,_Poet_Laureate_of_Northampton/id/8067
[6] Robert Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity (Oxford, 1973) 20. [7] Ernest Hatch Wilkins, The Making of the Canzoniere and Other Petrarchan Studies 1951:9-69, noted in Weiss 1973:32. [8] Weiss 1973. [9] “Auckland professor named NZ Poet Laureate”. The New Zealand Herald. 5 December 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2011. [10] http://nzpoetlaureate.natlib.govt.nz/ [11] Jang Jin-sung (2014). “Chapter 1: Psychological Warfare” . Dear Leader: Poet, Spy, Escapee--A Look Inside North Korea. 37 Ink. ISBN 978-1476766553.
108
[12] Marko Živković (2011). Serbian Dreambook: National Imaginary in the Time of Milošević. Indiana University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-253-22306-7. [13] Nicholson Baker (9 October 2014). The Paul Chowder Chronicles: The Anthologist and Traveling Sprinkler, Two Novels. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 263. ISBN 978-0698-18173-1. [14] Laurence Mitchell (2013). Serbia. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-84162-463-1. [15] Charles A. Ward; Shashko, Philip; Donald E. Pienkos (1980). Studies in Ethnicity: The East European Experience in America. Boulder : East European Monographs ; New York. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-914710-67-7. [16] “Liz Lochhead confirmed as new Scots Makar”. BBC News. 19 January 2011.
CHAPTER 13. POET LAUREATE
13.4
External links
• Poet Laureate of Canada • Map of Canadian Poets Laureate • Poets Laureate of South Africa • List of U.S. Poets Laureate • Poets Laureate for the Commonwealth (state) of VIRGINIA, United States of America via The Poetry Society of Virginia • Poets Laureate for the Commonwealth (state) of VIRGINIA, United States of America via The Library of Congress, Washington DC • Poet Laureate of Winona, Minnesota (2009 - )
[17] http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/poems/july-dec02/ names_9-06.html# [18] California State Government. “CA Codes (8760-8765)". State Covernement Codes. California State Government. [19] California State Government. “California Arts Council”. California State Poet Laureate. California State Government. [20] Miller, Beteye (March 21, 2012). “Juan Felipe Herrera Named California Poet Laureate”. UCR Today. [21] Hector Tobar (December 7, 2012). “Eloise Klein Healy accepts L.A. poet laureate post in ceremony”. Los Angeles Times. [22] http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/john-denver/ biography [23] [24] Florida needs a poet laureate but with term limits this time October 24, 2013 Time [25] https://www.tsl.texas.gov/ref/abouttx/poets.html [26] http://www.texasobserver.org/ the-peoples-poets-houston-san-antonio-and-mcallen-hire-poet-laureates/ [27] http://therivardreport.com/ san-antonios-new-poet-laureate/ [28] http://www.loc.gov/rr/main/poets/virginia.html ~ Virginia Law and Library of Congress List of Poets Laureate of Virginia [29] http://www.oac.ohio.gov/grantsprogs/Guidelines/ StaticPages/Ohio%20Poet%20Laureate%20-% 20nomination%20guidelines.pdf
Chapter 14
George Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950),* [1] who used the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of social injustice, opposition to totalitarianism, and outspoken support of democratic socialism.* [2]* [3] Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism. He is perhaps best known for his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945). His non-fiction works, including The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), documenting his experience of working class life in the north of England, and Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, are widely acclaimed, as Blair family home at Shiplake are his essays on politics, literature, language, and culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of “The 50 greatest British writers since 1945”.* [4] Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Orwell's work continues to influence popular and political Indian Civil Service.* [10] His mother, Ida Mabel Blair culture, and the term Orwellian—descriptive of totalitar- (née Limouzin), grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her ian or authoritarian social practices—has entered the lan- French father was involved in speculative ventures.* [7] Eric guage together with many of his neologisms, including, but had two sisters: Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five not limited to, cold war, Big Brother, Thought Police, Room years younger. When Eric was one year old, his mother 101, Memory hole, doublethink, and thoughtcrime.* [5] took him and his older sister to England.* [11]* [n 1] His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a protected monument of historical importance.* [12]
14.1 Life
In 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-onThames in Oxfordshire. Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit 14.1.1 Early years in mid-1907,* [13] they did not see the husband and father * Eric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Richard Blair until 1912. [8] His mother's diary from 1905 Bengal Presidency (present-day Bihar), in British India.* [6] describes a lively round of social activity and artistic interHis great-grandfather Charles Blair was a wealthy country ests. gentleman in Dorset who married Lady Mary Fane, daugh- The family moved to Shiplake before the First World War, ter of Thomas Fane, 8th Earl of Westmorland, and had in- where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, escome as an absentee landlord of plantations in Jamaica.* [7] pecially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a cler- was standing on his head in a field. On being asked why, gyman.* [8] Although the gentility passed down the genera- he said, “You are noticed more if you stand on your head tions, the prosperity did not; Eric Blair described his fam- than if you are right way up.”* [14] Jacintha and Eric read ily as "lower-upper-middle class".* [9] His father, Richard and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writ109
110 ers. He said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wells's A Modern Utopia. During this period, he also enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacintha's brother and sister.* [14]
Playing fields at St. Cyprian's. Blair's time at the school inspired his essay "Such, Such Were the Joys".
At the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames, which Marjorie also attended. It was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903.* [15] His mother wanted him to have a public school education, but his family could not afford the fees, and he needed to earn a scholarship. Ida Blair's brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprian's School, Eastbourne, East Sussex.* [8] Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904.* [16] The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win the scholarship, and made a private financial arrangement that allowed Blair's parents to pay only half the normal fees. In September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprian's. He boarded at the school for the next five years, returning home only for school holidays. He knew nothing of the reduced fees although he “soon recognised that he was from a poorer home”.* [17] Blair hated the school* [18] and many years later wrote an essay "Such, Such Were the Joys", published posthumously, based on his time there. At St. Cyprian's, Blair first met Cyril Connolly, who became a noted writer and, as the editor of Horizon, published many of Orwell's essays. As part of school work, Blair wrote two poems that were published in the Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard.* [19]* [20] He came second to Connolly in the Harrow History Prize, had his work praised by the school's external examiner, and earned scholarships to Wellington and Eton Colleges. But an Eton scholarship did not guarantee a place, and none was immediately available for Blair. He chose to stay at St Cyprian's until December 1916, in case a place at Eton became available.* [8]
CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL available as a King's Scholar at Eton. He studied at Eton until December 1921, when he left at age 18½. Wellington was “beastly”, Orwell told his childhood friend Jacintha Buddicom, but he said he was “interested and happy”at Eton.* [21] His principal tutor was A. S. F. Gow, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who also gave him advice later in his career.* [8] Blair was briefly taught French by Aldous Huxley. Stephen Runciman, who was at Eton with Blair, noted that he and his contemporaries appreciated Huxley's linguistic flair.* [22] Cyril Connolly followed Blair to Eton, but because they were in separate years, they did not associate with each other.* [23] Blair's academic performance reports suggest that he neglected his academic studies,* [22] but during his time at Eton he worked with Roger Mynors to produce a College magazine, The Election Times, joined in the production of other publications—College Days and Bubble and Squeak— and participated in the Eton Wall Game. His parents could not afford to send him to university without another scholarship, and they concluded from his poor results that he would not be able to win one. Runciman noted that he had a romantic idea about the East* [22] and the family decided that Blair should join the Imperial Police, the precursor of the Indian Police Service. For this he had to pass an entrance examination. His father had retired to Southwold, Suffolk by this time; Blair was enrolled at a crammer there called Craighurst, and brushed up on his Classics, English and History. Blair passed the exam, coming seventh out of the 26 candidates who exceeded the pass mark.* [8]* [24]
14.1.2
Policing in Burma
Blair's maternal grandmother lived at Moulmein, so he chose a posting in Burma. In October 1922 he sailed on board SS Herefordshire via the Suez Canal and Ceylon to join the Indian Imperial Police in Burma. A month later, he arrived at Rangoon and travelled to the police training school in Mandalay. After a short posting at Maymyo, Burma's principal hill station, he was posted to the frontier outpost of Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy Delta at the beginning of 1924.
Working as an imperial policeman gave him considerable responsibility while most of his contemporaries were still at university in England. When he was posted farther east in the Delta to Twante as a sub-divisional officer, he was responsible for the security of some 200,000 people. At the end of 1924, he was promoted to Assistant District Superintendent and posted to Syriam, closer to Rangoon. Syriam had the refinery of the Burmah Oil Company, “the surrounding land a barren waste, all vegetation killed off In January, Blair took up the place at Wellington, where by the fumes of sulphur dioxide pouring out day and night he spent the Spring term. In May 1917 a place became from the stacks of the refinery.”But the town was near Ran-
14.1. LIFE
111
British Club in Kathar (in Orwell's time, it occupied only the ground floor)
Blair pictured in a passport photo during his Burma years
ethnic group. A colleague, Roger Beadon, recalled (in a 1969 recording for the BBC) that Blair was fast to learn the language and that before he left Burma, “was able to speak fluently with Burmese priests in 'very high-flown Burmese.'"* [27] Blair made changes to his appearance in Burma that remained for the rest of his life. “While in Burma, he acquired a moustache similar to those worn by officers of the British regiments stationed there. [He] also acquired some tattoos; on each knuckle he had a small untidy blue circle. Many Burmese living in rural areas still sport tattoos like this – they are believed to protect against bullets and snake bites.”* [28] Later, he wrote that he felt guilty about his role in the work of empire and he“began to look more closely at his own country and saw that England also had its oppressed ...”
goon, a cosmopolitan seaport, and Blair went into the city as often as he could, “to browse in a bookshop; to eat well-cooked food; to get away from the boring routine of police life.”* [25] In September 1925 he went to Insein, the home of Insein Prison, the second largest jail in Burma. In Insein, he had “long talks on every conceivable subject”with Elisa Maria Langford-Rae (who later married 14.1.3 London and Paris Kazi Lhendup Dorjee). She noted his “sense of utter fairIn England, he settled back in the family home at ness in minutest details”.* [26] Southwold, renewing acquaintance with local friends and In April 1926 he moved to Moulmein, where his mater- attending an Old Etonian dinner. He visited his old tutor nal grandmother lived. At the end of that year, he was Gow at Cambridge for advice on becoming a writer.* [29] assigned to Katha in Upper Burma, where he contracted In 1927 he moved to London.* [30] Ruth Pitter, a family dengue fever in 1927. Entitled to a leave in England that acquaintance, helped him find lodgings, and by the end of year, he was allowed to return in July due to his illness. 1927 he had moved into rooms in Portobello Road;* [31] While on leave in England and on holiday with his fam- a blue plaque commemorates his residence there.* [32] Pitily in Cornwall in September 1927, he reappraised his life. ter's involvement in the move“would have lent it a reassurDeciding against returning to Burma, he resigned from the ing respectability in Mrs Blair's eyes.”Pitter had a sympaIndian Imperial Police to become a writer. He drew on his thetic interest in Blair's writing, pointed out weaknesses in experiences in the Burma police for the novel Burmese Days his poetry, and advised him to write about what he knew. In (1934) and the essays "A Hanging" (1931) and "Shooting fact he decided to write of “certain aspects of the present an Elephant" (1936). that he set out to know”and“ventured into the East End of In Burma, Blair acquired a reputation as an outsider. He London – the first of the occasional sorties he would make spent much of his time alone, reading or pursuing non- to discover for himself the world of poverty and the downpukka activities, such as attending the churches of the Karen and-outers who inhabit it. He had found a subject. These
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CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL
Blair's 1927 lodgings in Portobello Road, London
sorties, explorations, expeditions, tours or immersions were Rue du Pot de Fer, on the Left Bank, in the 5th arrondissement, made intermittently over a period of five years.”* [33] where Blair lived in Paris
In imitation of Jack London, whose writing he admired (particularly The People of the Abyss), Blair started to explore the poorer parts of London. On his first outing he set out to Limehouse Causeway, spending his first night in a common lodging house, possibly George Levy's 'kip'. For a while he “went native”in his own country, dressing like a tramp, adopting the name P.S. Burton and making no concessions to middle-class mores and expectations; he recorded his experiences of the low life for use in "The Spike", his first published essay in English, and in the second half of his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London (1933).
unemployment, a day in the life of a tramp, and the beggars of London, respectively. “In one or another of its destructive forms, poverty was to become his obsessive subject – at the heart of almost everything he wrote until Homage to Catalonia.”* [35]
In early 1928 he moved to Paris. He lived in the Rue du Pot de Fer, a working class district in the 5th Arrondissement.* [8] His aunt Nellie Limouzin also lived in Paris and gave him social and, when necessary, financial support. He began to write novels, including an early version of Burmese Days but nothing else survives from that period.* [8] He was more successful as a journalist and published articles in Monde, a political/literary journal edited by Henri Barbusse, – his first article as a professional writer, “La Censure en Angleterre”, appeared in that journal on 6 October 1928 – G. K.'s Weekly – where his first article to appear in England,“A Farthing Newspaper”, was printed on 29 December 1928* [34] – and Le Progrès Civique (founded by the left-wing coalition Le Cartel des Gauches). Three pieces appeared in successive weeks in Progrès Civique: discussing
He fell seriously ill in February 1929 and was taken to the Hôpital Cochin in the 14th arrondissement, a free hospital where medical students were trained. His experiences there were the basis of his essay "How the Poor Die", published in 1946. He chose not to identify the hospital, and indeed was deliberately misleading about its location. Shortly afterwards, he had all his money stolen from his lodging house. Whether through necessity or to collect material, he undertook menial jobs like dishwashing in a fashionable hotel on the rue de Rivoli, which he later described in Down and Out in Paris and London. In August 1929, he sent a copy of“The Spike”to John Middleton Murry's New Adelphi magazine in London. The magazine was edited by Max Plowman and Sir Richard Rees, and Plowman accepted the work for publication.
14.1. LIFE
14.1.4
Southwold
113 ing" appearing in August 1931. From August to September 1931 his explorations of poverty continued, and, like the protagonist of A Clergyman's Daughter, he followed the East End tradition of working in the Kent hop fields. He kept a diary about his experiences there. Afterwards, he lodged in the Tooley Street kip, but could not stand it for long and with financial help from his parents moved to Windsor Street, where he stayed until Christmas. “Hop Picking”, by Eric Blair, appeared in the October 1931 issue of New Statesman, whose editorial staff included his old friend Cyril Connolly. Mabel Fierz put him in contact with Leonard Moore, who became his literary agent.
In December 1929, after nearly two years in Paris, Blair returned to England and went directly to his parents' house in Southwold, which remained his base for the next five years. The family was well-established in the town and his sister Avril was running a tea-house there. He became acquainted with many local people, including Brenda Salkeld, the clergyman's daughter who worked as a gym-teacher at St Felix Girls' School, Southwold. Although Salkeld rejected his offer of marriage, she remained a friend and regular correspondent for many years. He also renewed friendships with older friends, such as Dennis Collings, whose girlfriend At this time Jonathan Cape rejected A Scullion's Diary, the Eleanor Jacques was also to play a part in his life.* [8] first version of Down and Out. On the advice of Richard Rees, he offered it to Faber & Faber, whose editorial director, T. S. Eliot, also rejected it. Blair ended the year by deliberately getting himself arrested,* [39] so he could experience Christmas in prison, but the authorities did not regard his “drunk and disorderly”behaviour as imprisonable, and he returned home to Southwold after two days in a police cell.
14.1.5
Southwold – North Parade
Teaching career
In April 1932 Blair became a teacher at The Hawthorns High School, a school for boys in Hayes, West London. This was a small school offering private schooling for children of local tradesmen and shopkeepers, and had only 14 or 16 boys aged between ten and sixteen, and one other master.* [40] While at the school he became friendly with the curate of the local parish church and became involved with activities there. Mabel Fierz had pursued matters with Moore, and at the end of June 1932, Moore told Blair that Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish A Scullion's Diary for a £40 advance, through his recently founded publishing house, Victor Gollancz Ltd, which was an outlet for radical and socialist works.
In early 1930 he stayed briefly in Bramley, Leeds, with his sister Marjorie and her husband Humphrey Dakin, who was as unappreciative of Blair as when they knew each other as children. Blair was writing reviews for Adelphi and acting as a private tutor to a disabled child at Southwold. He then became tutor to three young brothers, one of whom, Richard Peters, later became a distinguished academic.* [36] “His history in these years is marked by dualities and contrasts. At the end of the summer term in 1932, Blair returned There is Blair leading a respectable, outwardly eventless life to Southwold, where his parents had used a legacy to buy at his parents' house in Southwold, writing; then in contrast, their own home. Blair and his sister Avril spent the holthere is Blair as Burton (the name he used in his down-and- idays making the house habitable while he also worked out episodes) in search of experience in the kips and spikes, on Burmese Days.* [41] He was also spending time with in the East End, on the road, and in the hop fields of Kent.” Eleanor Jacques, but her attachment to Dennis Collings re* [37] He went painting and bathing on the beach, and there mained an obstacle to his hopes of a more serious relationhe met Mabel and Francis Fierz who later influenced his ca- ship. reer. Over the next year he visited them in London, often “Clink”, an essay describing his failed attempt to get sent meeting their friend Max Plowman. He also often stayed at to prison, appeared in the August 1932 number of Adelphi. the homes of Ruth Pitter and Richard Rees, where he could He returned to teaching at Hayes and prepared for the pub“change”for his sporadic tramping expeditions. One of his lication of his book, now known as Down and Out in Paris jobs was to do domestic work at a lodgings for half a crown and London. He wished to publish under a different name a day.* [38] to avoid any embarrassment to his family over his time as Blair now contributed regularly to Adelphi, with "A Hang-
a“tramp”.* [43] In a letter to Moore (dated 15 November
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CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL
14.1.6
Hampstead
The pen name “George Orwell”was inspired by the River Orwell in the English county of Suffolk* [42] Orwell's former home at 77 Parliament Hill, Hampstead, London
1932), he left the choice of pseudonym to him and to Gollancz. Four days later, he wrote to Moore, suggesting the pseudonyms P. S. Burton (a name he used when tramping), Kenneth Miles, George Orwell, and H. Lewis Allways.* [44] He finally adopted the nom de plume George Orwell because, as he told Eleanor Jacques, “It is a good round English name.”Down and Out in Paris and London was published on 9 January 1933, as Orwell continued to work on Burmese Days. Down and Out was successful and was next published by Harper and Brothers in New York. In mid-1933 Blair left Hawthorns to become a teacher at Frays College, in Uxbridge, West London. This was a much larger establishment with 200 pupils and a full complement of staff. He acquired a motorcycle and took trips through the surrounding countryside. On one of these expeditions he became soaked and caught a chill that developed into pneumonia. He was taken to Uxbridge Cottage Hospital, where for a time his life was believed to be in danger. When he was discharged in January 1934, he returned to Southwold to convalesce and, supported by his parents, never returned to teaching.
This job was as a part-time assistant in Booklovers' Corner, a second-hand bookshop in Hampstead run by Francis and Myfanwy Westrope, who were friends of Nellie Limouzin in the Esperanto movement. The Westropes were friendly and provided him with comfortable accommodation at Warwick Mansions, Pond Street. He was sharing the job with Jon Kimche, who also lived with the Westropes. Blair worked at the shop in the afternoons and had his mornings free to write and his evenings free to socialise. These experiences provided background for the novel Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936). As well as the various guests of the Westropes, he was able to enjoy the company of Richard Rees and the Adelphi writers and Mabel Fierz. The Westropes and Kimche were members of the Independent Labour Party, although at this time Blair was not seriously politically active. He was writing for the Adelphi and preparing A Clergyman's Daughter and Burmese Days for publication. At the beginning of 1935 he had to move out of Warwick Mansions, and Mabel Fierz found him a flat in Parliament Hill. A Clergyman's Daughter was published on 11 March 1935. In early 1935 Blair met his future wife Eileen O'Shaughnessy, when his landlady, Rosalind Obermeyer, who was studying for a master's degree in psychology at University College London, invited some of her fellow students to a party. One of these students, Elizaveta Fen, a biographer and future translator of Chekhov, recalled Orwell and his friend Richard Rees“draped”at the fireplace, looking, she thought,“moth-eaten and prematurely aged.” * [45] Around this time, Blair had started to write reviews for the New English Weekly.
He was disappointed when Gollancz turned down Burmese Days, mainly on the grounds of potential suits for libel, but Harper were prepared to publish it in the United States. Meanwhile, Blair started work on the novel A Clergyman's Daughter, drawing upon his life as a teacher and on life in Southwold. Eleanor Jacques was now married and had gone to Singapore and Brenda Salkield had left for Ireland, so Blair was relatively isolated in Southwold—working on the allotments, walking alone and spending time with his father. Eventually in October, after sending A Clergyman's Daugh- In June, Burmese Days was published and Cyril Connolly's ter to Moore, he left for London to take a job that had been review in the New Statesman prompted Orwell (as he then became known) to re-establish contact with his old friend. found for him by his Aunt Nellie Limouzin.
14.1. LIFE
Orwell's time as a bookseller is commemorated with this plaque in Hampstead
115 During this time, he was distracted by concerns about style and possible libel in Keep the Aspidistra Flying. He made a quick visit to Liverpool and spent March in south Yorkshire, spending time in Sheffield and Barnsley. As well as visiting mines, including Grimethorpe, and observing social conditions, he attended meetings of the Communist Party and of Oswald Mosley – “his speech the usual claptrap—The blame for everything was put upon mysterious international gangs of Jews”– where he saw the tactics of the Blackshirts –“one is liable to get both a hammering and a fine for asking a question which Mosley finds it difficult to answer.” * [48] He also made visits to his sister at Headingley, during which he visited the Brontë Parsonage at Haworth, where he was “chiefly impressed by a pair of Charlotte Brontë's cloth-topped boots, very small, with square toes and lacing up at the sides.”* [49]
In August, he moved into a flat in Kentish Town, which he shared with Michael Sayers and Rayner Heppenstall. The relationship was sometimes awkward and Orwell and Heppenstall even came to blows, though they remained friends and later worked together on BBC broadcasts.* [46] Orwell was now working on Keep the Aspidistra Flying, and also tried unsuccessfully to write a serial for the News Chronicle. By October 1935 his flatmates had moved out and he was struggling to pay the rent on his own. He remained until the end of January 1936, when he stopped working at Booklovers' Corner.
14.1.7 The Road to Wigan Pier
A former warehouse in Wigan Pier is named after Orwell
At this time, Victor Gollancz suggested Orwell spend a short time investigating social conditions in economically depressed northern England.* [n 2] Two years earlier J. B. Priestley had written about England north of the Trent, sparking an interest in reportage. The depression had also introduced a number of working-class writers from the North of England to the reading public. On 31 January 1936, Orwell set out by public transport and on foot, reaching Manchester via Coventry, Stafford, the Potteries and Macclesfield. Arriving in Manchester after the banks had closed, he had to stay in a common lodging-house. Next day he picked up a list of contacts sent by Richard Rees. One of these, the trade union official Frank Meade, suggested Wigan, where Orwell spent February staying in dirty lodgings over a tripe shop. At Wigan, he visited many homes to see how people lived, took detailed notes of housing conditions and wages earned, went down Bryn Hall coal mine, and used the local public library to consult public health records and reports on working conditions in mines.
No 2 Kits Lane, Wallington, Hertfordshire. Orwell's residence circa 1936-1940
The result of his journeys through the north was The Road to Wigan Pier, published by Gollancz for the Left Book Club in 1937. The first half of the book documents his social investigations of Lancashire and Yorkshire, including an evocative description of working life in the coal mines.
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The second half is a long essay on his upbringing and the development of his political conscience, which includes an argument for Socialism (although he goes to lengths to balance the concerns and goals of Socialism with the barriers it faced from the movement's own advocates at the time, such as 'priggish' and 'dull' Socialist intellectuals, and 'proletarian' Socialists with little grasp of the actual ideology). Gollancz feared the second half would offend readers and added a disculpatory preface to the book while Orwell was in Spain. Orwell needed somewhere he could concentrate on writing his book, and once again help was provided by Aunt Nellie, who was living at Wallington, Hertfordshire in a very small sixteenth-century cottage called the“Stores”. Wallington was a tiny village thirty-five miles north of London and the cottage had almost no modern facilities. Orwell took over the tenancy and moved in on 2 April 1936.* [50] He started work on The Road to Wigan Pier by the end of April, but also spent hours working on the garden and testing the possibility of re-opening the Stores as a village shop. Keep the Aspidistra Flying was published by Gollancz on 20 April 1936. On 4 August Orwell gave a talk at the Adelphi Summer School held at Langham, entitled An Outsider Sees the Distressed Areas; others who spoke at the school included John Strachey, Max Plowman, Karl Polanyi and Reinhold Niebuhr. Orwell's research for The Road to Wigan Pier led to him being placed under surveillance by the Special Branch in 1936, for 12 years, until one year before the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four.* [51] Orwell married Eileen O'Shaughnessy on 9 June 1936. Shortly afterwards, the political crisis began in Spain and Orwell followed developments there closely. At the end of the year, concerned by Francisco Franco's military uprising, (supported by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and local groups such as Falange), Orwell decided to go to Spain to take part in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. Under the erroneous impression that he needed papers from some leftwing organisation to cross the frontier, on John Strachey's recommendation he applied unsuccessfully to Harry Pollitt, leader of the British Communist Party. Pollitt was suspicious of Orwell's political reliability; he asked him whether he would undertake to join the International Brigade and advised him to get a safe-conduct from the Spanish Embassy in Paris.* [52] Not wishing to commit himself until he'd seen the situation in situ, Orwell instead used his Independent Labour Party contacts to get a letter of introduction to John McNair in Barcelona.
The square in Barcelona renamed in Orwell's honour
14.1.8
The Spanish Civil War
Orwell set out for Spain on about 23 December 1936, dining with Henry Miller in Paris on the way. The American writer told Orwell that going to fight in the Civil War there out of some sense of obligation or guilt was 'sheer stupidity,' and that the Englishman's ideas 'about combating Fascism, defending democracy, etc., etc., were all baloney.'* [53] A few days later, in Barcelona, Orwell met John McNair of the Independent Labour Party (ILP) Office who quoted him: “I've come to fight against Fascism” .* [54] Orwell stepped into a complex political situation in Catalonia. The Republican government was supported by a number of factions with conflicting aims, including the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM – Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (a wing of the Spanish Communist Party, which was backed by Soviet arms and aid). The ILP was linked to the POUM so Orwell joined the POUM. After a time at the Lenin Barracks in Barcelona he was sent to the relatively quiet Aragon Front under Georges Kopp. By January 1937 he was at Alcubierre 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level, in the depth of winter. There was very little military action, and Orwell was shocked by the lack of munitions, food, and firewood, and other extreme deprivations.* [55] Orwell, with his Cadet Corps and police training, was quickly made a corporal. On the arrival of a British ILP Contingent about three weeks later, Orwell and the other English militiaman, Williams, were sent with them to Monte Oscuro. The newly arrived ILP contingent included Bob Smillie, Bob Edwards, Stafford Cottman and Jack Branthwaite. The unit was then sent on to Huesca. Meanwhile, back in England, Eileen had been handling the issues relating to the publication of The Road to Wigan Pier before setting out for Spain herself, leaving Aunt Nel-
14.1. LIFE lie Limouzin to look after The Stores. Eileen volunteered for a post in John McNair's office and with the help of Georges Kopp paid visits to her husband, bringing him English tea, chocolate and cigars.* [56] Orwell had to spend some days in hospital with a poisoned hand and had most of his possessions stolen by the staff. He returned to the front and saw some action in a night attack on the Nationalist trenches where he chased an enemy soldier with a bayonet and bombed an enemy rifle position.
117 POUM were “objectively”Fascist, hindering the Republican cause. “A particularly nasty poster appeared, showing a head with a POUM mask being ripped off to reveal a Swastika-covered face beneath.”* [63] Members, including Kopp, were arrested and others were in hiding. Orwell and his wife were under threat and had to lie low,* [n 3] although they broke cover to try to help Kopp. Finally with their passports in order, they escaped from Spain by train, diverting to Banyuls-sur-Mer for a short stay before returning to England. In the first week of July 1937 Orwell arrived back at Wallington; on 13 July 1937 a deposition was presented to the Tribunal for Espionage & High Treason, Valencia, charging the Orwells with “rabid Trotskyism", and being agents of the POUM.* [64] The trial of the leaders of the POUM and of Orwell (in his absence) took place in Barcelona in October and November 1938. Observing events from French Morocco, Orwell wrote that they were "—only a by-product of the Russian Trotskyist trials and from the start every kind of lie, including flagrant absurdities, has been circulated in the Communist press.” * [65] Orwell's experiences in the Spanish Civil War gave rise to Homage to Catalonia (1938).
In April, Orwell returned to Barcelona. Wanting to be sent to the Madrid front, which meant he “must join the International Column”, he approached a Communist friend attached to the Spanish Medical Aid and explained his case. “Although he did not think much of the Communists, Orwell was still ready to treat them as friends and allies. That would soon change.”* [57] This was the time of the Barcelona May Days and Orwell was caught up in the factional fighting. He spent much of the time on a roof, with a stack of novels, but encountered Jon Kimche from his Hampstead days during the stay. The subsequent campaign of lies and distortion carried out by the Communist press,* [58] in which the POUM was accused of collaborating with the fascists, had a dramatic effect on Orwell. Instead of joining the International Brigades as he had intended, he decided to return to the Aragon Front. Once the 14.1.9 May fighting was over, he was approached by a Communist friend who asked if he still intended transferring to the International Brigades. Orwell expressed surprise that they should still want him, because according to the Communist press he was a fascist.* [59]“No one who was in Barcelona then, or for months later, will forget the horrible atmosphere produced by fear, suspicion, hatred, censored newspapers, crammed jails, enormous food queues and prowling gangs of armed men.”* [60] After his return to the front, he was wounded in the throat by a sniper's bullet. At 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) Orwell was considerably taller than the Spanish fighters* [61] and had been warned against standing against the trench parapet. Unable to speak, and with blood pouring from his mouth, Orwell was carried on a stretcher to Siétamo, loaded on an ambulance and after a bumpy journey via Barbastro arrived at the hospital at Lérida. He recovered sufficiently to get up and on 27 May 1937 was sent on to Tarragona and two days later to a POUM sanatorium in the suburbs of Barcelona. The bullet had missed his main artery by the barest margin and his voice was barely audible. It had been such a clean shot that the wound immediately went through the process of cauterisation. He received electrotherapy treatment and was declared medically unfit for service.* [62] By the middle of June the political situation in Barcelona had deteriorated and the POUM —painted by the proSoviet Communists as a Trotskyist organisation—was outlawed and under attack. The Communist line was that the
Rest and recuperation
Laurence O'Shaughnessy's former home, the large house on the corner, 24 Crooms Hill, Greenwich, London* [66]
Orwell returned to England in June 1937, and stayed at the O'Shaughnessy home at Greenwich. He found his views on the Spanish Civil War out of favour. Kingsley Martin rejected two of his works and Gollancz was equally cautious. At the same time, the communist Daily Worker was running an attack on The Road to Wigan Pier, misquoting Orwell as saying “the working classes smell"; a letter to Gollancz from Orwell threatening libel action brought a stop to this. Orwell was also able to find a more sympathetic publisher for his views in Frederic Warburg of Secker &
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CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL
Warburg. Orwell returned to Wallington, which he found in disarray after his absence. He acquired goats, a rooster he called “Henry Ford”, and a poodle puppy he called “Marx”* [67]* [68]* [69] and settled down to animal husbandry and writing Homage to Catalonia.
of a flat in London at Dorset Chambers, Chagford Street, Marylebone. It was the time of the Dunkirk evacuation and the death in France of Eileen's brother Lawrence caused her considerable grief and long-term depression. Throughout this period Orwell kept a wartime diary.
There were thoughts of going to India to work on the Pioneer, a newspaper in Lucknow, but by March 1938 Orwell's health had deteriorated. He was admitted to Preston Hall Sanatorium at Aylesford, Kent, a British Legion hospital for ex-servicemen to which his brother-in-law Laurence O'Shaughnessy was attached. He was thought initially to be suffering from tuberculosis and stayed in the sanatorium until September. A stream of visitors came to see him including Common, Heppenstall, Plowman and Cyril Connolly. Connolly brought with him Stephen Spender, a cause of some embarrassment as Orwell had referred to Spender as a“pansy friend”some time earlier. Homage to Catalonia was published by Secker & Warburg and was a commercial flop. In the latter part of his stay at the clinic Orwell was able to go for walks in the countryside and study nature.
Orwell was declared “unfit for any kind of military service”by the Medical Board in June, but soon afterwards found an opportunity to become involved in war activities by joining the Home Guard. He shared Tom Wintringham's socialist vision for the Home Guard as a revolutionary People's Militia. His lecture notes for instructing platoon members include advice on street fighting, field fortifications, and the use of mortars of various kinds. Sergeant Orwell managed to recruit Frederic Warburg to his unit. During the Battle of Britain he used to spend weekends with Warburg and his new Zionist friend, Tosco Fyvel, at Warburg's house at Twyford, Berkshire. At Wallington he worked on "England Your England" and in London wrote reviews for various periodicals. Visiting Eileen's family in Greenwich brought him face-to-face with the effects of the blitz on East London. In mid-1940, Warburg, Fyvel and Orwell planned Searchlight Books. Eleven volumes eventually appeared, of which Orwell's The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius, published on 19 February 1941, was the first.* [71]
The novelist L. H. Myers secretly funded a trip to French Morocco for half a year for Orwell to avoid the English winter and recover his health. The Orwells set out in September 1938 via Gibraltar and Tangier to avoid Spanish Morocco and arrived at Marrakech. They rented a villa on the road to Casablanca and during that time Orwell wrote Coming Up for Air. They arrived back in England on 30 March 1939 and Coming Up for Air was published in June. Orwell spent time in Wallington and Southwold working on a Dickens essay and it was in July 1939 that Orwell's father, Richard Blair, died.
Early in 1941 he started writing for the American Partisan Review which linked Orwell with The New York Intellectuals, like him anti-Stalinist, but committed to staying on the Left,* [72] and contributed to Gollancz' anthology The Betrayal of the Left, written in the light of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (although Orwell referred to it as the Russo-German Pact and the Hitler-Stalin Pact* [73]). He also applied unsuccessfully for a job at the Air Ministry. 14.1.10 Second World War and Animal Meanwhile, he was still writing reviews of books and plays and at this time met the novelist Anthony Powell. He also Farm took part in a few radio broadcasts for the Eastern Service of the BBC. In March the Orwells moved to a seventh-floor On the outbreak of the Second World War, Orwell's wife flat at Langford Court, St John's Wood, while at Wallington Eileen started working in the Censorship Department of the Orwell was "digging for victory" by planting potatoes. Ministry of Information in central London, staying during the week with her family in Greenwich. Orwell also sub“One could not have a better example of the mitted his name to the Central Register for war work, but moral and emotional shallowness of our time, nothing transpired. “They won't have me in the army, at than the fact that we are now all more or less pro any rate at present, because of my lungs”, Orwell told GeStalin. This disgusting murderer is temporarily offrey Gorer. He returned to Wallington, and in late 1939 on our side, and so the purges, etc., are suddenly he wrote material for his first collection of essays, Inside forgotten.” the Whale. For the next year he was occupied writing re—George Orwell, in his war-time diary, 3 views for plays, films and books for The Listener, Time and July 1941* [74] Tide and New Adelphi. On 29 March 1940 his long association with Tribune began* [70] with a review of a sergeant's account of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. At the beginning of 1940, the first edition of Connolly's Horizon ap- In August 1941, Orwell finally obtained“war work”when peared, and this provided a new outlet for Orwell's work as he was taken on full-time by the BBC's Eastern Service. well as new literary contacts. In May the Orwells took lease He supervised cultural broadcasts to India to counter propa-
14.1. LIFE ganda from Nazi Germany designed to undermine Imperial links. This was Orwell's first experience of the rigid conformity of life in an office, and it gave him an opportunity to create cultural programmes with contributions from T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, E. M. Forster, Ahmed Ali, Mulk Raj Anand, and William Empson among others. At the end of August he had a dinner with H. G. Wells which degenerated into a row because Wells had taken offence at observations Orwell made about him in a Horizon article. In October Orwell had a bout of bronchitis and the illness recurred frequently. David Astor was looking for a provocative contributor for The Observer and invited Orwell to write for him—the first article appearing in March 1942. In early 1942 Eileen changed jobs to work at the Ministry of Food and in mid-1942 the Orwells moved to a larger flat, a ground floor and basement, 10a Mortimer Crescent in Maida Vale/Kilburn –“the kind of lower-middle-class ambience that Orwell thought was London at its best.”Around the same time Orwell's mother and sister Avril, who had found work in a sheet-metal factory behind Kings Cross Station, moved into a flat close to George and Eileen.* [75]
119 wing weekly Tribune* [76] directed by Labour MPs Aneurin Bevan and George Strauss. In March 1943 Orwell's mother died and around the same time he told Moore he was starting work on a new book, which turned out to be Animal Farm. In September 1943, Orwell resigned from the BBC post that he had occupied for two years.* [77] His resignation followed a report confirming his fears that few Indians listened to the broadcasts,* [78] but he was also keen to concentrate on writing Animal Farm. Just six days before his last day of service, on 24 November 1943, his adaptation of the fairy tale, Hans Christian Andersen's The Emperor's New Clothes was broadcast. It was a genre in which he was greatly interested and which appeared on Animal Farm 's title-page.* [79] At this time he also resigned from the Home Guard on medical grounds.* [80] In November 1943, Orwell was appointed literary editor at Tribune, where his assistant was his old friend Jon Kimche. Orwell was on staff until early 1945, writing over 80 book reviews* [81] and on 3 December 1943 started his regular personal column, "As I Please", usually addressing three or four subjects in each.* [82] He was still writing reviews for other magazines, including Partisan Review, Horizon, and the New York Nation and becoming a respected pundit among left-wing circles but also a close friend of people on the right such as Powell, Astor and Malcolm Muggeridge. By April 1944 Animal Farm was ready for publication. Gollancz refused to publish it, considering it an attack on the Soviet regime which was a crucial ally in the war. A similar fate was met from other publishers (including T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber) until Jonathan Cape agreed to take it. In May the Orwells had the opportunity to adopt a child, thanks to the contacts of Eileen's sister Gwen O'Shaughnessy, then a doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne. In June a V-1 flying bomb landed on Mortimer Crescent and the Orwells had to find somewhere else to live. Orwell had to scrabble around in the rubble for his collection of books, which he had finally managed to transfer from Wallington, carting them away in a wheelbarrow. Another bombshell was Cape's reversal of his plan to publish Animal Farm. The decision followed his personal visit to Peter Smollett, an official at the Ministry of Information. Smollett was later identified as a Soviet agent.* [83]* [84]
Orwell at the BBC in 1941
At the BBC, Orwell introduced Voice, a literary programme for his Indian broadcasts, and by now was leading an active social life with literary friends, particularly on the political left. Late in 1942, he started writing regularly for the left-
The Orwells spent some time in the North East, near Carlton, County Durham, dealing with matters in the adoption of a boy whom they named Richard Horatio Blair.* [85] By September 1944 they had set up home in Islington, at 27b Canonbury Square.* [86] Baby Richard joined them there, and Eileen gave up her work at the Ministry of Food to look after her family. Secker and Warburg had agreed to publish Animal Farm, planned for the following March, although it did not appear in print until August 1945. By
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February 1945 David Astor had invited Orwell to become a war correspondent for the Observer. Orwell had been looking for the opportunity throughout the war, but his failed medical reports prevented him from being allowed anywhere near action. He went to Paris after the liberation of France and to Cologne once it had been occupied by the Allies. It was while he was there that Eileen went into hospital for a hysterectomy and died under anaesthetic on 29 March 1945. She had not given Orwell much notice about this operation because of worries about the cost and because she expected to make a speedy recovery. Orwell returned home for a while and then went back to Europe. He returned finally to London to cover the 1945 UK General Election at the beginning of July. Animal Farm: A Fairy Story was published in Britain on 17 August 1945, and a year later in the US, on 26 August 1946.
14.1.11
Jura and Nineteen Eighty-Four
Animal Farm struck a particular resonance in the post-war climate and its worldwide success made Orwell a soughtafter figure. For the next four years Orwell mixed journalistic work – mainly for Tribune, The Observer and the Manchester Evening News, though he also contributed to many smallcirculation political and literary magazines – with writing his best-known work, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which was published in 1949.
Barnhill on the Isle of Jura off the west coast of Scotland
In the year following Eileen's death he published around 130 articles and a selection of his Critical Essays, while remaining active in various political lobbying campaigns. He employed a housekeeper, Susan Watson, to look after his adopted son at the Islington flat, which visitors now described as “bleak”. In September he spent a fortnight
on the island of Jura in the Inner Hebrides and saw it as a place to escape from the hassle of London literary life. David Astor was instrumental in arranging a place for Orwell on Jura.* [87] Astor's family owned Scottish estates in the area and a fellow Old Etonian Robert Fletcher had a property on the island. In late 1945 and early 1946 Orwell made several hopeless and unwelcome marriage proposals to younger women, including Celia Kirwan (who was later to become Arthur Koestler's sister-in-law), Ann Popham who happened to live in the same block of flats and Sonia Brownell, one of Connolly's coterie at the Horizon office. Orwell suffered a tubercular haemorrhage in February 1946 but disguised his illness. In 1945 or early 1946, while still living at Canonbury Square, Orwell wrote an article on “British Cookery”, complete with recipes, commissioned by the British Council. Given the post-war shortages, both parties agreed not to publish it.* [88] His sister Marjorie died of kidney disease in May and shortly after, on 22 May 1946, Orwell set off to live on the Isle of Jura. Barnhill* [89] was an abandoned farmhouse with outbuildings near the northern end of the island, situated at the end of a five-mile (8 km), heavily rutted track from Ardlussa, where the owners lived. Conditions at the farmhouse were primitive but the natural history and the challenge of improving the place appealed to Orwell. His sister Avril accompanied him there and young novelist Paul Potts made up the party. In July Susan Watson arrived with Orwell's son Richard. Tensions developed and Potts departed after one of his manuscripts was used to light the fire. Orwell meanwhile set to work on Nineteen Eighty-Four. Later Susan Watson's boyfriend David Holbrook arrived. A fan of Orwell since school days, he found the reality very different, with Orwell hostile and disagreeable probably because of Holbrook's membership of the Communist Party.* [90] Susan Watson could no longer stand being with Avril and she and her boyfriend left. Orwell returned to London in late 1946 and picked up his literary journalism again. Now a well-known writer, he was swamped with work. Apart from a visit to Jura in the new year he stayed in London for one of the coldest British winters on record and with such a national shortage of fuel that he burnt his furniture and his child's toys. The heavy smog in the days before the Clean Air Act 1956 did little to help his health about which he was reticent, keeping clear of medical attention. Meanwhile, he had to cope with rival claims of publishers Gollancz and Warburg for publishing rights. About this time he co-edited a collection titled British Pamphleteers with Reginald Reynolds. As a result of the success of Animal Farm, Orwell was expecting a large bill from the Inland Revenue and he contacted a firm of accountants of which the senior partner was Jack Harrison. The firm advised Orwell to establish a company to own his copyright and to receive his royalties and set up a “service
14.1. LIFE
121
agreement”so that he could draw a salary. Such a company “George Orwell Productions Ltd”(GOP Ltd) was set up on 12 September 1947 although the service agreement was not then put into effect. Jack Harrison left the details at this stage to junior colleagues.* [91] Orwell left London for Jura on 10 April 1947.* [8] In July he ended the lease on the Wallington cottage.* [92] Back on Jura he worked on Nineteen Eighty-Four and made good progress. During that time his sister's family visited, and Orwell led a disastrous boating expedition, on 19 August,* [93] which nearly led to loss of life whilst trying to cross the notorious gulf of Corryvreckan and gave him a soaking which was not good for his health. In December a chest specialist was summoned from Glasgow who pronounced Orwell seriously ill and a week before Christmas 1947 he was in Hairmyres Hospital in East Kilbride, then a small village in the countryside, on the outskirts of Glasgow. Tuberculosis was diagnosed and the request for permission to import streptomycin to treat Orwell went as far as Aneurin Bevan, then Minister of Health. David Astor helped with supply and payment and Orwell began his course of streptomycin on 19 or 20 February 1948.* [94] By the end of July 1948 Orwell was able to return to Jura and by December he had finished the manuscript of Nineteen Eighty-Four. In January 1949, in a very weak condition, he set off for a sanatorium in Gloucestershire, escorted by Richard Rees. The sanatorium at Cranham consisted of a series of small wooden chalets or huts in a remote part of the Cotswolds near Stroud. Visitors were shocked by Orwell's appearance and concerned by the short-comings and ineffectiveness of the treatment. Friends were worried about his finances, but by now he was comparatively well-off. He was writing to many of his friends, including Jacintha Buddicom, who had“rediscovered”him, and in March 1949, was visited by Celia Kirwan. Kirwan had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department, set up by the Labour government to publish anti-communist propaganda, and Orwell gave her a list of people he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings. Orwell's list, not published until 2003, consisted mainly of writers but also included actors and Labour MPs.* [83]* [95] Orwell received more streptomycin treatment and improved slightly. In June 1949 Nineteen Eighty-Four was published to immediate critical and popular acclaim.
14.1.12
Final months and death
University College Hospital in London where Orwell died
September, shortly before he was removed to University College Hospital in London. Sonia took charge of Orwell's affairs and attended him diligently in the hospital, causing concern to some old friends such as Muggeridge. In September 1949, Orwell invited his accountant Harrison to visit him in hospital, and Harrison claimed that Orwell then asked him to become director of GOP Ltd and to manage the company, but there was no independent witness.* [91] Orwell's wedding took place in the hospital room on 13 October 1949, with David Astor as best man.* [96] Orwell was in decline and visited by an assortment of visitors including Muggeridge, Connolly, Lucian Freud, Stephen Spender, Evelyn Waugh, Paul Potts, Anthony Powell, and his Eton tutor Anthony Gow.* [8] Plans to go to the Swiss Alps were mooted. Further meetings were held with his accountant, at which Harrison and Mr and Mrs Blair were confirmed as directors of the company, and at which Harrison claimed that the “service agreement”was executed, giving copyright to the company.* [91] Orwell's health was in decline again by Christmas. On the evening of 20 January 1950, Potts visited Orwell and slipped away on finding him asleep. Jack Harrison visited later and claimed that Orwell gave him 25% of the company.* [91] Early on the morning of 21 January, an artery burst in Orwell's lungs, killing him at age 46.* [97] Orwell had requested to be buried in accordance with the Anglican rite in the graveyard of the closest church to wherever he happened to die. The graveyards in central London had no space, and fearing that he might have to be cremated against his wishes, his widow appealed to his friends to see whether any of them knew of a church with space in its graveyard.
David Astor lived in Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire, and Orwell's health had continued to decline since the diagnosis arranged for Orwell to be interred in All Saints' Churchof tuberculosis in December 1947. In mid-1949, he courted yard there.* [98] Orwell's gravestone bears the simple epiSonia Brownell, and they announced their engagement in taph: “Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born June 25th 1903,
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CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL perhaps since Dr Johnson.”* [100] Modern readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. The former is often thought to reflect degeneration in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism; the latter, life under totalitarian rule. Nineteen Eighty-Four is often compared to Brave New World by Aldous Huxley; both are powerful dystopian novels warning of a future world where the state machine exerts complete control over social life. In 1984, Nineteen Eighty-Four and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 were honoured with the Prometheus Award for their contributions to dystopian literature. In 2011 he received it again for Animal Farm.
George Orwell's grave in Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire
Coming Up for Air, his last novel before World War II is the most “English”of his novels; alarms of war mingle with images of idyllic Thames-side Edwardian childhood of protagonist George Bowling. The novel is pessimistic; industrialism and capitalism have killed the best of Old England, and there were great, new external threats. In homely terms, Bowling posits the totalitarian hypotheses of Borkenau, Orwell, Silone and Koestler: “Old Hitler's something different. So's Joe Stalin. They aren't like these chaps in the old days who crucified people and chopped their heads off and so forth, just for the fun of it ... They're something quite new—something that's never been heard of before”.
died January 21st 1950"; no mention is made on the gravestone of his more famous pen name. 14.2.1
Literary influences
Orwell's son, Richard Horatio Blair, was brought up by Orwell's sister Avril after his father's death. He maintains a In an autobiographical piece that Orwell sent to the edpublic profile as patron of the Orwell Society.* [99] He gives itors of Twentieth Century Authors in 1940, he wrote: “The writers I care about most and never grow tired of interviews about the few memories he has of his father. are: Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Dickens, Charles Reade, In 1979, Sonia Brownell brought a High Court action Flaubert and, among modern writers, James Joyce, T. S. against Harrison, who had in the meantime transferred 75% Eliot and D. H. Lawrence. But I believe the modern writer of the company's voting stock to himself and had dissipated who has influenced me most is Somerset Maugham, whom much of the value of the company. She was considered to I admire immensely for his power of telling a story straighthave a strong case, but was becoming increasingly ill and forwardly and without frills.”Elsewhere, Orwell strongly eventually was persuaded to settle out of court on 2 Novem- praised the works of Jack London, especially his book The ber 1980. She died on 11 December 1980, aged 62.* [91] Road. Orwell's investigation of poverty in The Road to Wigan Pier strongly resembles that of Jack London's The People of the Abyss, in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor to investigate the 14.2 Literary career and legacy lives of the poor in London. In his essay“Politics vs. LiterDuring most of his career, Orwell was best known for his ature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels”(1946) Orwell journalism, in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and wrote:“If I had to make a list of six books which were to be magazines and in his books of reportage: Down and Out in preserved when all others were destroyed, I would certainly Paris and London (describing a period of poverty in these put Gulliver's Travels among them.” cities), The Road to Wigan Pier (describing the living conditions of the poor in northern England, and the class divide generally) and Homage to Catalonia. According to Irving Howe, Orwell was “the best English essayist since Hazlitt,
Other writers admired by Orwell included: Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Gissing, Graham Greene, Herman Melville, Henry Miller, Tobias Smollett, Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad and Yevgeny Zamyatin.* [101] He was both
14.2. LITERARY CAREER AND LEGACY an admirer and a critic of Rudyard Kipling,* [102]* [103] praising Kipling as a gifted writer and a “good bad poet” whose work is “spurious”and “morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting,”but undeniably seductive and able to speak to certain aspects of reality more effectively than more enlightened authors.* [104] He had a similarly ambivalent attitude to G. K. Chesterton, whom he regarded as a writer of considerable talent who had chosen to devote himself to “Roman Catholic propaganda”.* [105]
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14.2.3
Reception and evaluations of Orwell's works
Arthur Koestler mentioned Orwell's“uncompromising intellectual honesty [which] made him appear almost inhuman at times.”* [107] Ben Wattenberg stated: “Orwell's writing pierced intellectual hypocrisy wherever he found it.”* [108] According to historian Piers Brendon, “Orwell was the saint of common decency who would in earlier days, said his BBC boss Rushbrook Williams, 'have been either canonised – or burnt at the stake'".* [109] Raymond 14.2.2 Orwell as literary critic Williams in Politics and Letters: Interviews with New Left Throughout his life Orwell continually supported himself Review describes Orwell as a “successful impersonation in an unmedias a book reviewer, writing works so long and sophisticated of a plain man who bumps into experience * ated way and tells the truth about it.” [110] Christopher they have had an influence on literary criticism. He wrote Norris declared that Orwell's “homespun empiricist outin the conclusion to his 1940 essay on Charles Dickens, look – his assumption that the truth was just there to be told in a straightforward common-sense way – now seems When one reads any strongly individual piece not merely naive but culpably self-deluding”.* [111] The of writing, one has the impression of seeing a face American scholar Scott Lucas has described Orwell* [112] somewhere behind the page. It is not necessaras an enemy of the Left. John Newsinger has argued* [113] ily the actual face of the writer. I feel this very that Lucas could only do this by portraying“all of Orwell's strongly with Swift, with Defoe, with Fielding, attacks on Stalinism [-] as if they were attacks on socialism, Stendhal, Thackeray, Flaubert, though in several despite Orwell's continued insistence that they were not.” cases I do not know what these people looked like Orwell's work has taken a prominent place in the school litand do not want to know. What one sees is the erature curriculum in England,* [114] with Animal Farm a face that the writer ought to have. Well, in the regular examination topic at the end of secondary educacase of Dickens I see a face that is not quite the tion (GCSE), and Nineteen Eighty-Four a topic for subseface of Dickens's photographs, though it resemquent examinations below university level (A Levels). Alan bles it. It is the face of a man of about forty, with Brown noted that this brings to the forefront questions about a small beard and a high colour. He is laughing, the political content of teaching practices. Study aids, in with a touch of anger in his laughter, but no triparticular with potted biographies, might be seen to help umph, no malignity. It is the face of a man who is propagate the Orwell myth so that as an embodiment of hualways fighting against something, but who fights man values he is presented as a“trustworthy guide”, while in the open and is not frightened, the face of a examination questions sometimes suggest a “right ways of man who is generously angry—in other words, of answering”in line with the myth.* [115] a nineteenth-century liberal, a free intelligence, a Historian John Rodden stated: "John Podhoretz did claim type hated with equal hatred by all the smelly litthat if Orwell were alive today, he'd be standing with the tle orthodoxies which are now contending for our neo-conservatives and against the Left. And the question souls. arises, to what extent can you even begin to predict the powho's been dead three decades George Woodcock suggested that the last two sentences litical positions of somebody * and more by that time?" [108] * characterised Orwell as much as his subject. [106] Orwell wrote a critique of George Bernard Shaw's play Arms and the Man. He considered this Shaw's best play and the most likely to remain socially relevant, because of its theme that war is not, generally speaking, a glorious romantic adventure. His 1945 essay In Defense of P.G. Wodehouse contains an amusing assessment of his writing and also argues that his broadcasts from Germany (during the war) did not really make him a traitor. He accused The Ministry of Information of exaggerating Wodehouse's actions for propaganda purposes.
In Orwell's Victory, Christopher Hitchens argues, “In answer to the accusation of inconsistency Orwell as a writer was forever taking his own temperature. In other words, here was someone who never stopped testing and adjusting his intelligence”.* [116] John Rodden points out the “undeniable conservative features in the Orwell physiognomy”and remarks on how“to some extent Orwell facilitated the kinds of uses and abuses by the Right that his name has been put to. In other ways there has been the politics of selective quotation.”* [108]
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Rodden refers to the essay "Why I Write", in which Orwell refers to the Spanish Civil War as being his “watershed political experience”, saying“The Spanish War and other events in 1936–37, turned the scale. Thereafter I knew where I stood. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against totalitarianism and for Democratic Socialism as I understand it.”(emphasis in original)* [108] Rodden goes on to explain how, during the McCarthy era, the introduction to the Signet edition of Animal Farm, which sold more than 20 million copies, makes use of “the politics of ellipsis": If the book itself, Animal Farm, had left any doubt of the matter, Orwell dispelled it in his essay Why I Write: 'Every line of serious work that I've written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against Totalitarianism ... dot, dot, dot, dot.' “For Democratic Socialism”is vaporised, just like Winston Smith did it at the Ministry of Truth, and that's very much what happened at the beginning of the McCarthy era and just continued, Orwell being selectively quoted.* [108]
• Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.* [119] Andrew N. Rubin argues, “Orwell claimed that we should be attentive to how the use of language has limited our capacity for critical thought just as we should be equally concerned with the ways in which dominant modes of thinking have reshaped the very language that we use.”* [120] The adjective Orwellian connotes an attitude and a policy of control by propaganda, surveillance, misinformation, denial of truth, and manipulation of the past. In Nineteen Eighty-Four Orwell described a totalitarian government that controlled thought by controlling language, making certain ideas literally unthinkable. Several words and phrases from Nineteen Eighty-Four have entered popular language. Newspeak is a simplified and obfuscatory language designed to make independent thought impossible. Doublethink means holding two contradictory beliefs simultaneously. The Thought Police are those who suppress all dissenting opinion. Prolefeed is homogenised, manufactured superficial literature, film and music, used to control and indoctrinate the populace through docility. Big Brother is a supreme dictator who watches everyone.
Orwell may have been the first to use the term cold war, Fyvel wrote about Orwell: “His crucial experience ... was in his essay, “You and the Atom Bomb”, published in his struggle to turn himself into a writer, one which led Tribune, 19 October 1945. He wrote: through long periods of poverty, failure and humiliation, and about which he has written almost nothing directly. The We may be heading not for general breaksweat and agony was less in the slum-life than in the effort * * down but for an epoch as horribly stable as the to turn the experience into literature.” [117] [118] slave empires of antiquity. James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people 14.2.4 Influence on language and writing have yet considered its ideological implications; —this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beIn his essay Politics and the English Language (1946), Orliefs, and the social structure that would probably well wrote about the importance of precise and clear lanprevail in a State which was at once unconquerguage, arguing that vague writing can be used as a powerful able and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with tool of political manipulation because it shapes the way we its neighbours.* [121] think. In that essay, Orwell provides six rules for writers: • Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print. • Never use a long word where a short one will do.
14.2.5
Museum
In 2014 it was announced that Orwell's birthplace, a bungalow in Motihari, Bihar in India would become the world's first Orwell museum.* [10]* [122]
• If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
14.3
Personal life
• Never use the passive where you can use the active.
14.3.1
Childhood
• Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
Jacintha Buddicom's account Eric & Us provides an insight into Blair's childhood.* [123] She quoted his sister Avril
14.3. PERSONAL LIFE that “he was essentially an aloof, undemonstrative person”and said herself of his friendship with the Buddicoms “I do not think he needed any other friends beyond the schoolfriend he occasionally and appreciatively referred to as 'CC'". She could not recall his having schoolfriends to stay and exchange visits as her brother Prosper often did in holidays.* [124] Cyril Connolly provides an account of Blair as a child in Enemies of Promise.* [23] Years later, Blair mordantly recalled his prep school in the essay "Such, Such Were the Joys", claiming among other things that he “was made to study like a dog”to earn a scholarship, which he alleged was solely to enhance the school's prestige with parents. Jacintha Buddicom repudiated Orwell's schoolboy misery described in the essay, stating that “he was a specially happy child”. She noted that he did not like his name, because it reminded him of a book he greatly disliked - Eric, or, Little by Little, a Victorian boys' school story.* [125]
125 at Southwold* [132] and Hayes.* [133] His adult diaries are permeated with his observations on nature.
14.3.2
Relationships and marriage
Buddicom and Blair lost touch shortly after he went to Burma, and she became unsympathetic towards him. She wrote that it was because of the letters he wrote complaining about his life, but an addendum to Eric & Us by Venables reveals that he may have lost her sympathy through an incident which was, at best, a clumsy attempt at seduction.* [14]
Mabel Fierz, who later became Blair's confidante, said:“He used to say the one thing he wished in this world was that he'd been attractive to women. He liked women and had many girlfriends I think in Burma. He had a girl in Southa womanConnolly remarked of him as a schoolboy, “The remark- wold and another girl in London. He was rather * iser, yet he was afraid he wasn't attractive.” [134] able thing about Orwell was that alone among the boys he was an intellectual and not a parrot for he thought for him- Brenda Salkield (Southwold) preferred friendship to any self”.* [23] At Eton, John Vaughan Wilkes, his former head- deeper relationship and maintained a correspondence with master's son recalled, "... he was extremely argumentative Blair for many years, particularly as a sounding board for his —about anything—and criticising the masters and criticis- ideas. She wrote:“He was a great letter writer. Endless leting the other boys ... We enjoyed arguing with him. He ters, and I mean when he wrote you a letter he wrote pages.” would generally win the arguments—or think he had any- * [22] His correspondence with Eleanor Jacques (London) how.”* [126] Roger Mynors concurs: “Endless arguments was more prosaic, dwelling on a closer relationship and reabout all sorts of things, in which he was one of the great ferring to past rendezvous or planning future ones in Lonleaders. He was one of those boys who thought for himself don and Burnham Beeches.* [135] ...”* [127] When Orwell was in the sanatorium in Kent, his wife's Blair liked to carry out practical jokes. Buddicom recalls friend Lydia Jackson visited. He invited her for a walk and him swinging from the luggage rack in a railway carriage out of sight“an awkward situation arose.”* [136] Jackson like an orangutan to frighten a woman passenger out of was to be the most critical of Orwell's marriage to Eileen the compartment.* [14] At Eton he played tricks on John O'Shaughnessy, but their later correspondence hints at a Crace, his Master in College, among which was to enter a complicity. Eileen at the time was more concerned about spoof advertisement in a College magazine implying ped- Orwell's closeness to Brenda Salkield. Orwell had an aferasty.* [128] Gow, his tutor, said he “made himself as fair with his secretary at Tribune which caused Eileen much big a nuisance as he could”and “was a very unattractive distress, and others have been mooted. In a letter to Ann boy”.* [129] Later Blair was expelled from the crammer at Popham he wrote: “I was sometimes unfaithful to Eileen, Southwold for sending a dead rat as a birthday present to and I also treated her badly, and I think she treated me the town surveyor.* [130] In one of his As I Please essays he badly, too, at times, but it was a real marriage, in the sense refers to a protracted joke when he answered an advertise- that we had been through awful struggles together and she ment for a woman who claimed a cure for obesity.* [131] understood all about my work, etc.”* [137] Similarly he to Celia Kirwan that they had both been unfaithBlair had an interest in natural history which stemmed from suggested * [138] There are several testaments that it was a wellful. his childhood. In letters from school he wrote about cater* matched and happy marriage.* [139]* [140]* [141] pillars and butterflies, [77] and Buddicom recalls his keen interest in ornithology. He also enjoyed fishing and shooting rabbits, and conducting experiments as in cooking a hedgehog* [14] or shooting down a jackdaw from the Eton roof to dissect it.* [127] His zeal for scientific experiments extended to explosives—again Buddicom recalls a cook giving notice because of the noise. Later in Southwold his sister Avril recalled him blowing up the garden. When teaching he enthused his students with his nature-rambles both
Blair was very lonely after Eileen's death, and desperate for a wife, both as companion for himself and as mother for Richard. He proposed marriage to four women, including Celia Kirwan, and eventually Sonia Brownell accepted.* [142] Orwell had met her when she was assistant to Cyril Connolly, at Horizon literary magazine.* [143] They were married on 13 October 1949, only three months before Orwell's death. Some maintain that Sonia was the
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model for Julia in Nineteen Eighty-Four.
14.3.3
Religious views
tention in Keep the Aspidistra Flying; preparatory schools in “Such, Such Were the Joys"; colonialism in Burmese Days, and some socialist groups in The Road to Wigan Pier. In his Adelphi days he described himself as a "Tory-anarchist.” * [155]* [156]
Orwell was a communicant member of the Church of England, he attended holy communion regularly,* [144] and allusions to Anglican life are made in his book A Clergyman's Daughter. Mulk Raj Anand has said that, at the BBC, Orwell could, and would, quote lengthy passages from the Book of Common Prayer.* [145] At the same time he found the church to be a “selfish ... church of the landed gentry” with its establishment “out of touch”with the majority of its communicants and altogether a pernicious influence on public life.* [146] Moreover, Orwell expressed some scepticism about religion: “It seems rather mean to go to HC [Holy Communion] when one doesn't believe, but I have passed myself off for pious & there is nothing for it but to keep up with the deception.”* [147] Yet, he was married according to the rites of the Church of England in both his first marriage at the church at Wallington, and in his second marriage on his deathbed in University College Hospital, and he left instructions that he was to receive an Anglican funeral.* [148] In their 1972 study, The Unknown Orwell, the writers Peter Stansky and William Abrahams noted that at Eton Blair displayed a “sceptical attitude”to Christian belief.* [149] Crick observed that Orwell displayed “a pronounced antiCatholicism”.* [150] Evelyn Waugh, writing in 1946, acknowledged Orwell's high moral sense and respect for justice but believed “he seems never to have been touched at any point by a conception of religious thought and life.” * [151] The ambiguity in his belief in religion mirrored the dichotomies between his public and private lives: Stephen Ingle wrote that it was as if the writer George Orwell “vaunted”his unbelief while Eric Blair the individual retained “a deeply ingrained religiosity”. Ingle later noted that Orwell did not accept the existence of an afterlife, believing in the finality of death while living and advocating a moral code based on Judeo-Christian beliefs.* [152]* [153] Orwell wrote in part V of his essay, "Such, Such Were the Joys": “Till about the age of fourteen I believed in God, and believed that the accounts given of him were true. But I was well aware that I did not love him.”* [154]
14.3.4
Political views
Orwell liked to provoke arguments by challenging the status quo, but he was also a traditionalist with a love of old English values. He criticised and satirised, from the inside, the various social milieux in which he found himself – provincial town life in A Clergyman's Daughter; middle-class pre-
In 1928, Orwell began his career as a professional writer in Paris at a journal owned by the French Communist Henri Barbusse. His first article, La Censure en Angleterre, was an attempt to account for the 'extraordinary and illogical' moral censorship of plays and novels then practised in Britain. His own explanation was that the rise of the“puritan middle class,”who had stricter morals than the aristocracy, tightened the rules of censorship in the 19th century. Orwell's first published article in his home country, A Farthing Newspaper, was a critique of the new French daily the Ami de Peuple. This paper was sold much more cheaply than most others, and was intended for ordinary people to read. Orwell pointed out that its proprietor François Coty also owned the right-wing dailies Le Figaro and Le Gaulois, which the Ami de Peuple was supposedly competing against. Orwell suggested that cheap newspapers were no more than a vehicle for advertising and anti-leftist propaganda, and predicted the world might soon see free newspapers which would drive legitimate dailies out of business.* [157] The Spanish Civil War played the most important part in defining Orwell's socialism. He wrote to Cyril Connolly from Barcelona on 8 June 1937: “I have seen wonderful things and at last really believe in Socialism, which I never did before.”* [158]* [159] Having witnessed the success of the anarcho-syndicalist communities, for example in Anarchist Catalonia, and the subsequent brutal suppression of the anarcho-syndicalists, anti-Stalin communist parties and revolutionaries by the Soviet Union-backed Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch antiStalinist and joined the Independent Labour Party, his card being issued on 13 June 1938.* [160] Although he was never a Trotskyist, he was strongly influenced by the Trotskyist and anarchist critiques of the Soviet regime, and by the anarchists' emphasis on individual freedom. In Part 2 of The Road to Wigan Pier, published by the Left Book Club, Orwell stated:“a real Socialist is one who wishes – not merely conceives it as desirable, but actively wishes – to see tyranny overthrown.”Orwell stated in“Why I Write”(1946):“Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it.”* [161] Orwell was a proponent of a federal socialist Europe, a position outlined in his 1947 essay“Toward European Unity,” which first appeared in Partisan Review. According to biographer John Newsinger, the other crucial dimension to Orwell's socialism was his recognition that the Soviet Union
14.3. PERSONAL LIFE
127
was not socialist. Unlike many on the left, instead of abandoning socialism once he discovered the full horror of Stalinist rule in the Soviet Union, Orwell abandoned the Soviet Union and instead remained a socialist —indeed he became more committed to the socialist cause than ever.”* [59]
European Freedom, he stated that he did not agree with their objectives. He admitted that what they said was“more truthful than the lying propaganda found in most of the press”but added that he could not“associate himself with an essentially Conservative body”that claimed to“defend democracy in Europe”but had“nothing to say about British imperialism.”His closing paragraph stated: “I belong to In his 1938 essay “Why I joined the Independent Labour the Left and must work inside it, much as I hate Russian and its poisonous influence in this country.” Party,”published in the ILP-affiliated New Leader, Orwell totalitarianism * [165] wrote: For some years past I have managed to make the capitalist class pay me several pounds a week for writing books against capitalism. But I do not delude myself that this state of affairs is going to last forever ... the only régime which, in the long run, will dare to permit freedom of speech is a Socialist régime. If Fascism triumphs I am finished as a writer – that is to say, finished in my only effective capacity. That of itself would be a sufficient reason for joining a Socialist party.* [162] Towards the end of the essay, he wrote: “I do not mean I have lost all faith in the Labour Party. My most earnest hope is that the Labour Party will win a clear majority in the next General Election.”* [163] Orwell was opposed to rearmament against Nazi Germany —but he changed his view after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the outbreak of the war. He left the ILP because of its opposition to the war and adopted a political position of“revolutionary patriotism”. In December 1940 he wrote in Tribune (the Labour left's weekly): “We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary.”During the war, Orwell was highly critical of the popular idea that an Anglo-Soviet alliance would be the basis of a postwar world of peace and prosperity. In 1942, commenting on journalist E. H. Carr's pro-Soviet views, Orwell stated: “all the appeasers, e.g. Professor E. H. Carr, have switched their allegiance from Hitler to Stalin.”* [164] On anarchism, Orwell wrote in The Road to Wigan Pier: “I worked out an anarchistic theory that all government is evil, that the punishment always does more harm than the crime and the people can be trusted to behave decently if you will only let them alone.”He continued and argued that “it is always necessary to protect peaceful people from violence. In any state of society where crime can be profitable you have got to have a harsh criminal law and administer it ruthlessly.”
Orwell joined the staff of Tribune as literary editor, and from then until his death, was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) Labour-supporting democratic socialist.* [166] On 1 September 1944, about the Warsaw uprising, Orwell expressed in Tribune his hostility against the influence of the alliance with the USSR over the allies: “Do remember that dishonesty and cowardice always have to be paid for. Do not imagine that for years on end you can make yourself the boot-licking propagandist of the sovietic regime, or any other regime, and then suddenly return to honesty and reason. Once a whore, always a whore.”According to Newsinger, although Orwell “was always critical of the 1945–51 Labour government's moderation, his support for it began to pull him to the right politically. This did not lead him to embrace conservatism, imperialism or reaction, but to defend, albeit critically, Labour reformism.”* [167] Between 1945 and 1947, with A. J. Ayer and Bertrand Russell, he contributed a series of articles and essays to Polemic, a short-lived British “Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics”edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.* [168]* [169] Writing in early 1945 a long essay titled “Antisemitism in Britain,”for the Contemporary Jewish Record, Orwell stated that anti-Semitism was on the increase in Britain, and that it was“irrational and will not yield to arguments.”He argued that it would be useful to discover why anti-Semites could “swallow such absurdities on one particular subject while remaining sane on others.”* [170] He wrote:“For quite six years the English admirers of Hitler contrived not to learn of the existence of Dachau and Buchenwald. ... Many English people have heard almost nothing about the extermination of German and Polish Jews during the present war. Their own anti-Semitism has caused this vast crime to bounce off their consciousness.”* [171] In Nineteen Eighty-Four, written shortly after the war, Orwell portrayed the Party as enlisting anti-Semitic passions against their enemy, Goldstein. Orwell publicly defended P.G. Wodehouse against charges of being a Nazi sympathiser – occasioned by his agreement to do some broadcasts over the German radio in 1941 – a defence based on Wodehouse's lack of interest in and ignorance of politics.* [172]
In his reply (dated 15 November 1943) to an invitation from Special the Duchess of Atholl to speak for the British League for
Branch,
the
intelligence
division
of
the
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CHAPTER 14. GEORGE ORWELL
Metropolitan Police, maintained a file on Orwell for more than 20 years of his life. The dossier, published by The National Archives, states that, according to one investigator, Orwell had “advanced Communist views and several of his Indian friends say that they have often seen him at Communist meetings.”MI5, the intelligence department of the Home Office, noted: “It is evident from his recent writings – 'The Lion and the Unicorn' – and his contribution to Gollancz's symposium The Betrayal of the Left that he does not hold with the Communist Party nor they with him.”* [173]
One biography of Orwell accused him of having had an authoritarian streak.* [183] In Burma, he struck out at a Burmese boy who, while“fooling around”with his friends, had“accidentally bumped into him”at a station, resulting in Orwell falling“heavily”down some stairs.* [184] One of his former pupils recalled being beaten so hard he could not sit down for a week.* [185] When sharing a flat with Orwell, Heppenstall came home late one night in an advanced stage of loud inebriation. The upshot was that Heppenstall ended up with a bloody nose and was locked in a room. When he complained, Orwell hit him across the legs with a shooting stick and Heppenstall then had to defend himself with a chair. Years later, after Orwell's death, Heppenstall wrote 14.3.5 Social interactions a dramatic account of the incident called “The Shooting Stick”* [186] and Mabel Fierz confirmed that Heppenstall Orwell was noted for very close and enduring friendships came to her in a sorry state the following day.* [187] with a few friends, but these were generally people with a Orwell got on well with young people. The pupil he beat similar background or with a similar level of literary abilconsidered him the best of teachers, and the young recruits ity. Ungregarious, he was out of place in a crowd and his in Barcelona tried to drink him under the table—though discomfort was exacerbated when he was outside his own without success. His nephew recalled Uncle Eric laughclass. Though representing himself as a spokesman for the ing louder than anyone in the cinema at a Charlie Chaplin common man, he often appeared out of place with real film.* [139] working people. His brother-in-law Humphrey Dakin, a “Hail fellow, well met”type, who took him to a local pub In the wake of his most famous works, he attracted many in Leeds, said that he was told by the landlord: “Don't uncritical hangers-on, but many others who sought him bring that bugger in here again.”* [174] Adrian Fierz com- found him aloof and even dull. With his soft voice, he mented “He wasn't interested in racing or greyhounds or was sometimes shouted down or excluded from discus* pub crawling or shove ha'penny. He just did not have much sions. [188] At this time, he was severely ill; it was wartime in common with people who did not share his intellectual or the austerity period after it; during the war his wife sufinterests.”* [175] Awkwardness attended many of his en- fered from depression; and after her death he was lonely counters with working-class representatives, as with Pollitt and unhappy. In addition to that, he always lived frugally and McNair,* [176] but his courtesy and good manners were and seemed unable to care for himself properly. As a re* often commented on. Jack Common observed on meeting sult of all this, people found his circumstances bleak. [189] him for the first time,“Right away manners, and more than Some, like Michael Ayrton, called him“Gloomy George,” but others developed the idea that he was a“secular saint.” manners—breeding—showed through.”* [177] In his tramping days, he did domestic work for a time. His extreme politeness was recalled by a member of the family he worked for; she declared that the family referred to him as "Laurel" after the film comedian.* [38] With his gangling figure and awkwardness, Orwell's friends often saw him as a figure of fun. Geoffrey Gorer commented“He was awfully likely to knock things off tables, trip over things. I mean, he was a gangling, physically badly co-ordinated young man. I think his feeling [was] that even the inanimate world was against him ...”* [178] When he shared a flat with Heppenstall and Sayer, he was treated in a patronising manner by the younger men.* [179] At the BBC, in the 1940s,“everybody would pull his leg,”* [180] and Spender described him as having real entertainment value“like, as I say, watching a Charlie Chaplin movie.”* [181] A friend of Eileen's reminisced about her tolerance and humour, often at Orwell's expense.* [140] Psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald has speculated that Orwell's social awkwardness and monotone voice were the result of Asperger syndrome.* [182]
Although Orwell was frequently heard on the BBC for panel discussion and one-man broadcasts, no recorded copy of his voice is known to exist.* [190]
14.3.6
Lifestyle
“By putting the tea in first and stirring as one pours, one can exactly regulate the amount of milk, wheras one is likely to put in too much milk if one does it the other way round” —One of Orwell's eleven rules for making tea from his essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", appearing in the London Evening Standard, 12 January 1946.* [191] Orwell was a heavy smoker, rolling his own cigarettes from strong shag tobacco, in spite of his bronchial condition. His penchant for the rugged life often took him to cold and damp situations, both in the long term as in Catalonia and
14.5. BIBLIOGRAPHY Jura, and short term, for example, motorcycling in the rain and suffering a shipwreck. Described by The Economist as “perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture",* [192] his love of strong tea was legendary—he had Fortnum & Mason's tea brought to him in Catalonia* [8] and in 1946 his essay "A Nice Cup of Tea" appeared in the London Evening Standard on how to make it, with Orwell writing, “tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country and causes violent disputes over how it should be made”.* [193] He appreciated English beer, taken regularly and moderately, despised drinkers of lager* [194] and wrote about an imagined, ideal British pub in his 1946 newspaper article "The Moon Under Water".* [195] Not as particular about food, he enjoyed the wartime “Victory Pie”* [196] extolled canteen food at the BBC,* [180] and once ate the cat's dinner by mistake.* [197] He preferred traditional English dishes, such as roast beef and kippers.* [198] Reports of his Islington days refer to the cosy afternoon tea table.
129 operate.* [209] Crick collated a considerable amount of material in his work, which was published in 1980,* [77] but his questioning of the factual accuracy of Orwell's first-person writings led to conflict with Brownell, and she tried to suppress the book. Crick concentrated on the facts of Orwell's life rather than his character, and presented primarily a political perspective on Orwell's life and work.* [210] After Sonia Brownell's death, other works on Orwell were published in the 1980s, with 1984 being a particularly fruitful year for Orwelliana. These included collections of reminiscences by Coppard and Crick* [130] and Stephen Wadhams.* [22]
In 1991, Michael Shelden, an American professor of literature, published a biography.* [26] More concerned with the literary nature of Orwell's work, he sought explanations for Orwell's character and treated his first-person writings as autobiographical. Shelden introduced new information that sought to build on Crick's work.* [209] Shelden speculated His dress sense was unpredictable and usually casual.* [199] that Orwell possessed an obsessive belief in his failure and In Southwold he had the best cloth from the local tai- inadequacy. lor,* [200] but was equally happy in his tramping outfit. His attire in the Spanish Civil War, along with his size-12 boots, Peter Davison's publication of the Complete Works of * was a source of amusement.* [201]* [202] David Astor de- George Orwell, completed in 2000, [211] put most of the * Orwell Archive in the public domain. Jeffrey Meyers, a scribed him as looking like a prep school master, [203] prolific American biographer, was first to take advantage while according to the Special Branch dossier, Orwell's ten* of this and published a book in 2001 [212] that investidency to dress “in Bohemian fashion”revealed that the * gated the darker side of Orwell and questioned his saintly author was “a Communist”. [204] image.* [209] Why Orwell Matters (released in the UK as Orwell's confusing approach to matters of social decorum Orwell's Victory) was published by Christopher Hitchens in —on the one hand expecting a working-class guest to dress 2002.* [213] for dinner,* [205] and on the other, slurping tea out of a saucer at the BBC canteen* [206]—helped stoke his reputa- In 2003, the centenary of Orwell's birth resulted in biographies by Gordon Bowker* [214] and D. J. Taylor, both acation as an English eccentric. demics and writers in the United Kingdom. Taylor notes the stage management which surrounds much of Orwell's behaviour,* [8] and Bowker highlights the essential sense of 14.4 Biographies of Orwell decency which he considers to have been Orwell's main motivation.* [215]* [216] Orwell's will requested that no biography of him be written, and his widow Sonia Brownell repelled every attempt by those who tried to persuade her to let them write about 14.5 Bibliography him. Various recollections and interpretations were published in the 1950s and '60s, but Sonia saw the 1968 ColMain article: George Orwell bibliography lected Works* [131] as the record of his life. She did appoint Malcolm Muggeridge as official biographer, but later biographers have seen this as deliberate spoiling as Muggeridge eventually gave up the work.* [207] In 1972, two American Novels authors, Peter Stansky and William Abrahams,* [208] pro• 1934 – Burmese Days duced The Unknown Orwell, an unauthorised account of his early years that lacked any support or contribution from • 1935 – A Clergyman's Daughter Sonia Brownell. Sonia Brownell then commissioned Bernard Crick, a leftwing professor of politics at the University of London, to complete a biography and asked Orwell's friends to co-
• 1936 – Keep the Aspidistra Flying • 1939 – Coming Up for Air
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• 1945 – Animal Farm
[5] Robert McCrum, The Observer, 10 May 2009
• 1949 – Nineteen Eighty-Four
[6] Crick, Bernard (2004). “Eric Arthur Blair [pseud. George Orwell] (1903–1950)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford, England, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Nonfiction • 1933 – Down and Out in Paris and London • 1937 – The Road to Wigan Pier • 1938 – Homage to Catalonia
[7] Stansky, Peter; Abrahams, William (1994). “From Bengal to St Cyprian's”. The unknown Orwell: Orwell, the transformation. Stanford, California, United States: Stanford University Press. pp. 5–12. ISBN 978-0-8047-2342-8. [8] Taylor, D. J. (2003). Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2.
14.6 Notes [1] Stansky and Abrahams suggested that Ida Blair move to England in 1907, based on information given by her daughter Avril, talking about a time before she was born. This is contrasted by Ida Blair's 1905, as well as a photograph of Eric, aged three, in an English suburban garden.* [11] The earlier date coincides with a difficult posting for Blair senior, and the need to start their daughter Marjorie (then six years old) in an English education. [2] The conventional view, based on Geoffrey Gorer's recollections, is of a specific commission with a £500 advance. Taylor argues that Orwell's subsequent life does not suggest he received such a large advance, Gollancz was not known to pay large sums to relatively unknown authors, and Gollancz took little proprietorial interest in progress.* [47]
[9] Orwell, George (February 1937). “8”. The Road to Wigan Pier. Left Book Club. p. 1. [10] “BBC News - The Indian Animal Farm where Orwell was born”. BBC News. [11] Crick (1982), p. 48 [12] “Renovation of British Author George Orwell's house in Motihari begins”. IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 26 June 2014. [13] A Kind of Compulsion 1903–36, xviii [14] Buddicom, Jacintha (1974). Eric and Us. Frewin. ISBN 0-85632-076-5. [15] Bowker, Gordon. “George Orwell”. p. 21.
[3] The author states that evidence discovered at the National [16] “Royal Eastbourne Golf Club – Hambro Bowl”. Historical Archives in Madrid in 1989 of a security police Regc.unospace.net. Retrieved 21 October 2010. report to the Tribunal for Espionage and High Treason described Eric Blair and his wife Eileen Blair, as“known Trot- [17] Bowker,p.30 skyists”and as“linking agents of the ILP and the POUM” . Newsinger goes on to state that given Orwell's precarious [18] Jacob, Alaric (1984). “Sharing Orwell's Joys, but not his Fears”. In Norris, Christopher. Inside the Myth. Lawrence health,“there can be little doubt that if he had been arrested and Wishart. he would have died in prison.” [19]“Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard”. 2 October 1914.
14.7 References [1] “George Orwell”. UCL Orwell Archives. Retrieved 7 November 2008. [2]“Why I Write”in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945– 1950 p.23 (Penguin)
[20]“Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard”. 21 July 1916. [21] Jacintha Buddicom, Eric and Us, p. 58 [22] Wadhams, Stephen (1984).“Remembering Orwell”. Penguin. [23] Connolly, Cyril (1973) [1938]. Enemies of Promise. London: Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-96488-1.
[3] Orwell, George (1968) [1958]. Bott, George, ed. Selected Writings. London: Heinemann. p. 103. ISBN 0-43513675-5. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it. [italics from printed source]
[24] A Kind of Compulsion, p. 87, gives Blair as 7th of 29 successful candidates, and 21st of the 23 successful candidates who passed the Indian Imperial Police riding test, in September 1922.
[4] “The 50 greatest British writers since 1945”. The Times. 5 January 2008. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
[26] Michael Shelden Orwell: William Heinemann, 1991
[25] Stansky & Abrahams, The Unknown Orwell, pp.170–171 The Authorised Biography,
14.7. REFERENCES
131
[27] A Kind of Compulsion, 1903–36, p.87
[55] See article by Iain King on Orwell's war experiences, here.
[28] Emma Larkin, Introduction, Burmese Days, Penguin Classics edition, 2009
[56] Letter to Eileen Blair April 1937 in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950 p.296 (Penguin)
[29] Crick (1982), p. 122 [30] Stansky & Abrahams, The Unknown Orwell, p.195 [31] Ruth Pitter BBC Overseas Service broadcast, 3 January 1956 [32] Plaque #2825 on Open Plaques.
[57] Bowker, p.216 [58]“The accusation of espionage against the P.O.U.M. rested solely upon articles in the Communist press and the activities of the Communist-controlled secret police.”Homage to Catalonia p.168. Penguin, 1980
[33] Stansky & Abrahams, The Unknown Orwell, p.204 [34] A Kind of Compulsion (1903–36), p.113 [35] Stansky & Abrahams, The Unknown Orwell, p. 216
[59] “Newsinger, John “Orwell and the Spanish Revolution” International Socialism Journal Issue 62 Spring 1994”. Pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
[36] R. S. Peters A Boy's View of George Orwell Psychology and Ethical Development. Allen & Unwin 1974
[60] Bowker, quoting Orwell in Homage To Catalonia, p.219
[37] Stansky & Abrahams, p.230 The Unknown Orwell
[61] “Harry Milton – The Man Who Saved Orwell”. Hoover Institution. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
[38] Stella Judt“I once met George Orwell”in I once Met 1996 [39] “Discovery of 'drunk and incapable' arrest record shows Orwell's 'honesty'". ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
[62] Taylor (2003: 228–9)) [63] Gordon Bowker, Orwell, p.218 ISBN 978-0-349-11551-1
[40] Crick (1982), p. 221
[64] Facing Unpleasant Facts, p.xxix, Secker & Warburg, 2000
[41] Avril Dunn My Brother George Orwell Twentieth Century 1961
[65] Facing Unpleasant Facts, p.31, 224
[42] Voorhees (1986: 11)
[66] “Gordon Bowker: Orwell's London”. theorwellprise.co.uk. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
[43] Leys, Simon (6 May 2011). “The Intimate Orwell”. The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
[67] “Another piece of the puzzle – Charles' George Orwell Links”. Netcharles.com. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
[44] Orwell, Sonia and Angus, Ian (eds.)Orwell: An Age Like This, letters 31 and 33 (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World)
[68] “George Orwell Biography”. Paralumun.com. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
[45] Stansky & Abrahams, Orwell:The Transformation p 100– 101
[69] “THE ORWELL PRIZE”. Orwelldiaries.wordpress.com. 16 August 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
[46] A Kind of Compulsion, p.392
[70] A Patriot After All, 1940–41, p.xvii 1998 Secker & Warburg
[47] D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life Chatto & Windus 2003
[71] A Patriot After All, p.xviii
[48] A Kind of Compulsion, p.457
[72] Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper, p.160
[49] A Kind of Compulsion,p.450. The Road to Wigan Pier Diary
[73] The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 2 – My Country Right or Left 1940–1943 p40 (Penguin)
[50] A Kind of Compulsion, p.468
[51]“Freedom of Information, National Archives” [74] A Patriot After All 1940–1941, p. 522 http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/releases/2005/ [75] Crick (1982), pp. 432–433 highlights_july/july19/default.htm) [52]“Notes on the Spanish Militias”in Orwell in Spain, p.278
[76] Rodden (1989), p. 306; Crick (1982), p.441
[53] Haycock, I Am Spain (2013), 152
[77] Crick, Bernard R. (1980). George Orwell: A Life. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-31616112-1.
[54] John McNair—Interview with Ian Angus UCL 1964
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[78] Muggeridge, Malcolm (1962). “Burmese Days (Introduc- [98] tion)". Time Inc. Muggeridge recalls that he asked Orwell if such broadcasts were useful, "'Perhaps not', he said, somewhat crestfallen. He added, more cheerfully, that anyway, [99] no one could pick up the broadcasts except on short-wave sets which cost about the equivalent of an Indian labourer's [100] earnings over 10 years” [79] Two Wasted Years, 1943, p.xxi, Secker & Warburg, 2001 [80] I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, p.xv Secker & Warburg, 2001 [81] Orwell, G.; Davison, P. (1999). I Have Tried to Tell the Truth. London: Secker & Warburg. ISBN 978-0-43620370-1. [82] I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, p. xxix
Andrew Anthony (11 May 2003). “Orwell: the Observer years”, The Observer, Observer Review Pages, p. 1. “Committee members”. orwellsociety.com. Retrieved 25 February 2015. Howe, Irving (January 1969). “George Orwell: “As the bones know"". Harper's Magazine.(reprinted in Newsweek). Howe considered Orwell“the finest journalist of his day and the foremost architect of the English essay since Hazlitt".
[101] Letter to Gleb Struve, 17 February 1944, Orwell: Essays, Journalism and Letters Vol 3, ed Sonia Brownell and Ian Angus [102] “Malcolm Muggeridge: Introduction”. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
[83] Garton Ash, Timothy (25 September 2003).“Orwell's List” [103] “Does Orwell Matter?". Retrieved 23 December 2008. . The New York Review of Books. [84] Caute, David (2009). Politics and the Novel during the Cold [104] “George Orwell: Rudyard Kipling”. Retrieved 23 December 2008. War. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 1-4128-1161-9. [105] Notes on Nationalism [85]“He had led a quiet life as Richard Blair, not 'Richard Or[106] George Woodcock Introduction to Stephen Wadhams Rewell'": Shelden (1991: 398; 489) membering Orwell Penguin 1984 [86] Orwell: Collected Works, I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, [107] “Orwell Today”. p.283 [87] “Remembering Jura, Richard Blair”. Theorwellprize.co.uk. [108] “PBS: Think Tank: Transcript for “Orwell s Century"". pbs.org. Retrieved 25 February 2015. 5 October 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2014. [88] “The Orwell Prize | Life and Work—Exclusive Access to [109] Brendon, Piers (7 June 2003). “The saint of common dethe Orwell Archive”. Archived from the original on 10 Decency”. The Guardian. UK. cember 2007. [110] Raymond Williams Politics and Letters 1979 [89] “Barnhill”. is located at 56°06′39″N 5°41′30″W / 56.11083°N 5.69167°W (British national grid reference [111] Christopher Norris Language, Truth and Ideology:Orwell and the Post War Left in Inside the Myth:Orwell views from system NR705970) the Left Lawrence and Whishart 1984 [90] David Holbrook in Stephen Wadham's Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 [112] Lucas, Scott (2003). Orwell. Haus Publishing. ISBN 1904341-33-0 [91] “Tim Carroll ''A writer wronged'' The Sunday Times 15 August 2004”. Timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 14 May 2014. [113] O. Dag. “John Newsinger: Orwell Centenary: The Biographies” (in Russian). Orwell.ru. Retrieved 14 May 2014. [92] Crick (1982), p. 530 [93] Orwell: Collected Works, It Is What I Think, p.xx,; Daily [114] Rodden (1989: 394–5) Telegraph, 2 December 2013, [115] Alan Brown Examining Orwell: Political and Literary Values in Education in Christopher Norris Inside the Myth Orwell: [94] It Is what I Think, p.274 Views from the Left Lawrence and Wishart 1984 [95] Ezard, John (21 June 2003).“Blair's babe: Did love turn Orwell into a government stooge?". The Guardian (London). [116] Hitchens, Christopher. “Editorial review of Orwell's Victory". ISBN 0141005351. [96] Ingle, Stephen (1993). George Orwell: a political life. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. p. 90. [117] Fyvel, T. R., “A Writer's Life”, World Review, June 1950 ISBN 0-7190-3233-4. [118] Fyvel, T. R.,“A Case for George Orwell?", Twentieth Cen[97]“George Orwell, author, 46, Dead. British Writer, Actury, September 1956, pp.257–8 claimed for His '1984' and 'Animal Farm,' is Victim of Tuberculosis. Two Novels Popular Here Distaste for Imperial- [119] Orwell, George (April 1946).“Politics and the English Language”. mtholyoke.edu. Horizon. Retrieved 15 July 2010. ism”. The New York Times. 22 January 1950.
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[152] Ingle, Stephen (1993). George Orwell: a political life. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-7190-3233-4. Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 [153] Ingle, Stephen (2006). The social and political thought of George Orwell: a reassessment. Abingdon, England: RoutOrwell, George; Angus, Ian; Orwell, Sonia (1969). The colledge. p. 17. ISBN 0-415-35735-7. lected essays, journalism and letters of George Orwell. London: Secker & Warburg. ISBN 978-0-436-35015-3. [154] Orwell, George. “Such, Such Were the Joys”. Retrieved R. S. Peters A Boy's View of George Orwell in Psychology 23 November 2013. and Ethical Development Allen & Unwin 1974 [155] Rees, Richard (1961), Orwell: Fugitive from the Camp of Geoffrey Stevens in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Victory, Secker & Warburg Penguin 1984 [156] Heppenstall, Rayner (1960), Four Absentees, Barrie & Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books Rockcliff 1984 [157] Davison, P (2000), A Kind of Compulsion, London: Secker Correspondence in Collected Essays Journalism and Letters, & Warburg, pp. 117–21 Secker & Warburg 1968 [158] Connolly, Cyril (1973), “George Orwell 3”, The Evening Peter Davison ed. George Orwell: Complete Works XI 336 Colonnade, David Bruce & Watson
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[132] [133] [134] [135] [136]
[137] Crick (1982), p. 480
[159] Orwell, George, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters, 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950, Penguin, p. 301
[138] Celia Goodman interview with Shelden June 1989 in Michael Shelden Orwell: The Authorised Biography [160] Crick (1982), p. 364 [139] Henry Dakin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell [140] [141] [142]
[143]
[161]“Why I Write”, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950, Patrica Donahue in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin, p. 23 Michael Meyer Not Prince Hamlet: Literary and Theatrical [162] The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George OrMemoirs 1989 well Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950 p.373 (Penguin) Spurling, Hilary. 2002. The girl from the Fiction Department: a portrait of Sonia Orwell. New York: Counter[163]“Why I Write”in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letpoint,p.96. ters of George Orwell Volume 1 – An Age Like This 1945– Crick (1982), p. 449 1950 p.374 (Penguin)
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[164] Collini, Stefan (5 March 2008). “E. H. Carr: historian of [184] Maung Htin Aung George Orwell and Burma in Miriam Goss the future”. The Times. UK. Retrieved 9 November 2008. The World of George Orwell Weidenfield & Nicholson 1971 [165] Orwell, Sonia and Angus, Ian (eds.). The Collected Essays, [185] Interview with Geoffrey Stevens, Crick (1982), pp. 222-23 Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume 4: In Front [186] Heppenstall The Shooting Stick Twentieth Century April of Your Nose (1945–1950) (Penguin) 1955 [166] Woodcock, George (1967). The crystal spirit: a study of George Orwell. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 247. ISBN [187] Crick (1982), pp. 274-75 0-947795-05-7. [188] Michael Meyer Not Prince Hamlet: Literary and Theatrical Memoirs Secker and Warburg 1989 [167] “John Newsinger in Socialist Review Issue 276 July/August 2003”. Pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk. Retrieved 21 Oc[189] T. R. Fyval George Orwell: A Personal Memoir 1982 tober 2010. [190] “D. J. Taylor: Orwell's Voice”. [168] Buckman, David (13 November 1998). “Where are the Hirsts of the 1930s now?". The Independent (London). [191] “How to make a perfect cuppa: put milk in first”. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 30 December 2014 [169] Collini, Stefan (2006). Absent Minds: Intellectuals in Britain. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929105-2 [192] “Still the Moon Under Water”. The Economist (London). 28 July 2009. [170]“Antisemitism in Britain”, in As I Please: 1943–1945, pp. 332–341. [193] George Orwell, Ian Angus, Sheila Davison (1998). “The Complete Works of George Orwell: Smothered under jour[171] "Notes on Nationalism", 1945. nalism, 1946”. p. 34. Secker & Warburg [172] In Defence of P.G. Wodehouse, The Windmill, No 2, July [194] Lettice Cooper in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell, 1945, reprinted in Collected Works, I Belong to the Left, pp Penguin Books 1984 51–61 [173] “MI5 confused by Orwell's politics”. BBC News. 4 September 2007. Retrieved 22 November 2008. [174] Ian Angus Interview 23–25 April 1965 quoted in Stansky and Abrahams The Unknown George Orwell [175] Adrian Fierz in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell
[195] Orwell, George (9 February 1946).“The Moon Under Water”. Evening Standard. [196] Julian Symonds in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 [197] Patricia Donahue in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell, Penguin Books 1984
[176] John McNair George Orwell: The Man I knew MA Thesis— [198] Crick (1982), p. 502 Newcastle University Library 1965, quoted Crick (1982), p. 317 [199] Crick (1982), p. 504 [177] Jack Common Collection Newcastle University Library [200] Jack Denny in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell, Penquoted in Crick (1982), p. 204 guin Books 1984 [178] Geoffrey Gorer – recorded for Melvyn Bragg BBC Omnibus [201] Bob Edwards in Audrey Coppard and Bernard Crick Orwell production The Road to the Left 1970 Remembered, 1984 [179] Rayner Heppenstall Four Absentees in Audrey Coppard and [202] Jennie Lee in Peter Davison, Complete Works XI 5 Bernard Crick Orwell Remembered 1984 [203] David Astor Interview, in Michael Shelden [180] Sunday Wilshin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell [204] “Watching Orwell —International Herald Tribune” Penguin Books 1984 . Archived from the original on 14 September 2008. [181] Stephen Spender in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Retrieved 23 December 2008. Penguin Books 1984 [205] Jack Braithwaite in Wadhams Remembering Orwell, Penguin [182] Iggulden, Amy (11 June 2005). "'Missing link' between Books 1984 madness and genius”. The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 9 July 2015. [206] John Morris “Some are more equal than others”, Penguin New Writing, No. 40 1950 [183] “Powell's Books – Synopses and Reviews of D J Taylor Orwell:The Life". Powells.com. 12 October 2010. Re- [207] D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. trieved 21 October 2010. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2
14.8. SOURCES
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[208] Peter Stansky and William Abrahams The Unknown Orwell Constable 1972
• Hitchens, Christopher. Why Orwell Matters. Basic Books. 2003. ISBN 0-465-03049-1
[209] Gordon Bowker – Orwell and the biographers in John Rodden The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell Cambridge University Press 2007
• Hollis, Christopher. A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. 1956.
[210] “VQR " Wintry Conscience”. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2008. [211] Peter Davison The Complete Works of George Orwell Random House, ISBN 0-15-135101-5 [212] Jeffrey Meyers Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation W. W. Norton & Company, Incorporated, 2001 ISBN 0393-32263-7 [213] Also see: Roberts, Russ (17 August 2009). “Hitchens on Orwell”. EconTalk. Library of Economics and Liberty. [214] “The Orwell Prize | Gordon Bowker: The Biography Orwell Never Wrote (essay)". Archived from the original on 6 December 2008.
• Larkin, Emma. Secret Histories: Finding George Orwell in a Burmese Teashop. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 1-59420-052-1 • Lee, Robert A, Orwell's Fiction. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969. LC 74-75151 • Leif, Ruth Ann, Homage to Oceania. The Prophetic Vision of George Orwell. Ohio State U.P. [1969] • Meyers, Jeffery. Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation. W.W.Norton. 2000. ISBN 0-393-32263-7
[215] Gordon Bowker George Orwell Little, Brown 2003
• Newsinger, John. Orwell's Politics. Macmillan. 1999. ISBN 0-333-68287-4
[216] Review: Orwell by DJ Taylor and George Orwell by Gordon Bowker Observer on Sunday 1 June 2003
• Orwell, George, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters, 1 – An Age Like This 1945–1950, Penguin.
14.8 Sources • Anderson, Paul (ed). Orwell in Tribune: 'As I Please' and Other Writings. Methuen/Politico's 2006. ISBN 1-84275-155-7 • Azurmendi, Joxe (1984): George Orwell. 1984: Reality exists in the human mind, Jakin, 32: 87-103. • Bounds, Philip. Orwell and Marxism: The Political and Cultural Thinking of George Orwell. I.B. Tauris. 2009. ISBN 1-84511-807-3
• Rodden, John (1989). George Orwell: The Politics of Literary Reputation (2002 revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-7658-0896-X. • Rodden, John (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to George Orwell. Cambridge. 2007. ISBN 978-0-52167507-9 • Shelden, Michael. Orwell: The Authorized Biography. HarperCollins. 1991. ISBN 0-06-016709-2 • Smith, D. & Mosher, M. Orwell for Beginners. 1984. London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative.
• Bowker, Gordon. George Orwell. Little Brown. 2003. ISBN 0-316-86115-4
• Taylor, D. J. Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2
• Buddicom, Jacintha. Eric & Us. Finlay Publisher. 2006. ISBN 0-9553708-0-9
• West, W. J. The Larger Evils. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. 1992. ISBN 0-86241-382-6 (Nineteen EightyFour – The truth behind the satire.)
• Caute, David. Dr. Orwell and Mr. Blair, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-81438-9 • Crick, Bernard. George Orwell: A Life. Penguin. 1982. ISBN 0-14-005856-7 • Flynn, Nigel. George Orwell. The Rourke Corporation, Inc. 1990. ISBN 0-86593-018-X • Haycock, David Boyd. I Am Spain: The Spanish Civil War and the Men and Women who went to Fight Fascism. Old Street Publishing. 2013. ISBN 978-1908699-10-7
• West, W. J. (ed.) George Orwell: The Lost Writings. New York: Arbor House. 1984. ISBN 0-87795-7452 • Williams, Raymond, Orwell, Fontana/Collins, 1971 • Wood, James“A Fine Rage.”The New Yorker. 2009. 85(9):54. • Woodcock, George. The Crystal Spirit. Little Brown. 1966. ISBN 1-55164-268-9
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14.9 Diaries • Orwell, George. Diaries, edited by Peter Davison (W.W. Norton & Company; 2012) 597 pages; annotated edition of 11 diaries kept by Orwell, from August 1931 to September 1949.
14.10 External links • George Orwell at DMOZ • George Orwell at Encyclopædia Britannica • George Orwell at the Internet Movie Database • Works by George Orwell at Open Library • Works by or about George Orwell at Internet Archive • Works by George Orwell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • George Orwell at the Internet Book List • Texts at WikiLivres.ca • Texts at Gutenberg.net.au • George Orwell – Penguin Books official website for George Orwell • The Orwell Diaries: a daily extract from Orwell's diary from the same date seventy years before • Blair, Eric Arthur (George Orwell) (1903–1950) at the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography • George Orwell at the BBC • Birthplace of George Orwell • Riggenbach, Jeff (24 June 2010), “The Brilliant but Confused Radicalism of George Orwell”, Mises Daily (Ludwig von Mises Institute) • George Orwell plaques recorded on openplaques.org • Portraits of George Orwell at the National Portrait Gallery, London • Archival material relating to George Orwell listed at the UK National Archives
Chapter 15
British Empire For a comprehensive list of the territories that formed around the globe. Increasing degrees of autonomy were the British Empire, see Territorial evolution of the British granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were Empire. reclassified as dominions. The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power.* [1] By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time.* [2] The empire covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area.* [3]* [4] As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets" was often used to describe the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories. During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia.* [5] A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of almost unchallenged dominance and expanded its imperial holdings
By the start of the twentieth century, Germany and the United States had eroded some of Britain's economic lead. Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain's colonies in South-East Asia were occupied by Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation movement in which Britain granted independence to most of the territories of the Empire. The political transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.* [6]* [7]* [8]* [9] Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Sixteen Commonwealth nations share their head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, as Commonwealth realms.
15.1
Origins (1497–1583)
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496 King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route to Asia via the North Atlantic.* [10] Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the European discovery of America, and although he successfully made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland
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15.1.1
Plantations of Ireland
Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies, it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland, drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.* [18]* [19] Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country men.* [20]
15.2 “First”British Empire (1583– 1783) Main article: English overseas possessions
A replica of The Matthew, John Cabot's ship used for his second voyage to the New World.
(mistakenly believing, like Christopher Columbus, that he had reached Asia),* [11] there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was heard of his ships again.* [12] No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century.* [13] In the meantime the Protestant Reformation had turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies .* [10] In 1562, the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa* [14] with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic trade system. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, England's Queen Elizabeth gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World.* [15] At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term “British Empire”)* [16] were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time,
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration.* [21] That year, Gilbert sailed for the West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic.* [22]* [23] In 1583 he embarked on a second attempt, on this occasion to the island of Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for England, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England, and was succeeded by his halfbrother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the colony of Roanoke on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.* [24] In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, ascended to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.* [25] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of private companies, most notably the English East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has sub-
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sequently been referred to by some historians as the“First the aim of creating a permanent settlement on NewfoundBritish Empire”.* [26] land, but was largely unsuccessful.* [35] In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven for puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims.* [36] Fleeing from religious 15.2.1 Americas, Africa and the slave trade persecution would become the motive of many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyMain articles: British colonization of the Americas, British age: Maryland was founded as a haven for Roman Catholics America and Thirteen Colonies (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists. The Caribbean initially provided England's most important The Province of Carolina was founded in 1663. With and lucrative colonies,* [27] but not before several attempts the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664, England gained at colonisation failed. An attempt to establish a colony in control of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, renamGuiana in 1604 lasted only two years, and failed in its main ing it New York. This was formalised in negotiations objective to find gold deposits.* [28] Colonies in St Lucia following the Second Anglo-Dutch War, in exchange for * (1605) and Grenada (1609) also rapidly folded, but set- Suriname. [37] In 1681, the colony of Pennsylvania was tlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), founded by William Penn. The American colonies were Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628).* [29] The colonies soon less financially successful than those of the Caribbean, but adopted the system of sugar plantations successfully used by had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far the Portuguese in Brazil, which depended on slave labour, larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their * and—at first—Dutch ships, to sell the slaves and buy the temperate climates. [38] sugar.* [30] To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of this trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars— which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch.* [31] In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas.* [32]
African slaves working in 17th-century Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.* [39] Map of British colonies in North America, 1763–1776.
England's first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown, led by Captain John Smith and managed by the Virginia Company. Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck there of the Virginia Company's flagship, and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers Isles Company.* [33] The Virginia Company's charter was revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia.* [34] The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with
Two years later, the Royal African Company was inaugurated, receiving from King Charles a monopoly of the trade to supply slaves to the British colonies of the Caribbean.* [40] From the outset, slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the West Indies. Until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, Britain was responsible for the transportation of 3.5 million African slaves to the Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic.* [41] To facilitate this trade, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 percent in 1650 to around
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80 percent in 1780, and in the 13 Colonies from 10 percent to 40 percent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies).* [42] For the slave traders, the trade was extremely profitable, and became a major economic mainstay for such western British cities as Bristol and Liverpool, which formed the third corner of the so-called triangular trade with Africa and the Americas. For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven.* [43]
advanced financial system* [47] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability, and by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.* [47]
In 1695, the Scottish Parliament granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring 15.2.3 Spanish colonists of New Granada, and afflicted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland—a quarter of Scottish capital* [44] was lost in the enterprise—and ended Scottish hopes of establishing its own overseas empire. The episode also had major political consequences, persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather than just crowns.* [45] This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union, establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.
15.2.2
Global conflicts with France
Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia Defeat of French fireships at Quebec in 1759.
Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe.* [48] The 18th century saw England (after 1707, Britain) rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.* [49]
Fort St. George was founded at Madras in 1639.
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Netherlands began to challenge Portugal's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions; the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other.* [46] Although England ultimately eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more
The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philippe of Anjou, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe.* [50] In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714. At the concluding Treaty of Utrecht, Philip renounced his and his descendants' right to the French throne and Spain lost its empire in Europe.* [50] The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain, Gibraltar and Minorca. Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed
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Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the 15.2.4 Loss of the Thirteen Mediterranean. Spain also ceded the rights to the lucraColonies tive asiento (permission to sell slaves in Spanish America) to Britain.* [51] Main article: American Revolution
American
During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because off resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.* [56] This was summarised at the time by the slogan "No taxation without representation", a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. The American Revolution began with rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the United States declared independence. The entry of France to the war in 1778 tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Robert Clive's victory at the Battle of Plassey established the East Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of India Company as a military as well as a commercial power. Paris in 1783.* [57] During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, the Carnatic Wars, as the English East India Company (the Company) and its French counterpart, the Compagnie française des Indes orientales, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India.* [52] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India.* [53] In the following decades the Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its con- Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. The loss of the American trol, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat colonies marked the end of the “first British Empire”. of force from the British Indian Army, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys.* [54] The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain and the other major European powers. The signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763) had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power there was effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land,* [39] and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power.* [55]
time Britain's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the “first”and “second”empires,* [58] in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.* [55]* [59] The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.* [60]* [61]
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Events in America influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000* [62] defeated Loyalists had migrated from America following independence.* [63] The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784.* [64] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English-speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.* [65] Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress into the Royal Navy men of British birth. The US declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States.* [66]* [67] James Cook's mission was to find the alleged southern continent Terra Australis.
15.3 Rise of the “Second”British Empire (1783–1815)
Victoria, making its capital Melbourne the richest city in the world* [75] and the largest city after London in the British Empire.* [76]
15.3.1
During his voyage, Cook also visited New Zealand, first discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, and claimed the North and South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Māori population and Europeans was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi.* [77] This treaty is considered by many to be New Zealand's founding document,* [78] but differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text* [79] have meant that it continues to be a source of dispute.* [80]
Exploration of the Pacific
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various criminal offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic.* [68] Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the 13 Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia.* [69] The western coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Jansz in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company,* [70] but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales.* [71] In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal 15.3.2 War with Napoleonic France settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788.* [72] Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840.* [73] The Aus- Main article: Napoleonic Wars tralian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold,* [74] mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon,
15.4. BRITAIN'S IMPERIAL CENTURY (1815–1914)
143
in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a con- 15.4 Britain's imperial century test of ideologies between the two nations.* [81] It was not (1815–1914) only Britain's position on the world stage that was threatened: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Eu- See also: Timeline of British diplomatic history § 1815–96, Industrial Revolution and Victorian era rope. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's
The Battle of Waterloo ended in the defeat of Napoleon.
The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815.* [82] Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1797 and 1798 respectively), Mauritius, St Lucia, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands Guyana, and the Cape Colony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France, and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands, while gaining control of Ceylon (1795– 1815).* [83]
An elaborate map of the British Empire in 1886, marked in the traditional colour for imperial British dominions on maps.
“imperial century”by some historians,* [86]* [87] around 10,000,000 square miles (26,000,000 km2 ) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire.* [88] Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia.* [89] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica,* [90] and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation".* [91] Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been characterised by some historians as "Informal Empire".* [92]* [93]
British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second 15.3.3 Abolition of slavery half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked toWith support from the British abolitionist movement, gether by a network of telegraph cables, the so-called All Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which Red Line.* [94] abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone was designated an official British colony for freed slaves.* [84] The Slavery Abolition Act passed in 1833 abol- 15.4.1 East India Company in Asia ished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834 (with the exception of St. Helena, Ceylon and the territories ad- See also: British Raj ministered by the East India Company, though these ex- The East India Company drove the expansion of the British clusions were later repealed). Under the Act, slaves were Empire in Asia. The Company's army had first joined granted full emancipation after a period of 4 to 6 years of forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, “apprenticeship”.* [85] and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside In-
144
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE and discipline.* [98] The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India.* [99] India became the empire's most valuable possession, “the Jewel in the Crown”, and was the most important source of Britain's strength.* [100] A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.* [101]
15.4.2
An 1876 political cartoon of Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881) making Queen Victoria Empress of India. The caption reads “New crowns for old ones!"
Rivalry with Russia
Main article: The Great Game During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire
dia: the eviction of Napoleon from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824) and the defeat of Burma (1826).* [89] From its base in India, the Company had also been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to China since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China.* [95] In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement.* [96]
British cavalry charging against Russian forces at Balaclava in 1854.
vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing Dynasty. This rivalry in Eurasia came to be known as the "Great Game".* [102] As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India.* [103] In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.* [83]
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired.* [97] The Company's eventual end was precipi- When Russia invaded the Turkish Balkans in 1853, fears tated by the Indian Rebellion, a conflict that had begun with of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and Middle the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers East led Britain and France to invade the Crimean Penin-
15.4. BRITAIN'S IMPERIAL CENTURY (1815–1914) sula to destroy Russian naval capabilities.* [83] The ensuing Crimean War (1854–56), which involved new techniques of modern warfare,* [104] and was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica, was a resounding defeat for Russia.* [83] The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente.* [105] The destruction of the Russian Navy by the Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 also limited its threat to the British.* [106]
15.4.3
Cape to Cairo
145 immigration began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own —mostly short-lived —independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s.* [108] In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and with several African polities, including those of the Sotho and the Zulu nations. Eventually the Boers established two republics which had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–77; 1881–1902) and the Orange Free State (1854– 1902).* [109] In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902).* [110] In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British;* [111] but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the“jugular vein of the Empire”.* [112] In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha's 44 percent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (£340 million in 2013). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint AngloFrench financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.* [113] The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position,* [114] but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.* [115] With French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly incursion of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa" by defining“effective occupation”as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims.* [116] The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896, and rebuffed a French attempted invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, but a British colony in reality.* [117]
The Rhodes Colossus—Cecil Rhodes spanning “Cape to Cairo”.
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands, following the invasion of the Netherlands by France.* [107] British
British gains in southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich South.* [118] During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories subsequently named after him, Rhodesia.* [119]
146
15.4.4
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE
Changing status of the white colonies Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising.* [126]
15.5
Canada's major industry in terms of employment and value of the product was the timber trade. Ontario c. 1900.
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest there.* [120] This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada. Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with the exception of international relations.* [121] Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901.* [122] The term “dominion status”was officially introduced at the Colonial Conference of 1907.* [123] The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation,* [124] many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire.* [125] A second Home Rule bill was also defeated for similar reasons.* [125] A third bill was passed by
World wars (1914–1945)
By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation".* [127] Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific* [128] and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.* [129]
15.5.1
First World War
Main article: History of the United Kingdom during World War I Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement. This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.* [130] The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies also committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies.* [131] The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home, and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light.* [132] The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to
15.5. WORLD WARS (1914–1945)
Soldiers of the Australian 5th Division, waiting to attack during the Battle of Fromelles, 19 July 1916.
147
A poster urging men from countries of the British Empire to enlist in the British army.
join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.* [133] Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km2 ) and 13 million new subjects.* [134] The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togo, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia), Australia gained German New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.* [135]
15.5.2
Inter-war period
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British impe-
British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921.
rial policy.* [136] Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States.* [137] This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s* [138] as militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations.* [139] Although the issue of the empire's security was a serious concern in Britain, at the same time the empire was vital to the British economy.* [140]
148 In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led members of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats at Westminster in the 1918 British general election, to establish an Irish assembly in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration.* [141] The Anglo-Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown.* [142] Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.* [143]
George V with the British and Dominion prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference.
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted to join the League of Nations.* [148] Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, also gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932.* [149] In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arab and Jewish communities. The 1917 Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power.* [150] This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of the Arab population in the Middle East as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.* [130] The ability of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference.* [151] Britain's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.* [152]* [153] After pressure from Ireland and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration, declaring the Dominions to be “autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another”within a“British Commonwealth of Nations".* [154] This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster.* [123] The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent.* [155] Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression.* [156] Ireland distanced itself further from Britain with the introduction of a new constitution in 1937, making it a republic in all but name.* [157]
A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence.* [144] Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that war-time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts. This led to tension,* [145] particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre. In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the event, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion.* [145] The subsequent Non-Co-Operation movement was called off in 15.5.3 Second World War March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.* [146] Main article: British Empire in World War II In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British Britain's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but granted formal independence, though it continued to be did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, a British client state until 1954. British troops remained Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa. stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian All soon declared war on Germany, but the Irish Free State Treaty in 1936,* [147] under which it was agreed that the chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war.* [158]
15.6. DECOLONISATION AND DECLINE (1945–1997)
149 Pact between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America.* [160]
15.6
During the Second World War, the Eighth Army was made up of units from many different countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth; it fought in North African and Italian campaigns.
After the German occupation of France in 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the entry of the Soviet Union to the war in 1941. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war.* [159] In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that“the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live”should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.* [160]* [161] In December 1941, Japan launched, in quick succession, attacks on British Malaya, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, and Hong Kong. Churchill's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe,* [162] but the manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power.* [163]* [164] Most damaging of all was the fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar.* [165] The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States. This resulted in the 1951 ANZUS
Decolonisation (1945–1997)
and
decline
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power.* [166] Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a $US 4.33 billion loan (US$56 billion in 2012) from the United States,* [167] the last instalment of which was repaid in 2006.* [168] At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism. In practice, however, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check.* [169] The "wind of change" ultimately meant that the British Empire's days were numbered, and on the whole, Britain adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies once stable, non-Communist governments were available to transfer power to. This was in contrast to other European powers such as France and Portugal,* [170] which waged costly and ultimately unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact. Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to five million, three million of whom were in Hong Kong.* [171]
15.6.1
Initial disengagement
The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: that of Indian independence.* [172] India's two major political parties—the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League—had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented. Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim-majority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise indepen-
150
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE be granted.* [178] The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese-majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations.* [179] Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union* [180] and maintained its status until independence in 1984.
15.6.2 About 14.5 million lost their homes as a result of the partition of India in 1947.
Suez and its aftermath
Main article: Suez Crisis In 1951, the Conservative Party returned to power
dence no later than 1948. When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947.* [173] The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan.* [174] Millions of Muslims subsequently crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been administered as part of the British Raj, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.* [175] The British Mandate of Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India.* [176] The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve.* [177] The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. Following the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin.* [178] The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malayan-Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would
British Prime Minister Anthony Eden's decision to invade Egypt during the Suez Crisis ended his political career and revealed Britain's weakness as an imperial power.
in Britain, under the leadership of Winston Churchill. Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. However, Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self-
15.6. DECOLONISATION AND DECLINE (1945–1997)
151
determination by 1955, with independence to follow.* [181] 15.6.3 Wind of change Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956. Main article: Decolonization of Africa In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in Canal. The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal.* [182] Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion.* [183] Another of Eisenhower's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency.* [184] Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives,* [185] UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.* [186]* [187] The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain's decline on the world stage, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States.* [188]* [189]* [190] The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one MP to describe it as“Britain's Waterloo"* [191] and another to suggest that the country had become an “American satellite".* [192] Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen the British political establishment as “Suez syndrome”, from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982.* [193]
British decolonisation in Africa. By the end of the 1960s, all but Rhodesia (the future Zimbabwe) and the South African mandate of South West Africa (Namibia) had achieved recognised independence.
February 1960 where he spoke of “the wind of change blowing through this continent”.* [198] Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly.* [199] To the three colonies that had While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Mid- been granted independence in the 1950s—Sudan, the Gold dle East to weaken, it did not collapse.* [194] Britain again Coast and Malaya—were added nearly ten times that numdeployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in ber during the 1960s.* [200] Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval,* [195] as the new Britain's remaining colonies in Africa, except for selfPrime Minister Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted indepenremain firmly aligned with the United States.* [191] Britain dence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and maintained a military presence in the Middle East for an- eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan other decade. In January 1968, a few weeks after the independence was preceded by the eight-year Mau Mau Updevaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson rising. In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Inand his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that dependence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that British troops would be withdrawn from major military lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which independence in 1980, as the bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Mid- set the terms for recognised * * Zimbabwe. [201] new nation of dle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore. [196] The British withdrew from Aden in 1967, Bahrain in 1971, In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by Greek and Maldives in 1976.* [197] Cypriots ended in (1960) an independent Cyprus, with the UK retaining the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo were amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain.* [202]
152 Most of the UK's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members.* [203] Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s,* [203] but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence.* [204] The British Virgin Islands,* [205] Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain,* [206] while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self-governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved.* [207] British territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and Frenchspeaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France.* [208] Fiji, Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea chose to become Commonwealth realms.
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE achieved independence (as Vanuatu) in 1980, with Belize following suit in 1981. The passage of the British Nationality Act 1981, which reclassified the remaining Crown colonies as “British Dependent Territories”(renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002)* [209] meant that, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts (and the acquisition in 1955 of an uninhabited rock in the Atlantic Ocean, Rockall),* [210] the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete. In 1982, Britain's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long-standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire.* [211] Britain's ultimately successful military response to retake the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain's status as a world power.* [212] The same year, the Canadian government severed its last legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constitution from Britain. The 1982 Canada Act passed by the British parliament ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution.* [8] Similarly, the Constitution Act 1986 reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain, and the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states.* [213]
In September 1982, Prime minister Margaret Thatcher travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese government on the future of Britain's last major and most popu15.6.4 End of empire lous overseas territory, Hong Kong.* [214] Under the terms See also: Falklands War and Transfer of sovereignty over of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, Hong Kong Island itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the vast majorHong Kong In 1980, Rhodesia, Britain's last African colony, became ity of the colony was constituted by the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99-year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997.* [215]* [216] Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China.* [217] A deal was reached in 1984—under the terms of the SinoBritish Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China, maintaining its way of life for at least 50 years.* [218] The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many,* [6] including Charles, Prince of Wales,* [7] who was in attendance, “the end of Empire”.* [8]* [9]
15.7 The Hong Kong Convention Centre hosted the ceremony for the Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from Britain to China in 1997, symbolically marking the “end of Empire”.
Legacy
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles, which were renamed the British Overseas Territories in 2002.* [219] Some are uninhabited except for the independent nation of Zimbabwe. The New Hebrides transient military or scientific personnel; the remainder are
15.7. LEGACY
153
Gibraltar
Bermuda Cayman Islands
Akrotiri & Dhekelia
Turks and Caicos Islands Anguilla Montserrat
British Virgin Islands
Ascension Island
British Indian Ocean Territory
Saint Helena Pitcairn Islands Tristan da Cunha
Falkland Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
British Antarctic Territory
The fourteen British Overseas Territories.
self-governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for foreign relations and defence. The British government has stated its willingness to assist any Overseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence, where that is an option.* [220] British sovereignty of several of the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighbours: Gibraltar is claimed by Spain, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are claimed by Argentina, and the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles.* [221] The British Antarctic Territory is subject to overlapping claims by Argentina and Chile, while many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in Antarctica.* [222]
Cricket being played in India. British sports continue to be enthusiastically supported in various parts of the former Empire.
Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.* [224] Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of English in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 400 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first, second or foreign language.* [225]
The spread of English from the latter half of the 20th century has been helped in part by the cultural influence of the United States, itself originally formed from British colonies. Except in Africa where nearly all the former colonies have adopted the presidential system, the English parliamentary system has served as the template for the governments for Parliament House in Canberra, Australia. Britain's Westminster many former colonies, and English common law for legal System of governance has left a legacy of parliamentary democ- systems.* [226] racies in many former colonies.
The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for several former colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific. British Protestant missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread the Anglican Communion to all continents. British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.* [227]
Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 53 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people.* [223] Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state. These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities – the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Antigua and Barbuda, The Individual and team sports developed in Britain—particu-
154 larly football, cricket, rugby, lawn tennis and golf—were also exported.* [228] The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention of driving on the left hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire.* [229] Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples. Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland. Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean.* [230] The demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.* [231]
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE
15.9
References
[1] Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire, The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2. [2] Maddison 2001, pp. 98, 242. [3] Ferguson 2004, p. 15. [4] Elkins2005, p. 5. [5] Ferguson 2004, p. 2. [6] Brendon, p. 660. [7] “Charles' diary lays thoughts bare”. BBC News. 22 February 2006. Retrieved 13 December 2008. [8] Brown, p. 594. [9] “BBC – History – Britain, the Commonwealth and the End of Empire”. BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2008. [10] Ferguson 2004, p. 3. [11] Andrews 1985, p. 45. [12] Ferguson 2004, p. 4. [13] Canny, p. 35. [14] Thomas, pp. 155–158
15.8 See also
[15] Ferguson 2004, p. 7. [16] Canny, p. 62.
• All-Red Route
[17] Lloyd, pp. 4–8.
• British Empire Exhibition
[18] Canny, p. 7.
• British Empire in fiction
[19] Kenny, p. 5.
• Colonial Office
[20] Taylor, pp. 119,123.
• Flags of the British Empire • Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
[21] Andrews, p. 187. [22] Andrews, p. 188. [23] Canny, p. 63.
• Government Houses of the British Empire and Com[24] Canny, pp. 63–64. monwealth • Historiography of the British Empire • History of capitalism • Indirect rule
[25] Canny, p. 70. [26] Canny, p. 34. [27] James, p. 17. [28] Canny, p. 71.
• List of British Empire-related topics
[29] Canny, p. 221.
• Order of the British Empire
[30] Lloyd, pp. 22–23.
• Protectorate
[31] Lloyd, p. 32.
15.9. REFERENCES
155
[32] Lloyd, pp. 33, 43.
[67] Marshall, pp. 388.
[33] Lloyd, pp. 15–20.
[68] Smith, p. 20.
[34] Andrews, pp. 316, 324–326.
[69] Smith, pp. 20–21.
[35] Andrews, pp. 20–22.
[70] Mulligan & Hill, pp. 20–23.
[36] James, p. 8.
[71] Peters, pp. 5–23.
[37] Lloyd, p. 40.
[72] James, p. 142.
[38] Ferguson 2004, pp. 72–73.
[73] Britain and the Dominions, p. 159.
[39] Buckner, p. 25.
[74] Fieldhouse, pp. 145–149
[40] Lloyd, p. 37. [41] Ferguson 2004, p. 62.
[75] Cervero, Robert B. (1998). The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry. Chicago: Island Press. p. 320. ISBN 155963-591-6.
[42] Canny, p. 228.
[76] Statesmen's Year Book 1889
[43] Marshall, pp. 440–64. [44] Magnusson, p. 531.
[77] Smith, p. 45.
[45] Macaulay, p. 509.
[78] “Waitangi Day”. History Group, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 13 December 2008.
[46] Lloyd, p. 13.
[79] Porter, p. 579.
[47] Ferguson 2004, p. 19.
[80] Mein Smith, p. 49.
[48] Canny, p. 441.
[81] James, p. 152.
[49] Pagden, p. 90.
[82] Lloyd, pp. 115–118.
[50] Shennan, pp. 11–17.
[83] James, p. 165.
[51] James, p. 58.
[84] Porter, p. 14.
[52] Smith, p. 17.
[85] Hinks, p. 129.
[53] Bandyopādhyāẏa, pp. 49–52
[86] Hyam, p. 1.
[54] Smith, pp. 18–19.
[87] Smith, p. 71.
[55] Pagden, p. 91.
[88] Parsons, p. 3.
[56] Ferguson 2004, p. 84.
[89] Porter, p. 401.
[57] Marshall, pp. 312–23.
[90] Porter, p. 332.
[58] Canny, p. 92.
[91] Lee 1994, pp. 254–257.
[59] James, p. 120.
[92] Porter, p. 8.
[60] James, p. 119.
[93] Marshall, pp. 156–57.
[61] Marshall, p. 585.
[94] Dalziel, pp. 88–91.
[62] Zolberg, p. 496.
[95] Martin, pp. 146–148.
[63] Games, pp. 46–48.
[96] Janin, p. 28.
[64] Kelley & Trebilcock, p. 43.
[97] Keay, p. 393
[65] Smith, p. 28.
[98] Parsons, pp. 44–46.
[66] Latimer, pp. 8, 30–34, 389–92.
[99] Smith, pp. 50–57.
156
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE
[100] Brown, p. 5.
[132] Lloyd, p. 277.
[101] Marshall, pp. 133–34.
[133] Lloyd, p. 278.
[102] Hopkirk, pp. 1–12.
[134] Ferguson 2004, p. 315.
[103] James, p. 181.
[135] Fox, pp. 23–29, 35, 60.
[104] Royle, preface.
[136] Goldstein, p. 4.
[105] Williams, Beryl J. (1966). “The Strategic Back- [137] Louis, p. 302. ground to the Anglo-Russian Entente of August 1907”. The Historical Journal 9 (3): 360–373. [138] Louis, p. 294. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00026698. JSTOR 2637986. [139] Louis, p. 303. [106] Hodge, p. 47. [140] Lee 1996, p. 305. [107] Smith, p. 85. [141] Brown, p. 143. [108] Smith, pp. 85–86. [142] Smith, p. 95. [109] Lloyd, pp. 168, 186, 243. [143] Magee, p. 108. [110] Lloyd, p. 255. [144] Ferguson 2004, p. 330. [111] Tilby, p. 256. [145] James, p. 416. [112] Roger 1986, p. 718. [146] Low, D.A. (February 1966). “The Government of India and the First Non-Cooperation Movement- —1920– [113] Ferguson 2004, pp. 230–33. 1922”. The Journal of Asian Studies 25 (2): 241–259. [114] James, p. 274. doi:10.2307/2051326. [115] “Treaties”. Egypt Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived [147] Smith, p. 104. from the original on 15 September 2010. Retrieved 20 Oc[148] Brown, p. 292. tober 2010. [116] Herbst, pp. 71–72.
[149] Smith, p. 101.
[117] Vandervort, pp. 169–183.
[150] Louis, p. 271.
[118] James, p. 298.
[151] McIntyre, p. 187.
[119] Lloyd, p. 215.
[152] Brown, p. 68.
[120] Smith, pp. 28–29.
[153] McIntyre, p. 186.
[121] Porter, p. 187
[154] Brown, p. 69.
[122] Smith, p. 30.
[155] Turpin & Tomkins, p. 48.
[123] Rhodes, Wanna & Weller, pp. 5–15.
[156] Lloyd, p. 300.
[124] Lloyd, p. 213
[157] Kenny, p. 21.
[125] James, p. 315.
[158] Lloyd, pp. 313–14.
[126] Smith, p. 92.
[159] Gilbert, p. 234.
[127] O'Brien, p. 1.
[160] Lloyd, p. 316.
[128] Brown, p. 667.
[161] James, p. 513.
[129] Lloyd, p. 275.
[162] Gilbert, p. 244.
[130] Brown, pp. 494–495.
[163] Louis, p. 337.
[131] Marshall, pp. 78–79.
[164] Brown, p. 319.
15.9. REFERENCES
157
[165] James, p. 460.
[199] Louis, p. 46.
[166] Abernethy, p. 146.
[200] Lloyd, pp. 427–433.
[167] Brown, p. 331.
[201] James, pp. 618–621.
[168] “What's a little debt between friends?". BBC News. 10 May [202] 2006. Retrieved 20 November 2008. [203] [169] Levine, p. 193. [204] [170] Abernethy, p. 148. [205] [171] Brown, p. 330. [206] [172] Lloyd, p. 322. [207] [173] Smith, p. 67. [208] [174] Lloyd, p. 325. [209] [175] McIntyre, pp. 355–356. [176] Lloyd, p. 327. [177] Lloyd, p. 328. [178] Lloyd, p. 335. [179] Lloyd, p. 364. [180] Lloyd, p. 396. [181] Brown, pp. 339–40. [182] James, p. 581. [183] Ferguson 2004, p. 355.
Springhall, pp. 100–102. Knight & Palmer, pp. 14–15. Clegg, p. 128. Lloyd, p. 428. James, p. 622. Lloyd, pp. 401, 427–429. Macdonald, pp. 171–191. “British Overseas Territories Act 2002”. http://www. legislation.gov.uk.
[210] “1955: Britain claims Rockall”. BBC News. 21 September 1955. Retrieved 13 December 2008. [211] James, pp. 624–625. [212] James, p. 629. [213] Brown, p. 689. [214] Brendon, p. 654. [215] Joseph, p. 355. [216] Rothermund, p. 100. [217] Brendon, pp. 654–55.
[184] Ferguson 2004, p. 356. [218] Brendon, p. 656. [185] James, p. 583. [186] Combs, pp. 161–163.
[219] House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Overseas Territories Report, pp. 145–147
[187] “Suez Crisis: Key players”. BBC News. 21 July 2006. [220] House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Overseas Retrieved 19 October 2010. Territories Report, pp. 146,153 [188] Brown, p. 342. [189] Smith, p. 105. [190] Burk, p. 602. [191] Brown, p. 343. [192] James, p. 585. [193] Thatcher.
[221] “British Indian Ocean Territory”. The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 13 December 2008. [222] House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Overseas Territories Report, p. 136 [223] The Commonwealth - About Us; Online September 2014 [224]“Head of the Commonwealth”. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
[195] James, p. 586.
[225] Hogg, p. 424 chapter 9 English Worldwide by David Crystal:“approximately one in four of the worlds population are capable of communicating to a useful level in English”.
[196] Pham 2010
[226] Ferguson 2004, p. 307.
[197] Lloyd, pp. 370–371.
[227] Marshall, pp. 238–40.
[198] James, p. 616.
[228] Torkildsen, p. 347.
[194] Smith, p. 106.
158
[229] Parsons, p. 1. [230] Marshall, p. 286. [231] Dalziel, p. 135.
15.10 Further reading • Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09314-4. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Andrews, Kenneth (1984). Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-27698-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to partition: a history of modern India. Orient Longman. ISBN 81-250-2596-0. • Brendon, Piers (2007). The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997. Random House. ISBN 0-224-06222-0.
CHAPTER 15. BRITISH EMPIRE • Combs, Jerald A. (2008). The History of American Foreign Policy: From 1895. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 9780-7656-2056-9. • Dalziel, Nigel (2006). The Penguin Historical Atlas of the British Empire. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-101844-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • David, Saul (2003). The Indian Mutiny. Penguin. ISBN 0-670-91137-2. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Elkins, Caroline (2005). Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya. Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-8001-5. • Ferguson, Niall (2004). Colossus: The Price of America's Empire. Penguin. ISBN 1-59420-013-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02329-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Fieldhouse, David Kenneth (1999). The West and the Third World: trade, colonialism, dependence, and development. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-63119439-8.
• Brock, W.R. (n.d.). Britain and the Dominions. Cambridge University Press.
• Fox, Gregory H. (2008). Humanitarian Occupation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52185600-3.
• Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924679-3. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Games, Alison (2002). Armitage, David; Braddick, Michael J, ed. The British Atlantic world, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-96341-5.
• Louis, Roger (1986). The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. Oxford University Press. p. 820. ISBN 978-0-19-822960-5. Retrieved 24 August 2012. • Buckner, Phillip (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19927164-1. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Burk, Kathleen (2008). Old World, New World: Great Britain and America from the Beginning. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 0-87113-971-5. Retrieved 22 January 2012. • Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924676-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Clegg, Peter (2005). “The UK Caribbean Overseas Territories”. In de Jong, Lammert; Kruijt, Dirk. Extended Statehood in the Caribbean. Rozenberg Publishers. ISBN 90-5170-686-3.
• Gapes, Mike (2008). HC Paper 147-II House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee: Overseas Territories, Volume II. The Stationery Office. ISBN 0-215-521501. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Gilbert, Sir Martin (2005). Churchill and America. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-9122-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Goldstein, Erik (1994). The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor. Routledge. ISBN 0-71464559-1. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Goodlad, Graham David (2000). British foreign and imperial policy, 1865–1919. Psychology Press. ISBN 0-415-20338-4. Retrieved 18 September 2010. • Herbst, Jeffrey Ira (2000). States and power in Africa: comparative lessons in authority and control. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01028-5. • Hinks, Peter (2007). Encyclopedia of antislavery and abolition. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780-313-33143-5. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
15.10. FURTHER READING • Hodge, Carl Cavanagh (2007). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-33404-8. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
159 • Lloyd, Trevor Owen (1996). The British Empire 1558– 1995. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-8731345. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Hogg, Richard (2008). A History of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-66227-7. Retrieved 13 April 2010.
• Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-347-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Hopkirk, Peter (2002). The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. Kodansha International. ISBN 4-7700-1703-0.
• Macaulay, Thomas (1848). The History of England from the Accession of James the Second. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-043133-0.
• Hollowell, Jonathan (1992). Britain Since 1945. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20968-9.
• Macdonald, Barrie (1994). “Britain”. In Howe, K.R.; Kiste, Robert C.; Lal, Brij V. Tides of history: the Pacific Islands in the twentieth century. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1597-1.
• Hyam, Ronald (2002). Britain's Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-7134-3089-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • James, Lawrence (2001). The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. Abacus. ISBN 978-0-312-16985-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Janin, Hunt (1999). The India–China opium trade in the nineteenth century. McFarland. ISBN 0-78640715-8. • Joseph, William A. (2010). Politics in China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533530-9. • Keay, John (1991). The Honourable Company. Macmillan Publishing Company. • Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, Michael (2010). The Making of the Mosaic (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7. • Kenny, Kevin (2006). Ireland and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925184-3. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Knight, Franklin W.; Palmer, Colin A. (1989). The Modern Caribbean. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1825-9. • Latimer, Jon (2007). War with America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02584-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Lee, Stephen J. (1994). Aspects of British political history, 1815–1914. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09006-7.
• McIntyre, W. Donald (1977). The Commonwealth of Nations. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 08166-0792-3. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • McLean, Iain (2001). Rational Choice and British Politics: An Analysis of Rhetoric and Manipulation from Peel to Blair. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19829529-4. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Maddison, Angus (2001). The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. ISBN 92-64-186085. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Magee, John (1974). Northern Ireland: Crisis and Conflict. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7100-7947-8. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Magnusson, Magnus (2003). Scotland: The Story of a Nation. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3932-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Marshall, PJ (1998). The Eighteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume II. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924677-7. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Marshall, PJ (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00254-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Martin, Laura C (2007). Tea: the drink that changed the world. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3724-4.
• Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13102-2.
• Mein Smith, Philippa (2005). A Concise History of New Zealand. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-54228-6. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Levine, Philippa (2007). The British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0582-47281-5. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
• Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). Ecological pioneers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52181103-1.
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• O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2004). The Anglo–Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922. Routledge. ISBN 0-41532611-7. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Thomas, Hugh (1997). The Slave Trade: The History of The Atlantic Slave Trade. Picador, Phoenix/Orion. ISBN 0-7538-2056-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires: A Short History of European Migration, Exploration, and Conquest, from Greece to the Present. Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-6761-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Tilby, A. Wyatt (2009). British India 1600–1828. BiblioLife. ISBN 978-1-113-14290-0.
• Parsons, Timothy H (1999). The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8825-9. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Peters, Nonja (2006). The Dutch down under, 1606– 2006. University of Western Australia Press. ISBN 1-920694-75-7. • Pham, P.L. (2010). Ending 'East of Suez': The British Decision to Withdraw from Malaysia and Singapore, 1964–1968. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-958036-1. Retrieved 24 August 2012. • Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924678-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Rhodes, R.A.W.; Wanna, John; Weller, Patrick (2009). Comparing Westminster. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956349-4. • Rothermund, Dietmar (2006). The Routledge companion to decolonization. Routledge. ISBN 0-41535632-6. • Royle, Trevor (2000). Crimea: The Great Crimean War, 1854–1856. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 14039-6416-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Shennan, J.H (1995). International relations in Europe, 1689–1789. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07780-X. • Smith, Simon (1998). British Imperialism 1750– 1970. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-3-12580640-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Springhall, John (2001). Decolonization since 1945: the collapse of European overseas empires. Palgrave. ISBN 0-333-74600-7. • Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies, The Settling of North America. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-200210-0. Retrieved 22 July 2009. • Thatcher, Margaret (1993). The Downing Street Years. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-017056-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
• Torkildsen, George (2005). Leisure and recreation management. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30995-0. • Turpin, Colin; Tomkins, Adam (2007). British government and the constitution (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69029-4. • Vandervort, Bruce (1998). Wars of imperial conquest in Africa, 1830–1914. University College London Press. ISBN 1-85728-486-0. • Zolberg, Aristide R (2006). A nation by design: immigration policy in the fashioning of America. Russell Sage. ISBN 0-674-02218-1.
15.11
External links
• • British Empire on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now) • The British Empire. An Internet Gateway • The British Empire • The British Empire audio resources at TheEnglishCollection.com
Chapter 16
MacDonald sisters For the Macdonald sisters, artist members of The Four, see Glasgow School.
Browne Macdonald (1805–1868), a Wesleyan Methodist minister,* [1] and Hannah Jones (1809–1875).
16.1
Biographies
There were 11 children in the Macdonald family: seven daughters and four sons. Mary (1834–1836) was the firstborn; followed by Henry (1836–1891), called Harry, who introduced his younger sisters Georgiana and Agnes to his artistic friends, known as the Birmingham Set; then Alice; Caroline (1838–1854); Georgiana; Frederic William (1842–1928); Agnes; Louisa; Walter (1847-1847); Edith (1848–1937), who never married, and lived at home until her mother's death; and Herbert (1850–1851).* [2]
16.1.1
Alice
Alice (1837–1910) was born on 4 April in Sheffield.* [3] She married John Lockwood Kipling, and was the mother of Rudyard Kipling. Lord Dufferin once said, “Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room.” * [4]* [5]* [6]
16.1.2
Georgiana
Georgiana's (1840–1920) father was moved by the Methodist Conference to a Birmingham Circuit and it was here that Georgie was born on 28th July 1840.* [7] She married the pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne-Jones. She became the mother-in-law of John William Mackail and Georgiana Burne-Jones, née Macdonald c.1882, photographed by grandmother of Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. Frederick Hollyer
The Macdonald sisters were four Scottish sisters, notable 16.1.3 Agnes for their marriages to well-known people of the Victorian era. Alice, Georgiana, Agnes and Louisa were four of Agnes (1843–1906) married the president of the Royal the seven daughters and 11 children of Reverend George Academy Edward Poynter. 161
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CHAPTER 16. MACDONALD SISTERS
Louisa
Louisa (1845–1925) married the industrialist Alfred Baldwin and was the mother of prime minister Stanley Baldwin, and grandmother to Oliver and Arthur Baldwin. Louisa wrote novels, short stories, and poetry, sometimes credited as “Mrs. Alfred Baldwin.”* [8]* [9]* [10]
16.2 Further reading • Judith Flanders. A Circle of Sisters: Alice Kipling, Georgiana Burne Jones, Agnes Poynter, and Louisa Baldwin. ISBN 0-393-05210-9 • Ina Taylor. Victorian Sisters. (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987) (Shortly to be republished by Ellingham Press)
16.3 References [1] Ina Taylor. Victorian Sisters. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London p6 1987 ISBN 029779065x [2] http://www.thepeerage.com/p2925.htm#i29244 [3] Taylor, Ina Victorian sisters 1987 Weidenfeld & Nicholson p13 ISBN 029779065x [4]“The Life of Rudyard Kipling”, Charles Carrington, 1955, p. 51. [5] http://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/rg_rival1.htm [6] http://books.google.gr/books?id=pPhD2yKzvhYC& pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=Dullness+and+ Mrs.+Kipling+cannot+exist+in+the+same+ room.&source=bl&ots=oevYkVPWyf&sig= hwPlsyKexNb8n4zkuCgMpNAaleU&hl=el&sa=X& ei=dSQ0VODaFY3laLrcgLgH&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAw# v=onepage&q=Dullness%20and%20Mrs.%20Kipling% 20cannot%20exist%20in%20the%20same%20room.&f= false [7] Taylor, Ina Victorian sisters 1987 Weidenfeld & Nicholson p14 ISBN 029779065x [8] “Baldwin, Louisa”. Retrieved 2008-06-04. [9] Louisa Baldwin at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database [10] Mrs. Alfred Baldwin at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
16.4
External links
• Works by MacDonald sisters at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • 'A Circle of Sisters': Eminent Victorians at New York Times.
Chapter 17
John Lockwood Kipling Jeejeebhoy School of Art in Bombay (now Mumbai), and later became its principal.* [3] Their son was born soon after, in December 1865, and was christened Rudyard after Rudyard, Staffordshire, the place where his parents had first met;* [3] their daughter Alice Kipling was born in 1868. In 1870-1872 Kipling was commissioned by the government to tour the Punjab, NorthWest Frontier and Kashmir and make a series of sketches of Indian craftsmen as well as various sights and antiquities in these regions; today several of these sketches are at the Victoria and Albert Museum whilst others were printed in a number of books.* [3] In 1875, Kipling was appointed the Principal of Mayo School of Arts, Lahore, British India (present day National College of Arts, Pakistan) and also became curator of the old original Lahore Museum which figured as the Wonder House or Ajaib Ghar in Kim,* [4] not to be confused with the present one built later on after he had retired back to * Wood Carver at Shimla, pencil and ink drawing by John Lockwood England in 1893. [5] Kipling, 1870 Kipling illustrated many of Rudyard Kipling's books, and other works, including Tales of the Punjab by Flora Annie John Lockwood Kipling, C.I.E.* [1] (6 July 1837 – 26 Jan- Steel. He also worked on the decorations for the Victoria uary 1911) was an English art teacher, illustrator, and mu- and Albert Museum in London and friezes on the Crawford seum curator, who spent most of his career in British India. Market in Bombay. John Kipling designed the uniforms and He was the father of the author Rudyard Kipling. decorations for the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi in 1877, organized by the Viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, at which Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.
17.1 Biography Kipling was born in Pickering, North Yorkshire, to Reverend Joseph Kipling and Frances Lockwood,* [2] and was educated at Woodhouse Grove School, a Methodist boarding school. He met his wife Alice MacDonald while working in Burslem, Staffordshire, where his designs can still be seen on the façade of the Wedgwood Institute.* [3]
During his tenure as the Principal of the Mayo School of Art, Lahore he patronised indigenous artisans and through training and apprenticeship transformed them into craftsmen and designers. One of his protégés was Bhai Ram Sing, who assisted him in his imperial commission for decorating the Durbar Room at Osborne House. Kipling also remained editor of the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, which carried drawings made by the students of the Mayo School.
Alice was the daughter of a Methodist minister, the Rev- He died in 1911, and is buried in the parish of Tisbury, erend George Browne Macdonald. Kipling married in 1865 Wiltshire.* [6] and moved with his wife to India, where he had been appointed as a professor of architectural sculpture in the 163
164
17.2 Main published works • Beast and Man in India: A Popular Sketch of Indian Animals in Their Relations with the People, Published by Macmillan and Co, London, 1891. • Inezilla: a romance in two chapters, by J.L.K. Reprinted from The Chameleon, Allahabad, [1873], pp. [105]−118, [61]−89. 1/5. • Across the Border: Or, Pathân and Biloch, by Edward Emmerson Oliver, Illustrations by John Lockwood Kipling. Published by Chapman and Hall, 1890. • Tales of the Punjab Told by the People, by Flora Annie Webster Steel, Richard Carnac Temple, John Lockwood Kipling. Published by Macmillan and co., 1894.The Jungle book
CHAPTER 17. JOHN LOCKWOOD KIPLING John Kipling from Wimpole Hall, Cambridge. by University of Sussex Library. Manuscripts Section, Rudyard Kipling. Published by University of Sussex Library, 1980. ISBN 0-85087-014-3. • Official Chronicle of the Mayo School of Art: The formative years under Lockwood Kipling. (1875 to 1893), Researched and Introduced by Nadeem Omar Tarar. Samina Choonara (editor). National College of Arts, Lahore, 2003, ISBN 969-8623-00-0
17.5
External links
• Kipling Archive University of Sussex. • Works by John Lockwood Kipling at Project Gutenberg
• Illustration for a chapter capital in his son's Jungle Book, 1895
• Works by or about John Lockwood Kipling at Internet Archive
• Bas-relief from a series illustrating Kim
• Works held by the Victoria and Albert Museum
• Mayo College, Ajmer, India Coat of Arms designed by (John) Lockwood Kipling. • Cryptic dedication page with Arabic inscriptions
17.3 References [1] John Lockwood Kipling, C.I.E. New York Times, 24 January 1892. [2] John Lockwood Kipling thepeerage.com. [3] Drawing by John Lockwood Kipling, and Biography Victoria & Albert Museum. [4] Tarin, O, in 'The Kipling Journal', June 2008, pp 10-21 [5] For details see Peter Hopkirk, Quest for Kim:In Search of Kipling's Great Game London: J Murray, 1996 [6] Papers of John Lockwood Kipling University of Sussex.
17.4 Further reading • The Pater: John Lockwood Kipling His Life and Times 1837-1911, by Arthur R Ankers, ISBN 1-871044-006 • The Kipling Papers: A List of Papers of John Lockwood Kipling 1837-1911, Joseph Rudyard Kipling 18651936, and of Some Papers of Josephine, Elsie and
Chapter 18
Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava KP GCB GCSI GCMG GCIE PC (21 June 1826 – 12 February 1902) was a British public servant and prominent member of Victorian society.* [1] In his youth he was a popular figure in the court of Queen Victoria, and became well known to the public after publishing a best-selling account of his travels in the North Atlantic. He is now best known as one of the most successful diplomats of his time. His long career in public service began as a commissioner to Syria in 1860, where his skilful diplomacy maintained British interests while preventing France from instituting a client state in Lebanon. After his success in Syria, Dufferin served in the Government of the United Kingdom as the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Under-Secretary of State for War. In 1872 he became the third Governor General of Canada, bolstering imperial ties in the early years of the Dominion, and in 1884 he reached the pinnacle of his diplomatic career as eighth Viceroy of India.
from Scottish settlers who had moved to County Down in the early 17th century. The Blackwood family became prominent landowners in Ulster over the following two hundred years, and were created baronets in 1763, entering the Peerage of Ireland in 1800 as Baron Dufferin. The family had influence in parliament because they controlled the return for the borough of Killyleagh. Marriages in the Blackwood family were often advantageous to their landowning and high-society ambitions, but Dufferin's father, Captain Lord Dufferin and Claneboye, R.N., did not marry into a landowning family. His wife, Helen Selina Sheridan, was the granddaughter of the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and through her the family became connected to English literary and political circles. Dufferin was born Frederick Temple Blackwood in 1826 in Florence, then capital of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in the Italian peninsula, with great advantages. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became president of the Oxford Union Society for debate, although he left Oxford after only two years without obtaining a degree. While still an Oxford undergraduate, he visited Skibbereen in County Cork to see the impact of the Irish Famine first-hand. He was appalled by what he saw, prompting him to raise money on behalf of the starving poor.* [3] In 1841, while still at school, he succeeded his father as Baron Dufferin and Claneboye in the Peerage of Ireland and in 1849 was appointed a Lord-in-Waiting to Queen Victoria. In 1850 he was additionally created Baron Claneboye, of Clandeboye in the County of Down, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.* [4]
Following his retirement from the diplomatic service in 1896, his final years were marred by personal tragedy and a misguided attempt to secure his family's financial position. His eldest son was killed in the Second Boer War and another son badly wounded. He was chairman of a mining firm that went bankrupt after swindling people, although he was ignorant of the matter. His biographer Davenport-Hines says he was “imaginative, sympathetic, warm-hearted, and gloriously versatile.”* [2] He was an effective leader in Lebanon, Canada and India, averted war with Russia, and annexed Burma. He was careless of money In 1856, Dufferin commissioned the schooner Foam and set but charming in high society in three continents. off on a journey around the North Atlantic. He first made landfall on Iceland, where he visited the then very small Reykjavík, the plains of Þingvellir, and Geysir. Returning 18.1 Early life to Reykjavík, Foam was towed north by Prince Napoleon, who was on an expedition to the region in the steamer La He was born into the Ascendancy, Ireland's old Anglo-Irish Reine Hortense. Dufferin sailed close to Jan Mayen Island, aristocracy. On his father's side, Dufferin was descended 165
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but was unable to land there due to heavy ice and caught only a very brief glimpse of the island through the fog. From Jan Mayen, Foam sailed on to northern Norway, stopping at Hammerfest before sailing for Spitzbergen.
18.3
Family
On his return, Dufferin published a book about his travels, Letters From High Latitudes. With its irreverent style and lively pace, it was extremely successful and can be regarded as the prototype of the comic travelogue. It remained in print for many years and was translated into French and German. The letters were nominally written to his mother, with whom he had developed a very close relationship after the death of his father when he was 15.* [5]
18.2 A natural diplomat Despite the great success of Letters From High Latitudes, Dufferin did not pursue a career as an author, although he was known for his skilful writing throughout his career. Instead he became a public servant, with his first major public appointment in 1860 as British representative on a commission to Syria to investigate the causes of a civil war earlier that year in which the Maronite Christian population had been subject to massacres by the Muslim and Druze populations. Working with French, Russian, Prussian and Turkish representatives on the commission, Dufferin proved remarkably successful in achieving the objectives of British policy in the area. He upheld Turkish rule in the area, and prevented the French from establishing a client state in Lebanon, later securing the removal of a French occupying force in Syria. He also defended the interests of the Druze community, with whom Britain had a long association. The other parties on the commission were inclined to repress the Druze population, but Dufferin argued that had the Christians won the war they would have been just as bloodthirsty. The long-term plan agreed by the commission for the governance of the region was largely that proposed by Dufferin —that Lebanon should be governed separately from the rest of Syria, by a Christian Ottoman who was not a native of Syria.* [6]
Lord Dufferin took the name Hamilton by royal licence 9 September 1862, shortly before his marriage to Hariot Georgina Rowan-Hamilton on 23 October 1862. He was distantly related to the Hamilton family by previous marriages, and the union was partly designed to eliminate some long-standing hostilities between the families. Dufferin also took the name of Temple, on 13 November 1872.* [6] They had seven children; the two youngest, a son and a daughter, were born in Canada:
Dufferin's achievements in Syria launched his long and successful career in public service. In 1864 he became UnderSecretary of State for India, moving to Under-Secretary of War in 1866, and from 1868 he held the position of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in Prime Minister Gladstone's government. In 1871 he was raised in the Peerage as Earl of Dufferin, in the County of Down, and Viscount Clandeboye, of Clandeboye in the County of Down.* [6]
• Archibald James Leofric Temple Hamilton-TempleBlackwood, Earl of Ava (28 July 1863 – 11 January 1900), was a lieutenant in the 17th Lancers and a fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. He was a war correspondent in South Africa during the Second Boer War and was wounded at Waggon Hill during the Siege of Ladysmith. Lord Ava died a week later. He was unmarried.
Lord Dufferin by Vanity Fair, 1870
18.4. GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA • Lady Helen Hermione Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood (1865–9 April 1941), GBE (1918), LLD, JP for Fife, was married on 31 August 1889 to Ronald Munro Ferguson (later 1st and last Viscount Novar), who later became Governor-General of Australia. They had no issue. • Terence Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 2nd Marquess of Dufferin and Ava (16 March 1866 – 7 February 1918)
167 Terence and Dorothé's eldest son Patrick Terence William Span Plunket, 7th Baron Plunket was an equerry to The Queen and Deputy Master of the Household, and their second son is Robin Rathmore Plunket, 8th Baron Plunket, the present baron. • Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 3rd Marquess of Dufferin and Ava (26 February 1875 – 21 July 1930)
Shortly after his marriage, he was deeply upset when his mother married his friend George Hay, Earl of Gifford, a man some 17 years her junior. The marriage scandalised society, but Lord Gifford died only weeks afterward. Despite his disapproval of his mother's second marriage, Lord Dufferin was devastated by her death in 1867, and built Helen's Tower, a memorial to her, on the estate at Clandeboye. A nearby bay was also named Helen's Bay, and • Lord (Ian) Basil Gawaine Temple Hamilton-Temple- a station of that name was built there by him, seeding the Blackwood (4 November 1870 – 3 July 1917) was a growth of the modern Belfast commuter town of Helen's barrister-at-law. He was at Balliol College, Oxford in Bay.* [7] 1891 and became part of the 'kindergarten' of Lord Milner. He was appointed Deputy Judge Advocate in South Africa in 1900, secretary to the High Commis- 18.4 Governor General of Canada sioner to South Africa in 1902, Assistant Colonial Secretary in the Orange River Colony in 1903, Colonial Secretary in Barbados from 1907 to 1909 and Assistant Secretary to the Land Development Commission of England from 1910 to 1914. He was attached to the 9th Lancers and Intelligence Corps from 1914 to 1916 and then appointed Private Secretary to Ivor Churchill Guest, 1st Viscount Wimborne, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in 1916. He returned to active service as a lieutenant in the Grenadier Guards and was killed in action in 1917. His most prominent legacy is the corpus of drawings he did for Hilaire Belloc's books (over the signature `BTB'). He was unmarried. • Lady Hermione Catherine Helen Hamilton-TempleBlackwood (1869–19 October 1960) trained as a nurse and qualified in 1901, serving in France during the First World War. She was awarded the Médaille de la Reconnaissance française for her services. She died unmarried.
• Lady Victoria Alexandrina Hamilton-TempleBlackwood (1873–1938), whose chief sponsor at her christening was Queen Victoria, was married firstly in 1894 to William Lee Plunket, 5th Baron Plunket and had eight children by him, and secondly to Colonel Francis Powell Braithwaite CBE DSO. Her son Terence Conyngham Plunket, 6th Baron Plunket was married to Dorothé Mabel Lewis, the illegitimate daughter of Charles Stewart Henry VaneTempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry, and both were killed in an aircraft accident in 1938, while her younger son Flight Lieutenant the Honourable Brinsley Sheridan Bushe Plunket was married in 1927 Lord Dufferin as Governor General of Canada to Aileen Guinness, the sister of Maureen Guinness, who was later to marry Basil Hamilton-Temple- After his mother's death Dufferin's diplomatic career adBlackwood, 4th Marquess of Dufferin and Ava. vanced rapidly. He became Governor General of Canada in
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1872, and his six-year tenure was a period of rapid change in Canadian history. During his term, Prince Edward Island was admitted to Confederation, and several wellknown Canadian institutions, such as the Supreme Court of Canada, the Royal Military College of Canada, and the Intercolonial Railway, were established.* [8] In Dufferin's opinion, his two predecessors in the post had not given the position the prominence it deserved. He consciously set out to assume a more active role, and to get to know ordinary Canadians as much as possible.* [6] He was at ease speaking with a wide variety of people, both in English and French, and became known for his charm and hospitality. At a time when a weak or uncharismatic Governor General might have loosened the ties to Empire, Dufferin felt that involving himself with the people of the Dominion would strengthen constitutional links to Britain. He visited every Canadian province, and was the first Governor General to visit Manitoba.* [9] Lord Dufferin involved himself as much as was permissible in Canadian politics, even going so far as to advise ministers to abandon policies which he thought mistaken. He followed proceedings in the Parliament with interest, although as the Queen's representative he was barred from entering the House of Commons. He established an Office of the Governor General in a wing of the Parliament buildings, and Lady Dufferin attended many debates and reported back to him. In 1873, the Pacific scandal arose when the Conservative government of John A. Macdonald was accused by the Liberal opposition of financial impropriety in relation to the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Dufferin prorogued parliament, and established an enquiry which found against the Government, and Macdonald fell from power.* [9]
Earl of Dufferin Fancy Dress Ball, Government House, Ottawa Feb. 23rd 1876
Governor General's Curling Trophy.* [8] Dufferin made several extensions and improvements to Rideau Hall, the Governor General's official residence. He added a ballroom in 1873, and in 1876 built the Tent Room to accommodate the increasing number of functions being held at the Hall. He also attracted ordinary Canadians to the Hall grounds by constructing an ice skating rink, to which he contributed $1,624.95 of his own money, which was later reimbursed by the government. Public use of the rink was on condition of being “properly dressed”. These additions enhanced Rideau Hall's role as an important centre of social affairs.* [9]
Lord and Lady Dufferin on a visit to Manitoba
The Dufferins also made extensive use of the Citadel of Quebec in Quebec City as a second vice-regal residence, having developed a strong attachment to the city and its significant historical ties with the British Empire. When Quebec city officials began to demolish the old city walls, Dufferin was appalled, persuading them to stop the demolition, and to repair and restore what had already been damaged (Old Quebec was eventually recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1985). Dufferin's final public appearance as Governor General was in Quebec City, to lay the foundation stone for Dufferin Terrace, an expansive walkway overlooking the St Lawrence River built to his own design and arguably his best-known legacy in Canada* [8] Lady Dufferin also maintained a high profile during her husband's term as Governor General, accompanying him on tours and frequently appearing in public. Visiting Manitoba in September 1877, Lord and Lady Dufferin each drove a spike in the line of the new Canadian Pacific Railway, and the first engine on the railway was christened Lady Dufferin. Throughout her time in Canada, Lady Dufferin wrote letters to her mother in Ireland, which were later collected and published as My Canadian Journal. She later said that of all her experiences, her happiest times had been spent in Canada.* [8]
In 1873 Dufferin established the Governor General's Academic Medals for superior academic achievement by Canadian students. These medals are the most prestigious that school students can be awarded, and more than 50,000 have been awarded. He also instituted several sporting prizes, including the Governor General's Match for shooting, and the The popularity and influence of the Dufferins in Canada is
18.6. VICEROY OF INDIA reflected by the large number of Canadian schools, streets and public buildings named after them. Lord Dufferin is particularly well remembered in Manitoba, being the first Governor General to visit the province; a statue of him is outside the provincial legislature.* [10]
169
18.6
Viceroy of India
18.5 Russia and Turkey After leaving Ottawa in 1878 at the end of his term, Dufferin returned to Great Britain to continue his diplomatic career. He served as ambassador to Imperial Russia from 1879 to 1881 and to the Ottoman Empire from 1881 to 1884. Although he had previously served in Liberal governments, Dufferin had become increasingly alienated from William Ewart Gladstone over issues of home and Irish policy, particularly the Irish Land Acts of 1870 and 1881, both of which tried to resolve issues surrounding the property rights of tenants and landlords. He accepted the appointment as ambassador to Russia from the Conservative Benjamin Disraeli, further alienating the Liberal leader. Dufferin's time in Russia was quiet from a political and diplomatic point of view, and his papers from this time are concerned mainly with his social life. While in Russia, he began to set his sights on the ultimate diplomatic prize, the Viceroyalty of India. However, Lord Ripon succeeded Lord Lytton in 1880, largely because as a convert Lord Dufferin as Viceroy of India to Roman Catholicism, Ripon could not be accommodated in the Cabinet. Instead, Dufferin's next diplomatic posting was to Constantinople. His posting there saw Britain invade and occupy Egypt, then technically part of the Ottoman Empire, under the pretext of “restoring law and order”following anti-foreign riots in Alexandria which had left nearly 50 foreigners dead, and Dufferin was heavily involved in the events surrounding the occupation. Dufferin managed to ensure that the Ottoman Empire did not attain a military foothold in Egypt, and placated the population of Egypt by preventing the execution of Urabi Pasha, who had seized control of the Egyptian army. Urabi had led the resistance to foreign influence in Egypt, and after the occupation many in the Cabinet were keen to see him hanged. Dufferin, believing this would only Viceregal Lodge, Shimla. Lord Dufferin moved in on July 23, inspire further resistance, instead ensured that Urabi was 1888.* [11] exiled to Ceylon. In 1882 Dufferin travelled to Egypt as British commis- His experiences in Russia and Turkey had further increased sioner, to investigate the reorganization of the country. He his awareness of the British Empire's place in international wrote a report detailing how the occupation was to benefit affairs, and his time in Russia had provided great insight Egypt, with plans for development which were to progres- into the Russian threat to British rule in India. In 1884, he sively re-involve Egyptians in running the country. Subse- finally achieved his last great diplomatic ambition with his quent reforms proceeded largely along the lines he had pro- appointment as Viceroy of India. posed.* [6]
Just as in Canada, he presided over some great changes in
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India. His predecessor as Viceroy, Lord Ripon, while popular with the Indians, was very unpopular with the AngloIndians, who objected to the rapid pace of his extensive reforms. To rule with any success, Dufferin would need to gain the support of both communities. By all accounts he was highly successful in this regard, and gained substantial support from all communities in India. He advanced the cause of the Indian Nationalists greatly during his term, without antagonising the conservative whites. Among other things, the Indian National Congress was founded during his term in 1885, and he laid the foundations for the modern Indian Army by establishing the Imperial Service Corps, officered by Indians. He was frequently occupied with external affairs during his tenure. He handled the Panjdeh Incident of 1885 in Afghanistan, in which Russian forces encroached into Afghan territory around the Panjdeh oasis. Britain and Russia had for decades been engaged in a virtual cold war in Central Asia and India, known as the Great Game, and the Panjdeh incident threatened to precipitate a full-blown conflict. Dufferin negotiated a settlement in which Russia kept Panjdeh but relinquished the furthest territories it had taken in its advance. His tenure also saw the annexation of Upper Burma in 1886, after many years of simmering warfare and British interventions in Burmese politics. In 1888, he published the Report on the Conditions of the Lower Classes of Population in Bengal (known as the Dufferin Report). The report highlighted the plight of the poor in Bengal, and was used by nationalists to counter the Anglo-Indian claim that British rule had been beneficial to the poorest members of Indian society. Following publication of the report, Dufferin recommended the establishment of provincial and central councils with Indian membership, a key demand of Congress at that time.* [12] His time as Viceroy of India featured in the Rudyard Kipling poem 'One Viceroy Resigns', which was written from Dufferin's point of view, giving advice to his successor, Lord Lansdowne. His wife Lady Dufferin, Vicereine of India, accompanied her husband on his travels in India and made her own name as a pioneer in the medical training of women in India. Her extensive travel writings and photographs, in addition to her medical work, challenge some traditional assumptions about the role of women in colonial life.* [13]
18.7 Later life Following his return from India, Dufferin resumed his ambassadorial career, serving as ambassador to Italy from 1888 to 1891. On 17 November 1888, he was advanced in the peerage as Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, in the County
Monument to Frederick, Lord Dufferin, in the grounds of Belfast City Hall, Northern Ireland
of Down and the Province of Burma, and Earl of Ava, in the Province of Burma.* [14] As ambassador to France from 1891 to 1896, he presided over some difficult times in Anglo-French relations, and was accused by some sections of the French press of trying to undermine Franco-Russian relations. During this time he helped establish the AngloFrench Guild which has since evolved into the University of London Institute in Paris (ULIP). After returning from France, Dufferin became President of the Royal Geographical Society, and Rector of the University of Edinburgh and the University of St Andrews. He received the honorary Doctor of Laws (DLL) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901.* [15] Throughout his life, Dufferin was known for living beyond his means, and had heavily mortgaged his estates to fund his lifestyle and improvements to the estates. In 1875, with his debts approaching £300,000, he was facing insolvency and was forced to sell substantial amounts of land to pay off his creditors. After he retired from the diplomatic service in 1896, he received several offers from financial speculators hoping to use his high reputation to attract investors to their companies. In 1897, worried about
18.11. REFERENCES the family financial situation, he was persuaded to become chairman of the London and Globe Finance Corporation, a mining promotion and holding company controlled by Whitaker Wright, but in November 1900 shares in the company crashed and led to its insolvency. It subsequently transpired that Wright was a consummate fraudster. Dufferin lost substantial money on his holdings in the company, but was not guilty of any deception and his moral standing remained unaffected.* [6]* [7]
171 • Saskatchewan: Lansdowne Avenue, Imperial how • Ontario: Dufferin Subway Station, Toronto Transit Corporation, Toronto, Ontario • Quebec: Terrasse Dufferin, Quebec City • Quebec: Autoroute Dufferin-Montmorency, Quebec City
Soon after this misfortune, Dufferin's eldest son, Lord Ava, Places named for Lord Dufferin was killed in the Boer War. Dufferin returned to his country house at Clandeboye, near Bangor, in poor health, and died • Lord Dufferin Centre Seniors' Residence, Orangeville, on 12 February 1902. Lady Dufferin died on 25 October Ontario 1936. • Lord Dufferin Apartments, Toronto (Dufferin Street south of King Street West)
18.8 Dufferin and the ghost Dufferin often told a tale of how he once saw a ghost which saved his life. Late one night in 1849, while staying in a house in Ireland, he heard a hearse draw up, and looked down and saw a man walking across the lawn carrying a coffin on his back. The man stopped and looked up at Dufferin and their eyes met for a moment, before he continued on into the shadows and disappeared. Dufferin thought the whole event might have been just a bad dream, but the next morning his hostess assured him that the next time he saw the apparition, he would die. Some years later Dufferin, then British ambassador to France, recognised the lift operator at the Grand Hotel in Paris as the man he had seen in the garden in Ireland. He refused to get into the lift and a moment later it crashed, killing the occupants including the mysterious man, who had only begun work at the hotel that morning.* [16]* [17] French journalist Paul Heuzé demonstrated that up to the time of his research in 1922, only one person had been killed in a Grand Hotel lift accident, in 1878, years before Dufferin was in Paris.* [18] A more recent investigation by BBC researcher Melvin Harris demonstrated that the story was an urban legend which Dufferin improved upon by telling as a personal anecdote.* [19]
18.9 Arms 18.10 Honorific eponyms Geographic locations • Ontario: Dufferin County • Ontario: Dufferin Street, Toronto
• Lord Dufferin Community Day Care, Toronto • Lord Dufferin Junior and Senior Public School, Toronto
18.11
References
[1] “The Canadian Encyclopedia > Frederick Temple Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava”. The Canadian Encyclopedia. [2] Davenport-Hines, 2004 [3] Christine Kinealy, Charity and the Great Hunger. The Kindness of Strangers (Bloomsbury, 2013) [4] Dufferin and Ava, Marquess of, Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition, 1911 Marquess of Dufferin and Ava [5] Lord Dufferin (1856). Letters From High Latitudes. Seafarer Books. ISBN 0-85036-387-X. [6] Harrison A.T. et al. (1998), The Dufferin Papers, Public Records Office of Northern Ireland [7] Moore, Tim (1999). Frost On My Moustache. Abacus Books. ISBN 0-349-11140-5. [8] “The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava - biography from the Governor General's office”. Retrieved 3 August 2003. [9] Forster B. “Dictionary of Canadian Biography: BLACKWOOD (Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood), FREDERICK TEMPLE, 1st Marquess of DUFFERIN and AVA”. Retrieved 8 March 2005. [10] “Manitoba Historical Society: Lord Dufferin”. Retrieved 25 May 2006. [11] A stitch in time: Rashtrapati Niwas in Shimla is being given a facelift by the ASI The Tribune, July 24, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
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CHAPTER 18. FREDERICK HAMILTON-TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD, 1ST MARQUESS OF DUFFERIN AND AVA
[12] “Banglapedia: Dufferin, Lord”. Retrieved 18 September 2004. [13] Daniel Sanjiv Roberts, "'Merely Birds of Passage': Lady Hariot Dufferin’s travel writings and medical work in India, 1884–1888,”Women's History Review, (June 2006) 15#3 pp 443-457 [14] The London Gazette: no. 25874. p. 6145. 13 November 1888. Retrieved 1 May 2009. [15]“Glasgow University jubilee”The Times (London). Friday, 14 June 1901. (36481), p. 10. [16] Death and Its Mystery by Camille Flammarion, translated by Eleanor Stimson Brooks and Latrobe Carroll 1922, published by The Century Company. [17] Gailey 2015, pp307-8 [18] Do The Dead Live by Paul Heuzé 1923, published by E. P. Dutton & Company [19] Investigating The Unexplained by Melvin Harris 2003, published by Prometheus Books
18.12 Further reading
18.13
External links
• Banglapedia (chief editor Prof. Sirajul Islam FRHS), online edition. Lord Dufferin. Retrieved 18 September 2004 • Office of the Secretary to the Governor-General. The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava. Retrieved 3 August 2003 • Information on the Dufferin family archives from the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland at the Wayback Machine (archived February 5, 2007) • Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved 8 March 2005. • Works by Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava at Project Gutenberg • Letters from High Latitudes at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Frederick Hamilton-TempleBlackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava at Internet Archive
• Davenport-Hines, Richard. “Blackwood, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-, first marquess of Dufferin and Ava (1826–1902)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/31914
• Journal of the journey of His Excellency the governorgeneral of Canada from Government House, Ottawa, to British Columbia and back Dufferin and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, Marquess of, London, England: Webster & Larkin, 1877
• Charles Edward Drummond Black (1903). The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava: diplomatist, viceroy, statesman 1. Hutchinson.
• Address of His Excellency the Governor-General of Canada on the subject of the relations between the Dominion government and British Columbia, in respect to the Canadian Pacific Railway : delivered at Government House, Victoria, Sept. 20th, 1876, to a deputation of the reception committee, publ. R. Wolfenden, Victoria B.C., 1876
• Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall (1905). The life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava 2. • Gailey, Andrew. “The Lost Imperialist: Lord Dufferin, Memory and Mythmaking in an Age of Celebrity”(John Murray, 2015) isbn = 9781444792430 • James, Laurence (1994). The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. Abacus Books. ISBN 0-349-106673. • Martin, Briton Jr. “The Viceroyalty of Lord Dufferin,”History Today, (Dec 1960) 10#12 pp 821–830, and (Jan 1961) 11#1 pp 56–64 • Stewart, George (2002). Canada Under The Administration Of Lord Dufferin. University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 1-4102-0319-0. • Yasin, Madhavi (1994). India's Foreign Policy - The Dufferin Years. Raj Publications. ISBN 81-86208-011.
• Message relative to the terms of union with the Province of British Columbia, (sent to Senate and Commons) publ. Ottawa, Ontario: Maclean, Roger, 1875 • Irish emigration and the tenure of land in Ireland (1867) at Internet Archive • Photograph: Lord Dufferin in 1878. McCord Museum • Photograph: Lord Dufferin in 1878. McCord Museum • Photograph: Lady Dufferin in 1878. McCord Museum
Chapter 19
Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art The Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy School of Art (Sir J.J. School of Art), is the oldest art institution in Mumbai,* [1] and is affiliated with the University of Mumbai. The school grants Bachelor's degrees in fine art and sculpture, and Master's degrees in fine art.
19.1 History 19.1.1
Early history
The School was founded in March 1857, named after Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy, a businessman and philanthropist, who donated Rs. 100,000 for its endowment.* [2] Operations were managed by a committee headed by the Chief Justice of Bombay. The School's first class was in drawing, and began on 2 March 1857. Classes were held at the Elphinstone Institution. John Griffiths became Principal of the School in 1865. He later became famous for copying the murals in the Ajanta Caves temple complex, a project which lasted from 1872 to 1891, and which the School's students assisted in * [3] In 1866, management of the School was taken over by the Government of India. Also in 1866, Lockwood Kipling, who had become a professor of the School in 1865, established three ateliers for (i) Decorative Paintings, (ii) Modelling; and (iii) Ornamental Wrought Iron Work, and became its first Dean. He was the father of the author Rudyard Kipling, who was born on the School's campus.* [4] In 1878, the school moved to its own building, where it is currently situated. The building was designed by architect George Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy and his Chinese secretary (1783–1859) Twigge Molecey,* [5] in neo Gothic architecture.* [6] The portrait at the Sir J. J. School of Art School campus, including the Kipling House, better known as the Dean's Bungalow, is classified as Grade II heritage structure by the Government of Maharashtra, and underwent a restoration in 2002-2006, and again in 2008.* [5] Drawing instruction as a subject was introduced in 1879 and a programme for training drawing teachers was started in 1893. In 1891 the Lord Reay Art Workshops (now known as the Department of Art-Crafts) were established. 173
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CHAPTER 19. SIR JAMSETJEE JEEJEBHOY SCHOOL OF ART
1900s
The School had an important tradition in architecture. In 1900. the School offered its first course in architecture, taught by John Begg, later Consulting Architect of Bombay and of the Government of India. A complete 4-year programme was established in 1908 under Begg's assistantm George Wittet. In 1917, architect Claude Batley became a visiting professor; he was Principal of the School from 1923 to 1943, and is commemorated in the Claude Batley Architectural Gallery for architectural exhibitions, opened in 1996. In 1896, the Draughtsman's classes, the nucleus of the Department of Architecture were added. This Department was later organised for a 3 years Diploma Course which was duly recognised by the R.I.B.A. Board. In 1910, the Sir George Clarke Studies and Laboratories were built for the advanced study of crafts, pottery being the first craft taken up for study. In 1929, the head of the School was renamed“Director”, and in 1935, the Department of Commercial Art was also started. In 1937 M.R. Acharekar was appointed deputy director and continued his tenure till 1939. Shri. V. S. Adurkar was the first Indian head of the school, succeeding Claude Batley as Director in 1943.
• Arun Kolatkar • Atul Dodiya • B. V. Doshi, architect • Bhagwan Rampure, sculptor • Bhanu Athaiya, costume designer • Brendan Pereira, advertiser • Dadasaheb Phalke, film director • Francis Newton Souza, painter • Ganpatrao K Mhatre,Sculptor • Homai Vyarawalla, photojournalist,* [8] • James Ferreira, fashion designer * [9] • Jatin Das, painter • Jitish Kallat • John Fernandes • Justin Samarasekera, architect • K. K. Hebbar • Kalidas Shrestha
19.1.3
Post-independence
In 1958, the school was divided, with the Departments of Architecture and Applied Art becoming the Sir J. J. College of Architecture and Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art respectively. In 1981, the School became affiliated with the University of Mumbai.
19.2 Famous alumni See also: Category:Sir J. J. School of Art alumni
• Laxman Pai, painter* [10] • M.F. Hussain, painter * [11] • M.V. Dhurandhar • Nana Patekar, actor and filmmaker * [12] • Nitin Chandrakant Desai, art director and production designer • Pralhad Anant Dhond, Dean of Sir J. J. School of Art from 1958 • Prof. Sambhaji Kadam • R. D. Raval
• A. R. Hye
• R.Verman
• A.A. Raiba
• Raj Thackeray, president of Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
• Akbar Padamsee, painter
• Ram V Sutar, sculptor
• Abid Surti
• Reena Saini Kallat, painter
• Amol Palekar, actor
• Riyas Komu, artist
• Antonio Piedade da Cruz, painter and sculptor* [7]
• Syed Haider Raza, painter
19.4. EXTERNAL LINKS • Sadanand Bakre, painter • Shivkar Bapuji Talpade • Tyeb Mehta, painter • Uday Shankar, dancer* [13] • V. S. Gaitonde, painter * [6] vasanth
19.3 References [1] Mumbai’s oldest and most prestigious art institution, the Sir JJ School of Art. Times of India, 6 October 2002. [2] 125th Anniversary commemorative stamp by India Post [3] Art heritage, saved by sunshine law Indian Express, 2 March 2007. "...when the Public Works Department took up repainting of the building, the paintings had been shifted to the terrace and may have been washed out after the 26/7 deluge two years ago.(2005)" [4] Kipling house to become museum Times of India', Oct 5, 2007. [5] After years, Sir JJ School of Art begins to BREATHE Times of India, Nov 7, 2008. “Kipling House (Dean's Bungalow)The original cottage was brought down in the early 1900s and a new house built on the same spot.” [6] Celebrating 150 years Times of India', 3 March 2007. [7] J. Clement Vaz, “Profiles of Eminent Goans Past and Present”, Concept Publishing Company, 1997, ISBN 9788170226192 [8] “Homai gets Padma Vibhushan”. The Times of India. 25 January 2011. [9] Meher, Castelino (1994). Fashion Kaleidoscope. India: Rupa & Co. p. 113. ISBN 978-8171671557. [10] “Biography Laxman Pai”. Ask Art. 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2015. [11] JJ Institute: 150 years of lettering the poor Indian Express, 9 January 1999. [12] http://www.kokanworld.com/details.aspx?pid=%2013 [13] Uday Shankar Banglapedia.
• vasudeokamath.com
19.4 External links • Official website
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Chapter 20
Rudyard Lake
Lakeside homes
Rudyard Lake boat house
20.1
History
The village of Rudyard was named after Ralph Rudyard, a local man reputed to have killed Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.* [1] Rudyard Lake was constructed by the engineer John Rennie, for the Trent and Mersey Canal company in 1797–98 to feed the Caldon Canal.* [2]
Rudyard miniature railway train
Rudyard Lake is a reservoir in Rudyard, Staffordshire. It was constructed in the late 18th century to feed the Caldon Canal. During the 19th century, it was a popular destination for daytrippers taking advantage of easy access using the newly constructed North Staffordshire Railway. The lake is still used for many water activities such as boating, canoeing, fishing and also for walks and recreational steam train trips.
On 26 June 1846 the North Staffordshire Railway successfully took over the canal company and lake as part of one of its acts of parliament that resulted in the formation of the North Staffordshire Railway. Having acquired the lake and the land around it the railway used the land down one side as the route for its Churnet Valley Line between Macclesfield and Uttoxeter. Two stations were built, one at Rudyard village (later renamed Rudyard Lake) and one at the north end of the lake called Rudyard Lake (later renamed Cliffe Park)* [3] Because of the accessibility brought by the railway stations, daytrippers and tourists began visiting the lake. Visitors included John Lockwood Kipling and Alice Macdonald, the parents of Rudyard Kipling, who met there on a trip from Burslem. They liked the place so much they named their son after it.* [1] By the end of the 19th century up to 20,000 people visited the lake each day.* [2] Matthew Webb enter-
176
20.6. EXTERNAL LINKS tained crowds by demonstrating his swimming in the lake, and Charles Blondin performed a tightrope walk across the lake.* [2]
177
20.6
External links
• Official Rudyard Lake website • Rudyard Lake Sailing Club
20.2 Attractions The lake is home to Rudyard Lake Sailing Club and North Staffordshire Rowing Club. Fishing, walking, canoeing and boat trips are popular attractions.* [4] The lake has a visitor centre, toilets and an activity centre which can be hired for functions or conferences. An annual lake festival is held on a Sunday in August and a firework display takes place in November. The Rudyard Lake Steam Railway runs narrow gauge steam trains that operate up the east side of the lake on many days throughout the year. It is possible to walk round the lake or walk part way and start/finish the journey by steam train.
20.3 Top Gear episode The BBC's motoring show Top Gear held a challenge at the lake in 2006 to see which presenter had designed the best amphibious car. Richard Hammond's attempt sank while Jeremy Clarkson's attempt capsized with Richard on board at the end of the challenge. However, James May's Triumph Herald, complete with sail and mast, performed well, despite the almost total absence of wind, and he was able to drive it out of the water, thus winning the challenge.
20.4 See also • Canals of the United Kingdom • History of the British canal system
20.5 References [1] The Potteries – Did You Know, Rudyard Lake Accessed 16 July 2012 [2] Rudyard Lake official website – a history of Rudyard Accessed 16 July 2012 [3] Jeuda, Basil (1999). The Churnet Valley Railway. Lydney, Gloucestershire: Lightmoor Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-1899889-05-1. [4] Rudyard Lake official website – Activities Accessed 16 July 2012
• North Staffordshire Rowing Club • Rudyard Lake Steam Railway website
Chapter 21
Edward Burne-Jones Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones, 1st Baronet ARA (28 August 1833 – 17 June 1898) was a British artist and designer closely associated with the later phase of the PreRaphaelite movement, who worked closely with William Morris on a wide range of decorative arts as a founding partner in Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. Burne-Jones was closely involved in the rejuvenation of the tradition of stained glass art in Britain; his stained glass works include the windows of St. Philip's Cathedral, Birmingham, St Martin in the Bull Ring, Birmingham, Holy Trinity Church, Sloane Square, Chelsea, St Martin's Church in Brampton, Cumbria (the church designed by Philip Webb), St Michael's Church, Brighton, All Saints, Jesus Lane, Cambridge, Christ Church, Oxford and in St. Anne's Church, Brown Edge, Staffordshire Moorlands. BurneJones's early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic“voice”. In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery (a new rival to the Royal Academy). These included The Beguiling of Merlin. The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald and star of the new Aesthetic Movement. In addition to painting and stained glass, Burne-Jones worked in a variety of crafts; including designing ceramic tiles, jewellery, tapestries, mosaics and book illustration, most famously designing woodcuts for the Kelmscott Burne-Jones with William Morris, 1874, by Frederick Hollyer. Press's Chaucer in 1896.
21.1 Early life Edward Coley Burne Jones (the hyphen came later) was born in Birmingham, the son of a Welshman, Edward Richard Jones, a frame-maker at Bennetts Hill, where a blue plaque commemorates the painter's childhood. His mother Elizabeth Coley Jones died within six days of his birth, and he was raised by his grieving father and the family housekeeper, Ann Sampson, an obsessively affectionate but humorless and unintellectual local girl.* [1]* [2] He attended Birmingham's King Edward VI grammar school
from 1844* [3] and the Birmingham School of Art from 1848 to 1852, before studying theology at Exeter College, Oxford.* [4] At Oxford he became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry. The two Exeter undergraduates, together with a small group of Jones' friends from Birmingham known as the Birmingham Set,* [5] speedily formed a very close and intimate society, which they called “The Brotherhood”. The members of the Brotherhood read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, and worshipped the Middle Ages. At this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur which was to be so influential in his life. At that time neither Burne-Jones nor Morris knew Rossetti person-
178
21.2. MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
179
ally, but both were much influenced by his works, and met him by recruiting him as a contributor to their Oxford and Cambridge Magazine which Morris founded in 1856 to promote their ideas.* [3]* [6] Burne-Jones had intended to become a church minister, but under Rossetti's influence both he and Morris decided to become artists, and Burne-Jones left college before taking a degree to pursue a career in art. In February 1857, Rossetti wrote to William Bell Scott Two young men, projectors of the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, have recently come up to town from Oxford, and are now very intimate friends of mine. Their names are Morris and Jones. They have turned artists instead of taking up any other career to which the university generally leads, and both are men of real genius. Jones's designs are marvels of finish and imaginative detail, unequalled by anything unless perhaps Albert Dürer's finest works.* [3]
21.2 Marriage and family In 1856 Burne-Jones became engaged to Georgiana “Georgie”MacDonald (1840–1920), one of the MacDonald sisters. She was training to be a painter, and was the sister of Burne-Jones's old school friend. The couple married in 1860, after which she made her own work in woodcuts and became a close friend of George Eliot. (Another MacDonald sister married the artist Sir Edward Poynter, a further sister married the ironmaster Alfred Baldwin and was the mother of the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, and yet another sister was the mother of Rudyard Kipling. Kipling and Baldwin were thus Burne-Jones's nephews by marriage).
Portrait of Georgiana Burne-Jones, with Philip and Margaret, 1883
Morris, whose wife Jane had fallen in love with Rossetti. Morris and Georgie may have been in love, but if he asked her to leave her husband, she refused. In the end, the BurneJoneses remained together, as did the Morrises, but Morris and Georgiana were close for the rest of their lives.* [10]
Georgiana bore a son, Philip, in 1861. A second son, born in the winter of 1864 while Georgiana was gravely ill with scarlet fever, died soon after birth. The family soon moved to 41 Kensington Square, and their daughter Margaret was born there in 1866.* [7]
In 1880 the Burne-Joneses bought Prospect House in Rottingdean, near Brighton in Sussex, as their holiday home, and soon after the next door Aubrey Cottage to create North End House, reflecting the fact that their Fulham home was in North End Road. (Years later, in 1923, Sir Roderick Jones, head of Reuters, and his wife, playwright and novelist Enid Bagnold, were to add the adjacent Gothic House to the property and which became the inspiration and setting for her play The Chalk Garden).
In 1867 Burne-Jones and his family settled at the Grange, an 18th-century house set in a large garden in North End Road, Fulham, London. For much of the 1870s Burne-Jones did not exhibit, following a spate of bitterly hostile attacks in the press, and a passionate affair (described as the “emotional climax of his life”* [8]) with his Greek model Maria Zambaco which ended with her trying to commit suicide by throwing herself in Regent's Canal.* [8]* [9] During these difficult years Georgiana developed a close friendship with
His troubled son Philip became a successful portrait painter and died in 1926. His adored daughter Margaret (died 1953) married John William Mackail (1850–1945), the friend and biographer of Morris, and Professor of Poetry at Oxford from 1911–1916. Their children were the novelists Angela Thirkell and Denis Mackail. In an edition of the boys' magazine, Chums (No. 227, Vol. V, 13 January 1897) an article on Burne-Jones stated that "....his pet grandson used to be punished by being sent to stand in a cor-
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CHAPTER 21. EDWARD BURNE-JONES
Margaret, daughter of Edward Coley Burne-Jones
ner with his face to the wall. One day on being sent there he was delighted to find the wall prettily decorated with fairies, flowers, birds, and bunnies. His indulgent grandfather had utilised his talent to alleviate the tedium of his favourite's period of penance.”
21.3 Artistic career 21.3.1
Early years: Rossetti and Morris
Burne-Jones once admitted that after leaving Oxford he “found himself at five-and-twenty what he ought to have been at fifteen.”He had had no regular training as a draughtsman, and lacked the confidence of science. But his extraordinary faculty of invention as a designer was already ripening; his mind, rich in knowledge of classical story and medieval romance, teemed with pictorial subjects; and he set himself to complete his equipment by resolute labour, witnessed by innumerable drawings. The works of this first period are all more or less tinged by the influence of Rossetti; but they are already differentiated from the elder master's style by their more facile though less intensely felt elaboration of imaginative detail. Many are pen-and-ink drawings on vellum, exquisitely finished, of which 1856's Waxen Image is one of the earliest and best examples. Although
Sidonia von Borcke, 1860
subject, medium and manner derive from Rossetti's inspiration, it is not the hand of a pupil merely, but of a potential master. This was recognized by Rossetti himself, who before long avowed that he had nothing more to teach him.* [11] Burne-Jones's first sketch in oils dates from this same year, 1856; and during 1857 he made for Bradfield College the first of what was to be an immense series of cartoons for stained glass. In 1858 he decorated a cabinet with the Prioress's Tale from Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, his first direct illustration of the work of a poet whom he especially loved and who inspired him with endless subjects. Thus early, therefore, we see the artist busy in all the various fields in which he was to labour.* [11]
21.3. ARTISTIC CAREER In the autumn of 1857 Burne-Jones joined Morris, Valentine Prinsep, J. R. Spencer Stanhope* [12] and others in Rossetti's ill-fated scheme to decorate the walls of the Oxford Union. None of the painters had mastered the technique of fresco, and their pictures had begun to peel from the walls before they were completed. In 1859 BurneJones made his first journey to Italy. He saw Florence, Pisa, Siena, Venice and other places, and appears to have found the gentle and romantic Sienese more attractive than any other school. Rossetti's influence still persisted, and is visible, more strongly perhaps than ever before, in the two watercolours of 1860, Sidonia von Bork and Clara von Bork.* [11] Both paintings illustrate the 1849 gothic novel Sidonia the Sorceress by Lady Wilde, a translation of Sidonia Von Bork: Die Klosterhexe (1847) by Johann Wilhelm Meinhold.* [13]
21.3.2
Decorative arts: Morris & Co.
181 ness. The work shown by the firm at the 1862 International Exhibition attracted much notice, and within a few years it was flourishing. Two significant secular commissions helped establish the firm's reputation in the late 1860s: a royal project at St. James's Palace and the “green dining room”at the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert) of 1867 which featured stained glass windows and panel figures by Burne-Jones.* [14] In 1871 Morris & Co. were responsible for the windows at All Saints, designed by Burne-Jones for Alfred Baldwin, his wife's brother-in-law. The firm was reorganized as Morris & Co. in 1875, and Burne-Jones continued to contribute designs for stained glass, and later tapestries until the end of his career. Stained glass windows in the Christ Church cathedral and other buildings in Oxford are by William Morris & Co. with designs by Burne-Jones* [15]* [16] Stanmore Hall was the last major decorating commission executed by Morris & Co. before Morris's death in 1896. It was also the most extensive commission undertaken by the firm, and included a series of tapestries based on the story of the Holy Grail for the dining room, with figures by BurneJones.* [17] In 1891 Jones was elected a member of the Art Workers Guild.
21.3.3
Illustration work
Although known primarily as a painter, Burne-Jones was also an illustrator, helping the Pre-Raphaelite aesthetic to enter mainstream awareness. In addition, he designed books for the Kelmscott Press between 1892 and 1898. His illustrations appeared in the following books, among others:* [18] • The Fairy Family by Archibald Maclaren (1857)
“David's Charge to Solomon”(1882), a stained-glass window by Burne-Jones and Morris in Trinity Church, Boston, Massachusetts.
Main article: Morris & Co. In 1861, William Morris founded the decorative arts firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. with Rossetti, Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown and Philip Webb as partners, together with Charles Faulkner and Peter Paul Marshall, the former of whom was a member of the Oxford Brotherhood, and the latter a friend of Brown and Rossetti.* [6] The prospectus set forth that the firm would undertake carving, stained glass, metal-work, paper-hangings, chintzes (printed fabrics), and carpets.* [11] The decoration of churches was from the first an important part of the busi-
• The Earthly Paradise by William Morris (not completed) • The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer by Geoffrey Chaucer (1896) • Bible Gallery by Dalziel (1881)
21.3.4
Painting
In 1864 Burne-Jones was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours (also known as the Old WaterColour Society), and exhibited, among other works, The Merciful Knight, the first picture which fully revealed his ripened personality as an artist. The next six years saw a series of fine watercolours at the same gallery.* [11] In 1866 Mrs Cassavetti commissioned Burne-Jones to paint
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CHAPTER 21. EDWARD BURNE-JONES riod was, however, one of unremitting production. Hitherto Burne-Jones had worked almost entirely in water-colours. He now began a number of large pictures in oils, working at them in turn, and having always several on hand. The first Briar Rose series, Laus Veneris, the Golden Stairs, the Pygmalion series, and The Mirror of Venus are among the works planned and completed, or carried far towards completion, during these years.* [11] These years also mark the beginnings of Burne-Jones's partnership with the fine-art photographer Frederick Hollyer, whose reproductions of paintings and—especially—drawings would expose a wider audience to Burne-Jones's works in the coming decades.* [20]
The Beguiling of Merlin, 1874
her daughter, Maria Zambaco, in Cupid finding Psyche, an introduction which led to their tragic affair. In 1870, Burne-Jones resigned his membership following a controversy over his painting Phyllis and Demophoön. The features of Maria Zambaco were clearly recognizable in the barely draped Phyllis (as they are in several of BurneJones's finest works), and the undraped nakedness of Demophoön coupled with the suggestion of female sexual assertiveness offended Victorian sensibilities. Burne-Jones was asked to make a slight alteration, but instead “withdrew not only the picture from the walls, but himself from the Society.”* [19] During the next seven years, 1870–1877, only two works of the painter's were exhibited. These were two water-colours, shown at the Dudley Gallery in 1873, one of them being the beautiful Love among the Ruins, destroyed twenty years later by a cleaner who supposed it to be an oil painting, but afterwards reproduced in oils by the painter. This silent pe-
At last, in May 1877, the day of recognition came, with the opening of the first exhibition of the Grosvenor Gallery, when the Days of Creation, The Beguiling of Merlin, and the Mirror of Venus were all shown. Burne-Jones followed up the signal success of these pictures with Laus Veneris, the Chant d'Amour, Pan and Psyche, and other works, exhibited in 1878. Most of these pictures are painted in brilliant colours. A change is noticeable the next year, 1879, in the Annunciation and in the four pictures making up the second series of Pygmalion and the Image; the former of these, one of the simplest and most perfect of the artist's works, is subdued and sober; in the latter a scheme of soft and delicate tints was attempted, not with entire success. A similar temperance of colours marks The Golden Stairs, first exhibited in 1880. The almost sombre Wheel of Fortune was shown in 1883, followed in 1884 by King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid, in which Burne-Jones once more indulged his love of gorgeous colour, refined by the period of self-restraint. He next turned to two important sets of pictures, The Briar Rose and The Story of Perseus, though these were not completed for some years.* [11] Burne-Jones was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1885, and the following year he exhibited (for the only time) at the Academy, showing The Depths of the Sea, a painting of a mermaid carrying down with her a youth whom she has unconsciously drowned in the impetuosity of her love. This picture adds to the habitual haunting charm a tragic irony of conception and a felicity of execution which give it a place apart among Burne-Jones's works. He formally resigned his Associateship in 1893. One of the Perseus series was exhibited in 1887, two more in 1888, with The Brazen Tower, inspired by the same legend. In 1890 the second series of The Legend of Briar Rose were exhibited by themselves, and won the widest admiration. The huge watercolor, The Star of Bethlehem, painted for the corporation of Birmingham, was exhibited in 1891. A long illness for some time checked the painter's activity, which, when resumed, was much occupied with decorative schemes. An exhibition of his work was held at the New Gallery in the winter of 1892-1893. To this period belong several of his comparatively few portraits. In
21.3. ARTISTIC CAREER
183
21.3.5
Design for the theatre
In 1894, theatrical manager and actor Henry Irving commissioned Burne-Jones to design sets and costumes for the Lyceum Theatre production of King Arthur by J. Comyns Carr, who was Burne-Jones's patron and the director of the New Gallery as well as a playwright. The play starred Irving as King Arthur and Ellen Terry as Guinevere, and toured America following its London run.* [21]* [22]* [23] BurneJones accepted the commission with some enthuisiasm, but was disappointed with much of the final result. He wrote confidentially to his friend Helen Mary Gaskell (known as May), “The armour is good—they have taken pains with it ... Perceval looked the one romantic thing in it ... I hate the stage, don't tell—but I do.”* [24]
21.3.6
Aesthetics
Burne-Jones's paintings were one strand in the evolving tapestry of Aestheticism from the 1860s through the 1880s, which considered that art should be valued as an object of beauty engendering a sensual response, rather than for the story or moral implicit in the subject matter. In many ways this was antithetical to the ideals of Ruskin and the early Pre-Raphaelites.* [25] Burne-Jones's aim in art is best given in some of his own words, written to a friend: I mean by a picture a beautiful, romantic dream of something that never was, never will be - in a light better than any light that ever shone - in a land no one can define or remember, only desire - and the forms divinely beautiful and then I wake up, with the waking of Brynhild.* [11]
"King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid", 1884, currently in the Tate Gallery, London.
1894 Burne-Jones was made a baronet. Ill-health again interrupted the progress of his works, chief among which was the vast Arthur in Avalon. In the winter following his death a second exhibition of his works was held at the New Gallery, and an exhibition of his drawings (including some of the charmingly humorous sketches made for children) at the Burlington Fine Arts Club.* [11]
No artist was ever more true to his aim. Ideals resolutely pursued are apt to provoke the resentment of the world, and Burne-Jones encountered, endured and conquered an extraordinary amount of angry criticism. Insofar as this was directed against the lack of realism in his pictures, it was beside the point. The earth, the sky, the rocks, the trees, the men and women of Burne-Jones are not those of this world; but they are themselves a world, consistent with itself, and having therefore its own reality. Charged with the beauty and with the strangeness of dreams, it has nothing of a dream's incoherence. Yet it is a dreamer always whose nature penetrates these works, a nature out of sympathy with struggle and strenuous action. Burne-Jones's men and women are dreamers too. It was this which, more than anything else, estranged him from the age into which he was born. But he had an inbred“revolt from fact”which
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CHAPTER 21. EDWARD BURNE-JONES constant pressure of his ideas. Whatever faults his paintings may have, they have always the fundamental virtue of design; they are always pictures. His designs were informed with a mind of romantic temper, apt in the discovery of beautiful subjects, and impassioned with a delight in pure and variegated colour.* [11]
21.4
Honours
Burne-Jones' The last sleep of Arthur at Museo de Arte de Ponce, Ponce, Puerto Rico
The Golden Stairs, 1880
In 1881 Burne-Jones received an honorary degree from Oxford, and was made an Honorary Fellow in 1882.* [3] In 1885 he became the President of the Birmingham Society of Artists. At about that time he began hyphenating his name, merely—as he wrote later—to avoid “annihilation” in the mass of Joneses.* [26] In November 1893, he was approached to see if he would accept a Baronetcy on the recommendation of the outgoing Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, the following February he legally changed his name to Burne-Jones* [27] He was formally created a baronet of Rottingdean, in the county of Sussex, and of the Grange, in the parish of Fulham, in the county of London in the baronetage of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1894,* [28] but remained unhappy about accepting the honour, which disgusted his socialist friend Morris and was scorned by his equally socialist wife Georgiana.* [26]* [27] Only his son Philip, who mixed with the set of the Prince of Wales and would inherit the title, truly wanted it.* [27]
would have estranged him from the actualities of any age. That criticism seems to be more justified which has found in him a lack of such victorious energy and mastery over his materials as would have enabled him to carry out his conceptions in their original intensity. Yet Burne-Jones was singularly strenuous in production. His industry was inexhaustible, and needed to be, if it was to keep pace with the
Morris died in 1896, and the devastated Burne-Jones's health declined substantially. In 1898 he had an attack of influenza, and had apparently recovered, when he was again taken suddenly ill, and died on 17 June 1898.* [11]* [29] Six days later, at the intervention of the Prince of Wales, a memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey. It was the first time an artist had been so honoured. Burne-Jones was buried in the churchyard at St Margaret's Church, Rottingdean,* [30] a place he knew through summer family hol-
21.7. GALLERY idays.
185 the Tate Gallery in London. In his opening speech at the exhibition, Mr Baldwin expressed what the art of Burne-Jones stood for:
21.5 Influence In my view, what he did for us common people was to open, as never had been opened before, magic casements of a land of faery in which he lived throughout his life ... It is in that inner world we can cherish in peace, beauty which he has left us and in which there is peace at least for ourselves. The few of us who knew him and loved him well, always keep him in our hearts, but his work will go on long after we have passed away. It may give its message in one generation to a few or in other to many more, but there it will be for ever for those who seek in their generation, for beauty and for those who can recognise and reverence a great man, and a great artist.* [33]
Blue plaque on Bennetts Hill, Birmingham
Burne-Jones exerted a considerable influence on French painting. Burne-Jones was also highly influential among French symbolist painters, from 1889.* [31] His work inspired poetry by Swinburne —Swinburne's 1886 Poems & Ballads is dedicated to Burne-Jones. Three of Burne-Jones's studio assistants, John Melhuish Strudwick, T.M. Rooke and Charles Fairfax Murray went on to successful painting careers. Murray later became an important collector and respected art dealer. Between 1903 and 1907 he sold a great many works by Burne-Jones and the Pre-Raphaelites to the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, at far below their market worth. Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery now has the largest collection of works by Burne-Jones in the world, including the massive watercolour Star of Bethlehem, commissioned for the Gallery in 1897. The paintings are believed by some to have influenced the young J. R. R. Tolkien, then growing up in Birmingham.* [32] Burne-Jones was also a very strong influence on the Birmingham Group of artists, from the 1890s onwards.
21.6 Neglect and rediscovery On 16 June 1933, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, a nephew of Burne-Jones, officially opened the centenary exhibition featuring Burne-Jones's drawings and paintings at
But in fact, long before 1933, Burne-Jones was hopelessly out-of-fashion in the art world, much of which soon preferred the major trends in Modern art, and the exhibit marking the 100th anniversary of his birth was a sad affair, poorly attended.* [34] It was not until the mid-1970s that his work began to be re-assessed and once again acclaimed. A major exhibit in 1989 at the Barbican Art Gallery, London (in book form as: John Christian, The Last Romantics, 1989) traced Burne-Jones's influence on the next generation of artists, and another at Tate Britain in 1997 explored the links between British Aestheticism and Symbolism.* [31] A second lavish centenary exhibit—this time marking the 100th anniversary of Burne-Jones's death—was held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1998, before traveling to the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the Musée d'Orsay, Paris.* [35] Fiona MacCarthy in a review of Burne-Jones's legacy notes that he was“a painter who, while quintessentially Victorian, leads us forward to the psychological and sexual introspection of the early twentieth century.”* [36]
21.7
Gallery
21.7.1
Stained and painted glass
• Cartoon for Daniel window, St. Martin's-on-the-Hill, Scarborough, 1873 • Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris' Nativity windows (1882), Trinity Church, Boston.
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CHAPTER 21. EDWARD BURNE-JONES
• The Worship of the Magi window (1882), Trinity Pygmalion and the Image (second series) Church, Boston. • The Heart Desires, 1878 • The Worship of the Shepherds window (1882), Trinity • The Hand Refrains, 1878 Church, Boston. • Nativity scene in St Mary's Church, Huish Episcopi, Somerset
• The Godhead Fires, 1878 • The Soul Attains, 1878
• David 1872, in St Michael and All Angels, Waterford, The Grosvenor Gallery years Hertfordshire • Miriam, 1872 in St Michael and All Angels, Waterford, Hertfordshire • Miriam, 1886 in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh • Christ as Salvator Mundi, 1896 in St Michael and All Angels, Waterford, Hertfordshire • St. Cecilia window, Second Presbyterian Church (Chicago, Illinois)
• Pan and Psyche, 1874 • The Annunciation, 1879 • The Angel, 1881 • The Mill, 1882 • Edward Burne-Jones - An Angel Playing a Flageolet Sudley House, Liverpool, England The Legend of Briar Rose (second series)
21.7.2
Drawings
• The Knight's Farewell, 1858, pen-and-ink on vellum, 1858
Main article: The Legend of Briar Rose • The Briar Wood, completed 1890
• Going to the Battle, pen-and-ink with gray wash on vellum, 1858
• The Council Chamber, 1890
• King Sigurd, woodcut engraving by the Dalziel Bros. after a pen-and-ink drawing, 1862
• The Rose Bower, 1890
• Portrait of Ignacy Jan Paderewski, 1892
21.7.3
Paintings
Early works • The Princess Sabra Led to the Dragon, 1866 • Portrait of Maria Zambaco, 1870 • Phyllis and Demophoön, 1870 • Temperantia, 1872 Pygmalion (first series) • The Heart Desires, 1868–70 • The Hand Refrains, 1868-1870 • The Godhead Fires, 1868–70 • The Soul Attains, 1868–70
• The Garden Court, 1890
Later works • The Doom Fulfilled, 1888 (Perseus Cycle 7) • The Baleful Head, 1887 (Perseus Cycle 8) • The Star of Bethlehem, 1890 • Vespertina Quies, 1893 • Love Among the Ruins, 1894 recreation in oils • The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon 1881–1898
21.7.4
Decorative arts
• Illuminated manuscript of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam by William Morris, illustrated by BurneJones with a variant of Love Among the Ruins, 1870s • The Arming and Departure of the Knights, one of the Holy Grail tapestries, 1890s, figures by Burne-Jones. • A page from the Kelmscott Chaucer, decoration by Morris and illustration by Burne-Jones, 1896
21.9. REFERENCES
21.7.5
Theatre
• Scene from King Arthur, sets by Burne-Jones, 1895 • Ellen Terry as Guinevere, costume by Burne-Jones, 1894
21.7.6
Photographs
• The Burne-Jones and Morris families in the garden at the Grange, 1874, photograph by Frederick Hollyer • Edward Burne-Jones, c. 1882 (Hollyer) • Georgiana Burne-Jones, c. 1882 (Hollyer)
187
[11] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Burne". Encyclopædia Britannica 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. [12] Marsh, Letters and Diaries, p. 110 [13] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 66. [14] Linda Parry, “Domestic Decoration.”In Parry, William Morris, p. 139-140 [15] Edward Burne-Jones Southgate Green Association “His work included both stained-glass windows for Christ Church in Oxford and the stained glass windows for Christ Church on Southgate Green.”
• Burne-Jones's garden studio at the Grange, 1887 (Hol- [16] PreRaphaelite Painting and Design University of Texas lyer) [17] Linda Parry, “Domestic Decoration.”In Parry, William Morris, p. 146-147
21.8 See also • List of paintings by Edward Burne-Jones
[18] Souter, Nick and Tessa (2012). The Illustration Handbook: A guide to the world's greatest illustrators. Oceana. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-84573-473-2.
• The Flower Book
[19] J. J. Roget, A History of the “Old”Water-Colour Society, (1891), quoted in Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 138
• Stained Glass Designs for the Vinland House, 1881
[20] Wildman, Burne-Jones, p. 197-98. [21] Wildman, p. 315
21.9 References
[22] Wood, p. 119
Notes
[23] “Miss Terry as Guinevere; In a Play by Comyns Carr, Dressed by Sir Edward Burne-Jones”. New York Times. 5 November 1895. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
[1] Wildman, Burne-Jones, p. 42-43.
[24] Wood, p. 120
[2] Daly, Pre-Raphaelites in Love, p. 249-251
[25] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 112-113
[3] Dictionary of National Biography (1909), “Edward BurneJones”
[26] Taylor, Victorian Sisters, p. 150-51
[4] Newall, Christopher (2004). “Jones, Sir Edward Coley Burne-, first baronet (1833–1898)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 22 June 2008. [5] Rose, Andrea (1981). Pre-Raphaelite portraits. Oxford: Oxford Illustrated Press. p. 78. ISBN 0-902280-82-1. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
[27] Flanders, Circle of Sisters, p. 258 [28] The London Gazette: no. 26509. p. 2613. 4 May 1894. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [29] The London Gazette: no. 26988. p. 4396. 19 July 1898. Retrieved 25 September 2008. [30] Dale, Brighton Churches, p. 212
[6] Dictionary of National Biography (1901),“William Morris” [31] “The Age of Rossetti, Burne-Jones and Watts: Symbolism in Britain 1860-1910”. Retrieved 12 September 2008. [7] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 107 [32] Bracken, Pamela (4 March 2006). “Echoes of Fellowship: The PRB and the Inklings”. Conference paper, C. S. Lewis [8] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 114 & the Inklings. Retrieved 23 June 2014. [9] Flanders, Circle of Sisters, p. 118-120. [33]“Centenary exhibition of Sir Edward Burne-Jones at London [10] Flanders, Circle of Sisters, p. 136 Tate Gallery”. Straits Times. 24 July 1933. p. 6.
188
[34] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, p. 1 [35] Wildman, Edward Burne-Jones, front matter [36] Tate: “A Visionary Oddity: Fiona MacCarthy on Edward Burne-Jones” [37] “Burne-Jones's Hope”. Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved December 22, 2013.
Bibliography • Dale, Antony, Brighton Churches, London, Routledge, 1989, ISBN 0-415-00863-8 • Daly, Gay, Pre-Raphaelites in Love, New York, Ticknor & Fields, 1989, ISBN 0-89919-450-8 • Flanders, Judith, A Circle of Sisters: Alice Kipling, Georgiana Burne Jones, Agnes Poynter, and Louisa Baldwin, Norton, 2001, ISBN 0-393-05210-9 • Mackail, J. W. (1901). "Morris, William (18341896)". In Sidney Lee. Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement 3. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 197–203. • Marsh, Jan: The Pre-Raphaelites: Their Lives in Letters and Diaries, Trafalgar Square, 1997, ISBN 1-85585246-2 • Parry, Linda, ed., William Morris, Abrams, 1996, ISBN 0-8109-4282-8 • Taylor, Ina, Victorian Sisters, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987 • Todd, Pamela, Pre-Raphaelites at Home, New York, Watson-Guptill Publications, 2001, ISBN 0-82304285-5 • Wildman, Stephen: Edward Burne-Jones: Victorian Artist-Dreamer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0-87099-859-5
CHAPTER 21. EDWARD BURNE-JONES • Arscott, Caroline. William Morris and Edward BurneJones: Interlacings, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press (Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art), 2008). ISBN 978-0-30014093-4. • Mackail, J. W., The Life of William Morris in two volumes, London, New York and Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co., 1899. • Google Books edition of Volume I and Volume II (1911 reprint) retrieved 16 August 2008. • Marsh, Jan, Jane and May Morris: A Biographical Story 1839–1938, London, Pandora Press, 1986 ISBN 0-86358-026-2. • Marsh, Jan, Jane and May Morris: A Biographical Story 1839–1938 (updated edition, privately published by author), London, 2000. • Robinson, Duncan (1982). William Morris, Edward Burne-Jones and the Kelmscott Chaucer. London: Gordon Fraser. • Spalding, Frances (1978). Magnificent Dreams: Burne-Jones and the Late Victorians. Oxford: Phaidon. ISBN 0-7148-1827-5.
21.10
External links
• The Age of Rossetti, Burne-Jones and Watts: Symbolism in Britain 1860-1910 Online version of exhibit at the Tate Britain 16 October 1997 – 4 January 1998, with 100 works by Burne-Jones, at Art Magick • Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery's PreRaphaelite Online Resource Large online collection of the works of Edward Burne Jones • Lady Lever Art Gallery
• Wood, Christopher: Burne-Jones, Phoenix Illustrated, 1997, ISBN 978-0-7538-0727-9
• The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon (1881) in the Museo de Arte de Ponce
• This article also incorporates text from the Dictionary of National Biography, supplemental volume 3 (1901) and volume 22 (1909), publications now in the public domain
• Pre-Raphaelite online resource project website at the Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery, with about a thousand paintings on canvas and works on paper by Edward Burne-Jones
Further reading • MacCarthy, Fiona (2011). The Last Pre-Raphaelite: Edward Burne-Jones and the Victorian Imagination. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22861-4.
• Burne-Jones Stained Glass Windows in Cumbria • The Pre-Raphaelite Church - Brampton • Some Burne-Jones stained glass designs • Speldhurst Church
21.10. EXTERNAL LINKS • Phryne's list of pictures in public galleries in the UK • Mary Lago Collection at the University of Missouri Libraries. Personal papers of a Burne-Jones scholar.
189
Chapter 22
Edward Poynter
Edward Poynter (Alphonse Legros)
Edward Poynter - Andromeda, 1869
Sir Edward John Poynter, 1st Baronet PRA (20 March 1836 in Paris – 26 July 1919 in London) was an English lege and Ipswich School, but left school early for reasons painter, designer, and draughtsman who served as President of ill health, spending winters in Madeira and Rome. In 1853 he met Frederick Leighton in Rome, who made a of the Royal Academy. great impression on the 17-year-old Poynter. On his return to London he studied at Leigh's academy in Newman Street and the Royal Academy Schools, before go22.1 Life ing to Paris to study in the studio of the classicist painter Charles Gleyre where James McNeill Whistler and George Edward Poynter was the son of the architect Ambrose Poyn- du Maurier were fellow-students. In 1866 Poynter married ter. He was born in Paris, though his parents returned the famous beauty Agnes MacDonald, daughter of the Rev to Britain soon after. He was educated at Brighton Col- G B MacDonald of Wolverhampton, and they had three 190
22.3. BIBLIOGRAPHY children. Her sister Georgiana married the artist Edward Burne-Jones; her sister Alice was the mother of writer Rudyard Kipling; and her sister Louisa was the mother of three-times-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Stanley Baldwin.
22.2 Career He became best known for his large historical paintings such as Israel in Egypt (1867; Guildhall Art Gallery, London), followed by St George for England (1869), a mosaic for the Central Lobby of the Palace of Westminster, depicting St George and the Dragon.* [1] Visit of the Queen of Sheba (1871–75) and King Solomon (1890). He was admitted as an associate of the Royal Academy in 1869.* [2] Poynter held a number of official posts: he was the first Slade Professor at University College London from 1871 to 1875, principal of the National Art Training School from 1875 to 1881 and director of the National Gallery from 1894 to 1904 (overseeing the opening of the Tate Gallery). He became a Royal Academician in 1876. In 1896, on the death of Sir John Millais, Poynter was elected President of the Royal Academy. He received a knighthood in the same year and an honorary degree from Cambridge University in 1898.* [3] He was made a baronet in 1902. It appears from the subjects of his paintings (King Solomon and King Solomon's Temple) and his association with Kipling that he was a Freemason. Prints of his painting The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon are to be found in many Masonic Lodges around the world. Poynter's old school, Brighton College held an exhibition of Poynter's paintings and drawings entitled 'Life at Arms Length' in its Burstow Gallery in November–December 1995. • Edward Poynter's works • At Low Tide
191
22.3
Bibliography
• Ten lectures on art (London: Chapman and Hall, 1880). • Buxton, H. J. Wilmot (co-author). German, Flemish and Dutch painting (Scribner and Welford, 1881). • Head, Percy Head (co-author). Classic and Italian painting (London: S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1890)
22.4
References
[1] Jarrold Publishing, Norwich. Palace of Westminster Collection [2] “The Register, Adelaide, June 27, 1902”. Trove. Retrieved 21 August 2013. [3] “Poynter, Edward John (PNTR898SE)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
22.5
Sources
• Bell,Malcolm. Drawings of Sir E. J. Poynter ( London: G. Newnes, ltd., 1905). • Sir Edward John, Bart Poynter (1911 Encyclopædia Britannica)
22.6
External links
• Edward Poynter online (ArtCyclopedia) • Edward Poynter – biography and paintings (artmagick.com) • Edward Poynter – biography and paintings (Art Renewal Center)
• Psyche in the Temple of Love
• Poynter, Edward John, Sir (Dictionary of art historians)
• Asterié'
• Pears Soap Company & Sir Edward Poynter – “At Low Tide” (“Art of the Print”)
• The Cave of the Storm Nymphs (1903), private collection • Corner of the Marketplace (1887) • Pea Blossoms
• Works by Edward Poynter at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Edward Poynter at Internet Archive
192
Israel in Egypt (1867) Edward Poynter
CHAPTER 22. EDWARD POYNTER
Chapter 23
Stanley Baldwin Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley KG PC FRS* [1] (3 August 1867 – 14 December 1947) was a British Conservative politician, who dominated the government in his country between the two world wars. Three times Prime Minister, he is the only premier to have served under three monarchs (George V, Edward VIII and George VI). Baldwin first entered the House of Commons in 1908 as the Member of Parliament for Bewdley, and held government office in the coalition ministry of David Lloyd George. In 1922, Baldwin was one of the prime movers in the withdrawal of Conservative support from Lloyd George; he subsequently became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Bonar Law's Conservative ministry. Upon Law's resignation due to health reasons in May 1923, Baldwin became Prime Minister and Conservative Party leader. He called an election on the issue of tariffs and lost the Conservatives' majority, after which Ramsay MacDonald formed a minority Labour government.
ing innovations, such as clever use of radio and film, that made him highly visible to the public and strengthened Conservative appeal. In 1935, Baldwin replaced MacDonald as Prime Minister of the National Government, and won the 1935 General Election with another large majority. During this time, he oversaw the re-armament process of the British military as well as the abdication of King Edward VIII. Baldwin's third government saw a number of crises in foreign affairs, including the public uproar over the Hoare-Laval Pact, Hitler's re-occupation of the Rhineland and the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
Baldwin retired in 1937 and was succeeded by Neville Chamberlain. At that time, he was regarded as a popular and successful prime minister,* [2] but for the final decade of his life, and for many years afterwards, he was vilified for having presided over high unemployment in the 1930s and as one of the “Guilty Men”who had tried to appease Adolf Hitler and who had – supposedly – not rearmed sufAfter winning the 1924 General Election Baldwin formed ficiently to prepare for the Second World War. By 2004, his second government, which saw important tenures of of- however, historians generally painted a positive portrait of fice by Sir Austen Chamberlain (Foreign Secretary), Win- his governments. Ball says, ston Churchill (at the Exchequer) and Neville Chamberlain (Health). That government also saw the General Strike in 1926 and the 1927 Trades Disputes Act to curb the powers of trade unions, although Baldwin was supportive of Labour Baldwin is now seen as having done more politicians at Westminster forming minority governments. than most and perhaps as much as was possiBaldwin lost the 1929 General Election and his continued ble in the context, but the fact remains that it leadership of the party was subject to criticism by the press was not enough to deter the aggressors or ensure barons Rothermere and Beaverbrook. their defeat. Less equivocal was his rediscovery In 1931, Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald as a moderate and inclusive Conservative for the formed a National Government, most of whose ministers modern age, part of a 'one nation tradition'.* [3] were Conservatives and which won an enormous majority at the 1931 General Election. As Lord President of the Council, Baldwin took over many of the Prime Minister's duties due to MacDonald's failing health. This government saw an Act delivering increased self-government for India, This more positive outlook on Baldwin's time as Prime a measure opposed by Churchill and by many rank-and-file Minister is reflected in evaluations by scholars, where he Conservatives. As party leader, Baldwin made many strik- generally ranked in the upper half of British Prime Ministers.* [4] 193
194
CHAPTER 23. STANLEY BALDWIN
23.2
Early political career
Mason College, now the University of Birmingham
23.1 Early life The Old Schools of Harrow School
Baldwin was born at Lower Park House, Lower Park, Bewdley in Worcestershire, England to Alfred Baldwin and Louisa Baldwin (née MacDonald) and through his Scottish mother was a first cousin of the writer and poet Rudyard Kipling. The family owned the eponymous iron and steel making business that in later years became part of Richard Thomas and Baldwins. Baldwin's schools were St Michael's followed by Harrow School and finally Brighton College.* [5] He later wrote that "all the king's horses and all the king's men would have failed to have drawn me into the company of school masters, and in relation to them I once had every qualification as a passive resister.”* [6] Baldwin then went on to the University of Cambridge, where he studied history at Trinity College. His time at university was blighted by the presence, as Master of Trinity, of a former schoolmaster who had punished him at Harrow for writing a piece of schoolboy smut. He was asked to resign from the Magpie & Stump (the Trinity College debating society) for never speaking, and, after receiving a third-class degree in history, he went into the family business of iron manufacturing. His father sent him to Mason College (the future University of Birmingham) for one session as preparation.* [7] As a young man he served briefly as a Second Lieutenant in the Artillery Volunteers at Malvern* [8] and in 1897 became a JP for the county of Worcestershire.* [9] Baldwin married Lucy Ridsdale on 12 September 1892. Baldwin proved to be adept as a businessman, and acquired a reputation as a modernising industrialist. He inherited £200,000 equivalent to £18,649,837 in 2015 and a directorship of the Great Western Railway on the death of his father in 1908.
In the 1906 general election he contested Kidderminster but lost amidst the Conservative landslide defeat after the party split on the issue of free trade. In 1908 he was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Bewdley in which role he succeeded his father. During the First World War he became Parliamentary Private Secretary to the party leader Andrew Bonar Law and in 1917 he was appointed to the junior ministerial post of Financial Secretary to the Treasury where he sought to encourage voluntary donations by the rich to repay the United Kingdom's war debt, writing letters to The Times under the pseudonym 'FST', much of which were published. He relinquished to the Treasury one fifth of his own fortune, estimated at own account as £580,000, held in the form of war loan stock worth £120,000.* [3]
Astley Hall near Kidderminster, Baldwin's home between 1902 and 1947
He served jointly with Sir Hardman Lever, who had been appointed in 1916, but after 1919 Baldwin carried out the
23.4. LEADER OF THE OPPOSITION
195
duties largely alone. He was appointed to the Privy Council Lord Curzon, the Foreign Secretary, and Baldwin. The in the 1920 Birthday Honours. In 1921 he was promoted to choice formally fell to King George V acting on the advice the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. of senior ministers and officials. In late 1922 dissatisfaction was steadily growing within the Conservative Party over its coalition with the Liberal David Lloyd George. At a meeting of Conservative MPs at the Carlton Club in October, Baldwin announced that he would no longer support the coalition and famously condemned Lloyd George for being a“dynamic force”that was bringing destruction across politics. The meeting chose to leave the coalition, against the wishes of most of the party leadership. As a direct result Bonar Law was forced to search for new ministers for a Cabinet led by him and so promoted Baldwin to the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer. In the November 1922 general election the Conservatives were returned with a majority in their own right.
23.3 Prime Minister First time: (1923–1924)
It is not entirely clear what factors proved most crucial, but some Conservative politicians felt that Curzon was unsuitable for the role of Prime Minister because he was a member of the House of Lords (though this did not stop other lords running credible campaigns for the position until World War II). Curzon's lack of experience in domestic affairs, his personal character (found objectionable), and his substantial inherited wealth and directorships at a time when the Conservative Party was seeking to shed its patrician image were all deemed impediments. Much weight at the time was given to the intervention of Arthur Balfour. The King turned to Baldwin to become Prime Minister. Initially Baldwin was also Chancellor of the Exchequer whilst he sought to recruit the former Liberal Chancellor Reginald McKenna to join the government. When this failed he appointed Neville Chamberlain. The Conservatives now had a clear majority in the House of Commons and could govern for five years before holding a general election, but Baldwin felt bound by Bonar Law's pledge at the previous election that there would be no introduction of tariffs without a further election. Thus Baldwin turned towards a degree of classical Tory protectionism which would remain a key party message during his lifetime.* [10] With the country facing growing unemployment in the wake of free trade imports driving down prices and profits, Baldwin decided to call an early general election in December 1923 to seek a mandate to introduce protectionist tariffs which, he hoped, would drive down unemployment.* [11] Protection was divisive in the Conservative Party in 1923:“one must speak of the election being fought by a divided party.”* [10] The election outcome was inconclusive: the Conservatives had 258 MPs, Labour 191 and the reunited Liberals 159. Whilst the Conservatives retained a plurality in the House of Commons, they had been clearly defeated on the central issue: tariffs. Baldwin remained Prime Minister until the opening session of the new Parliament in January 1924, at which time the government was defeated in a motion of confidence vote. He resigned immediately.
23.4 Baldwin, unknown date
In May 1923 Bonar Law was diagnosed with terminal cancer and retired immediately. With many of the party's senior leading figures standing aloof and outside of the government, there were only two candidates to succeed him:
Leader of the Opposition
Baldwin successfully held on to the party leadership amid some colleagues' calls for his resignation.* [12] For the next ten months, an unstable minority Labour government under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald held office. On 13 March 1924, the Labour government was defeated for the first time in the Commons, although the Conservatives
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decided to vote with Labour later that day against the Liberals.* [13] During a debate on the naval estimates the Conservatives opposed Labour but supported them on 18 March in a vote on cutting expenditure on the Singapore military base.* [13] Baldwin also cooperated with MacDonald over Irish policy to stop it becoming a party-political issue.* [14]* [15] The Labour government was negotiating with the Soviet government over intended commercial treaties 'the Russian Treaties' to provide most favoured nation privileges and diplomatic status for the UK trade delegation; and a treaty that would settle the claims of pre-revolutionary British bondholders and holders of confiscated property, after which the British government would guarantee a loan to the Soviet Union.* [16] Baldwin decided to vote against the government over the Russian Treaties, which brought the government down on 8 October.* [17] The general election held in October 1924 brought a landslide majority of 223 for the Conservative party, primarily at the expense of an unpopular Liberal Party. Baldwin campaigned on the “impracticability”of socialism, the Campbell Case, the Zinoviev Letter (which Baldwin thought was genuine) and the Russian Treaties.* [18] In a speech during the campaign Baldwin said: It makes my blood boil to read of the way which Mr. Zinoviev is speaking of the Prime Minister today. Though one time there went up a cry,“Hands off Russia”, I think it's time somebody said to Russia,“Hands off England”.* [19]
W. L. Mackenzie King, Prime Minister of Canada (left) and Baldwin at the Imperial Conference, October 1926
23.5 Prime Minister Second time: (1924–1929) Baldwin's new Cabinet now included many former political associates of Lloyd George: former Coalition Conservatives: Austen Chamberlain (as Foreign Secretary), Lord Birkenhead (Secretary for India) and Arthur Balfour (Lord President after 1925), and the former Liberal Winston Churchill as Chancellor of the Exchequer. This period included the General Strike of 1926, a crisis that the government managed to weather, despite the havoc it caused throughout the UK. Baldwin created the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies, a volunteer body of those opposed to the strike which was intended to complete essential work.* [20]
Visit of the Prince of Wales (the future Edward VIII) to Rideau Hall, Ottawa August 1927. Front row (left-right: 2nd, W. L. Mackenzie King; 4th, Viscount Willingdon; 5th, the Prince of Wales; 6th, Prince George; 8th, Baldwin
monopoly half-financed by the Government and half by loAt Baldwin's instigation Lord Weir headed a committee to cal undertakings. Baldwin accepted Weir's recommenda* “review the national problem of electrical energy”. It pub- tions and they became law by the end of 1926. [21] lished its report on 14 May 1925 and in it Weir recom- The Board was a success. By 1939 electrical output was mended the setting up of a Central Electricity Board, a state up fourfold and generating costs had fallen. Consumers of
23.7. LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL
197
electricity rose from three-quarters of a million in 1920 to to believe that, as he put it on 9 November 1932: “the nine million in 1938, with annual growth of 7–800,000 a time has now come to an end when Great Britain can proyear (the fastest rate of growth in the world).* [21] ceed with unilateral disarmament”.* [26] On 10 November One of his legislative reforms was a paradigm shift in his 1932 Baldwin said: party. This was the Widows, Orphans and Old Age Contributory Pensions Act of 1925, which provided a pension of 10 shillings a week for widows with extra for children, and 10 shillings a week for insured workers and their wives at 65. This transformed Toryism, away from its historic reliance on community (particularly religious) charities, and towards acceptance of a humanitarian welfare state which would guarantee a minimum living standard for those unable to work or who took out national insurance.* [22]
23.6 Leader of the Opposition In 1929 Labour returned to office, the largest party in the House of Commons (although without an overall majority) despite obtaining fewer votes than the Conservatives. In opposition, Baldwin was almost ousted as party leader by the press barons Lords Rothermere and Beaverbrook, whom he accused of enjoying“power without responsibility, the prerogative of the harlot throughout the ages”.* [23] Ramsden argues that Baldwin made dramatic permanent improvements to the organization and effectiveness of the Conservative party. He enlarged the headquarters with professionals, professionalized the party agents; raised ample funds, and was an innovative user of the new mass media of radio and film.* [24]
23.7 Lord President of the Council By 1931 Baldwin and the Conservatives entered into a coalition with Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. This decision led to MacDonald's expulsion from his own party, and Baldwin, as Lord President of the Council became de facto Prime Minister deputising for the increasingly senile MacDonald, until he once again officially became Prime Minister in 1935. His government then secured with great difficulty the passage of the landmark Government of India Act 1935, in the teeth of opposition from Winston Churchill, whose views enjoyed much support among rank-and-file Conservatives.
23.7.1
Disarmament
I think it is well also for the man in the street to realise that there is no power on earth that can protect him from being bombed. Whatever people may tell him, the bomber will always get through, The only defence is in offence, which means that you have to kill more women and children more quickly than the enemy if you want to save yourselves...If the conscience of the young men should ever come to feel, with regard to this one instrument [bombing] that it is evil and should go, the thing will be done; but if they do not feel like that – well, as I say, the future is in their hands. But when the next war comes, and European civilisation is wiped out, as it will be, and by no force more than that force, then do not let them lay blame on the old men. Let them remember that they, principally, or they alone, are responsible for the terrors that have fallen upon the earth.* [26] This speech was often used against Baldwin as allegedly demonstrating the futility of rearmament or disarmament, depending on the critic.* [27] With the second part of the Disarmament Conference starting in January 1933, Baldwin attempted to see through his hope of air disarmament.* [28] However he became alarmed at Britain's lack of defence against air raids and German rearmament, saying it “would be a terrible thing, in fact, the beginning of the end”.* [29] In April 1933 the Cabinet agreed to follow through with the construction of the Singapore military base.* [30] On 15 September 1933 the German delegate at the Disarmament Conference refused to return to the Conference and Germany left altogether in October. On 6 October Baldwin, in a speech to the Conservative Party Conference in Birmingham, pleaded for a Disarmament Convention and then said: when I speak of a Disarmament Convention I do not mean disarmament on the part of this country and not on the part of any other. I mean the limitation of armaments as a real limitation...and if we find ourselves on some lower rating and that some other country has higher figures, that country has to come down and we have to go up until we meet.* [31]
Baldwin did not advocate total disarmament but believed that, as Sir Edward Grey had stated in 1925, “great ar- On 14 October Germany left the League of Nations. The maments lead inevitably to war”.* [25] However he came Cabinet decided on 23 October that Britain should still at-
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tempt to cooperate with other states, including Germany, in international disarmament.* [32] However between midSeptember 1933 and the beginning of 1934 Baldwin's mind changed from hoping for disarmament to favouring rearmament, including parity in aircraft.* [33] In late 1933 and early 1934 he rejected an invitation from Hitler to meet him, believing that visits to foreign capitals were the job of Foreign Secretaries.* [34] On 8 March 1934 Baldwin defended the creation of four new squadrons for the Royal Air Force against Labour criticisms and said of international disarmament: If all our efforts for an agreement fail, and if it is not possible to obtain this equality in such matters as I have indicated, then any Government of this country—a National Government more than any, and this Government—will see to it that in air strength and air power this country shall no longer be in a position inferior to any country within striking distance of our shores.* [35] On 29 March 1934 Germany published its defence estimates' which showed a total increase of one-third and an increase of 250% in its air force.* [36] A series of by-elections with massive swings against government candidates—most famous was Fulham East with a 26.5% swing—in late 1933 and early 1934 convinced Baldwin that the British public was profoundly pacifist.* [37] Baldwin also rejected the“belligerent”views of those like Churchill and Robert Vansittart because he believed that the Nazis were rational men who would appreciate the logic of mutual and equal deterrence.* [38] He also believed war to be“the most fearful terror and prostitution of man's knowledge that ever was known”.* [39]
23.8 Prime Minister Third time: (1935–1937) With MacDonald's physical powers failing him, he and Baldwin changed places in June 1935; Baldwin was now Prime Minister, MacDonald Lord President of the Council.* [40] In October that year Baldwin called a general election. Neville Chamberlain advised Baldwin to make rearmament the leading issue in the election campaign against Labour, saying that, if a rearmament programme were not announced until after the election, his government would be seen as having deceived the people.* [41] However Baldwin did not make rearmament the central issue in the election. He said he would support the League of Nations, modernise Britain's defences and remedy deficiencies but also said: “I give you my word that there will be no great armaments”.* [42] The main issues in the election were housing,
unemployment and the special areas of economic depression.* [42] The election gave 430 seats to National government supporters (386 of these Conservative) and 154 seats to Labour.
23.8.1
Rearmament
Baldwin (1955) argues that his father Stanley Baldwin planned a rearmament programme as early as 1934, but had to do so quietly to avoid antagonizing the pacifistic public revealed by the Peace Ballot of 1934-35 and endorsed by both the Labour and the Liberal oppositions. His thorough presentation of the case for rearmament in 1935, the son argues, defeated pacifism and secured a victory that allowed rearmament to move ahead.* [43] On 31 July 1934, the Cabinet approved a report that called for expansion of the Royal Air Force to the 1923 standard by creating 40 new squadrons over the following five years.* [44] On 26 November 1934, six days after receiving the news that the German air force would be as large as the RAF within one year, the Cabinet decided to speed up air rearmament from four years to two.* [45] On 28 November 1934 Churchill moved an amendment to the vote of thanks for the King's Speech, which read: "...the strength of our national defences, and especially our air defences, is no longer adequate”.* [46] His motion was known eight days before it was moved and a special Cabinet meeting decided how to deal with this motion and it dominated two other Cabinet meetings.* [47] Churchill said Germany was rearming; requested that the money spent on air armaments be doubled or tripled in order to deter an attack; and that the Luftwaffe was nearing equality with the RAF.* [48] Baldwin responded by denying that the Luftwaffe was approaching equality and that it was “not 50 per cent”of the RAF. He added that by the end of 1935 the RAF would still have “a margin of nearly 50 per cent”in Europe.* [49] After Baldwin said the government would ensure the RAF had parity with the future German air force Churchill withdrew his amendment. In April 1935 the Air Secretary reported that although Britain's strength in the air would be ahead of Germany for at least three years, air rearmament needed to be increased so the Cabinet agreed to the creation of an extra 39 squadrons for home defence by 1937.* [45] However, on 8 May 1935 the Cabinet heard that it was estimated that the RAF was inferior to the Luftwaffe by 370 aircraft and that in order to reach parity the RAF must have 3,800 aircraft by April 1937—an extra 1,400 on the existing air programme. It was learnt that Germany was easily able to outbuild this revised programme as well.* [50] On 21 May 1935, the Cabinet agreed to expanding the home defence force of the RAF to 1,512 aircraft (840 bombers and 420 fighters).* [45] On 22 May 1935 Baldwin confessed in the Commons: “I was wrong in my estimate of the future.
23.8. PRIME MINISTER THIRD TIME: (1935–1937) There I was completely wrong.”* [51]
199 united nation”.* [55] The General Secretary of the Trades Union Congress, Walter Citrine, recalled a conversation he had had with Baldwin on 5 April 1943: “Baldwin thought his [Churchill's] political recovery was marvellous. He, personally, had always thought that if war came Winston would be the right man for the job”.* [56]
On 25 February 1936, the Cabinet approved a report calling for expansion of the Royal Navy and the re-equipment of the British Army (though not its expansion), along with the creation of “shadow factories”built by public money and managed by industrial companies. These factories came into operation in 1937. In February 1937 the Chiefs of Staff The Labour Party strongly opposed the rearmament proreported that by May 1937 the Luftwaffe would have 800 gramme. Clement Attlee said on 21 December 1933:“For bombers compared to the RAF's 48.* [52] our part, we are unalterably opposed to anything in the na* In the debate in the Commons on 12 November 1936, ture of rearmament”. [57] On 8 March 1934 Attlee said, “we on our Churchill attacked the government on rearmament as be- after Baldwin defended the Air Estimates, * side are out for total disarmament”. [35] On 30 July 1934 ing “decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresoLabour moved a motion of censure against the government lute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all-powerful to be because of its planned expansion of the RAF. Attlee spoke impotent. So we go on, preparing more months and years – for it: “We deny the need for increased air arms...and we precious, perhaps vital, to the greatness of Britain – for the * reject altogether the claim of parity”. [57] Sir Stafford locusts to eat”. Baldwin replied: Cripps also said on this occasion that it was fallacy that Britain could achieve security through increasing air arI put before the whole House my own views maments.* [57] On 22 May 1935, the day after Hitler had with an appalling frankness. From 1933, I and made a speech claiming that German rearmament offered my friends were all very worried about what was no threat to peace, Attlee asserted that Hitler's speech gave happening in Europe. You will remember at that “a chance to call a halt in the armaments race”.* [58] Attime the Disarmament Conference was sitting in tlee also denounced the Defence White Paper of 1937: “I Geneva. You will remember at that time there do not believe the Government are going to get any safety was probably a stronger pacifist feeling running through these armaments”.* [59] through the country than at any time since the War. I am speaking of 1933 and 1934. You will remember the election at Fulham in the autumn 23.8.2 Abdication of Edward VIII of 1933...That was the feeling of the country in 1933. My position as a leader of a great party was The accession of King Edward VIII, and the ensuing not altogether a comfortable one. I asked myabdication crisis, brought Baldwin's last major test in office. self what chance was there...within the next year The new monarch was“an ardent exponent of the cause of or two of that feeling being so changed that the Anglo-German understanding", and had “strong views on country would give a mandate for rearmament? his right to intervene in affairs of state,”but the “GovernSupposing I had gone to the country and said that ment's main fears ... were of indiscretion.”* [60] The King Germany was rearming and we must rearm, does proposed to marry Wallis Simpson, an American woman anybody think that this pacific democracy would who was twice divorced. The high-minded Baldwin felt that have rallied to that cry at that moment! I canhe could tolerate her as“a respectable whore,”so long as she not think of anything that would have made the stayed behind the throne, but not as“Queen Wally”.* [61] loss of the election from my point of view more Mrs. Simpson was also distrusted by the government for certain...We got from the country – with a large her known pro-German sympathies, and she was believed majority – a mandate for doing a thing that no to be in “close contact with German monarchist circles” one, twelve months before, would have believed * * . [60] possible. [53] Churchill wrote to a friend: “I have never heard such a squalid confession from a public man as Baldwin offered us yesterday”.* [54] In 1935 Baldwin wrote to J. C. C. Davidson (now lost) saying of Churchill: “If there is going to be a war – and no one can say that there is not – we must keep him fresh to be our war Prime Minister”.* [55] Thomas Dugdale also claimed Baldwin said to him: “If we do have a war, Winston must be Prime Minister. If he is in [the Cabinet] now we shan't be able to engage in that war as a
During October through November 1936, Baldwin joined the royal family in trying to dissuade the King from that marriage, arguing that the idea of having a twice-divorced woman as the Queen would be rejected by the government and by the country, and that “the voice of the people must be heard.”* [62]* [63] As the public standing of the King would be gravely compromised, the Prime Minister gave him time to reconsider the notion of this marriage.* [64] According to the historian Philip Williamson, “The offence lay in the implications of [the King's] attachment to Mrs.
200 Simpson for the broader public morality and the constitutional integrity which were now perceived—especially by Baldwin—as underpinning the nation's unity and strength.” * [65] News of the affair was broken in the papers on 2 December.* [66] There was some support for the wishes of the King, especially in and around London. The romantic royalists Churchill, Mosley, and the press barons, Lord Beaverbrook of the Daily Express and Lord Rothermere of the Daily Mail, all declared that the king had a right to marry whichever woman he wished to.* [66] This crisis assumed a political dimension when Beaverbrook and Churchill tried to rally support for the marriage in the Parliament.* [3] However, the King's party could only muster 40 Members of Parliament in support,* [67] and the majority opinion sided with Baldwin and his conservative government.* [66] The Labour leader, Clement Attlee, told Baldwin “that while Labour people had no objection to an American becoming Queen, [he] was certain they would not approve of Mrs. Simpson for that position,”especially in the provinces and in the Commonwealth countries.* [68] The archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Lang, held that the King, as the head of the Church of England, should not marry a divorcée, while The Times argued that the monarchy’s prestige would be destroyed if“private inclination were to come into open conflict with public duty and be allowed to prevail.”* [66]
CHAPTER 23. STANLEY BALDWIN The King's final plea, on 4 December, that he should broadcast an appeal to the nation, was rejected by the Prime Minister as too divisive.* [3]* [73] Nevertheless, at his final audience with King Edward on 7 December, Baldwin offered to strive all night with the King's conscience, but he found him to be determined to go.* [3] Baldwin announced the King's abdication in the Commons on 10 December. Harold Nicolson, an MP who witnessed Baldwin's speech, wrote in his diary: There is no moment when he overstates emotion or indulges in oratory. There is intense silence broken only by the reporters in the gallery scuttling away to telephone the speech...When it was over...[we] file out broken in body and soul, conscious that we have heard the best speech that we shall ever hear in our lives. There was no question of applause. It was the silence of Gettysburg...No man has ever dominated the House as he dominated it tonight, and he knows it.* [74]
After the speech, the House was adjourned and Nicolson bumped into Baldwin as he was leaving, who asked him what he thought of the speech. Nicolson said it was superb, to which Baldwin replied: “Yes...it was a success. I know it. It was almost wholly unprepared. I had a success, my While some recent critics have complained that “Baldwin dear Nicolson, at the moment I most needed it. Now is the * refused the reasonable request for time to reflect, prefer- time to go". [75] ring to keep the pressure on the King – once again sug- The King abdicated on 11 December, and he was succeeded gesting that his own agenda was to force the crisis to a by his brother, George VI. Edward VIII was assigned the head,”and that he “never mentioned that the alterna- title of the Duke of Windsor by his brother, and then he tive [to the marriage] was abdication,”* [69] the House married Mrs. Simpson in France in 1937. of Commons immediately and overwhelmingly came out against this marriage.* [3] The Labour and Liberal par- Baldwin had defused a* political crisis by turning it into a met with ties, the Trades Union Congress,* [70] and the Dominions constitutional question. [3] His discreet resolution * general approval and restored his popularity. [66] He was of Australia and Canada, all joined the British cabinet in * praised on all sides for his tact and patience, [3] and was not rejecting the King's compromise, originally made on 16 * in the least put out by the protestors' cries of“God save the November, for a morganatic marriage. [3] The crisis threatKing—from Baldwin!" “Flog Baldwin! Flog him!! We— ened the unity of the British Empire, since the King's per* sonal relationship with the Dominions was their “only re- want—Edward.” [76] maining constitutional link.”* [71] Baldwin still hoped that the King would choose the throne over Mrs. Simpson.* [3] For the King to act against the wishes of the cabinet would have precipitated a constitutional crisis.* [3] Baldwin would have had to resign,* [72] and no other party leader would have served as the Prime Minister under this King,* [64]* [66] with the Labour Party having already having indicated that it would not form a ministry to uphold impropriety.* [3] Baldwin told the Cabinet one Labour MP had asked, “Are we going to have a fascist monarchy?"* [70] When the Cabinet refused the morganatic marriage, King Edward decided on his own volition to abdicate.* [66]
23.9
Retirement
23.9.1
Leaving office and peerage
After the coronation of George VI, Baldwin announced on 27 May 1937 that he was going to resign the premiership the next day. His last act as Prime Minister was to raise the salaries of MPs from £400 a year to £600 and to give the Leader of the Opposition a salary. This was the first rise in MPs wages since their introduction in 1911 and it particularly benefited Labour MPs. Harold Nicolson wrote in his
23.9. RETIREMENT
201 sive; then the newspapers; finally the polemicists who, with time and wit at their disposal, could debate at leisure how to wound the deepest.”* [84] He did not have a secretary and so was not shielded from the often unpleasant letters sent to him.* [85] After a bitterly critical letter was sent to him by a member of the public, Baldwin wrote: “I can understand his bitterness. He wants a scapegoat and the men provided him with one”. His biographers Middlemas and Barnes claim that “the men”almost certainly meant the authors of Guilty Men.* [86]
23.9.3 Baldwin photographed by the American press on board a ship, with his wife and daughter
diary that it “was done with Baldwin's usual consummate taste. No man has ever left in such a blaze of affection” .* [77] Baldwin was knighted as a Knight of the Garter (KG) on 28 May* [78] and ennobled as Earl Baldwin of Bewdley and Viscount Corvedale, of Corvedale in the County of Salop on 8 June.* [3]* [79]
23.9.2
Attitude to appeasement
Baldwin supported the Munich Agreement and said to Chamberlain on 26 September 1938: “If you can secure peace, you may be cursed by a lot of hotheads but my word you will be blessed in Europe and by future generations” .* [80] Baldwin made a rare speech in the House of Lords on 4 October where he said he could not have gone to Munich but praised Chamberlain's courage and said the responsibility of a Prime Minister was not to commit the country to war until he was sure that it was ready to fight. If there was a 95% chance of war in the future, he would still choose peace. He also said he would put industry on a war footing tomorrow as the opposition to such a move had disappeared.* [81] Churchill said in a speech:“He says he would mobilise tomorrow. I think it would have been much better if Earl Baldwin had said that two and a half years ago when everyone demanded a Ministry of Supply”.* [82] Two weeks after Munich, Baldwin said (prophetically) in a conversation with Lord Hinchingbrooke: “Can't we turn Hitler East? Napoleon broke himself against the Russians. Hitler might do the same".* [83]
Letter to Lord Halifax
After Lord Halifax made a speech on the strength of prayer as the instrument which could be invoked by the humblest to use in their country's service, Baldwin wrote to him on 23 July 1940: With millions of others I had prayed hard at the time of Dunkirk and never did prayer seem to be more speedily answered to the full. And we prayed for France and the next day she surrendered. I thought much, and when I went to bed I lay for a long time vividly awake. And I went over in my mind what had happened, concentrating on the thoughts that you had dwelt on, that prayer to be effective must be in accordance with God's will, and that by far the hardest thing to say from the heart and indeed the last lesson we learn (if we ever do) is to say and mean it, ‘Thy will be done.’And I thought what mites we all are and how we can never see God's plan, a plan on such a scale that it must be incomprehensible. And suddenly for what must have been a couple of minutes I seemed to see with extraordinary and vivid clarity and to hear someone speaking to me. The words at the time were clear, but the recollection of them had passed when I seemed to come to, as it were, but the sense remained, and the sense was this. ‘You cannot see the plan’; then ‘Have you not thought there is a purpose in stripping you one by one of all the human props on which you depend, that you are being left alone in the world? You have now one upon whom to lean and I have chosen you as my instrument to work with my will. Why then are you afraid?’And to prove ourselves worthy of that tremendous task is our job.* [87]
Baldwin's years in retirement were quiet. After Chamberlain's death in 1940, Baldwin's perceived part in pre-war appeasement made him an unpopular figure during and af- 23.9.4 Iron gates crisis ter World War II.* [84] With a succession of British military failures in 1940, Baldwin started to receive critical letters: In September 1941, Baldwin's old enemy, Lord Beaver“insidious to begin with, then increasingly violent and abu- brook, asked all local authorities to survey their area's iron
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and steel railings and gates that could be used for the war effort. Owners of such materials could appeal for an exemption on grounds of artistic or historic merit, which would be decided by a panel set up by local authorities. Baldwin applied for exemption for the iron gates of his country home on artistic grounds and his local council sent an architect to assess them. In December, the architect advised that they be exempt, but, in February 1942, the Ministry of Supply overruled this and said all his gates must go except the ones at the main entrance.* [88] A newspaper campaign hounded him for not donating the gates to war production. The Daily Mirror columnist Cassandra denounced Baldwin: Here was the country in deadly peril with half the Empire swinging in the wind like a busted barn door hanging on one hinge. Here was Old England half smothered in a shroud crying for steel to cut her way out, and right in the heart of beautiful Worcestershire was a one-time Prime Minister, refusing to give up the gates of his estate to make guns for our defence – and his. Here was an old stupid politician who had tricked the nation into complacency about rearmament for fear of losing an election.... Here is the very shrine of stupidity.... This National Park of Failure....* [89] There were fears that if the gates were not taken by the proper authorities,“others without authority might”.* [90] Thus, months before any other collections were made, Baldwin's gates were removed except for those at the main entrance. Two of Beaverbrook's friends after the war claimed that this was Beaverbrook's decision despite Churchill saying,“Lay off Baldwin's gates”.* [91] At Question Time in the House of Commons the Conservative MP Captain Alan Graham said: “Is the honourable Member aware that it is very necessary to leave Lord Baldwin his gates in order to protect him from the just indignation of the mob?"* [92]
23.9.5
D. H. Barber, Baldwin wrote of Churchill:“You can take it from me he is a really big man, the War has brought out the best that was in him. His head isn't turned the least little bit by the great position he occupies in the eyes of the world. I pray he is spared to see us through”.* [95] In private, Baldwin defended his conduct in the 1930s: the critics have no historical sense. I have no Cabinet papers by me and do not want to trust my memory. But recall the Fulham election, the peace ballot, Singapore, sanctions, Malta. The English will only learn by example. When I first heard of Hitler, when Ribbentrop came to see me, I thought they were all crazy. I think I brought Ramsay and Simon to meet Ribbentrop. Remember that Ramsay's health was breaking up in the last two years. He had lost his nerve in the House in the last year. I had to take all the important speeches. The moment he went, I prepared for a general election and got a bigger majority for rearmament. No power on earth could have got rearmament without a general election except by a big split. Simon was inefficient. I had to lead the House, keep the machine together with those Labour fellows.* [96] In December 1944, strongly advised by friends, Baldwin decided to respond to criticisms of him through a biographer. He asked G. M. Young, who accepted, and asked Churchill to grant permission to Young to see Cabinet papers. Baldwin wrote: I am the last person to complain of fair criticism, but when one book after another appears and I am compared, for example, to Laval, my gorge rises; but I am crippled and cannot go and examine the files of the Cabinet Office. Could G. M. Young go on my behalf?* [96]
Comments on politics
During the war, Winston Churchill consulted him only once, in February 1943, on the advisability of his speaking out strongly against the continued neutrality of Éamon de Valera's Ireland. Baldwin saw the draft of Churchill's speech and advised against it, which advice Churchill followed.* [93] A few months after this visit to Churchill, Baldwin told Harold Nicolson, “I went into Downing Street... a happy man. Of course it was partly because an old buffer like me enjoys feeling that he is still not quite out of things. But it was also pure patriotic joy that my country at such a time should have found such a leader. The furnace of the war has smeltered out all base metals from him”.* [94] To
23.10
Last years and death
In June 1945, Baldwin's wife Lucy died. Baldwin himself by now suffered from arthritis and needed a stick to walk. When he made his final public appearance in London in October 1947 at the unveiling of a statue of George V, a crowd of people recognised and cheered him, but by this time he was deaf and asked: “Are they booing me?"* [97] Having been made Chancellor of the University of Cambridge in 1930, he continued in this capacity until his death in his sleep at Astley Hall near Stourporton-Severn, Worcestershire, on 14 December 1947. He
23.11. LEGACY
203
23.11
Legacy
Upon his retirement in 1937, he had received a great deal of praise; the onset of World War II would change his public image for the worse. Rightly or wrongly, Baldwin, Chamberlain and MacDonald were held responsible for the United Kingdom's military unpreparedness on the eve of war in 1939. Peter Howard, writing in the Sunday Express (3 September 1939), accused Baldwin of deceiving the country of the dangers that faced it in order not to rearm and so win the 1935 general election.* [99] During the ill-fated Battle of France, in May 1940, Lloyd George in conversation with Winston Churchill and General Ironside railed against Baldwin and said “he ought to be hanged” .* [100] In July 1940, a bestseller Guilty Men appeared, which blamed Baldwin for failing to re-arm enough. In May 1941 Hamilton Fyfe wrote an article “ ( Leadership and Democracy”) for Nineteenth Century and After which also laid these charges against Baldwin. In 1941, A. L. Rowse criticised Baldwin for lulling the people into a false sense of security; as a practitioner in “the art of taking the people in": Worcester Cathedral, grave of the 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley and his wife Lucy, née Ridsdale
what can this man think in the still watches of the night, when he contemplates the ordeal his country is going through as the result of the years, the locust years, in which he held power?* [101]
Churchill firmly believed that Baldwin's conciliatory stance toward Hitler gave the German dictator the impression that Britain would not fight if attacked. Though known for his magnanimity toward political rivals such as Chamberlain, Churchill had none to spare for Baldwin. “I wish Stanley Baldwin no ill,”Churchill said when declining to send him 80th birthday greetings in 1947, “but it would have been much better had he never lived.”Churchill also believed that Baldwin, rather than Chamberlain, would be most blamed by subsequent generations for the policies that led to “the most unnecessary war in history”. An index entry in the first volume of Churchill's “History of the Second World War”(The Gathering Storm) records Baldwin “admitting to putting party before country”for his alleged admission that he would not have won the 1935 election if he had purMemorial to the 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley near his home, Astley sued a more aggressive policy of rearmament. Churchill Hall selectively quoted a speech in the Commons by Baldwin that gave the false impression that Baldwin was speaking of the general election when he was speaking of the Fulham by-election in 1933, and omits Baldwin's actual comments about the 1935 election: “We got from the country, was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes a mandate for doing a thing [a substantial rearmament proburied in Worcester Cathedral. gramme] that no one, twelve months before, would have beBaldwin was a member of the Oddfellows and Foresters lieved possible”.* [102] In his speech on Baldwin's death, Friendly Society.* [98] Churchill paid him a double-edged yet respectful tribute:
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CHAPTER 23. STANLEY BALDWIN
“He was the most formidable politician I ever encountered was the dominant mainstream political view of the time in in public life”.* [103] Britain, France, and the United States. Williamson admits In 1948, Reginald Bassett published an essay disputing the that there was a clear postwar consensus that repudiated and claim that Baldwin “confessed”to putting party before denigrated all inter-war governments: Baldwin was targeted country, and claimed that Baldwin was referring to 1933/34 with the accusation that he had failed to rearm Britain in the when a general election on rearmament would have been 1930s despite Hitler's threat. Williamson says the negative reputation was chiefly the product of partisan politics, the lost.* [104] bandwagon of praise for Churchill, selective recollections, In 1952, G. M. Young published a biography of Baldwin, and the need for scapegoats to blame for Britain's very close which Baldwin had asked him to write. He asserted that call in 1940. Only during the 1960s did political distance Baldwin united the nation and helped moderate the policies and then the opening of government records lead to more of the Labour Party. However he accepted the criticism balanced historical assessments; yet the myth had become of Baldwin; that he failed to re-arm early enough and that so central to larger myths about the 1930s and 1940s that it he put party before country. Young contends that Baldwin persists as conventional wisdom about the period.* [109] should have retired in 1935. Churchill and Beaverbrook threatened to sue if certain passages in the biography were By 2004 Ball could report that among historians, “The not removed or altered. With the help of lawyer Arnold pendulum has swung almost completely towards a positive Goodman an agreement was reached to replace the offend- view.”He says“Baldwin is now seen as having done more ing sentences, and the publisher Rupert Hart-Davis had the than most and perhaps as much as was possible in the conhideously expensive job of removing and replacing seven text, but the fact remains that it was not enough to deter the aggressors or ensure their defeat. Less equivocal was his releaves from 7,580 copies.* [105] discovery as a moderate and inclusive Conservative for the In response to Young's biography, D. C. Somervell pub- modern age, part of a 'one nation tradition'.”* [3] lished Stanley Baldwin: An examination of some features of Mr. G. M. Young's biography in 1953 with a foreword by Ernest Brown. This attempted to defend Baldwin against 23.12 Baldwin's governments as the charges made by Young. Both Young and Somervell Prime Minister were criticised by C. L. Mowat in 1955, who claimed they both failed to rehabilitate Baldwin's reputation.* [106] In 1956, Baldwin's son A. W. Baldwin published a biogra- 23.12.1 First Government, May 1923 – Janphy entitled My Father: The True Story. It has been written uary 1924 that his son“evidently could not decide whether he was answering the charge of inanition and deceit which grew out • Stanley Baldwin – Prime Minister, Chancellor of the of the war, or the radical “dissenters”of the early 1930s Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons who thought the Conservatives were warmongers and de• Lord Cave – Lord Chancellor nounced them for rearming at all”.* [107] In an article written to commemorate the centenary of Baldwin's birth, in The Spectator (“Don't Let's Be Beastly to Baldwin”, 14 July 1967) Rab Butler defended Baldwin's moderate policies which, he claimed, helped heal social divisions. In 1969 the first major biography of Baldwin appeared, of over 1,000 pages, written by Keith Middlemas and John Barnes, both Conservatives who wished to defend Baldwin. In 1999, Philip Williamson published a collection of essays on Baldwin which attempted to explain his beliefs and defended his policies as Prime Minister. Williamson asserted that Baldwin had helped create “a moral basis for rearmament in the mid 1930s”that contributed greatly to“the national spirit of defiance after Munich”.* [108] His defenders counter that the moderate Baldwin felt he could not start a programme of aggressive re-armament without a national consensus on the matter. Certainly, pacifist appeasement
• Lord Salisbury – Lord President of the Council • Lord Robert Cecil – Lord Privy Seal (Viscount Cecil of Chelwood from 28 December 1923* [110]) • William Clive Bridgeman – Home Secretary • Lord Curzon of Kedleston – Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords • The Duke of Devonshire – Secretary of State for the Colonies • Lord Derby – Secretary of State for War • Lord Peel – Secretary of State for India • Sir Samuel Hoare – Secretary of State for Air • Lord Novar – Secretary for Scotland
23.12. BALDWIN'S GOVERNMENTS AS PRIME MINISTER • Leo Amery – First Lord of the Admiralty • Sir Philip Lloyd-Greame – President of the Board of Trade • Sir Robert Sanders – Minister of Agriculture • Edward Frederick Lindley Wood – President of the Board of Education • Sir Anderson Montague-Barlow – Minister of Labour • Neville Chamberlain – Minister of Health • Sir William Joynson-Hicks – Financial Secretary to the Treasury • Sir Laming Worthington-Evans – Postmaster-General
205 • Lord Cecil of Chelwood – Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster • Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister – President of the Board of Trade • Edward Frederick Lindley Wood – Minister of Agriculture • Lord Eustace Percy – President of the Board of Education • Lord Peel – First Commissioner of Works • Sir Arthur Steel-Maitland – Minister of Labour • Neville Chamberlain – Minister of Health • Sir Douglas Hogg – Attorney-General
23.12.2
Changes
• August 1923 – Neville Chamberlain took over from Baldwin as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Sir William Joynson-Hicks succeeded Chamberlain as Minister of Health. Joynson-Hicks' successor as Financial Secretary to the Treasury was not in the Cabinet.
23.12.4
Changes
• April 1925 – On Curzon's death, Lord Balfour succeeded him as Lord President. Lord Salisbury became the new Leader of the House of Lords, remaining also Lord Privy Seal.
Second Cabinet, November 1924 – June 1929
• June 1925 – The post of Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs was created, held by Leo Amery in tandem with Secretary of State for the Colonies.
• Stanley Baldwin – Prime Minister and Leader of the House of Commons
• November 1925 – Walter Guinness succeeded E.F.L. Wood as Minister of Agriculture.
• Lord Cave – Lord Chancellor
• July 1926 – The post of Secretary of Scotland was upgraded to Secretary of State for Scotland.
23.12.3
• Lord Curzon of Kedleston – Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Lords • Lord Salisbury – Lord Privy Seal • Winston Churchill – Chancellor of the Exchequer • Sir William Joynson-Hicks – Home Secretary • Sir Austen Chamberlain – Foreign Secretary and Deputy Leader of the House of Commons • Leo Amery – Colonial Secretary
• October 1927 – Lord Cushendun succeeded Lord Cecil of Chelwood as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster • March 1928 – Lord Hailsham (former Sir D. Hogg) succeeded Lord Cave as Lord Chancellor. Hailsham's successor as Attorney-General was not in the Cabinet. • October 1928 – Lord Peel succeeded Lord Birkenhead as Secretary of State for India. Lord Londonderry succeeded Peel as First Commissioner of Public Works
• Sir Laming Worthington-Evans – Secretary of State for War 23.12.5 • Lord Birkenhead – Secretary of State for India • Sir Samuel Hoare – Secretary for Air • Sir John Gilmour – Secretary for Scotland • William Clive Bridgeman – First Lord of the Admiralty
Third Cabinet, June 1935 – May 1937
• Stanley Baldwin – Prime Minister and Leader of the House of Commons • Lord Hailsham – Lord Chancellor • Ramsay MacDonald – Lord President of the Council
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CHAPTER 23. STANLEY BALDWIN
• Lord Londonderry – Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords • Neville Chamberlain – Chancellor of the Exchequer • Sir John Simon – Home Secretary and Deputy Leader of the House of Commons • Sir Samuel Hoare – Foreign Secretary • Malcolm MacDonald – Colonial Secretary • J.H. Thomas – Dominions Secretary • Lord Halifax – Secretary for War • Lord Zetland – Secretary of State for India • Lord Swinton – Secretary of State for Air • Sir Godfrey Collins – Secretary of State for Scotland • Bolton Eyres-Monsell – First Lord of the Admiralty • Walter Runciman – President of the Board of Trade • Walter Elliot – Minister of Agriculture
• March 1936 – Sir Thomas Inskip entered the Cabinet as Minister for the Coordination of Defence. Lord Eustace Percy left the Cabinet. • May 1936 – William Ormsby-Gore succeeded J.H. Thomas as Colonial Secretary. Lord Stanhope succeeded Ormsby-Gore as First Commissioner of Works. • June 1936 – Sir Samuel Hoare succeeded Lord Monsell as First Lord of the Admiralty. • October 1936 – Walter Elliot succeeded Collins as Scottish Secretary. William Shepherd Morrison succeeded Elliot as Minister of Agriculture. Leslie HoreBelisha entered the Cabinet as Minister of Transport.
23.13
In film, television and literature
Baldwin has been portrayed in the following film and television productions:
• Oliver Stanley – President of the Board of Education
• The Forsyte Saga (1967 adaptation), played by Ralph Michael
• Ernest Brown – Minister of Labour
• The Woman I Love (1972), played by Robert Douglas
• Sir Kingsley Wood – Minister of Health
• Days of Hope (1975), played by Brian Hayes
• William Ormsby-Gore – First Commissioner of Works
• Edward & Mrs Simpson (1978), played by David Waller
• Anthony Eden – Minister without Portfolio with responsibility for League of Nations Affairs
• The Life and Times of David Lloyd George (1981), played by Paul Curran
• Lord Eustace Percy – Minister without Portfolio with responsibility for government policy
• Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (1981), played by Peter Barkworth • The Woman He Loved (1988), played by David Waller
23.12.6
Changes
• November 1935 – Malcolm MacDonald succeeded J.H. Thomas as Dominions Secretary. Thomas succeeded MacDonald as Colonial Secretary. Lord Halifax succeeded Lord Londonderry as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords. Duff Cooper succeeded Halifax as Secretary for War. Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister became Viscount Swinton and Bolton Eyres-Monsell became Viscount Monsell, both remaining in the Cabinet. • December 1935 Anthony Eden succeeded Sir Samuel Hoare as Foreign Secretary and was not replaced as Minister without Portfolio.
• You Rang, M'Lord? (1991), played by Patrick Blackwell • The Gathering Storm (2002), played by Derek Jacobi • Wallis & Edward (2005), played by Richard Johnson • The King's Speech (2010), played by Anthony Andrews • W.E. (2011), played by Geoffrey Palmer • Mrs Dalloway (1925), by Virginia Woolf takes place on an imaginary Wednesday in June 1923. Clarissa Dalloway's party is attended by the Prime Minister. He is never mentioned by name, but this would, on that date, have been Baldwin.
23.15. NOTES
207
23.14 See also
[21] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 393–4.
• List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s
[22] Mastering Modern World History Norman Lowe, 2nd edition (and later eds.), 1966, Macmillan ISBN 9780333465769 [23] William D. Rubinstein (2003). Twentieth-Century Britain: A Political History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 176. ISBN 9780333772249.
23.15 Notes [1] Irvine, J. C. (1948).“Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, K. G. 18671947”. Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 6 (17): 2–1. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1948.0015. JSTOR 768907. [2] “Unthinkable? Historically accurate films”. The Guardian (UK). 29 January 2011.
[24] John Ramsden, The Age of Balfour and Baldwin, 1902– 1940 (1978) [25] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 722. [26] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 735.
[3] Stuart Ball, Baldwin, Stanley, first Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2008). Retrieved 28 March 2009.
[27] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 736.
[4] Paul Strangio; et al. (2013). Understanding PrimeMinisterial Performance: Comparative Perspectives. Oxford UP. pp. 224, 226. ISBN 978-0-19-966642-3.
[30] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 739.
[5] “Baldwin, Stanley (BLDN885S)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
[32] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 742.
[6] Baldwin, Stanley (1926). On England. Penguin Books. p. 162. [7] K. Feiling, The Life of Neville Chamberlain (London, 1970), 11 [8] Middlemas and Barnes (1969). Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 21.
Baldwin: a biography.
[9] Who Was Who, 1941-1950. A and C Black. 1952. p. 52. [10] Maurice Cowling, The Impact of Labour. 1920–1924. The Beginnings of Modern British Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 329.
[28] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 736–7. [29] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 738.
[31] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 741.
[33] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 743. [34] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 748–51. [35] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 754. [36] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 756. [37] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 745–6. [38] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 757. [39] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 759. [40] Taylor, p. 378.
[11] A. J. P. Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 206.
[41] Maurice Cowling, The Impact of Hitler. British Politics and British Policy, 1933–1940 (Chicago University Press, 1977), p. 92.
[12] Cowling, The Impact of Labour, p. 383.
[42] Taylor, p. 383.
[13] Cowling, The Impact of Labour, p. 410.
[43] A W. Baldwin, My Father: The True Story (1955)
[14] Cowling, The Impact of Labour, p. 411.
[44] Correlli Barnett, The Collapse of British Power (London: Methuen, 1972), p. 412.
[15] Keith Middlemas and John Barnes, Baldwin: A Biography (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969), pp. 269–70.
[46] R. A. C. Parker, Churchill and Appeasement (Macmillan, 2000), p. 45.
[16] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 271–2. [17] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 273–4. [18] Cowling, The Impact of Labour, pp. 408–9.
[47] Parker, p. 45. [48] Martin Gilbert, Churchill. A Life (Pimlico, 2000), pp. 536– 7.
[19] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 275. [20] “Bookwatch: The Pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk. 2010.
[45] Barnett, p. 413.
General Strike”. Retrieved 2 May
[49] Gilbert, pp. 537–8. [50] Barnett, p. 414.
208
CHAPTER 23. STANLEY BALDWIN
[51] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 818.
[81] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1046.
[52] Barnett, pp. 414–15.
[82] Cato, Guilty Men (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1940), p. 84.
[53] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 970, p. 972. [54] Gilbert, p. 567. [55] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 872. [56] Lord Citrine, Men and Work. An Autobiography (London: Hutchinson, 1964), p. 355. [57] Barnett, p. 422.
[83] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1047. [84] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1055. [85] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1054, p. 1057. [86] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1058 and note 1.
[58] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 819.
[87] The Earl of Halifax, Fulness of Days (London: Collins, 1957), p. 225.
[59] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1030.
[88] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 1059–60.
[60] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 979.
[89] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 1056–7.
[61] Philip Williamson, Stanley Baldwin: Conservative Leadership and National Values (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 326.
[90] Baldwin, My Father: The True Story, p. 321.
[62] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 990.
[92] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1060.
[63] Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern British History, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 488.
[93] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 1065–6.
[64] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 992. [65] Williamson, p. 327.
[91] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1061.
[94] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1065. [95] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 066. [96] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1063.
[66] Lowe, p. 488. [97] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1070. [67] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1008. [68] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1003. [69] Lynn Prince Picknett and Stephen Clive Prior, War of the Windsors (2002) p. 122. [70] Williamson, p. 328. [71] Williamson, p. 327 [72] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 998. [73] Middlemas and Barnes, pp. 1006–7.
[98] “The Peerage” [99] Howard would later have a reconciliation with Baldwin and tried to get Baldwin to support Moral Re-Armament. Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1062. [100] Colonel Roderick Macleod and Denis Kelly (eds.), Time Unguarded. The Ironside Diaries. 1937–1940 (New York: David McKay Company, 1963), p. 311. [101] A. L. Rowse, 'Reflections on Lord Baldwin', Political Quarterly, XII (1941), pp. 305–17. Reprinted in Rowse, End of an Epoch (1947).
[74] Harold Nicolson, Diaries and Letters. 1930-1939 (London: Collins, 1966), pp. 285-286. [102] Robert Rhodes James, Churchill: A Study in Failure (Pelican, 1973), p. 343. [75] Nicolson, p. 286. [103] Middlemas & Barnes 1969, p1072 [76] Foreign News: Baldwin the Magnificent – TIME, Time Magazine (21 December 1936). [104] Reginald Bassett, 'Telling the truth to the people: the myth [77] Nicolson, p. 301.
of the Baldwin 'confession',' Cambridge Journal, II (1948), pp. 84–95.
[78] The London Gazette: no. 34403. p. 3508. 1 June 1937. [105] Hart-Davis, Rupert (1998) [First ed. published]. Halfway Retrieved 7 September 2015. to Heaven: Concluding memoirs of a literary life. Stroud Gloucestershire: Sutton. p. 38. ISBN 0-7509-1837-3. [79] The London Gazette: no. 34405. p. 3663. 8 June 1937. Retrieved 1 May 2011. [106] C. L. Mowat, 'Baldwin Restored?', The Journal of Modern [80] Middlemas and Barnes, p. 1045. History, Vol. 27, No. 2. (June 1955), pp. 169–174.
23.17. EXTERNAL LINKS
[107] Barbara C. Malament, 'Baldwin Re-restored?', The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Mar. 1972), p. 88. [108] Philip Williamson, Stanley Baldwin. Conservative Leadership and National Values (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 361. [109] Philip Williamson,“Baldwin's Reputation: Politics and History, 1937-1967,”Historical Journal (Mar 2004) 47#1 pp 127-168 [110] The London Gazette: no. 32892. p. 9107. 28 December 1923. Retrieved 20 August 2008.
23.16 References • Baldwin, Stanley. Service of Our Lives: Last Speeches as Prime Minister (London: National Book Association, Hutchinson & Co., 1937). viii, 167 p. N.B.: The dates of the speeches included are from between 12 Dec. 1935 to 18 May 1937. • Ball, Stuart. “Baldwin, Stanley, first Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30550 a short scholarly biography • Bassett, Reginald/“Telling the truth to the people: the myth of the Baldwin 'confession',”Cambridge Journal, II (1948), pp. 84–95. • Cowling, Maurice. The Impact of Labour. 1920– 1924. The Beginnings of Modern British Politics (Cambridge University Press, 1971). • Cowling, Maurice. The Impact of Hitler. British Politics and British Policy, 1933–1940 (University of Chicago Press, 1977). • Hyde, H. Montgomery. Baldwin: The Unexpected Prime Minister (1973); 616pp; Jenkins calls it the best biography • Jenkins, Roy. Baldwin (1987) • Malament, Barbara C. 'Baldwin Re-restored?', The Journal of Modern History, (Mar. 1972), 44#1 pp. 87–96. in JSTOR • Mowat, C. L. 'Baldwin Restored?', The Journal of Modern History, (June. 1955) 27#2 pp. 169–174. in JSTOR • Middlemas, Keith, and John Barnes, Baldwin: A Biography (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969); 1100 pp of details
209 • Rowse, A. L. 'Reflections on Lord Baldwin', Political Quarterly, XII (1941), pp. 305–17. Reprinted in Rowse, End of an Epoch (1947). • Taylor, A. J. P. English History, 1914–1945 (Oxford University Press, 1990). • Taylor, Andrew J.“Stanley Baldwin, Heresthetics and the Realignment of British Politics,”British Journal of Political Science, (July 2005), 35#3 pp 429–463, Baldwin polarized politics with Labour, squeezing out the Liberals • Williamson, Philip. Stanley Baldwin. Conservative Leadership and National Values (Cambridge University Press, 1999). • Williamson, Philip. “Baldwin's Reputation: Politics and History, 1937-1967,”Historical Journal (Mar 2004) 47#1 pp 127–168 in JSTOR • Williamson, Philip. "'Safety First': Baldwin, the Conservative Party, and the 1929 General Election,”Historical Journal, (June 1982) 25#2 pp 385–409 in JSTOR
23.17
External links
• Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Stanley Baldwin • Stanley Baldwin on the Downing Street website. • Recording of Baldwin's speech at the Empire Rally of Youth (1937) – a British Library sound recording • Archival material relating to Stanley Baldwin listed at the UK National Archives • Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin and Anne of Green Gables • Portraits of Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin at the National Portrait Gallery, London • Works by or about Stanley Baldwin at Internet Archive • Works by Stanley Baldwin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Chapter 24
Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art linked to numerous historical institutions of Mumbai, such as the Sir J. J. Hospital. In 1958, Sir J. J. School of Art was divided, with the Departments of Architecture and Applied Art becoming the Sir J. J. College of Architecture and Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art respectively.
24.1
History
24.1.1
Commercial Art Section
The Institute of Applied Art history first began with the founding of its sister school, the Sir J. J. School of Art. The school opened through the help of a donation by Jamsetji Jeejeebhai in 1857. During the Second World War the school was threatened with closure. At the time the school was run by the British Bombay government and its funding came directly from the government. In preparation for the looming war many committees were set up to review excess government expenditure and divert money to defense needs. The close scrutiny of one such“Thomas Committee”fell on the Sir J. J. School of Art. The committee recommended that the school be shut down, claiming that it only contributed to furthering personal talents of artists and was of no use to society in general.
Sir. J.J Institute Of Applied Art, Mumbai.
Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art is an Indian applied art institution based in Mumbai. It is a state government college that was created through its sister school, the Sir J. J. School of Art. The “Sir J. J.”in the name stands for Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy, a Parsi philanthropist whose name is
The director of the J. J. School of Art set out to rectify the situation. In 1935 Mr. Soloman was the dean of J.J. In 1946, J. J. School of Art started a new department, the Commercial Art Section, or CAS. The objective of this division was to impart all of the necessary training in art with an eye on students being able to exploit this training for commercial purposes. A direct contribution of this section was to aid the war preparations of the government by designing propaganda and public awareness posters. This exercise was a huge success. Therefore, the government decided not to shut down the Sir J. J. School of Art. The students trained at the CAS soon found that they were in considerable demand from the commercial industries of
210
24.3. NOTABLE ALUMNI
211
Mumbai (then Bombay) to design publicity material. Also, houses numerous heritage buildings. the fledgling advertising industry lapped up talent from the CAS, creating a set of people who would end up being 24.2.1 The Kipling connection counted among the founders of Indian advertising. The CAS became popular among applicants to the Sir J.J. School of Art, as it offered a direct means of earning a livelihood to skilled artists who had completed the course. Soon, this once-small section of the school began receiving more student applications than the main part of the institute. At this time India had gained independence. The government, which still ran the school, separated the CAS from the rest of the school and create the Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art. Professor V.N. Adarkar was named the institutes first principal and later went on to become its first dean).
The most renowned building on the campus is the centuryand-half-old wood and stone bungalow that was Rudyard Kipling's birthplace. An ornate metal plaque at the entrance of this house is engraved with the words, “Rudyard Kipling, son of Lockwood Kipling, first principal of Sir J. J. School of Art, was born here on 30.12.1865.”Traditionally the home of the deans for both the Sir J. J. School of Art and Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art, this identicallysplit-bungalow attracts numerous Kipling-enthusiasts from all over the world. For decades now, the Kipling side of the bungalow has been the official Dean's Residence of the dean of Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art. During the tenure 24.1.2 Later history of the last residing dean, Prof. M. G. Rajadhyaksha, a bust of Rudyard Kipling was also unveiled at the entrance to this With the firstdean, V. N. Adarkar, the institute has been bungalow as homage to the legendary writer of works such headed over the years by various deans. Notable amongst as The Jungle Book and If—. them in recent years being H. G. Hanmante, Prof.Kamat and M. G. Rajadhyaksha. Over the years, Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art has been involved with several projects on social awareness that include “Know the Five-Year Plan“in the 1950s,“Our Himalayas” during the 1963 Sino-Indian War, and the “International Tourist Fair —Bombay”in 1965.
24.2 Present The current course leads to successful students receiving a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) in Applied Art from Mumbai University. The total duration of this course is four years, with the first year referred to as a “Foundation”year, and the later three being referred to as “Specialization” years. A student chooses his or her area of major specialization from amongst areas such as Illustration, Photography, Typography, Exhibition Display or Computer Graphics. The Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art provides more than half of the Indian advertising industry's top art talent. There is a widely held belief among past professors of the institute, as well as art educators, that it would be best for the future health of the institution if the state government grants autonomy to the institute. This would clear the way to a much-needed revamp of the quality of teaching and infrastructure and bring modern day requirements to the school. The campus is located in south-Mumbai (opposite VT station) and houses the Sir J. J. Institute of Applied Art, the Sir J. J. School of Art, Sir J. J. College of Architecture, and the Government Institute of Printing Technology. The campus contains many trees that are more than a century old, and
24.3
Notable alumni
• Raj Kamble - First Indian to be nominated in British Design and Art Directors (D&AD) and a first Indian to win prestigious One Show Gold Pencil. • Arun Kolatkar - poet • Nana Patekar - Indian actor and filmmaker • Subhash Sharma - Creative Head, Sketch Multimedia, Mumbai • Vikram Gaikwad - creative head, Creative Land Asia • Vinayak Gaikwad - creative head, Mudra Advertising • Rajiv Rao - creative head, O&M (creator of Vodafone zoozoos) • Raj Thackeray - politician and social worker • Salil Maladkar - CEO, Idea Communications Pvt Ltd • Uddhav Thackeray - Politician and social worker • Vikas Sabnis - Illustrator and caricature artist • Randolph Correia - musician and actor (Bombay Boys) • Gopi Kukde - Advertising Genius & the brain behind the 'Onida's Devil'. • Akbar Padamsee
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• Brendan Pereira, award-winning creative director and designer • Vikas Gaitonde • Sunil Padwal - Renowned Indian painter • Shivkar Bapuji Talpade - It said that, He is The first indian fly an unmanned plane in 1895.
24.4 External links • Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art • http://www.jjiaa.org/ Coordinates: 72.8335°E
18°56′44″N 72°50′01″E / 18.9455°N
Chapter 25
Amah (occupation) mon in East Asia, South East Asia and India to denote a maidservant or nursemaid. In India, ayah is the more common variant, and this Anglo-Indian word originated from the Portuguese aia meaning “nurse”, feminine form of aio meaning “tutor”.* [3]
A Chinese amah (right) with a woman and her three children
Variants such as Amah-chieh or mahjeh (chieh or jeh means elder sister in Chinese dialects) have also been used in some countries.* [1]* [2] In Taiwan and China, amah may even refer to any old lady in general. Similar terms in the same context includes ah-yee (Aunt), yee-yee (aunt), or jie-jie (elder sister). Since the mid-1990s, it has become more politically correct in some circles to call such a person a 'helper' rather than a maid or ayah.
An amah or ayah (simplified Chinese: 阿嬷; traditional Chinese: 阿嬤; pinyin: ā mā, Portuguese: ama, German: 25.3 Other meanings Amme, Medieval Latin: amma; or ayah Hindi: āyā or amma, Portuguese: aia, Latin: avia, Tagalog: yaya) is a During the Tang dynasty in China, the word Amah was used girl or woman employed by a family to clean, look after as an informal and poetic title for the Taoist goddess, the children, and perform other domestic tasks. Queen Mother of the West. Amah also means mother in many countries.
25.1 Role 25.4
In English literature
It is a domestic servant role which combines functions of maid and nanny. The term, resembling the pronunciation Amah and ayah have been adopted as loanwords into the for “mother”, is considered polite and respectful in the English language: Chinese language when it is used to refer to a maid. They may often be required by employers to wear a uniform. She never remembered seeing familiarly anything but the dark faces of her Ayah and the other native servants, and as they always obeyed her and 25.2 Etymology gave her her own way in everything, because the Mem Sahib [her mother] would be angry if she The word amah may have originated from the Portuguese was disturbed by her crying, by the time she was ama meaning “nurse”.* [1] Some however argued that it six years old she was as tyrannical and selfish a is the anglicized form of the Chinese word ah mah (ah is a little pig as ever lived. common Chinese prefix, and mah means“little mother”), • The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson while others say that it originated as nai mah (wet nurse in Chinese, literally “milk mother”).* [2] This word is comBurnett 213
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CHAPTER 25. AMAH (OCCUPATION) When Tony and his sister arrived they wanted to go straight to the pond, but their ayah said they must take a sharp walk first, and as she said this she glanced at the time-board to see when the Gardens closed that night. • The Little White Bird, by J.M. Barrie, author of Peter Pan
25.5 See also • Amah (mother)
25.6 References [1] Ooi Keat Gin (2013). Dirk Hoerder, ed. Proletarian and Gendered Mass Migrations: A Global Perspective on Continuities and Discontinuities from the 19th to the 21st Centuries. BRILL. p. 405. ISBN 978-9004251366. [2] Nicole Constable (2007). Maid to Order in Hong Kong: Stories of Migrant Workers. Cornell University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0801473234. [3] “Ayah”. Oxford Dictionaries.
25.7 Further reading • Suzanne E Cahill Transcendence & Divine Passion. The Queen Mother of the West in Medieval China, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-80472584-5
Chapter 26
National College of Arts “…At the National College of Arts (NCA), we imagine a world. Not one world, but many. One for each of us, one from each of us, with these we write the autobiographies of our times, in objects, in lines, in mortar, and in perishable clay. In tracing ourselves, we leave traces. These are the traces that make our cities. Turn us inside out like pillowcases with that remembered smell, like shed skins. These are the traces that populate our nights, and from these traces we dare to dream again…”(Excerpts from NCA teacherstudents conversations)
Our students have made their mark and moved on to become respected professionals in a number of creative fields both locally and internationally. Professor Mark Ritter Sponenburgh, the first principal of NCA, introduced the modern art college curriculum at the NCA, in 1958. The modern movement in Pakistani art had already begun with Professor Shakir Ali, teacher and principal at the NCA. The students of Professor Mark Ritter Sponenburgh spearheaded modern art education at the NCA, the first art college in Pakistan.
The NCA offers a number of professional undergraduate and graduate degree courses. Conceived in a way in which the student’s unique creative and internal impetus is aligned with the requirements of the job market in an increasingly diverse world. Tradition and individual talent both form an integral part of the history for a more meaningful participation in the future. Freedom, plurality and an interdisciplinary approach allows ideas, histories, theoretical positions and technical procedures to be located within a critical space. The diversity of both the faculty and the student body ensures that no particular ideological or theoretical position is sacrosanct. Discussion, critique and, research form the backbone of all the courses offered. We are unique as we draw both our faculty and our student body from a diverse cultural mix. This facilitates allow a pluralistic culture within the College. Students benefit from exposure to a wide range of ideas, sub-cultural identities and practices drawn from often conflicting and contested geographical, socio-political and historical locales.
The Renaissance man Bhai Ram Singh was an architect, designer, and craftsman who in one short, inimitable lifetime discovered in himself, both a builder and a wood carver. Atchison College, the NCA itself and the Lahore Museum bear the testimony to his greatness.
At the National College of Arts (NCA), we believe that education is a fluid process, where students are assisted in the exploration, investigation and expression of their ideas. The visual is a language that must be learnt. The knowledge of technique and medium forms the basis of personal expression, and that innovation comes through understanding and learning of visual language. We believe that creative expression has the power to change the world. An artist is a philosopher, linguist, idealist, writer, critic, theorist and above all human at the same time.
The history of the NCA is bound up with the incredible legacy of personalities that have emerged from it. Nayyar Ali Dada’s eclectic expression bears much of Pakistan’s creative expression in architecture; Professor Emeritus Khalid Iqbal gave us the sensitive soul of the Punjab in painting; Zahoor ul Akhlaque, the reflective artist, left behind an imperishable legacy; Mian Ijazul Hassan’s works of art and Mian Salahuddin the ceramicist generated provocative controversies; Nayyara Noor, whose music and voice has touched the hearts of generations; Graphic Designers Niaz Ali Shah Sahib, Ahmad Khan and Mehmoodul-Hassan Jafri established the technical, perceptual, theoretical peripheries of publicity and graphic design and what is now called communication design. Teachers and artists like Salima. Hashmi and Colin David trained an entire generation that studied at the NCA. Such has been the contribution of many like Kamil Khan Mumtaz, Javed Najam, Tanveer Hussain, Abdul Rehman Khan, Shehrazad Alam who earned name and repute in their fields. The Textile Design Department was established under the leadership of Professor Abbassi Akhter, who later on became the principal of the NCA. The product designer Professor Qadir Bakhsh was the founding father of the department of product design established a venerable reputation nationally and internationally; the same arena where Ustad Mohamed Ali carved
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numerous and finest woodcarvings. Shirin Pasha, the filmmaker with the sensibility of a painter; Professor Iqbal Hassan the eternal academic who took charge of teaching art history and headed the department that can rightly be called the intellectual backbone of studio programs offered at the NCA. The contemporary miniature painting movement started from this institution. The M.A. Visual Arts students have participated in the conservation of the Lahore Fort. The first musicology and film and television degree programs offered in Pakistan began at the NCA. Our library archives section houses original documents spanning over a hundred years as well as a continuously updated bank of contemporary publications; this makes it one of the best visual art research libraries in South Asia. The environment in the NCA is professional, creative and research oriented, and has, over the years, attracted a number of professionals and educationists of repute from all over the world, who have come to this institution for teaching and learning. All of our faculty members are practitioners in their fields. We believe that the cutting edge of creativity and expression is to be discovered within ourselves and for that we Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India individually nurture the potential in each student. We teach our students to reject nothing, to examine everything; we teach them how to think but never what to think. In this lie designers in response to machine rigidity. John Lockwood freedom, ours and theirs. Kipling was made curator of the Lahore Museum and principal of the Mayo School of Arts. His vision and his genuine regard for indigenous art, allowed the craft of the region to sustain at a time when it was under siege in industrialized 26.1 History Britain. The London School of Design, now Royal College of Arts, was already there since 1835, functioning and deIn reaction to Industrial Revolution, a worldwide movement gained strength i.e. Arts & Crafts Movement (1860-1910). bating the curriculum for industrial design. It was perhaps due to this dialogue that the thinker and artist Lockwood The movement was about praising art & craft pieces hence negated industrial mass production. It was upon pressure Kipling took up the task of teaching the artists and designers the critical function of craft and traditions. of this movement that the British Crown decided to establish art schools in British India. Sir JJ School of Arts, Govt. The industrial change had to be accepted; and in 1958 the College of art, Madras., & Mayo School of Arts are one Mayo School was restructured by the Government of Pakof the pioneer art institutions in India. The Mayo School istan as the National College of Arts. Professor Mark Ritter of Industrial Art was set up to perpetuate the memory Sponenburg (1916-2012), a guru in art and design educaof Lord Mayo, the British Viceroy of India, who was as- tion, and a great agent of change was given the charge of sassinated in 1872. Lockwood Kipling (father of author Principal. He, too, established the links of craft with modRudyard Kipling), a teacher of painting and sculpture work- ern art and design. The exhibition ‘Folk Arts of Swat’ ing then in the J.J. School of Art in Bombay, was appointed based on research in Swat area by him and the students of its first Principal. Additionally, he was held the charge as National College of Arts, still stands in a remote corner of the Lahore Museum. Primarily three departments were esthe Curator of the Lahore Museum. The Mayo School of Art was established along with Lahore tablished: Fine Art, Design and Architecture. Museum in 1875, with the intention to have a centre that served the requirements of the museum by preserving and patronizing the craft of Punjab. This was twenty four years after the‘Great Exhibition’of 1851 in London The world at that point in time was busy in arguing about how to tame
The new breed of artists, designers and architects filled the professional gaps in the society. In 1963, the government recognized the College as the premier art institution in Pakistan. It was consequently taken away from the Department of Industries and placed under the Education Department
26.2. DEPARTMENTS
217 century. It has also established the Centre for Conservation and Cultural Heritage Management. In June 2011, the NCA was granted a University status by the Prime Minister of Pakistan. * [1]
John Lockwood Kipling first principal of Mayo College of Arts with Rudyard Kipling.
with its own Board of Governors. The new policy in 1972 recognized the achievements of the College and planned its development into a centre of excellence in the visual arts. A unique measure of autonomy, under the Federal Government, was ensured from this point on. In 1985 the College was granted a degree awarding status. This also empowered the NCA to institute graduate programmes in the field of visual arts.
26.2
Departments
26.2.1
Department of Architecture
The Department of Architecture offers a five-year Bachelor of Architecture (B. Arch.) Degree. The course was established in 1985. Earlier the course was offered by the name of N.D. Arch (i.e. National Diploma of Architecture). The government of Pakistan through an Assembly Ordinence gave NCA a Degree Awarding status, hence NCA became the first autonomous arts degree awarding institution of Pakistan. The Department of Architecture offers a five-year course leading to the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B. Arch). This course aims to train students for advance studies through knowledge and skill based creative environment. The design studio is a skill based laboratory to develop critical thinking among the students. The architecture program approaches design with an understanding of contemporary issues and debates in architecture. In response to the changing trends of the 21st century, the undergraduate curriculum is designed to develop critical thinking, communication and analytical skills among students. Graduates of the College have been absorbed in the profession and in universities for higher education at the national and international level.
The College environment is conducive to learning and creativity. The department provides teaching and learning with the aid of a well-equipped computer lab. Most faculty members are practicing architects who enrich their acaM.A. in Visual Arts and an M. Phil leading to Ph.D. demic discourse with their practical experience. Esteemed in Communication and Cultural Studies were initiated in architects and planners lecture at the College on a weekly 1999. In the same year, a Research and Publication Centre basis. was established that has produced a number of books on The course is divided into three levels: foundation course history, art and various other disciplines within the social (first year), intermediate level (second and third year) and sciences and humanities. A project for the restoration and degree level (fourth and fifth year). The students are exconservation of the archival records of Mayo School of Arts pected to take all the courses along with additional elective was also initiated, which has broadened in scope to include subjects every year from a wide variety of subjects related the archives of the NCA. to art, architecture and design. The courses focus on arIn 1999 the College started a two years master's degree program in Interior Design. Acknowledging the importance of information technology in the creative fields, the NCA initiated a graduate programme in Multimedia Arts in September 2001. The College has established departments of Musicology, Film & Television in the first decade of the 21st
chitecture design, building construction, history & heritage, environment and technical aspects of architecture. Assessment of studio courses is done through a jury of work at the end of each project. Supporting theory courses are evaluated through assignments given during the term and an exam at the end of each term. * [2]
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CHAPTER 26. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS
Department of Fine Arts
The Department of Fine Art offers a four-year course leading to bachelor's degree in Fine Arts. Many graduates of the Fine Art Department at NCA have found fame and recognition in Pakistan and abroad. The fine arts studios are located in the oldest section of the College, facing the main quadrangle and extend into a new wing overlooking the Town Hall. There are four Major areas of specialization: Painting, Printmaking, Sculpture and Miniature Painting. In the second year students take introductory courses in all four areas of fine arts. One Major area of specialization is selected at the end of the second term. Students work on their chosen area of specialization in the third year. In the fourth year the student’s work culminates in a thesis project. All teaching is studio-based with particular emphasis on drawing and developing an individual style. The will to experiment and critical self-analysis, is facilitated through group critiques and individual tutorials. All projects are critiqued and evaluated by a panel of external jurors composed of visiting artists/educators and teachers from the Fine Arts and other departments. One of the aims of the department is to train the students in the creative process. Apart from the techniques students are provided guidance regarding the basics of the materials pertaining to their respective disciplines. The department of fine art also facilitates the teaching of drawing and material and processes in the first year foundation course.The areas of specialisation are painting, printmaking, sculpture or miniature.
26.2.3
Department of Communication Design
The Department of Communication Design teaches the principles of advertising and visual communication, with special reference to manufacturing and marketing techniques. The students are required to complete a design process involving research, strategies of approach, design development and execution. The components of the courses offered are book illustration, package design, corporate identity and advertising campaigns.
26.2.4
Department of Ceramics Design
The Department of Ceramics offer a four-year Bachelor of Ceramics (B.Cer.) Degree. Ceramic design department of National College of Arts Lahore is technically teaching all the aspects of design to the students. The concept developing and designing for the masses is the requirement. The idea of mass production that leads to commercial building of your particular design and thesis is taught. The department is under the supervision of NCA alumni Miss.Shazia
Mirza The Head Of the Department, Mr.Naveed Niazi and Miss.Ayesha Bashir both are respective teachers handling the students building in their foundation, respective design studies to thesis year. The department holds its separate Kilns and Potters wheels designed with perfection. The required material i.e. the red clay is provided to the students until their 4th year. A complete study of design and a know how of materials, arranging trips to certain factories and meeting people with full knowledge about the subject is all taken care of under this department.
26.2.5
Department of Product Design
This four year degree program is designed to enable students to realise their creative ideas into ‘functional form’ with a focus on the end user, their needs, habits, culture and economy. This design field relies borrows from areas of knowledge, technologies and sciences like anthropometrics and ergonomics. Students are trained in the design of 3D objects. Knowledge of modern processes and materials is central to the subject. Professionals are frequently invited to share their experiences in field and industry with the students. Students are given assignments of 3D objects design focusing mainly on the design process, user analysis, materials, techniques, constraints of industry and the consumer market. Basic skills like model making and computer design software are part of the curriculum. Supporting courses in drawing, sculpture and theory broaden the student’s perspective of design. In addition to design major, one studio subject is opted each term from a range of studio electives.
26.2.6
Department of Textile Design
Textile is a craft, as old as the human civilization.Headed by Iram Zia- a self acclaimed jewellery designer, the department lacks the resources required for the courses.Often confused between application and aesthetics of design.* [3] It is a four-year bachelor's degree Program incorporating current and classical traditions in the profession. It is an interface between materials and making that creates a challenging and dynamic environment. Patterns, weaves, knits, embroidery, embellishment and value addition through motifs, colours, materials, fashion trends and visual merchandising are some of the areas of textile design. The young textile designers are trained to face challenges pertaining to industry and economics, individual and society, techniques and technologies. The department trains the students to weave new ideas into industry or industry into their ideas, by making them work around a rigorous routine of industry based internship programmes. The department maintains hand looms, block printing, manual screen printing, and
26.3. SOCIETIES AND CLUBS* [9] dyeing of fabric and yarn facilities as well as a computer lab for technological solutions. Ecological and environmentally sustainable design issues are made an important concern of the course. Hence courses and workshops on naturally extracted dyes and their applicability are an important part of the curriculum. Fabric construction, surface treatments, colour, pattern and trend forecast are the basics for a textile designer. But an ethical and conscientious design practice is also a must for a textile designer -that seriously lacks in the current administration of department it self.Unfortunately, the head of department is often found manipulating situations in her own interests.* [3]
26.2.7
Department of Musicology
The Traditional Classical Music of South Asia has always been the primary medium of emotional expression and communication for people living in this part of the world and historically has been the original and primary language of emotive interaction. It has played the single largest role in our artistic and emotional lives. Classical music is an essential part of our heritage and a specific formative factor in our cultural and emotional identity as a people. The National College of Arts established the first ever Department of Musicology in Pakistan with its focus on the musical systems that evolved in the northern region of the subcontinent, at the under graduate level in 2002 with a fouryear program entitled“Bachelors in South Asian Classical Music”. The need for this program was felt because there is a lack of an informed understanding and sensitivity in the existing conceptual structure of our music. The purpose of the Department of Musicology is to produce musicians and musicologists who are willing to take on the responsibility of pursuing both theoretical and practical music on a critical and intelligent level to combine it with techniques to create good music. Since musicology at its most fundamental is an inquiry and understanding of the “purpose” of music the Musicology Department at NCA aims at a revival of our musical heritage and to regenerate an interest in our classical music on the basis of a theoretical and practical understanding of music and a historical analysis of its aesthetics and composition.”* [4]
26.2.8
Department of Film and Television
The four year bachelor's degree Program aims at broadening the student’s vision and skills through a well structured program focusing on professional knowledge of film and television. The program blends theory with hands-on practice based courses and offers interaction between various levels of disciplines required for a film & television programme. Students are also exposed to television and
219 film studios, internships, active participation in seminars and discussion with guest speakers/professionals. The students get the opportunity to make a portfolio of their work in groups of up to four students from first year onwards, and completing at least two projects per year. There is a vibrant mix of an outstanding faculty of contract, visiting and international experts.
26.2.9
Department of Multimedia Arts
NCA created the Post-Graduate Center for Multimedia Arts (PGCMA) in 2000 and Mr. Muhammad Ali Tirmizi was appointed as project Director. In 2001 the first batch of students was enrolled which included Syed Maqsood Pasha, Mr. Zaffar Iqbal and Ms. Irum Zia from within the faculty of NCA. Mr. Muhammad Ali Tirmizi was appointed the Director of the Program. The programme was developed with the technical assistance from French Government and Ecol-D-Art, Aix-en-Provence, France.* [5] A Multimedia Center (MC) has been set up with financial assistance from the Punjab Information Technology Board (PITB)* [5] which lately was revamped with the financial assistance of the Ministry of Information Technology.
26.2.10
Department of Fresco Painting
National college of Arts started a new department in 2007 which offers a Professional diploma in Fresco Painting. The course outline includes calligraphy and illumination. Ustaad Saif ul Rehman is the famous name in Fresco painting and he is teaching Techniques of Fresco painting in this course.* [6] * [7] *
[8]
26.3
Societies and clubs* [9]
• Puppeteers NCA was inaugurated in 1992 with the first director Imran Qureshi, Ahmad Zaka Qureshi and later joined by Taha Ahmed Yasin, Nosheen, Hussain Halai, Adeel Mumtaz, Ali Imran... • Skits - The Skits Society is responsible for the most awaited performance at the summer and winter festivals. The skit performers learn to keep a keen eye on College activities and individuals with caricature potential. The result is the equivalent of a farcical gossip column reporting on the goings on in the College. • N.T. Mime
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CHAPTER 26. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS • Alif Adaab - until 1999 the theatre groups of NCA were oriented towards comedy and slapstick genres. Till then only mime was considered a medium of tragedy performance. Alif Adaab was founded by Saji (Sajjad Gul) as the first dialogue based serious theatre in NCA 2000. Alif Adaab's aim was to explore every kind of literary and performing art, but with time it became a theatre group. • Undraap Nexus - Undraap Nexus specializes in mime and has been instrumental in popularizing the genre in the Country. The members are trained in the discipline through rigorous exercises conducted during workshops. Depending on the nature of the narrative, the society utilizes various styles of the art form such as pantomime, street mime and sometimes cartoon caricatures to illustrate the story. • Eastern Music Society - Members of the Eastern Music Society play Eastern classical and folk instruments as well as Western instruments used in contemporary Eastern music. The performances range from Eastern classical and Folk music from various parts of the Country to film and Pakistani pop.
Ajaz Anwar a teacher of the college
• “The End Film Society” also known as“Wehshi Film Society”makes videos for the college, competitions and TV. “The End”organizes film shows of foreign films and documentaries, with the aim of helping students to analyze technical details of the art of film-making. The current director of the society is Diyach Thebo while Moeez Hassan and Fatima Ali plays pivoted role in Society while Rizwan Mangi from Sindh tries to destroy society several times. The End was started in early 2000 • Cine Circle is the film club that was started by the film and television students of the college. Film screenings along with a discussion session by the directors were organized by the film club during 2009 - 2010 including Taqwacore (film), Zar Gul and Zibahkhana. Indian film Firaaq was also show when its director Nandita Das visited the college in 2009. The society was usually being criticized by the conservative faculty members and students for the screenings of Socialist Realist films including The Battleship Potemkin and Cranes are flying among other Soviet films.
• Western Music Society - Members of the Western Music Society sing and play instruments in the Western music tradition such as drums, keyboard and guitars. The genres mainly focused on are Pop, Rock and World Music. The society is formed of a core team of musicians, students join them as vocalists and guest musicians on the College festivals. • Dance society The Dance Society came into being after the efforts of Adnan Jehangir aka “Adnan Nacha”. With assistance from the Sundas, the team registered Dance Society at the college stage and it is now a regular participant in local cultural events. • Haroof - NCA’s literary society, founded in 1999.
26.4
Lahore campus
The Lahore Campus is ideally located in the heart of the cultural capital and enjoys a historically rich neighbourhood. The College is flanked on one side by the Lahore Museum and the Town Hall on the other side, with the Punjab University Old Campus across the road. The lure of the city for students is not just limited to the magic of history and the world heritage sites. The area between the Badshahi • Nautankye - experimental theatre group established Mosque and the NCA is a treasure of a vast array of matein September 1994. rials, from the conventional to the contemporary. This is a
26.6. THE STUDENT city where people make things on site and livings are made from ideas; from metalwork and plastics to print workshops and digital art. These are the techniques and methodologies that have remained unchanged for centuries and also those that are new. This is an extraordinary space for research, collaboration and innovation and one that is utilized by NCA students as a second home from day one of their entrance into the College.
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26.6
The Student
It is the student body that truly makes the NCA distinctive. Approximately 700 students are enrolled at Lahore Campus and 180 at the Rawalpindi Campus. Our students come from all parts of the country and from extremely diverse socio-economic backgrounds. The variety in backgrounds, identities, ideological positions and languages becomes our Not far away is Royal Park, the iconic cinema district, the strength. Pakistani film industry lived and worked here in an air of The diversity of our student body engenders a unique NCA its own creation. Cinema hoardings with their unique style culture where debate and discourse are promoted. This were painted and repainted in its narrow lanes. promotes creativity, understanding, individuality and tolRecently Lahore has begun to reclaim its own in South Asia, erance. Our foreign students are easily absorbed into the the city is host to theatre, art exhibitions, music festivals, College mainstream. symposia and lectures conducted all year round and with local and international participation, all of which are accessible to the students of NCA.
26.7
Foreign Linkages
What is unique about study at the NCA is that students are not merely voyeurs in the drama of a city. Students of the International cooperation and cultural exchange has beNCA take their performances into the public sphere, in its come very important for institutions to think and act globstreets, galleries and work in its industries. ally. The need to establish linkages with international institutes was felt strongly. Initial linkages were established through a variety of activities like international film festivals, international exhibitions and artist-in-residence programmes.
26.5 Rawalpindi campus NCA Rawalpindi campus was established in 2006, with two departments, Fine Arts and Architecture. The Architecture faculty includes Ali Ahmad Shah, Saima Salahuddin, Waheeda Bhatti, Saira Abbasi The Fine Arts faculty comprises established artists like Nadia Hussain, Aqeel Solangi Nadia Rahat Imran Hunzai and Hassan Ali of the sculpture department.* [10] The NCA Rawalpindi campus, headed by Dr Nadeem Omar Tarar, provides a unique educational, urban and cultural setting to cultivate the students’latent potential and provide them sufficient latitude to experiment and develop ideas in an environment that promotes creativity and freedom of expression. It also aims to help the students in acquiring artistic skills, ideas and confidence to succeed in their professional careers as highly creative individuals who can carve a niche in the global cultural economy.* [11]
The College has entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with a number of institutions: The College of Fine Arts, University of New South Wales, Australia, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Paris, France and Instituto Superior de Arte Havano Cuba for faculty and student exchange program. A program of an academic link in the field of sustainable design is being finalized with the University of Edgehill, United Kingdom. An MOU is established between the NCA and Visual Islamic and Traditional Arts Programme, (VITA), Prince’s Foundation, UK. These opportunities provide members of the NCA community with the much needed competitive edge to thrive internationally. At the same time, our programmes bring students and staff from all over the world to experience the NCA. Institutional linkage partners are the British Council, Anniemarie Schemmil Haus and Alliance Frances.
26.8
NCA in modern times
NCA Rawalpindi is very actively engaging with other public and private sector organizations to promote art and cul- Due to its distribution as the one of the two highly repture.* [12] It is also helping private galleries to grow and has utable arts institutions in Pakistan (the other being Indus established linkages with them.* [13] Valley School of Art and Architecture Karachi), entrance NCA Rawalpindi campus is also undertaking a huge re- to it has become competitive. Around 500 students from search and publication project to document the history of all provinces study in the College (out of which nearly 60 Potohar region.* [14] percent are girls) and is taught by a teaching staff of 40.
222
CHAPTER 26. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS
There is a high rate of employment for its diploma-holders 26.10 Head of Department in a number of important organizations in the country: Pakistan International Airlines, Pakistan National Council of • Department of Film &TV the Arts, University Grants Commission, Security Printing Press of Pakistan, National Book Foundation, and the Department of Films and publications. Apart from the urban Majid Saeed Khan development authorities, its graduates are absorbed in the • Department of Architecture private sector by advertising agencies, architectural consultancies, industrial and publishing houses.
(HOD)
The work of students can be seen at the annual Thesis Dis- Syed Maqsood Pasha play. • Department of Textile Design
26.9 Principals 26.9.1
Mayo School of Arts
• 1875-1894 - Lockwood Kipling
Iram Zia • Department of Communication Design Nadeem Bashir
• Percy Brown • 1903-1913: Bhai Ram Singh* [15] • 1913-1930: Hugh Lionel Heath* [16]
• Department of Product Design Shahzad Manzur
• 1930-1942: S. N Gupta • 1943-1947: Mian Muhammad Hussain* [17] • 1947-1954: Ghulam Nabi Malik • 1954-1956: Sidney Spedding • 1949-1965: Qazi Mohammad rafique
• Department of Musicology Sarwat Ali • Department of Ceramic Design Shazia Umbreen Mirza
26.9.2
National College of Arts (1958 present)
• Shakir Ali
• Department of Fine Arts Quddus Mirza
• Iqbal Hassan • Abbasi Abidi • Salima Hashmi • Sajida Haider Vandal • Naazish Ata Ullah • Fozia Qureshi (Acting) • Ustad Bashir Ahmed (Acting) • Sajjad Kousar (Acting) • Dr. Shabnam Khan (Acting) • Dr. Murtaza Jafri (2013–Present)
• Department of M.A Interior Syed Faisal Sajjad • Department of Visual Arts Prof. Dr. Murtaza Jafri (Principal) Director M.A. Visual Arts • Department of Communication and Cultural Studies Farida Batool
26.11. SEE ALSO
26.10.1
Notable alumni
• Haji Muhammad Sharif
223 (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1995) Akram Dost Baloch (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1997)
(PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1967) • Salima Hashmi • Prof. Shakir Ali (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1998) (SITARA-I-IMTIAZ 1971) (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1967) • Prof. Khalid Iqbal (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1980) • Kamil Khan Mumtaz (TAMGAH-I-IMTIAZ 1993) • Adil Salahuddin (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1988)
• Askari Mian Irani (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2000) • Dr. Ijaz Anwar (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2003) • Kaleem Khan (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2004) • Zahoor ul Akhlaq
(SITARA-I-IMTIAZ 2009) In 1986, he was declared the best designer in the ECO coun- (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2005) tries (Iran, Pakistan and Turkey) and awarded a gold medal • Ghulam Mustafa • Nayyar Ali Dada (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2006) (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1992) • Zulfiqar Zulfi (TAMGAH-I-IMTIAZ 2003) • Jamil Naqsh (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1989) (SITARA-I-IMTIAZ 2009) • Farooq Qaiser (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1993)
(PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 2010)
26.11
See also
• Haveli Sujan Singh
26.12
References
Bashir Miraz (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1994) • Prof. Saeed Akhtar (PRIDE OF PERFORMANCE 1994) (SITARA-I-IMTIAZ 2012) • Colin David
[1] Nadeem Omar Tarar, From Primtive Artisan to Modern Artists, Colonialism, Culture and Art Education in Punjab, South Asian Studies retrieved on September, 2011 [2] Bachelor of Architecture (B. Arch.) Degree, National College of Arts (Lahore) website. [3] http://nca.edu.pk/Dept-Textile-Design.html [4] Bachelors in South Asian Classical Music, National College of Arts (Lahore) website.
224
[5] Post Graduate Centre for Multimedia Arts, National College of Arts (Lahore) website. [6] Professional Diploma in Fresco painting, National College of Arts (Lahore) website. [7] NCA fresco facebook page. [8] Department of Caligrapgy, National College of Arts (Lahore) website. [9] Societies and Clubs, National College of Arts (Lahore) website. [10] http://www.nca.edu.pk/intro.htm [11] http://app.com.pk/video/preview.php?id=59660 [12] http://www.nation.com.pk/ pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/islamabad/ 12-Apr-2013/3-day-stone-carving-workshop-concludes [13] http://www.khaasgallery.com/ArtDirectoryArtEducation. aspx [14] http://dawn.com/2013/03/20/ nca-to-document-potohar-history [15] Ali, S. Amjad Painters of Pakistan Islamabad: National book Foundation 1995 pg 34 [16] Hugh Heath Principle of Mayo School, Lahore. 1871-1938 [17] http://www.nca.edu.pk/archives/
26.13 External links • National College of Arts, Lahore - Official website • Pakstudy (National College of Arts Section) 31°34′07″N 74°18′27″E / 31.56859°N 74.30737°E
CHAPTER 26. NATIONAL COLLEGE OF ARTS
Chapter 27
Lahore Museum The Lahore Museum (Punjabi: ����� ������, Urdu: )ﻻ ر, was originally established in 1865-66 on the site of the hall or building of the 1864 Punjab Exhibition* [2] and later shifted to its present site located on The Mall, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan in 1894. Rudyard Kipling's father, John Lockwood Kipling, was one of the earliest and most famous curators of the museum.* [3] Over 250,000 visitors were registered in 2005.* [1] The current building of Lahore Museum was designed by the well-known architect Sir Ganga Ram. The Museum is the biggest museum of the country. A number of rooms have been under repair for a long time and others still show a rather old-fashioned and often rudimental display of objects, with Urdu captions only.
27.1 Collections The Museum contains some fine specimens of Mughal and Sikh door-ways and wood-work and has a large collection of paintings dating back to the Mughal, Sikh and British periods. It includes a collection of musical instruments, ancient jewellery, textiles, pottery, and armory. There are important relics from the Indus Valley civilisation, Gandhara and Graeco-Bactrian periods as well as some Tibetan and Fasting Buddha at museum Nepalese work on display. The museum has a number of Greco-Buddhist sculptures, Mughal and Pahari paintings on display.The Fasting Buddha from the Gandhara period is one of the most famous objects of the museum. The ceil- A photo gallery is dedicated to the emerging of Pakistan as ing of the entrance hall features a large mural by renowned a state. Pakistani artist Sadequain.
27.2 Scope Of Lahore Museum The Museum displays archaeological material from prehistoric times to the Hindu Shahi period. It has one of the largest collections of archaeology, history, arts, fine arts, applied arts,ethnology, and craft objects in Pakistan.It also has an extensive collection of Hellenistic and Mughal coins.
27.3
225
Popular culture
• Rudyard Kipling's novel, Kim (pub. 1901), was set in the vicinity of the old/original Lahore Museum and the Mall areas.
226
CHAPTER 27. LAHORE MUSEUM
27.7
External links
• Lahore Museum Official Website • Lahore Museum as it looked in 1900
The Zamzama in front of the present Museum, also known as “Kim's Gun”from its appearance in Rudyard Kipling's novel Kim.
27.4 Further reading • Shaila Bhatti (2012), Translating museums: a counterhistory of South Asian museology, Walnut Creek, Calif: Left Coast Press, ISBN 9781611321449 • Whitehead, Richard Bertram (1914). Catalogue of Coins in the Panjab Museum, Lahore; Indo-Greek Coins : Volume 1. The Panjab Government at The Clarendon Press, Oxford. • Whitehead, Richard Bertram (1914). Catalogue of Coins in the Panjab Museum, Lahore; Coins of Mughal Emperors: Volume 2. The Panjab Government at The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
27.5 See also • List of museums in Pakistan
27.6 References [1] Areas of Attraction - Government of Pakistan [2] Which later became the Tollinton Market after the completion of the new/present museum building, see “Murray's Handbook of the Punjab”, pub. 1883. Mention also made in Peter Hopkirk,“Quest for Kim”, London, 1996, pp.4647 ISBN 0-7195-5560-4 [3] The old, oriignal one prior to 1893
Chapter 28
Civil and Military Gazette The Civil and Military Gazette was a daily English language newspaper founded in 1872 in British India. It was published from Lahore, Simla and Karachi, some times simultaneously, until its closure in 1963.* [1]
28.1 History
the editor-in-chief was Stephen Wheeler. 1886 brought a change of editors at the newspaper. Kay Robinson, the new editor, allowed more creative freedom and Kipling was asked to contribute short stories to the newspaper.* [6] His first collection of short stories, Plain Tales from the Hills, contained 28 stories that had initially found publication in the CMG.* [7]
Rudyard Kipling eventually left the Civil and Military Gazette in 1887, to move to its sister-newspaper in The Civil and Military Gazette was founded in Lahore and Allahabad, The Pioneer.* [4] Simla in 1872. It was a merger of The Mofussilite in Calcutta, and the Lahore Chonicle and Indian Public Opinion and Panjab Times in Lahore.* [1]* [2]
28.2.2
Mahbub Jamal Zahedi
28.3
References
The Lahore and Simla editions of the paper continued to be published concurrently until 1949, when the Simla branch The last editor of CMG was Abdul Hamid Sheikh, who was closed. wrote Lahore Notes under 'HS' in the Pakistan Times afThe Civil and Military Gazette began publishing in Karachi a ter the CMG shut down. Mahbub Jamal Zahedi joined the week before its branch in Simla closed. However, the CMG Civil and Military Gazette in 1963, at a time when its last in Karachi was very short lived, the publication lasting a branch, situated in Lahore, was about to cease publication. He served there for only a few months, before he moved to mere 4 years. Dawn in Karachi.* [8] During the CMG's publication in Lahore, Simla, and Karachi, the frequency of publication changed thrice as follows:
28.2 Notable staff members 28.2.1
[1] Asiamap: Archives, Retrieved September 10, 2010. [2] Indian English through newspapers: By Asima Ranjan Parhi, Retrieved September 11, 2010.
Rudyard Kipling
The Civil and Military Gazette is possibly most notable for being the workplace of renowned British author and poet, Rudyard Kipling. It was referred to by Kipling as his "mistress and most true love."* [3]
[3] Kipling, Rudyard (1935). “Something of mysel”. public domain. Retrieved September 6, 2008.also: 1935/1990. Something of myself and other autobiographical writings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40584-X.
Kipling was assistant editor of the CMG, a job procured for him by his father, who was curator of the Lahore Museum,* [4] when it was decided that he lacked the academic ability to get into Oxford University on a scholarship.* [5]
[4] Vicyorianweb.Org: Ruyard Kipling Chronology, Retrieved September 11, 2010.
When Kipling joined the staff at the Lahore CMG in 1882, 227
[5] Carpenter, Henry and Mari Prichard. 1984. Oxford Companion to Children's Literature. pp. 296–297. ISBN 0-19860228-6
228
[6] Rutherford, Andrew (1987). Introduction to the Oxford World's Classics edition of “Plain Tales from the Hills”, by Rudyard Kipling. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19281652-7 [7] Carpenter, H. and M. Prichard. 1984. The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York. ISBN 0-19-860228-6 [8] “MJ Zahedi no more”. The Daily Star. December 26, 2008. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
CHAPTER 28. CIVIL AND MILITARY GAZETTE
Chapter 29
The Pioneer (newspaper) The Pioneer * [1] is an English language newspaper in India. tions of its Chhattisgarh edition. * [8] It is published from multiple locations in India, including As of 2013 Chandan Mitra is the Editor-in-Chief of The Delhi. It is the second oldest English language newspaper Pioneer. in India that is operational. In 2010, The Pioneer launched a Hindi version in Lucknow.* [2]
29.1.1
29.1 History
Editions
• Delhi
• Lucknow The Pioneer was founded in Allahabad in 1865 by George • Bhopal Allen, an Englishman who had had great success in the tea business in north-east India in the previous decade.* [3] It • Bhubaneshwar was brought out three times a week from 1865 to 1869 * and daily thereafter. [4] In 1866, a supplement, the Pioneer • Chandigarh Mail, consisting of“48 quarto-size pages,”mostly of advertisements, was added to the publication.* [3] In 1872, Alfred • Ranchi Sinnett became the editor of the newspaper. Although he • Dehradun was later to be known for his interest in theosophy, he oversaw the transformation of the newspaper to one of ex• Raipur ercising great influence in British India.* [3] In 1874, the weekly Pioneer Mail became the Pioneer Mail and India Weekly News and began to also feature short stories and Lucknow edition includes four other editions Varanasi, travel writings.* [4] Author Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936), Kanpur, Allahabad and Lucknow itself. in his early 20s, worked at the newspaper office in Allahabad as an assistant editor from November 1887 to March 1889.* [5] In July 1933, The Pioneer was sold to a syn- 29.2 Columnists dicate* [6] and moved from Allahabad to Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, at which time the Pioneer Mail and India Weekly • Chandan Mitra News ceased publication.* [4] • Swapan Dasgupta The newspaper remained a primarily Lucknow-based paper until 1990, when it was purchased by the Thapar Group, under L. M. Thapar, who made it a national newspaper, published from Delhi, Lucknow, Bhubaneswar, Kochi, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Dehradun and Ranchi. Thapar sold the paper to its editor Chandan Mitra in 1998. At that time it had 484 employees. Mitra announced that he intended to seek other investors in due course rather than to remain the owner.* [7] On October 17, 2010, The Pioneer launched its Hindi version of the newspaper from Lucknow * [2] and in May 2012, the paper inaugurated its Raipur bureau, beginning opera229
• Kanchan Gupta • G Parthasarathy • Pramod Kumar Singh • Ashok K Mehta • Hiranmay Karlekar • Ashok Malik
230 • A Surya Prakash
CHAPTER 29. THE PIONEER (NEWSPAPER)
29.2.1
Cartoonists
• Claude Arpi
• Sudhir Dar
• Sandhya Jain
• Shekhar Gurera
• Gautam Mukherjee • Balbir Punj • Joginder Singh • Rajesh Singh • Kushan Mitra • Utpal Kumar • Abhijit Iyer-Mitra • K G Suresh • Mayuri Mukherjee • Prerna Singh Bindra • Gautam Pandey • Shikha Mukerjee • Meeta W Sengupta • Anuradha Dutt • Kalyani Shankar • Vinayshil Gautam • S Rajagopalan • KPS Gill • Devender Singh • Rohit Bansal • BK Kuthiala • Ashoka Jahnavi Prasad • Chandra Bhan Prasad • Devi Cherian • Hari shankar vyas • Meenakshi Rao • Padma Rao Sundarji • Pramod Pathak • Swarn Kumar Anand
• Nirjhar Som
29.3
References
[1] The Pioneer : Official Web [2] Pioneer launches Hindi edition in Lucknow, The Pioneer [3] Das Gupta, Uma. 1977. “The Indian Press 1870-1880: A Small World of Journalism”, Modern Asian Studies, 11(2):213-235. pp 233-234. [4] National Library of Australia. 1994. South Asian Newspapers in Australian Libraries: A Holdings List [5] The proprietors of The Pioneer also owned a smaller newspaper, The Civil and Military Gazette, published from Lahore, at which Kipling had worked from 1883 to 1887, and which had served to launch his career as an author. [6]“When, at long last, the Pioneer—India’s greatest and most important paper which used to pay twenty-seven per cent to its shareholders—fell on evil days and, after being bedevilled and bewitched, was sold to a syndicate, and I received a notification beginning; ‘We think you may be interested to know that,’etc., I felt curiously alone and unsponsored. But my first mistress and most true love, the little Civil and Military Gazette, weathered the storm.”From: Kipling, Rudyard. 1937. Something of Myself, Chapter III (Seven Years' Hard). Available (public domain) at Words: University of Newcastle, Australia. [7] Editor steps in to save The Pioneer, The Times Of India, 12 May 1998. [8] Pioneer, The.“Advani launches Pioneer Raipur”. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
Chapter 30
Chums (paper) 30.1
History
Started by Cassell & Company in 1892 as a weekly newspaper for boys, it was apparently modelled on—and in competition for readers with—the Boy's Own Paper, having articles and stories covering various topics. Chums launched with a serial“For Glory and Renown”by D. H. Parry and articles on football training, Harrow School, and Julius Caesar in Britain. Initially Chums had problems gaining readers but two serials,“The Iron Pirate”, by first editor Max Pemberton in 1892, and Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1894, pushed the paper into some success.* [1]
30.1.1
Amalgamated Press buys
Amalgamated Press bought Chums in January 1927 and continued as a weekly. With the 2 July 1932 issue, its publishing schedule was reduced to a monthly issue. The last monthly issue was in July 1934 and became an annual publication issued in September. The serial ceased publication with its 9 September 1941 issue due to paper shortages.* [1]
30.2
The front page from Chums for 28 August 1895.
Format
Chums was issued in three different formats, weekly, monthly and annually. While initial published as a weekly paper, a monthly edition was issued including all the weekly issues with a color cover. Some material were only included Chums was a boys' weekly newspaper started in 1892 by in the weekly or monthly formats. In the weekly this showed Cassell & Company and later, from 1927, published by up as an eight page article insert pages numbered i-viii. The Amalgamated Press. The publisher gathered the weekly monthly had a color print included.* [1] paper into monthly and annual editions. The serial ceased publication in 1941.* [1] Chums was notably the sponsor of the Chums League, Chums Society of Stamp Collectors, Chums Scouts, the British Boy Scouts and the British Boys Naval Brigade/National Naval Cadets.
30.3
231
Sponsorship of youth organizations
232
30.3.1
CHAPTER 30. CHUMS (PAPER)
Chums Scouts & British Boy Scouts
Chums' “On the Watch Tower”news column reported on 11 September 1907 that Robert Baden-Powell's Brownsea Island Scout camp was proposed and his recommendation that Boy Scout groups should be formed. In the 12 February 1908 issue, the editor indicated there was a reader proposing to start a scout company under the“Chum Scout”name and suggested that they wear the 'Chums' League badge. In the next issue, the editor indicated more readers had written in about starting a League of Chums Scouts with a reply that they were in discussions with Baden-Powell. The following issue had an article on the Brownsea Island Camp by BadenPowell and indicated future news on the proposed 'Chums' League of Scouts. However,the publication then fell silent on the 'Chum' Scouts. In October 1908, a recurring character, Waggles, made fun of boy scouts. The silence, then the turnabout to being negative may have stemmed from C. Arthur Pearson Limited launching “The Scout”paper which was denoted as 'Founded by”Baden-Powell and the “Official Journal”of Baden-Powell's own Boy Scout organization.* [2] In June 1909, Chums started including boy scout stories. In the 30 June issue, the editor's column indicated that the Chum scouts patrols were still going “strong”and that a union of the various patrols was being considered. Chums announced the launch of the British Boy Scouts as a national organisation in the 21 July 1909 issue. A British Boy Scout column was included in future issues, later becoming a full page.* [2] Chums indicated in late December that the BBS had gained members in Australia, Africa, and Canada. Chums also includes some of the earliest references to "Sea Scouts".* [3] In mid-1911, the BBS column ended when the original BBS leaders, H. Moore and W.G. Whitby, left the BBS.* [4]
30.3.2
British Boys Naval Brigade / National Naval Cadets
In March 1909, Chums sponsored The British Boys Naval Brigade, a uniformed youth organization for boys ages 10 to 17. With the Brigade's launch in May as a national organization, it changed its name to The National Naval Cadets. The organization's columns in Chums were of an instructional nature rather than a news journal. Chums was also used as an enrolment tool. By June articles on the National Naval Cadets subtitled it, first as “Scouts of the Sea”then later “Sea Scouts of the Empire”.* [2] The British Boy Scouts and National Naval Cadets were both headquartered in Battersea, London. Chums referred to them together as Chums United Service.* [2]
30.4
See also
• Boys' Life • Boys' Own
30.5
References
[1] John (2007-12-11). “CHUM: The 48 Annuals and the Storypapers”. CollectingBooksandMagazines.com. CollectingBooksandMagazines.com. Retrieved 2008-10-03. [2] “CHUMS: Material on Scouting, British Boy Scouts, British Boys' Naval Brigade and the National Naval Cadets in 'Chums'". boy-scout.net. Dorset, England, UK: The British Boy Scouts and British Girl Scouts Association. Retrieved 2008-10-03. [3] Chums, vd. e.g. 14 July 1909 p879, 21 July 1909 p888, 28 July 1909 p921 [4] “The British Boy Scouts Story”. boy-scout.net. Dorset, England, UK: The British Boy Scouts and British Girl Scouts Association. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
Chapter 31
Plain Tales from the Hills Plain Tales from the Hills (published 1888) is the first collection of short stories by Rudyard Kipling. Out of its 40 stories, “eight-and-twenty”, according to Kipling's Preface, were initially published in the Civil and Military Gazette in Lahore, Punjab, British India, between November 1886 and June 1887. “The remaining tales are, more or less, new.”(Kipling had worked as a journalist for the CMG— his first job—since 1882, when he was not quite 17.)
• "The Other Man"
The title refers, by way of a pun on “Plain”as the reverse of “Hills”, to the deceptively simple narrative style; and to the fact that many of the stories are set in the Hill Station of Simla—the“summer capital of the British Raj”during the hot weather. Not all of the stories are, in fact, about life in “the Hills": Kipling gives sketches of many aspects of life in British India.
• "Kidnapped"
The tales include the first appearances, in book form, of Mrs. Hauksbee, the policeman Strickland, and the Soldiers Three (Privates Mulvaney, Ortheris and Learoyd).
• "Consequences" • "The Conversion of Aurelian McGoggin" • "The Taking of Lungtungpen" • "A Germ-Destroyer"
• "The Arrest of Lieutenant Golightly" • "In the House of Suddhoo" • "His Wedded Wife" • "The Broken Link Handicap" • "Beyond the Pale" • "In Error" • "A Bank Fraud"
31.1 The stories
• "Tods' Amendment"
• "Lispeth"
• "The Daughter of the Regiment"
• "Three and - an Extra"
• "In the Pride of his Youth"
• "Thrown Away"
• "Pig"
• "Miss Youghal's Sais"
• "The Rout of the White Hussars"
• "Yoked with an Unbeliever'"
• "The Bronckhorst Divorce-case"
• "False Dawn"
• "Venus Annodomini"
• "The Rescue of Pluffles"
• "The Bisara of Pooree"
• "Cupid's Arrows"
• "A Friend's Friend"
• "The Three Musketeers"
• "The Gate of the Hundred Sorrows"
• "His Chance in Life"
• "The Madness of Private Ortheris"
• "Watches of the Night"
• "The Story of Muhammad Din" 233
234
CHAPTER 31. PLAIN TALES FROM THE HILLS
• "On the Strength of a Likeness" • "Wressley of the Foreign Office" • "By Word of Mouth" • "To be Filed for Reference" Some of the characters in these stories reappear in the novel Kim.
31.2 References • Carpenter, H. and M. Prichard. 1984. The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York.
31.3 External links • Plain Tales from the Hills public domain audiobook at LibriVox • Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg • Works by Kipling • Note that as Kipling's writing is mostly in the public domain, a large number of individual websites contain parts of his work; these two sites are comprehensive, containing almost everything publicly available. • Something of Myself, Kipling's autobiography • The Kipling Society website • Kipling Readers' Guide from the Kipling Society; annotated notes on stories and poems.
Chapter 32
Under the Deodars Under the Deodars (published 1888) is a collection of overjoyed and carries the news to Mrs. Vansuythen, implorshort stories by Rudyard Kipling. ing her to run away with him. Mrs. Vansuythen, however, becomes distraught to learn that she has not been the only one receiving attentions from Captain Kurrell. The last to find out is Captain Kurrell, who loses both women in one 32.1 The Education of Otis Yeere swoop. Mrs. Vansuythen informs both men that she hates them and refuses to see either again. Mr. Boulte and CapMrs. Hauksbee decides to start a salon in Simla, but Mrs. tain Kurrell become friends, so that both may prevent the Mallowe talks her out of it. She then explains to Mrs. other from causing either Mrs. Boulte or Mrs. Vansuythen Hauksbee that she's experiencing a mid-life crisis and that any grief. she came out of her own by becoming an Influence in the life of a young man. So Mrs. Hauksbee decides to try the same. Against Mrs. Mallowe's warnings, she chooses Otis Yeere. Everything seems to be going according to plan— 32.4 The Hill of Illusion Otis Yeere is coming up in the world, by virtue of his association with Mrs. Hauksbee. And Mrs. Hauksbee platoni- A man just come back from the plains of India to see his cally encourages his attentions. But one day she learns that fiancee, but becomes jealous when he learns that she has everything has not gone according to plan when he tries to been keeping appointments with other men while he has kiss her. been away. She then asks if he's ever courted any other girls and becomes jealous when he admits that he has. When they part company she begins acting evasively, prompting 32.2 At the Pit's Mouth him to suspect that one of those men was more significant than he'd feared. The wife of a man who is serving in the plains of India, leaving her alone in Simla, enters into an extra-marital affair with a 'Tertium quid'. They often rendezvous at the 32.5 A Second-rate Woman cemetery. On one occasion they see a grave being dug and it ruins the atmosphere for them. They decide to run away Mrs. Hauksbee gossips with Mrs. Mallowe and is highly to Tibet together, but while going the Tertium Quid's horse critical of Mrs. Delville, whom she calls 'The Dowd' (on acis spooked. Horse and rider tumble from the road, which count of her out-of-style dress), and a man whom she calls passes by the cemetery. The Tertium Quid is killed in the 'The Dancing Master' (because he dances so poorly), who fall and is buried in the freshly dug grave. seems to be courting her. Mrs. Hauksbee becomes more alarmed when a young man, the Hawley Boy, whom she's been grooming to marry the Holt girl, takes an interest in 32.3 A Wayside Comedy Mrs. Delville. Her estimation of Mrs. Delville improves a little, though, when Mrs. Delville rejects 'The Dancing Major and Mrs. Vansuythen come to live at the station of Master' after learning that he was married and had a family. Kashima. After a time, Mrs. Boulte comes to suspect that Later, when Mrs. Hauksbee is helping take care of children her husband has fallen for Mrs. Vansuythen. So when he during an epidemic of diphtheria, she gains a greater appreconfronts her about whether she loves him or not, she ad- ciation of Mrs. Delville when the later saves a child who is mits her own affair with Captain Kurrell. Mr. Boulte is choking to death. It is later revealed that Mrs. Delville lost 235
236
CHAPTER 32. UNDER THE DEODARS
a child in the same manner.
32.6 Only a Subaltern Bobby Wick is made a subaltern and he joins a regiment called the Tyneside Tail Twisters. One of the soldiers, Dormer, has a temper and is constantly getting into trouble. Bobby takes him fishing and makes friends with him, eventually inspiring him to improve his behaviour and become a better soldier. Bobby has this sort of effect on most of the soldiers in his regiment. Bobby goes on leave to Simla, but is called back early because cholera is spreading through the regiment. Bobby rallies the spirits of many of the men, aiding in their recovery. When Dormer falls ill, Bobby spends the whole night in the tent, holding his hand. Bobby then falls ill and though he fights to stay alive (in part because he'd left a girl back in Simla), he eventually succumbs to the disease. When a convalescent private, Conklin, declares that another officer has died, Dormer rebukes him and declares that Bobby Wick was an angel.
32.7 In the Matter of a Private A soldier in barracks snaps under repeated teasing and takes his rifle to his tormentor.
32.8 The Enlightenments of Pagett, M. P. A Member of the British Parliament visits an old school friend who is now an administrator in India. He finds that his theoretical ideas on Indian democracy do not match the realities of the people and country.
32.9 External links • Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg • Works by Kipling at the University of Newcastle • Note that as Kipling's writing is mostly in the public domain, a large number of individual websites contain parts of his work; these two sites are comprehensive, containing almost everything publicly available. • Something of Myself, Kipling's autobiography • The Kipling Society website
• Kipling Readers' Guide from the Kipling Society; annotated notes on stories and poems.
Chapter 33
The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales (pub- died somewhere far from it and they suspected that it was lished 1888) is a collection of short stories by Rudyard his ghost that occasionally came to visit it. Kipling.
33.3
33.1 The Phantom 'Rickshaw After an affair with a Mrs. Agnes Keith-Wessington in Simla, the narrator, Jack, repudiates her and eventually becomes engaged to Miss Kitty Mannering. Yet Mrs. Wessington continually reappears in Jack's life, begging him to reconsider, insisting that it was all just a mistake. But Jack wants nothing to do with her and continues to spurn her. Eventually Mrs. Wessington dies, much to Jack's relief. However, some time thereafter he sees her old rickshaw and assumes that someone has bought it. Then, to his astonishment, the rickshaw and the men pulling it pass through a horse, revealing themselves to be phantoms, bearing the departed ghost of Mrs. Wessington. This leads Jack into increasingly erratic behavior which he tries to cover up by concocting increasingly elaborate lies to assuage Kitty's suspicions. Eventually a Dr. Heatherlegh takes him in, supposing the visions to be the result of disease or madness. Despite their efforts, Kitty and her family become increasingly suspicious and eventually call off the engagement. Jack loses hope and begins wandering the city aimlessly, accompanied by the ghost of Mrs. Wessington.
The Strange Ride of Morrowbie Jukes
One evening Morrowbie Jukes, an Englishman, is feeling a bit feverish and the barking of the dogs outside his tent are upsetting him. So he mounts his horse in order to pursue them. The horse bolts and they eventually fall into a sandy ravine on the edge of a river. He awakens the next morning to find himself in an Indian leper colony. He quickly learns that it is impossible to climb out because of the sandy slope. And the river is doubly treacherous with quicksand and a rifleman who will try to pick them off. He recognizes one man there, a Brahmin named Gunga Dass. Gunga has become ruthless, but he does feed Jukes. Eventually Jukes discovered that another Englishman had been there and died. On his corpse Jukes finds a note explaining how to safely get through the quicksand. After Jukes explains it to Gunga, Gunga confesses to murdering the Englishman for fear of being left behind. They plan their escape for that evening, when the rifleman will be unable to see them in the dark. When the time to escape arrives, Gunga knocks Jukes unconscious and escapes alone. When Jukes awakes he is found by the boy who kept his dogs and helped to escape by means of a rope.
33.2 My Own True Ghost Story The narrator, while staying at a dâk-bungalow in Katmal, India, hears someone in the next room playing billiards. He assumes that it is a group of doolie-bearers who've just arrived. The next morning he complains, only to learn that there were no coolies in the dâk-bungalow the night before. The owner then tells him that ten years ago it was a billiardhall. An engineer who'd been fond of the billiard hall had
33.4
The Man Who Would Be King
Main article: The Man Who Would Be King The narrator, a journalist, meets two colorful characters, Daniel Dravot and Peachey Carnahan, while on a train. Later they seek him out at his printing press in Lahore, for
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books or maps of Kafiristan. He then plays witness to their vow to each other to become kings of Kafiristan, a venture which he sees as ill-advised. Two years later Peachey returns and informs the narrator that they indeed reached Kafiristan. While there, were seen as gods and eventually Daniel is made king. They taught the Kafiristanis how to use rifles and military tactics. Eventually Dravot decides to take a Kafiristani woman to wife. In her terror she bites him. Upon seeing him bleed, the priests declare him not to be a god and the Kafiristanis immediately seek their deaths. One clan chief, whom they call“Billy Fish”helps them to escape but eventually they are caught and Daniel is thrown into a gorge to his death. They crucified Peachey but then let him go when he survived. The narrator puts Peachey in an asylum where he dies soon thereafter.
33.5 External links • Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg • Works by Kipling • Note that as Kipling's writing is mostly in the public domain, a large number of individual websites contain parts of his work; these two sites are comprehensive, containing almost everything publicly available. • Something of Myself, Kipling's autobiography • The Kipling Society website • Kipling Readers' Guide from the Kipling Society; annotated notes on stories and poems.
Chapter 34
Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories (published tempt. Life gets steadily worse for Punch (who is eventu1888) is a collection of short stories by Rudyard Kipling. ally renamed 'Black Sheep') and his only escape from his insufferable life is in reading. Things take a turn for the worse when Uncle Harry, the only person besides Judy who shows Black Sheep any kindness, dies. Black Sheep is then 34.1 Wee Willie Winkie sent to school and one day gets into a fight at school. This emboldens him and he begins threatening his cousin Harry Percival William Williams, who is affectionately called and Aunt Rosa that he will murder them. He also attempts 'Wee Willie Winkie' because of the nursery rhyme, is the (and fails) to commit suicide. During this time it is discovonly son of the Colonel of the 195th. He makes good friends ered by a visitor to the house that Black Sheep has nearly with a subaltern, whom he nicknames 'Coppy'. One day gone blind. When their mother comes to retrieve them, life Wee Willie Winkie confesses to Coppy that he saw him quickly improves again for Black Sheep and he goes back kissing Miss Allardyce, whose father was a Major. Coppy to being known as Punch. persuaded him to keep silent about the matter since they were engaged, but hadn't announced it, yet. Three weeks later, when Wee Willie Winkie is grounded, he sees Miss Allardyce ride her horse across the river in an attempt to 34.3 His Majesty the King prove her mettle. Wee Willie Winkie knows that the 'Bad Men' (who he equates with goblins) live on the other side A child, named Toby (the eponymous 'His Majesty the of the river, so he rides out after her even though he's King') is generally ignored by his parents and is raised by a grounded. Miss Allardyce's horse blunders and falls, giv- nurse, Miss Biddums. But more than anything he wants his ing Miss Allardyce a twisted ankle. Wee Willie Winkie parents to love him. Unbeknownst to him, their coolness is catches up to her and sends his pony, Jack, back to the can- the result of an affair his father once had. One afternoon tonments. Some natives find them and consider whether a package is left at the house and he covets the string used to hold Miss Allardyce and Wee Willie Winkie for ransom to wrap it. He removes the string and, to his dismay, the or return them for a reward. When Wee Willie Winkie's wrapping paper falls off the box. Then, curious, he opens riderless horse returns to the cantonments, E Company im- the box and discovers a jewel inside. He takes it to play mediately marshals and sets out to find him. The Company with it, intending to give it back to his mother and apolofrightens away the natives and Wee Willie Winkie is lauded gise when she asks for it. But she never asks for it. Toby is as a hero for saving Miss Allardyce. wracked with guilt, eventually the point of becoming ill. In a delirium he confesses his theft to Miss Biddums. A note is found with the jewel which eventually leads to a reconciliation between his parents. When he wakes up from his 34.2 Baa, Baa, Black Sheep fever, his parents give him all the love he could wish for. Main article: Baa Baa, Black Sheep (short story) A young boy, called Punch, and a young girl, called Judy are 34.4 The Drums of the Fore and Aft sent to live with their Aunt Rosa, Uncle Harry, and cousin Harry, in England, while their parents remain in Bombay, The narrator explains that it is generally known that the regIndia. Uncle Harry is kind to Punch, but Aunt Rosa, a iment known facetiously as the 'Fore and Aft' suffered an domineering Christian, treats him only with scorn and con- embarrassing defeat on their first foray into the battlefield. 239
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Part of this was due to the inexperience of both the men and the officers. The story concerns two drummer boys, Jakin and Lew, who are generally disorderly. When news comes that their company will be sent to the front, they both convince the Colonel to let them come along. Several misunderstandings and mistakes result in the Fore and Aft rushing out to battle before they were supposed to. They are soundly defeated by their opponents, Ghazis from Afghanistan, and flee the battlefield. Jakin and Lew, who are left behind, decide to try to rouse the regiment by playing the fife and the drum. The 'Fore and Aft' rush back to the fight, but in the first volley of the Afghans both boys are killed. The 'Fore and Aft', now inspired by a thirst for revenge, drive back the Afghans and win back some respect. But the honour for the victory goes to the two drummer boys who died while showing bravery greater than that of the men they served with.
34.5 External links • Works by Rudyard Kipling at Project Gutenberg • Works by Kipling at the University of Newcastle • Note that as Kipling's writing is mostly in the public domain, a large number of individual websites contain parts of his work; these two sites are comprehensive, containing almost everything publicly available. • Something of Myself, Kipling's autobiography • The Kipling Society website • Kipling Readers' Guide from the Kipling Society; annotated notes on stories and poems.
Chapter 35
From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel is a book containing Rudyard Kipling's articles about his 1889 travels from India to Burma, China, Japan, and the United States en route to England.* [1] This collection is usually called Letters of Travel 1892-1913 in the 21st century.* [2]* [3]
35.1 Notes [1] Kipling, JR (1899). From sea to sea and other sketches: letters of travel. New York: Doubleday. [2] [3]
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35.2 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 35.2.1
Text
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Spicemix, JonRichfield, Autodidact1, Petrb, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Satellizer, A520, Movses-bot, JiltoMiles, Utziputz, Lokata~enwiki, Msrere56, VictorianChild, Widr, Vibhijain, Secret of success, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thisthat2011, SchroCat, Livingarts1, Paula oswald, BG19bot, Vhuard456, Karinogawa, TCN7JM, M0rphzone, Dkkenya, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Metricopolus, Mnbvcxz12345, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, OttawaAC, Iamthecheese44, LA Gallerina, Rudyardkiplingreader88, Sussexbestwalks, Seemannpaa, Whatkatydid, GuitarStv, Andre-rpo, The Traditionalist, Aban1313, Derschueler, Graysen Pitts, Nmcnms, Barney the barney barney, Silentengineer, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Zhaofeng Li, Cloptonson, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, Gawhyte, Chie one, Eb7473, Dexbot, Mr. Guye, Mogism, GyaroMaguus, Heritager, Jowhuang, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Herve Reex, Silentstudent, Sriharsh1234, Nimetapoeg, Kanuk82, Aero Scuzz, Pack deck, Borris75, Secondhand Work, Orangesareamazing, Grapesareamazing, Daniyalroks, Justgetsbetter, RaphaelQS, Ugog Nizdast, Glaisher, JustBerry, PrateekLala, Ephemera1234, Jianhui67, Jackmcbarn, Manul, Notthebestusername, Gravuritas, WritersInspire, JAaron95, Lewkcanyon, Emilio4321, Tharindusathsara, Pizzaboy6397, Felix Modernssohn, Carlos Rojas77, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, BethNaught, Mongurpinder, Ephemeratta, Sanjivbokil, Jlb6z, 115ash, TropicAltē, Lillskip, Dang3rtown, Truefacts fordummies, Nitrogaming101, Coolabahapple, M3t4lh34d16, Elmidae, Emmawgo14, Thurstan Channing, KasparBot, Pravbv and Anonymous: 1112 • British Armed Forces Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces?oldid=684735817 Contributors: Khendon, Christopher Mahan, Rmhermen, Olivier, Jtdirl, Gabbe, Mic, Ronz, Jdforrester, Rlandmann, IMSoP, Kwekubo, Jiang, Marknew, Mxn, David Newton, Tpbradbury, Astrotrain, Morwen, Thue, Kirk!, Chrism, PBS, Jredmond, Altenmann, Romanm, Postdlf, Kwi, Timrollpickering, Wereon, SoLando, Geeoharee, H1523702, Beland, RetiredUser2, Necrothesp, Cynical, Huaiwei, Canterbury Tail, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, AlanBarrett, Clue, Kwamikagami, Andreww, Adambro, Bobo192, Jammydodger, Dpaajones, Wiki-Ed, Twobells, Benbread, Duffman~enwiki, Free Bear, Arthena, Joolz, Fat pig73, Cdc, Mysdaao, Malo, Bart133, Jrleighton, Computerjoe, CinnamonCinder, Brookie, Pcpcpc, Woohookitty, Psau, Canaen, WadeSimMiser, Ddye, Lapsed Pacifist, Twthmoses, とある白い猫, Toussaint, Mandarax, Graham87, BD2412, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Rogerd, Kinu, Himasaram, Ghepeu, Leithp, SouthernNights, Mark83, Gurch, Gareth E Kegg, Idaltu, Coolhawks88, Mjgm84, Bgwhite, Hahnchen, Tone, YurikBot, Brendan.G, RussBot, John Smith's, Pigman, RadioFan2 (usurped), Gaius Cornelius, Howcheng, Jpbowen, Cheeser1, Gadget850, Superdude99, Silverhelm, David Biddulph, Dan Atkinson, Nick-D, SmackBot, C.Fred, Jfurr1981, Mauls, Gilliam, Algont, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Thom2002, Jprg1966, Hibernian, El Gringo, Zachorious, Bsilverthorn, Chendy, WDGraham, Nixeagle, MeekSaffron, OneEuropeanHeart, Greenshed, Elendil's Heir, Jared, ALR, Sadlersadie, Antheii, Ohconfucius, Jombo, WikiWitch, Xdamr, BrownHairedGirl, Rklawton, Ouip, CPMcE, Bloodloss, MilborneOne, Robofish, SpyMagician, Nobunaga24, Chrisch, 16@r, Aquarelle, AlexButler, Zorxd, Kurtle, RHB, Tonster, Burto88, Iridescent, Stefanio, Lucy-marie, FairuseBot, Archenbridge Universities, Escaper7, ConstantinetheGreat~enwiki, WeggeBot, Necessary Evil, MikeStrong, Brit tit45, Gogo Dodo, Argus fin, Trident13, Odie5533, 9~enwiki, IComputerSaysNo, King konger, Benjaminw1, Thijs!bot, Faigl.ladislav, SGGH, Woody, Merbabu, JustAGal, Hcobb, Nick Number, Igorwindsor~enwiki, Yorkshire Phoenix, RobotG, Bjenks, Deadbeef, Paul1776, CosineKitty, Ryan4314, VoABot II, Askari Mark, Ojcookies, Buckshot06, CS46, Lonewolf BC, BilCat, JdeJ, Nova99, Walle83, Somethingoranother, CommonsDelinker, Lilac Soul, Ssolbergj, DavidB601, Carre, FeralWolf, Notreallydavid, Srpnor, Josh Tumath, Greatestrowerever, Stymphal, Jetwave Dave, Andy Marchbanks, Squids and Chips, Blood Oath Bot, Quentin Stark, Idiomabot, Histmag, Littleolive oil, TreasuryTag, That-Vela-Fella, Hersfold, Ilya1166, TXiKiBoT, Mandagorn, Dormskirk, Spuen, LeaveSleaves, Benedictaddis, BigDunc, Usergreatpower, Usergogo, Yatayatayata, Wikixsz, Delbydoo, Eurocopter, Spanpoems, AlleborgoBot, Johnthepcson, Signsolid, Watchvital1, Wereaware, Darkieboy236, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Blackshod, Scarian, SE7, LookingYourBest, Bentogoa, Flyer22, KP-TheSpectre, Ledsabbathstein, Lightmouse, Mesoso2, Svick, Jza84, Dmitry12345, ImageRemovalBot, Dancingwombatsrule, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Britishliregts, Bandurr, HayleyWilliams, Piledhigheranddeeper, Fishiehelper2, Conor1994sd, Iohannes Animosus, Teutonic Tamer, Intermax~enwiki, Chaosdruid, Bald Zebra, Jellyfish dave, Jezzapandd, Versus22, FairyPrincessBoo, Forcesresources, DumZiBoT, Gonzonoir, Rockybiggs, Mm40, Alansplodge, Mountdrayton, Zolstijers, Jim Sweeney, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Tharyps the Molossian, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Groundsquirrel13, Favonian, Numbo3-bot, GJo, Bordtea, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 19est66, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, QueenCake, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Rubinbot, Gold Wiz113, Geord0, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Danno uk, Der Krommodore, Enok, Conay, Tragino, Grim23, Furl, Kvkc039, GrouchoBot, Coltsfan, Mark Schierbecker, The Grounded Dutchmen, Alcon the Molossian, Tktru, FrescoBot, GiW, Eball, SuperDan89, Bambuway, TMHPin, Aogouguo, DrilBot, I dream of horses, Foxhound66, Lloydelliot10, Türk Süvarisi, MastiBot, Mediatech492, BlackHades, Celyndel, Keri, Flosssock1, Trappist the monk, Somedaypilot, Gvotno, Grobt7, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, TangoSixZero, Bro5990, Reaper Eternal, Guasdiof, RjwilmsiBot, Acsian88, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Rademire, Dewritech, Hahaimesseditup, RA0808, MrTranscript, Bocaj130, Thomasionus, MrGRA, K6ka, Rademire2, Kkm010, Illegitimate Barrister, ObscureReality, Tlaconete11, Gavbadger, A930913, H3llBot, Dove89, Δ, Quite vivid blur, Korruski, ClamDip, Gsken, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, Snotbot, Mahsuai, VEBott, Oddbodz, Bcydude, Owain the 1st, Calidum, KLBot2, Thefreddy12354, Ouikimedia, HIDECCHI001, Phd8511, MusikAnimal, Compfreak7, Anudegayguy, TheMrxbox1999, Klilidiplomus, AlexS4444, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Basisaoasis, Trulyreacistweakineedbaycatt, Khazar2, Brian1997, Canadadude69, Webclient101, Jahaan2004, Evad37, Athomeinkobe, Mark6597, Rob984, Ransewiki, Govgovgov, Supersaiyen312, Antiochus the Great, CensoredScribe, Thevideodrome, Whizz40, UnbiasedVictory, OccultZone, Thamian, Twistyoak, GhostlyLegend, Thorno444444, Argovian, Captain Cornwall, JAKOBENKEL, Tradistimelordyeah, SantiLak, Klpus6, David donnelly uk, Axioun, Negative24, Brettsalt, Kiwiben, Interpuncts, ThaBigCheese99, Edmundthebastard, Dr Benjamin Max, Dd-605, Intellectualgoldfish, GeneralizationsAreBad, Reaganomics88, Kaloyan34-FR, Fifact, Amerijuanican and Anonymous: 487
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CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
• British Raj Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj?oldid=685354877 Contributors: Clasqm, DanKeshet, Eclecticology, SimonP, Heron, Q~enwiki, Olivier, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Mic, Gaurav, GTBacchus, Ahoerstemeier, Pjamescowie, Netsnipe, Jiang, Kaihsu, John K, Tobias Conradi, RodC, Charles Matthews, RickK, DJ Clayworth, Johnkendall1, Tpbradbury, Morwen, Thue, Lord Emsworth, Cjrother, Cncs wikipedia, Dimadick, Robbot, PBS, Chancemill, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Bkell, Hadal, Scooter~enwiki, Alba, DigiBullet, Jooler, DocWatson42, MaGioZal, Rudolf 1922, Nichalp, Tom harrison, HangingCurve, Monedula, Tom Radulovich, Michael Devore, Nkocharh, Zhen Lin, Jorge Stolfi, Evanluxzenburg, Ragib, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Sohailstyle, Zeimusu, Formeruser-81, Madmagic, Domino theory, Josquius, DragonflySixtyseven, Tomandlu, Bodnotbod, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Trevor MacInnis, Acsenray, Lacrimosus, Reinthal, Duja, Johan Elisson, Rich Farmbrough, Spundun, David Schaich, D-Notice, Dbachmann, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Alren, Zscout370, EmilJ, RobNS, Thuresson, Ce garcon, Bobo192, Smalljim, Giraffedata, Irrawaddy, Twobells, Jonsafari, Hintha, Pearle, Justinc, Gary, ArmchairVexillologistDon, Rgclegg, Ricky81682, Andrew Gray, Sligocki, Fawcett5, Dark Shikari, Cdc, Wtmitchell, Benson85, Dabbler, Consul~enwiki, SteinbDJ, Bastin, Lkinkade, Woohookitty, Doctor Boogaloo, Ganeshk, Pol098, NeoChaosX, Tabletop, Kglavin, Bbatsell, Mb1000, Cbyneorne, GraemeLeggett, Dysepsion, Graham87, BD2412, Devanjedi, Dpv, Erikvanthienen, Ryan Norton, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Gryffindor, Lionel Elie Mamane, Ikh, KirkEN, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Naraht, Ground Zero, Psemmusa, Margosbot~enwiki, JdforresterBot, Tastyniall, Rune.welsh, Elmer Clark, Gurch, Choess, Vneiomazza, Windharp, DaGizza, Jdhowens90, Metropolitan90, Bgwhite, Skoosh, Grubb, YurikBot, Eraserhead1, Wester, Deeptrivia, Kafziel, Spartanathenian, RussBot, John Smith's, Fabartus, Conscious, Lofty, Danbarnesdavies, Baliset, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, Elucidator, NawlinWiki, Rak3sh, Bjf, Wwilly, Leutha, Grafen, Siddiqui, Welsh, Rjensen, Geeksquad, Stallions2010, Thiseye, Flask, Moe Epsilon, Zwobot, Epipelagic, Lockesdonkey, Davidsteinberg, Bota47, Nescio, Deepak~enwiki, JdwNYC, Jrf, Wknight94, AjaxSmack, Kmusser, Realfission, Doldrums, Homagetocatalonia, Silverhorse, Barryob, Shyam, Mais oui!, Garion96, Philip Stevens, Akrabbim, Sardanaphalus, Christchurch, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, The Dark, Ut2491, Saravask, David Kernow, Zazaban, Soms, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Spasage, Eskimbot, Cdcon, Miljoshi, Kintetsubuffalo, IstvanWolf, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi 先生, Magicalsaumy, Gilliam, Hmains, Ppntori, NewName, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dahn, MK8, Thumperward, Ben-Velvel, Octahedron80, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Rama's Arrow, Royboycrashfan, Fishhead64, HoodedMan, Danielkueh, Writtenright, Chlewbot, Abulfazl, Greenshed, Mr.Z-man, Pepsidrinka, Masalai, Fuhghettaboutit, Muraad kahn, Cybercobra, Wilhim, Gujuguy, Naawfas, Jandolin, NeilFraser, Ohconfucius, Victor D, Lambiam, Xdamr, BrownHairedGirl, Zahid Abdassabur, Greentubing, The idiot, Naerhu, JohnI, Mrlopez2681, MilborneOne, UpDown, Green Giant, Ocatecir, Aarandir, Slakr, Volker89, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, AxG, Moszczynski, Plattler01, Really Spooky, Andrwsc, Skinsmoke, Squirepants101, BranStark, Iridescent, Torero~enwiki, MFago, Joseph Solis in Australia, MJO, Richard75, Bharatveer, Hunger9, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, RaviC, Merzbow, Roxi2, SkyWalker, Adam Keller, CmdrObot, Knipptang, William Cutbush, Runningonbrains, AshLin, Haphar, TJDay, AndrewHowse, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Peripitus, Blink484, Ramitmahajan, TicketMan, Viscious81, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Sumande, Vyselink, Kozuch, Nadirali, Aldis90, PKT, Aditya Kabir, JamesAM, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, 23prootie, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Pjvpjv, Marek69, Missvain, SGGH, Ramachan, Hobo chaplin, Jasmeetsinghsekhon, Nick Number, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, AntiVandalBot, Wildboy211, Cloachland, Farosdaughter, THEunique, JimDunning, Mrabcx, RedCoat10, Jayjrn, NJW494, Nyos~enwiki, Paul1776, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, Janus657, Bakasuprman, Epeefleche, Chanakyathegreat, KuwarOnline, Rueben lys, 100110100, Sexybum, Gavia immer, MegX, Kirrages, Acroterion, MartinDK, Xn4, JNW, Mclay1, Ling.Nut, Rivertorch, Voloshinov, Sodabottle, Twsx, TinaSparkle, Tonyfaull, Branka France, Tuncrypt, The Real Marauder, Vssun, Dharmadhyaksha, JaGa, Ekotkie, Atulsnischal, MartinBot, Schmloof, EyeSerene, Smartinfoteck3, Ravichandar84, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Fconaway, Smokizzy, Lilac Soul, Svermaz, J.delanoy, Abecedare, Eskilaar, Fowler&fowler, Numbo3, NightFalcon90909, Maurice Carbonaro, Aviad2001, Maproom, Paris1127, Led125, Skier Dude, Mjb1981, Afaber012, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, Madhava 1947, KylieTastic, Joshua Issac, Juliancolton, Wizzard Of Osmania, Cometstyles, Corriebertus, Atama, Nomi887, Idioma-bot, Redtigerxyz, Signalhead, Neeramurthy, Wikieditor06, Hugo999, Caspian blue, 28bytes, W2ch00, VolkovBot, IWhisky, Jesterballz, Porphy, Themel, Hybernator, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Kww, BertSen, GroveGuy, Vishwas008, Srikipedia, AJ-India, Zamkudi, Amarvir, Don4of4, Supertask, Razzsic, Madhero88, Uannis~enwiki, Dirkbb, Noremacnomis, A.Flanders, Jpk82, Sidhu Jyatha, Roland zh, Liveangle, Biscuittin, SieBot, Accounting4Taste, Calliopejen1, Vanessajacynth, Scarian, WereSpielChequers, VVVBot, Jpp42, Lucasbfrbot, Smsarmad, Yintan, Cefunx, Bentogoa, Breawycker, Flyer22, Cleft19, Nuffsayer, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, TBSfan1223, Aumnamahashiva, MichiganCharms, Mori Riyo~enwiki, Anchor Link Bot, Altzinn, Denisarona, JLBot, Sitush, Randy Kryn, ImageRemovalBot, RegentsPark, Martarius, Desione, Apuldram, ClueBot, Vontrotta, Song of the Dragon, The Thing That Should Not Be, Akhil Bakshi, Aditya0908, Rjd0060, Himhifi, Flaming Scimitar, Der Golem, Mild Bill Hiccup, Lokanth, CounterVandalismBot, Yenemus, Hurundi V. Bakshi, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Hegvald, 718 Bot, Excirial, Txbangert, Alexbot, Relata refero, Tripping Nambiar, Adimovk5, Asmaybe, JK-RULZ, Lartoven, Danmichaelo, Sun Creator, Rao Ravindra, Arjayay, Dn9ahx, Tahmasp, Ltwin, Trinityfactor, Thehelpfulone, John Paul Parks, Sushilkumarmishra, The Voice Of Your Heart, Dance With The Devil, Versus22, Johnuniq, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Indopug, Nafsadh, DumZiBoT, David.cormier, BarretB, Roxy the dog, PrasanthVRegy, Dthomsen8, Rockybiggs, NellieBly, Glishev, Kaiwhakahaere, WikiDao, Angelo27, Casewicz, The Rationalist, Good Olfactory, SelfQ, Saladdude123, MatthewVanitas, Jim Sweeney, Bhangia, Chasnor15, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn, Oorulqaum, Betterusername, Landon1980, Mmprabhu2003, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, SunDragon34, Thaejas, Ronhjones, The12game, Leszek Jańczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Logic riches, Ederiel, Ka Faraq Gatri, Mnmazur, Download, Steve 1521, Lihaas, Profitoftruth85, Bahamut Star, LinkFA-Bot, Fireaxe888, Tassedethe, Strawless, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckasbot, Yobot, Granpuff, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Amirobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, Freikorp, Mmxx, AmeliorationBot, TheBlueKnight, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, DoctorJoeE, A More Perfect Onion, ThaddeusB, World Long Gone, Jim1138, Raiders88, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Human4321, Materialscientist, Woodmand0809, Citation bot, Srinivas, Cosmic Air, Dewan357, LilHelpa, Therd, Xqbot, Poetaris, Dakutaa, Winkpolve, Tad Lincoln, Dragonzz, Doorvery far, Omnipaedista, Umar Zulfikar Khan, Coltsfan, Purcy.rat, Speednat, Patelr, Shadowjams, Иван Богданов~enwiki, G.Tenzing, Callainen, Dougofborg, Tktru, პაატა შ, Robynthehode, FrescoBot, Skylark2008, Blackguard SF, Schwei2, Tobby72, D'ohBot, MGA73bot, Solonus, Outback the koala, Batinde, SpacemanSpiff, Peroxwhy2gen, Jonesey95, A412, King Zebu, Moonraker, RedBot, Robot1979, Jaguar, Serols, Oops wrong word, Gasta220, Dmm65, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, کاشف عقیل, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, MrX, Jethwarp, Bigbossfarin, Reaper Eternal, Rr parker, Peacemarch, Merlinsorca, II. József, 75619drool, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Auswiger, Bento00, Beyond My Ken, DrJGMD, EmausBot, John of Reading, Bazzan, Milkunderwood, Look2See1, AlphaGamma1991, GoingBatty, RA0808, Thomasionus, Italia2006, Lobsterthermidor, ZéroBot, Sundostund, Josve05a, Jerel411, Cobaltcigs, Rabinwiki, CosmicJake, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly, FlandersClaret, Scythia, Babumoshai50, Δ, Zuggernaut, Lesto101, Donner60, Drustaz, Zibran 2, 19thPharaoh, Kalpathyram, TRAJAN 117, FeatherPluma, Whoop whoop pull up, Outofsinc, Locomotive999, ClueBot NG, Rajaram Sarangapani, CocuBot, Neptune 123, Delusion23, Akhil.bharathan, Widr, Newyorkadam, Swansnic, Soccerzee, Helpful Pixie Bot, Rythnace, Thisthat2011, Andrew Gwilliam, Titodutta, Wbm1058, Wiki1411, BG19bot, Bmusician, Roberticus, MKar, Herr Lennartz, Shutdown27, PhnomPencil, RandomLettersForName, MangoWong, HIDECCHI001, MusikAnimal, Shivansh.ganjoo, Rajaniphysio, Jogi don, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, Writ Keeper, Pwdob,
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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LoneWolf1992, Insidiae, Yengamaurice, John.kakoty, Rushilt, Wsdee, Fylbecatulous, Dav subrajathan.357, Jeremy112233, Anhilwara, Arr4, Lubiesque, Khazar2, Marnikton, Mir Almaat 1 S1, AsadUK200, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, SantoshBot, Yash!, Hmainsbot1, Shimantars, Sahgal, SDFraserValley, TRIVEDICH, Pearz25, Parnashree, TwoTwoHello, Samudrakula, Divijzutshi, Frosty, Philipandrew, Ashim nep, Bhonsale, Solarislv, Dananuj, Sitkoffa, Anandpadmarajan79, Royroydeb, Faizan, Godot13, Carlcarl202, Risha Oberai, Vanamonde93, BreakfastJr, Iztwoz, Tentinator, Hendrick 99, Aragotton, Amfmaads, Nikhilmn2002, FaisalAbbasid, Zaketo, Lesser Cartographies, George8211, JosephSpiral, Notthebestusername, Charlemagne77, Amrit Ghimire Ranjit, Bladesmulti, Param Mudgal, Zeticula, Jomey, Maan Tujay Salam, Cube00, Pktlaurence, Menon Nipun, L Manju, JETsterHD, Aarjun Rampal, Zhang junn, Theoneandonlyduncan, Boyhominid, Monkbot, Ajaythomas0007, Suborat, Vieque, Lilpiglet, BethNaught, UsmanPathanKhan, UADeo, Happiest persoN, Titanciwiki, Antara43, Jojobaba12222, Loulotus, YogaBarrathwajRM, Bodhisattwa, Leflox, Bongan, FreeatlastChitchat, Cartakes, Jombiecutter, Weighty, Sqizcm, Wiki user 080301, Bablooda1996, Ankush 89, Elephantyarn 2.0, Asdsinghqwer, Birat kolii, Omair Kamran, Wackie Jackie, Banglaman007, Roshan08.08, Sony2k20, Aman Silver, Xbox420, Filpro and Anonymous: 914 • The Jungle Book Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jungle_Book?oldid=683348257 Contributors: Mav, Karen Johnson, SimonP, Zoe, Kchishol1970, Paul Barlow, Norm, Dominus, Shyamal, Zanimum, Paul A, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Uyanga, Lee M, Sertrel, DJ Clayworth, Carlos.yanez, Robbot, Baloo rch, Hadal, David Gerard, Dainamo, Radioahead, Utcursch, Megara, D4, Chmod007, Esperant, Gachet, Rich Farmbrough, Stbalbach, RJHall, Bdoserror, Warpozio, MPS, Gedge67, Flammifer, Hajenso, Haham hanuka, Peter Shearan, Alison9, Anthony Appleyard, Borisblue, Shiney, Riana, B kimmel, ZeiP, Jwinius, Ianblair23, Alaaious, Woohookitty, GregorB, Floydgeo, Mandarax, SteveCrook, BD2412, Ted Wilkes, Noirish, Amire80, BlueMoonlet, Nneonneo, Bensin, Yamamoto Ichiro, Kummi, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Tavilis, Rick Norwood, Mikeblas, Varano, Speedoflight, Tonymec, Pegship, Nikkimaria, KGasso, Warreed, Sillythekid, Saltmarsh, Yvwv, Martian bob, SmackBot, Randomnumbers, KnowledgeOfSelf, Sasha clarkson, Jagged 85, Canonblack, Marktreut, Horus Kol, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets, Sadads, DHN-bot~enwiki, Konstable, XSG, George Ho, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Zaian, Konczewski, CorbinSimpson, Splat215, Cybercobra, Marosszék, Highconclave, TenPoundHammer, Ohconfucius, Sydney.city.easts, John, Euchiasmus, Butko, Berenlazarus, RandomCritic, JHunterJ, Kkken, 2T, Quaeler, CH, GDallimore, Pimlottc, Esn, MightyWarrior, Elbeonore, Adam Keller, Tanthalas39, AlbertSM, Godaiger, Halbared, Howard352, Foxcat, Sanjay Tiwari, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Omega Man, Hibou8, Damouns, Trystero11, FastLizard4, Abtract, VZG, UberScienceNerd, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Balonkey, TonyTheTiger, Ravi.akundi, Oerjan, Rattis1, Aericanwizard, Flair Girls, Nick Number, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Yonmei, NSB Dark Horse, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, Sonicsuns, Robina Fox, TAnthony, ZPM, VoABot II, JNW, Movingimage, KConWiki, Catgut, Allstarecho, Silentaria, Dark hyena, B9 hummingbird hovering, Greenguy1090, Atulsnischal, Artemis-Arethusa, Rettetast, Graphic8189, Jerry teps, Lg16spears, Nbauman, Tlatito, L337 kybldmstr, TomCat4680, BrokenSphere, LordAnubisBOT, Pnkpanthr8, Jeepday, STBotD, 9ulk, MikeLondon, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Andreas Kaganov, Zukogirl6, Insanity Incarnate, Anjingbuduk, AlleborgoBot, Mmarci, Fanatix, WereSpielChequers, Krawi, Gerakibot, Nummer29, Warwolf1, Goustien, OKBot, Dave Barnett, Bananaman68, CultureDrone, Hannah.callen, Motthoangwehuong, Faulknerfan, Lord Opeth, Aasemsj, ClueBot, CounterVandalismBot, Dvdking19, SchreiberBike, JackeryG, JasonAQuest, Thehelpfulone, LieAfterLie, Vigilius, Brambleberry of RiverClan, DumZiBoT, Boleyn, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Albert-family, Justus Outlaw, Mspence835, Jncraton, Leszek Jańczuk, CactusWriter, LaaknorBot, Ccacsmss, Kravdraa Ulb, Maggie.hales, Renatokeshet, Tassedethe, Lightbot, NeoBatfreak, Zorrobot, WikiDreamer Bot, Teamjdt, GLJ2008, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, Amirobot, Sanzen-Baker, Marauder40, Glorm, Rubinbot, Flewis, Childrenstheatre, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Mariomassone, Carlos Grau, Pmlineditor, Ennio morricone, Deltasim, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Leonidas Metello, Pshent, Bmclaughlin9, Cnwilliams, Dutchmonkey9000, Jedi94, BeckenhamBear, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Wesley J M, Gambitx18, ZéroBot, SonyWonderFan, ChipmunkRaccoon, Lacon432, Unreal7, Zuko Halliwell, Agape Yojimbo, SavageEdit, Captain Assassin!, Oz1984, Davey2010, Zacalfson, David O. Johnson, Delusion23, BG19bot, RudolfRed, Chie one, JYBot, Xyphoid, JustusAnkka, JosephSpiral, DCF94, The Nateman, Lapadite77, Jusgtr, Newyorker32, Whinyexpert, Sheri katheren meyer, KasparBot, MahneLV, Megaloceros (shrike), Pravbv and Anonymous: 140 • Kim (novel) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_(novel)?oldid=677223196 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen, Ortolan88, SimonP, Ellmist, Olivier, Paul A, Error, Lee M, Colin Marquardt, WhisperToMe, Nv8200pa, Sewing, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, LGagnon, Mervyn, Hadal, Dhodges, David Gerard, Bill.pollard, Gtrmp, Marcika, Gamaliel, Daibhid C, Jackol, Bobblewik, Confuzion, Slowking Man, Bumm13, Eranb, AmarChandra, Austin Hair, RevRagnarok, Simonides, Rich Farmbrough, Sc147, Zaslav, RJHall, Ruszewski, Rje, Alansohn, Moanzhu, Craigy144, Hu, Crablogger, Dabbler, Ghirlandajo, Pcpcpc, Woohookitty, Bellhalla, GregorB, Stefanomione, BD2412, Rahulbhattacharya, BBC~enwiki, Scorpionman, FlaBot, MacRusgail, Kerowyn, Wavelength, DHowell, BirgitteSB, JFD, Mikeblas, Tonyfuchs1019, Tony1, HLGallon, Jezzabr, Bill shannon, Zakksez, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, §, GraemeL, Garion96, Hide&Reason, That Guy, From That Show!, A bit iffy, SmackBot, JohnPomeranz, Grey Shadow, Kevinalewis, Phact, Bluebot, Roscelese, Sadads, Junius49, Klimov, Cybercobra, Nakon, Dreadstar, Das Baz, ALR, Ohconfucius, Tony Sandel, Orbicle, Shakirfan, RandomCritic, Avs5221, Dl2000, Clarityfiend, Bush.vs.humanity, AlbertSM, Haphar, Sanjay Tiwari, Cydebot, DBaba, Rainer Lewalter, EWAdams, TonyTheTiger, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Fatidiot1234, Bookworm857158367, Dr. Blofeld, WikiLambo, DuncanHill, Leolaursen, Adam keller, DrRon~enwiki, DGG, Anne97432, Ugajin, Rettetast, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Uncle Dick, AdamBMorgan, 101remote, Treasure20, Student7, Doug4, FuegoFish, Poodlerat, GS3, Bonadea, GrahamHardy, Hugo999, Sechallis, TXiKiBoT, Blahaccountblah, Andreas Kaganov, Sniperz11, Supertask, AlleborgoBot, RHodnett, Simon12321, Jack1956, Goustien, Android Mouse Bot 3, Segregold, Citneman, Randy Kryn, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, PipepBot, Ndenison, PixelBot, DumZiBoT, Avoided, MystBot, Voltigeur, Good Olfactory, Themagnifcentoz, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Fothergill Volkensniff IV, Favonian, Proxxt, Lightbot, Contributor777, Yobot, Spidermedicine, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, ProverbialSunrise, Tom87020, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Pintoandres90, Twin.priyanka, Pmlineditor, GrouchoBot, Pauldom, FrescoBot, Dankarl, Skyerise, SamCulper, Simongr81, CobraBot, Mean as custard, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Princess Lirin, SporkBot, Demiurge1000, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, ThaddeusSholto, BG19bot, WhereWeAre, Pogonomyrmex, WikiHannibal, Hamish59, Oleg-ch, YFdyh-bot, Makecat-bot, Herve Reex, DoubleBook, BriefLives, The Herald, OccultZone, Dunditschia, SkateTier, TropicAltē, CBVVRPJMPG, Xavier1788, Djmulge200, Sora765, Sora567, Hallward's Ghost, KasparBot, MahneLV, Comickepick and Anonymous: 125 • The Man Who Would Be King Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Would_Be_King?oldid=678404008 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ortolan88, Mintguy, Kwertii, Liftarn, Paul A, John K, JASpencer, Jihg, Wik, Furrykef, Phil Boswell, RedWolf, Mirv, David Gerard, DocWatson42, Cglassey, Guanabot, Dlloyd, Robnock, Duk, Tlinsenm, Inky, Erik, Versageek, Jrkarp, Wikiklrsc, Noirish, MarnetteD, Fred Bradstadt, Akahige719, Jay-W, Allister MacLeod, C777, Stuartfernie, Stijn Calle, Tough Little Ship, MSJapan, Superluser, Pegship, Gergis, Closedmouth, Marc29th, Whobot, Garion96, SmackBot, Muspud2, Kevinalewis, Hraefen, PDD, Apeloverage, Jgoulden, Ohconfucius, Wetzel95, Influxion, Clarityfiend, Trystero11, Ameliorate!, Omicronpersei8, TonyTheTiger, Seaphoto, Ge-
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CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
niac, Elizabennet, Magioladitis, DGG, MartinBot, Timothy Titus, MacAuslan, Rrostrom, Brother Officer, JayJasper, Tiggerjay, Gracoo2, Deor, Coolone148, John Carter, Ninjatacoshell, Planet-man828, Saam226, JMPasternak, Slatersteven, Euryalus, Jdaloner, Steven Crossin, Gordonofcartoon, LloydHawk, Hordaland, Elassint, ClueBot, EoGuy, MagusNine, TypoBoy, Sun Creator, Rcguzowski, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, XLinkBot, Will-B, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Nohomers48, Weemee123456789, Miczilla, Peter Napkin Dance Party, Tassedethe, LarryJeff, Roarwali, DOGGIEWEE, Legobot, Yobot, Sketchmoose, Dr. All Night, Ohioreader, RibotBOT, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Javert, Jandalhandler, Surfeit of palfreys, Dark Lord of the Sith, Jan Johane Pieter, Bettymnz4, Genekess, Wsjacobs, ClueBot NG, Proscribe, CQ1969, Sarahmaylee, Nerdtrap, Ulysses434, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strings And Verses, Karinogawa, George Ponderevo, Gmoney88, CCLyons, Donfbreed2, Epicgenius, MagicatthemovieS, Redknight055, MahneLV and Anonymous: 131 • Mandalay (poem) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay_(poem)?oldid=676419625 Contributors: Jrleighton, Rogerd, Quuxplusone, Zargulon, Nikkimaria, Stevouk, Kyaw 2003, FClef, InverseHypercube, K-UNIT, Srnec, Chymicus, Floridan, Sanjay Tiwari, Cydebot, Zgystardst, Hotspur95, Buistr, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Llouest, QuizzicalBee, Erikb88, R'n'B, Robauz, Pepve, SieBot, JL-Bot, Pi zero, Sun Creator, Addbot, Tassedethe, Zorrobot, Hohenloh, Hammerdrill, Materialscientist, AaB-ern, Reconsideration, GrouchoBot, Gnangbade, Flanker0007, DrilBot, Bmclaughlin9, Jasongoldtrap2010, A930913, Chris857, Nixmrak, Laurencebeck, Abattoir666, Evnissenmantis, BethNaught, Daythril and Anonymous: 18 • Gunga Din Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunga_Din?oldid=676631198 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April, Zoe, Olivier, Paul A, Timc, Hyacinth, Itai, Tempshill, GPHemsley, Twice25, Caknuck, Unfree, David Gerard, Gobeirne, Rossrs, Vfp15, Varlaam, Jh51681, Master Of Ninja, Stepp-Wulf, Discospinster, Aakkshay, Guanabot, Gnrlotto, Kwamikagami, Shanth phy, Aaronbrick, NetBot, Brim, Slugguitar, Maxdillon, Pearle, Rich Lem, Brentford, Gautam3, SidP, Docboat, Pcpcpc, Navneeth, Jason Palpatine, Ylem, RicJac, Alan Canon, DarqueGuy, RussBot, Stephenb, Perodicticus, CambridgeBayWeather, Welsh, Shadowfax0, Obey, Lockesdonkey, Pegship, Bomkia~enwiki, Hobx, Lawyer2b, SmackBot, Bobet, McGeddon, Bwithh, Kintetsubuffalo, Chris the speller, PTNFromm, Gilliganfanatic, Thumperward, Literalsystems, Awcga, Catherine Huebscher, Just plain Bill, Powersman, Ohconfucius, Esrever, Nareek, CillanXC, Clarityfiend, DavidOaks, CmdrObot, AlbertSM, Yaris678, Jlmorgan, Odie5533, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Fru1tbat, Deflective, Magioladitis, Jcfitch61, JamesBWatson, Froid, Justanother, Bpraskach, Edward321, Mitchconner420, PenelopeStrongbad, Crow1938, STBotD, Tweisbach, DH85868993, Jamesroden, Storyliner, Hugo999, Cogurov, Jacob Lundberg, Oxfordwang, Geeperzcreeperz, Elriana, StuartWalsh, Scottywong, Goustien, Reginmund, Mtaylor848, Adamrmonteith, ClueBot, Victorian Military Society, BigAl2010, DragonBot, DumZiBoT, Kaiwhakahaere, Toyokuni3, Reedmalloy, Bmroar, Slester18, Lightbot, ReverendMaynard, J. Johnson, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Headhungry, Cjlass, LilHelpa, Grey ghost, Reconsideration, Fr3lander, Oldironnut, Polarbear81, Anna Roy, DrRom, Grammarspellchecker, Cnwilliams, Sideways713, Parks184, Thomas Peardew, Figureofnine, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, EnglishTea4me, Helpful Pixie Bot, Perfec7, Teach267, Mags91085, APerson, Mogism, OcelotHod, Steelpulse90, Figliomio, Knife-in-the-drawer and Anonymous: 181 • The Gods of the Copybook Headings Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_of_the_Copybook_Headings?oldid=675897494 Contributors: William Avery, Heron, EikwaR, Mirv, YUL89YYZ, Narsil, Spangineer, Woohookitty, RussBot, Srnec, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Andrew Davidson, LadyofShalott, Nunquam Dormio, TonyTheTiger, Ghartwig, War wizard90, Glynth, Bwgrindle, Jehorn, AHMartin, PokeHomsar, Drmies, TheRedPenOfDoom, Redthoreau, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Blaylockjam10, 5 albert square, Lightbot, Yobot, Ciphers, Mann jess, FrescoBot, Kaiser Taylor, Gunsmithin, RjwilmsiBot, Swfarnsworth, BG19bot, The Banner Turbo, Drkevjd, Vanamonde93, Hurricane40 and Anonymous: 25 • The White Man's Burden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_White_Man'{}s_Burden?oldid=685087363 Contributors: Derek Ross, Brion VIBBER, Wesley, The Anome, -- April, Ed Poor, Wathiik, SimonP, FvdP, Zoe, Heron, Smelialichu, Michael Hardy, Tannin, 172, Skysmith, Geoffrey~enwiki, Paul A, Shimmin, Ihcoyc, Brettz9, Александър, Cgs, Cyan, Jiang, Lee M, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Peregrine981, Marshman, Dragons flight, Bcorr, BenRG, Jeffq, Fredrik, PBS, Goethean, Sam Spade, Lowellian, Sverdrup, SchmuckyTheCat, Meelar, Caknuck, Bkell, Saforrest, DigiBullet, Elf, Marcika, Ds13, Niteowlneils, Robert Southworth, Joshuapaquin, AaronW, LordSimonofShropshire, Quadell, Mamizou, SimonArlott, Josquius, DragonflySixtyseven, Rlquall, M4-10, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Herschelkrustofsky, Zondor, Adashiel, Metahacker, Jayjg, An Siarach, Discospinster, MeltBanana, Pavel Vozenilek, Martpol, Karmafist, Shrike, CDN99, Stesmo, Brim, Kevin Myers, Kabulwu, Aquillion, Ronfar623, Jcrocker, OGoncho, Shadoks, Carbon Caryatid, Andrew Gray, Echuck215, Lightdarkness, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, Dabbler, Pcpcpc, Philthecow, Spettro9, Kelisi, Canadian Paul, Torqueing, GregorB, LevSB, Stefanomione, Dweekly, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, BD2412, Tiresais, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Jake Wartenberg, AllanHainey, Tangotango, Fish and karate, RobertG, Ramalho, Kolbasz, Quuxplusone, 27, Le Anh-Huy, Chobot, Sharkface217, Bornhj, Uvaduck, Cornellrockey, EamonnPKeane, ThunderPeel2001, Is is Is, Pigman, Ksyrie, Buster79, Humansdorpie, Coderzombie, Bucketsofg, Simon W. Moon, PsyckoSama, Sandstein, Theodolite, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, RicardoC, Sitenl, Syndrome~enwiki, Seanjacksontc, Hellmitre, Babij, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Fireworks, Errarel, Slashme, InverseHypercube, Ikip, DWaterson, Dwanyewest, Adammathias, Kintetsubuffalo, Gilliam, Jibbajabba, Jsn4, Miss.hyper, JackyR, Jprg1966, SonOfNothing, Namangwari, Jahiegel, Shalom Yechiel, Deadmissbates, Klaustus, Pnkrockr, Filpaul, Ligulembot, Will Beback, AThing, Lapaz, Slakr, Iridescent, Rayfield, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Igoldste, Stereorock, Az1568, Tawkerbot2, Tar7arus, FerrousMetal, Redbear, Donmega60645, Tedd-the-Tiger, James Richardson, Outriggr (2006-2009), Flammingo, Cydebot, Tkynerd, Capedia, Pia L, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Pajz, O, TonyTheTiger, 23prootie, Al Lemos, RLE64, Marek69, Co1063, HammerHeadHuman, JustAGal, Nick Number, CTZMSC3, Futurebird, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Tantalos~enwiki, SummerPhD, Danny lost, Nukemason, Husond, Artzilla, T L Miles, Sophie means wisdom, Cynwolfe, VoABot II, QuizzicalBee, Satch234, Animum, Shield2, Wrad, Alyoshevna, Lenticel, Balazs.varadi, Elden thorngage, Mrathel, MartinBot, Adlerschloß, John Doe or Jane Doe, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Fowler&fowler, Jerry, Katalaveno, Jopetz, Peanutashbourne, Potatoswatter, BrettAllen, KylieTastic, Lyctc, Andy Marchbanks, GrahamHardy, CardinalDan, Philip Trueman, Siodine, Andreas Kaganov, Carcrazy202, Maurici, Polkapoo313, RandomXYZb, Sarc37, Ajrocke, AlleborgoBot, Jakerforever, Jbmurray, Nite-Sirk, Akallabet, Flyer22, Antonio Lopez, PbBot, Vcardillo, Myrvin, Jon R W, Atif.t2, ClueBot, SchwarzeSonne, The Thing That Should Not Be, CounterVandalismBot, Excirial, Jusdafax, MrWhich, Zuzzerack, Dogylover729, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Toolssmile34, SilvonenBot, Noctibus, HarlandQPitt, Eleven even, Good Olfactory, CalumH93, The Squicks, Addbot, Proofreader77, Some jerk on the Internet, Atethnekos, Jncraton, Glane23, Kingsix6878, Zorrobot, Jarble, Swarm, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, PMLawrence, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, MsTingaK, RandomAct, Citation bot, TPaineTX, Zbenton, Reconsideration, Millelacs, C+C, Oursinees324, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, JL 09, D'ohBot, Arpadkorossy, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Arctic Night, Dac04, FoxBot, TobeBot, Allen4names, DA1, TheMesquito, Raellerby, Eruditionfish, EmausBot, Zollerriia, RA0808, Wikipelli, K6ka, Bongoramsey, Generalvorpil, Bmcarrer, Bobthebuilder001, L Kensington, Mcc1789, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Bsch162, ClaretAsh, Jack Greenmaven, STFX1046190, Snotbot, Masssly, Widr, Groupuscule, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, DuncanCredible, Tinynanorobots, Alf.laylah.wa.laylah, Dan653, The Almightey Drill,
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Viruli, Gprobins, Annasz, MeanMotherJr, Dburge57, Fraulein451, JYBot, Jackninja5, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Zaldax, Razibot, Trochaic1, BreakfastJr, Gjohnson900, Netchiman, Notthebestusername, Monkbot, Tommynewsnetwork, Cromwell88, ChamithN, Jeffersonjames, Beckmanrj.18 and Anonymous: 464 • If— Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If%E2%80%94?oldid=684939678 Contributors: Derek Ross, Tarquin, Ed Poor, SimonP, Flamurai, Paul A, Ihcoyc, Mkweise, Angela, Dysprosia, DJ Clayworth, Itai, Buridan, Valisk, Wiwaxia, Wetman, Secretlondon, Chrism, Rasmus Faber, Mervyn, Wereon, JerryFriedman, Asparagus, Adam78, Parasite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Andy, Zigger, Mark.murphy, Everyking, Varlaam, Andycjp, Ary29, Jareha, Grstain, Discospinster, Smyth, MeltBanana, CDN99, Bobo192, NetBot, Brim, Twobells, Hintha, Petdance, CyberSkull, Andrew Gray, Noosphere, Dabbler, Crystalllized, Mhazard9, Pcpcpc, Bobrayner, Will-h, Woohookitty, Shreevatsa, CWH, Calítoe.:.~enwiki, Dandv, Niora, JP Godfrey, David H Braun (1964), Sharkface217, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Tetzcatlipoca, MrCheshire, NickBurns, Solstag, KovacsUr, Darkmeerkat, Mikeblas, Leontes, Bota47, Djdaedalus, Pegship, Tuckerresearch, Nikkimaria, Tyrenius, Kyaw 2003, SmackBot, Britannicus, Elonka, Verne Equinox, Bwithh, Mogsie, Kintetsubuffalo, HeartofaDog, Keegan, Thumperward, Jammycakes, Leoniceno, Brideshead, Modest Genius, Kotra, Bhorsfall, Rrburke, Mhym, Armend, Lox, Nakon, Hl, Henning Makholm, Ohconfucius, John, The Man in Question, Haritia, Mathsci, Laddiebuck, CmdrObot, SyrenaV, Cydebot, Samuell, Zoltan Pandemonium, KnightMove, Ddball, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daa89563, Mpawluk, TonyTheTiger, Mojo Hand, Djorzor, Widefox, Rambone, RedCoat10, David Shankbone, Dreaded Walrus, JAnDbot, Davewho2, DuncanHill, Sonicsuns, Midnightdreary, Albany NY, 100110100, Magioladitis, Careless hx, Tedickey, Soulbot, Andy mci, Mita Otrov, Jatkins, Lordflamel, Vujke, NescioNomen, Kayau, SeattleSue, Roboplege, Gaidheal1, Alivicwil, WotherspoonSmith, Hitanshu D, EricB68, Fiachra10003, JoeCasey, Skullketon, Ignatzmice, JayJasper, Tubeyes, Bouse23, FuegoFish, Greatestrowerever, Vkt183, GrahamHardy, Alan U. Kennington, VolkovBot, Noesis790, Aesopos, Derek geary, Corvus cornix, Buburuza, Springhill40, Killamagig, PatrickLuntey, SieBot, HTO, Flyer22, Ameliajls, Gunmetal Angel, LarRan, Invertzoo, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cptmurdok, WWEs1fan, Rich the Pest, Jersey emt, Asmirn, Madmaniac5, Wordwright, Bobbylamb33, Dskinnaird, 7&6=thirteen, Redthoreau, Yomangan, DerBorg, DumZiBoT, DragonFury, WikHead, MystBot, Addbot, Buymyrabbits, Tassedethe, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Whiskeydog, Kjaer, AnomieBOT, Richardharris44, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Reconsideration, Ched, Gumruch, Vaywatch, Omnipaedista, Jim no.6, OreL.D, Basnig, Mullineux, 10metreh, Declan Clam, Andymcgrath, Woogee, Tonygilloz, EmausBot, Ajraddatz, Alfonsec, Renthlei, Winner 42, Matthewcgirling, U+003F, AIshaM, Δ, FrankieS17, 28bot, Earlster, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Guitar77, Turn685, Widr, Oddbodz, Wbm1058, MusikAnimal, RaulRavndra, Anuragh.iyer, Ssamanta6112, Mshengaout, Rybread334, ChrisGualtieri, Comatmebro, YFdyh-bot, Bulldogash, Herve Reex, Fox2k11, Erider 66, Theo's Little Bot, Hoppeduppeanut, B14709, MartyMcFish, Courtofdhara, Toorks, Ayuagr, Amortias, HMSLavender, Kangaroo692, Bigblackandbeautiful, Devworld4u and Anonymous: 314 • Henry James Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James?oldid=684491940 Contributors: Eloquence, Mav, Espen, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ed Poor, Danny, Novalis, Wichitalineman, DennisDaniels, Corycian, Jahsonic, Menchi, Ixfd64, Sannse, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, LouI, Sethmahoney, Samw, John K, Smack, Charles Matthews, Jihg, MatrixFrog, Dcoetzee, Ww, Lfh, Jay, SatyrTN, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Cleduc, Grendelkhan, Dimadick, MK~enwiki, Bearcat, Nufy8, Postdlf, Geogre, DHN, Mandel, SoLando, Vincivinci, DocWatson42, Iceaxejuggler, Lupin, MSGJ, Curps, Michael Devore, Gamaliel, Bobblewik, Btphelps, RivGuySC, Andycjp, Quadell, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, MisfitToys, Arsene, Tothebarricades.tk, Necrothesp, Rellis1067, TonyW, Rodf, M.C. ArZeCh, MakeRocketGoNow, Mennonot, Grstain, PRiis, D6, YUL89YYZ, Trekie8472, LindsayH, Ibagli, Paul August, Stbalbach, Bender235, Hydrotaphia, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Bobo192, Superking, Filiocht, Librarygurl, Hesperian, Mareino, Alansohn, Ben davison, Hydriotaphia, Philip Cross, X. Lechard, Calton, SlimVirgin, Spangineer, Saga City, Suruena, Itschris, Marcello, Ghirlandajo, Japanese Searobin, Pcpcpc, Siafu, Sandover, Woohookitty, Mark K. Jensen, Jeff3000, Macaddct1984, Male1979, Zpb52, Grundle, BD2412, Josh Parris, Casey Abell, Mayumashu, Tim!, Koavf, Oblivious, Mikedelsol, Brighterorange, FlaBot, RobertG, Margosbot~enwiki, Crazycomputers, CarolGray, RexNL, Wars, TeaDrinker, Malhonen, YurikBot, Sceptre, RussBot, Zafiroblue05, Epolk, Shell Kinney, TheGrappler, Milo99, UDScott, RazorICE, Malcolma, Cholmes75, Killdevil, Tony1, Seanver~enwiki, Flapeyre, Gadget850, Bota47, A&D~enwiki, Diogenes zosimus, Fallout boy, Kenguest, 21655, Closedmouth, Doktor Waterhouse, Streltzer, Narziss39, Kungfuadam, Maxamegalon2000, GrinBot~enwiki, KNHaw, Jayant412, PKtm, Attilios, Hamdevguru, Vvill, SmackBot, PiCo, Classicfilms, Lestrade, Bdmathias, Pgk, Eskimbot, JJay, Lexo, Alsandro, Srnec, Canonblack, Cheesy mike, Hmains, Kevinalewis, Jerlbaum, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jottce, Sadads, TheLeopard, Josteinn, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, ACupOfCoffee, Chlewbot, JonHarder, Rrburke, Zvar, Downwards, Bigturtle, JohnHinsdale, Lpgeffen, Trieste, Jklin, Engleham, A5b, Curly Turkey, Risssa, Kukini, Drmaik, Clicketyclack, Ohconfucius, Bossk-Office, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Siva1979, John, Pliny, Poggie11, Greebo the Cat, SilkTork, WhiteShark, Beckerb, Rkmlai, Beetstra, Relig, DwightKingsbury, Toastthemost, Frankenab, Laurens-af, Pegasus1138, Twas Now, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, AshcroftIleum, Dev920, J Milburn, KNM, Wolfdog, Grdfoge, KyraVixen, Dgw, Edwin, Penbat, Cydebot, Americ8, Cunningpal, Atticmouse, Jack O'Lantern, Damian.kelleher, The Little Blue Frog, B, Kozuch, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Bot-maru, TonyTheTiger, Auror, Katanasoul, Bigginsp, Alex1994, Whitehopeman, TheKeg, Issac Dick, Xalarated, TronDB, Farrtj, Stevvvv4444, Piechjo, MrMarmite, Emeraldcityserendipity, Modernist, Zigzig20s, Wahabijaz, Gökhan, Dsp13, Midnightdreary, Andonic, Rothorpe, Promking, Dsbuchalter, Serpent656, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MartinDK, Hasek is the best, JamesBWatson, Mbarbier, Froid, Nick Cooper, KConWiki, Nposs, Grushenka, JaGa, Grunge6910, Warchef, Mrathel, FisherQueen, CliffC, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Johnpacklambert, Sheldon Novick, Jon Ascton, JayJasper, Wynia, Poetlover, Franklin James, Bubya, MerleDavid, GrahamHardy, Pietru, VolkovBot, Curtangel, Franklekens, GimmeBot, Malljaja, Megilgamesh, Someguy1221, Kirkmc, Broadbot, Sanfranman59, Cristi.Andrei, Manbss, Wassermann~enwiki, Ecorwin, Gibson Flying V, Flyingw, Glistenray, Softlavender, Alcmaeonid, Milowent, Williesnow, SieBot, YonaBot, Felixtrumble, Kernel Saunters, Dawn Bard, Goustien, Lightmouse, Polbot, Coreyngilbert, Vojvodaen, Bearcat53, Faithlessthewonderboy, ClueBot, Filomath, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow's Wraith, Kristoffer7, Gregcaletta, Auntof6, DragonBot, Saagpaneer, Jeanenawhitney, Alexbot, Abrech, Sun Creator, Selbymayfair, Arjayay, TheRedPenOfDoom, Abh9h, JDPhD, Bartleby62, Rror, Artaxerxes, Vianello, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Tcncv, Kj3 2001, AkhtaBot, KorinoChikara, Joobdude, Zarcadia, Fluffernutter, Avengah, Cbroz91, MrOllie, Dr James Watson, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Kimberlykonopka, Markvo, Buckyboot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Cflm001, Amirobot, Victoriaearle, Fred Flinstones 666~enwiki, DB.Gerry, Ihatewikii, HermanMelvillesAunt, NYIsles4, AnomieBOT, Cruzgirl, Ulric1313, Maturescence, Rtyq2, Mcoverdale, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Sionus, Kevintaylor73, Heslopian, INeverCry, Born Gay, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Ttommy69, SCFilm29, SibylleCotton, Murrayjof92, Alyshabeck, MastiBot, Archibald Heatherington Nastiface, SIbuff, Cnwilliams, Abc518, ArtistScientist, TylerFinny, Lotje, Tichborne, Lucius Winslow, Ashot Gabrielyan, WCCasey, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, BillyPreset, TherasTaneel, RenamedUser01302013, Oupuk, Wikipelli, AsceticRose, ZéroBot, Ddeman, Jordancelticsfan, SporkBot, Jacobisq, Poihths, PietroLegno, OpenlibraryBot, Oursana, Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Schillingermeister, KHAAAAAAN, CaroleHenson, GroovingPict, Delacroix-uk, Rangdangdiddly, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, PumpkinSky, Buechlein, HumanNaturOriginal, Mrt3366, Forest1959, DoctorKubla, Khazar2,
248
CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
Dexbot, Webclient101, Makecat-bot, VIAFbot, Executive Editor at MC, Vagevuur777, Epicgenius, Zariane, PrateekLala, Ephemera1234, Alcazar77, LawrencePrincipe, Ephemeratta, L W Frost, KWWight, Hammersmith1, Soulgazer, KasparBot, N. Bolkonsky, HenryVII1546 and Anonymous: 370 • Poet laureate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet_laureate?oldid=681819361 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, ClaudineChionh, Rmhermen, Deb, Nate Silva, DavidLevinson, Heron, Camembert, Tzartzam, Leandrod, Rbrwr, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul A, Ihcoyc, Kricxjo, ThirdParty, Jdforrester, Netsnipe, EdH, AZhnaZg, Charles Matthews, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Maximus Rex, Ed g2s, Wetman, Bearcat, Jmabel, Seglea, Premeditated Chaos, JerryFriedman, Ncox, Advance, Gamaliel, Beardo, Tagishsimon, Telsa, Andycjp, R. fiend, Karl Dickman, JamesTeterenko, YUL89YYZ, MeltBanana, Jnestorius, Sfahey, Arcadian, Man vyi, Slambo, Rje, Cunningham, Grutness, Monre, Craigy144, Samaritan, Pion, CJ, Velella, RJFJR, Pfahlstrom, Bgcbgc, Sam Vimes, Stephen, Pcpcpc, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Shreevatsa, Camw, MarkusHagenlocher, Emerson7, BD2412, Nightscream, Edbrims, Mick gold, Lugnad, XLerate, Afterwriting, Lyrael~enwiki, Naraht, RexNL, Orborde, Alphachimp, Gdrbot, VolatileChemical, Hilighter555, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Cyberscribe, Kafziel, Peterkingiron, DanMS, WayneRay, Phil Bastian, Howcheng, Cleared as filed, Terwilliger, Psy guy, FF2010, Gergis, Canley, LeonardoRob0t, Mais oui!, Staxringold, Cromag, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Crystallina, SmackBot, Mira, Zazaban, Maelwys, Ma8thew, Alsandro, Dyslexic agnostic, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Nbarth, VirtualSteve, Modest Genius, Keith Lehwald, TheKMan, RedHillian, GuildNavigator84, Krich, Mathiasrex, The Man in Question, Trisbray, Iridescent, Amacker, Bsskchaitanya, Twas Now, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, MrFish, Optimist on the run, A Musing, Lo2u, Kingstowngalway, Thijs!bot, UrsaMajor~enwiki, Mojo Hand, Missvain, Reynaert-ad, RobotG, WinBot, GeoWPC, RDT2, Noroton, MER-C, Macquarie, GregU, Balazs.varadi, Lucastheory, Cocytus, MartinBot, R'n'B, Edward Blaze, J.delanoy, Ajohnston, Trusilver, J.A.McCoy, Azeemipedia, Pyrospirit, Evb-wiki, Paularblaster, Andy Marchbanks, S, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Moogwrench, Lynxmb, Qxz, Kanejad, Chrisieboy, Corvus cornix, Martin451, Bob f it, ACEOREVIVED, Bashereyre, FinnWiki, SmileToday, Rypcord, Enkyo2, SieBot, Accounting4Taste, BotMultichill, Winchelsea, SE7, Keilana, Kjhughes, AK1591, Oxymoron83, Kattbwoy, Aurum ore, Fratrep, Escape Orbit, Baldrick90, ClueBot, Admiral Norton, Rosspnelson, Sw258, ChandlerMapBot, SamuelTheGhost, Andrei Iosifovich, PressurEagle, Forelyn~enwiki, Ckaphd, Geierstein, DumZiBoT, Stitchill, Rreagan007, Bradley0110, Addbot, JPINFV, Asfreeas, Download, West.andrew.g, Alanscottwalker, Tarheelz123, Zorrobot, Romero Frost, GreatInDayton, KenelmJames, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Mononomic, DSisyphBot, Cujaysbaseball27, Yalie1412, Sudzuki Erina, Trafford09, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Happygillmor, Nigerman2009, Full-date unlinking bot, عبقري2009, RjwilmsiBot, J36miles, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Nuwanda360, Mordgier, Iris91, Williamwaterway, Lateg, Fenlandier, JVKramer, Ijil RHG, AgedWonder, RayneVanDunem, Justice007, Targaryen, Zoupan, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, -sche, Bahnheckl, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Candleabracadabra, AmyElle, BG19bot, Armadillopteryx, Blake Burba, ÇaCestCharabia, Dogteamtrail, Loriendrew, Pratyya Ghosh, Timothy Gu, ChrisGualtieri, EagerToddler39, Hmainsbot1, Double positive, Gnaneswaratn, Kaigew, Wenslauw, DavidLeighEllis, YiFeiBot, Crow, St170e, Cybeleknowles and Anonymous: 273 • George Orwell Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwell?oldid=684982462 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, Carey Evans, Derek Ross, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Taw, Ed Poor, Verloren, Andre Engels, Benwbrum, JeLuF, Rmhermen, Christian List, Ortolan88, William Avery, SimonP, Shii, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Camembert, Montrealais, R Lowry, Riptor~enwiki, Tzartzam, Soulpatch, Edward, Deejoe, Lir, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, D, Michael Hardy, SGBailey, Sam Francis, Menchi, Wapcaplet, Mic, Ixfd64, Lquilter, Yann, Nine Tail Fox, Skysmith, Paul A, Card~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Docu, G-Man, Notheruser, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Randywombat, Александър, Aimaz, FQuist~enwiki, Sir Paul, Vzbs34, Rotem Dan, Llull, Andres, Jiang, Jacquerie27, John K, Ruhrjung, Vroman, Ec5618, Timwi, Trontonian, Dysprosia, Hydnjo, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Hao2lian, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, ZeWrestler, Matthew speedy, Buridan, Wernher, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Warofdreams, Jerzy, Jusjih, UninvitedCompany, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, DavidA, Kizor, Korath, Moncrief, Kerryht, Naddy, Chancemill, Mirv, Postdlf, Pingveno, Academic Challenger, AaronS, LGagnon, Hippietrail, Timrollpickering, Mervyn, Hadal, Saforrest, Saulisagenius, JackofOz, Wereon, Bean shadow, Profoss, Mushroom, Mandel, Jor, Fab, Cyrius, Wayland, BTfromLA, Ancheta Wis, Centrx, Giftlite, Gtrmp, MathKnight, Fastfission, Angmering, Everyking, Suitov, NeoJustin, Alison, Henry Flower, WHEELER, Snap Davies, Varlaam, Ssd, Ryguillian, DO'Neil, Maarten van Vliet, Guanaco, Tom-, Slyguy, Iota, Jason Quinn, Sundar, Christofurio, Solipsist, JillandJack, Nul~enwiki, Just Another Dan, Timo~enwiki, Deus Ex, Tagishsimon, Richard Myers, Avaragado, Wmahan, Tree, Utcursch, Pgan002, Knutux, Zeimusu, Formeruser-81, Quadell, Antandrus, Bcameron54, 1297, Robtemple, Rdsmith4, Martin Wisse, Kuralyov, Vasile, Tyler McHenry, Arcturus, Gscshoyru, Elwell, Creidieki, Neutrality, Izzycat, Klemen Kocjancic, Adashiel, Grunt, Jfpierce, RevRagnarok, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, Freakofnurture, Duja, DanielCD, Ultratomio, An Siarach, Discospinster, Eb.hoop, Rich Farmbrough, Brutannica, Vsmith, Rustl, MeltBanana, Nard the Bard, Pavel Vozenilek, Trey Stone, Ratonyi~enwiki, Paul August, ESkog, Flapdragon, Kaisershatner, Mashford, Swid, JoeSmack, Brian0918, LordHarris, Chalst, Cedders, Shadow demon, Cafzal, Aude, Shanes, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Bobo192, Meggar, Infocidal, Nyenyec, Cmdrjameson, Juzeris, Jojit fb, לערי ריינהארט, Thewayforward, MPLX, Rje, Cunningham, XDarklytez, Hintha, MPerel, Sam Korn, AnnaAniston, Ral315, Krellis, Vanished user azby388723i8jfjh32, Jasoncart, Cyrillic, NickCatal, Knucmo2, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Cma, Alansohn, Gary, Ihatepotsmokinghippies, Sherurcij, Travis Cavanaugh, Atlant, Philip Cross, Mr Adequate, Carbon Caryatid, TracyRenee, Robin Johnson, Juicifer, Mike1971inter, Logologist, Riana, MarkGallagher, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Avenue, Rwendland, Snowolf, Miltonhowe, Klaser, Wtmitchell, Velella, Bbsrock, Wintceas, Saga City, Dalillama, Yuckfoo, Pappa, Benhiller, Amorymeltzer, RainbowOfLight, Mnemo, Ndteegarden, Henry W. Schmitt, Bsadowski1, BlastOButter42, Davidgauntlett, Sleigh, Axeman89, KTC, Billyvamp4, Kznf, Dismas, Crosbiesmith, Natalya, Bastin, Pcpcpc, Dejvid, Feezo, Paulanderson, OleMaster, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Firsfron, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mr Tan, TigerShark, Camw, LOL, A.K.A.47, Hbobrien, Sburke, PatGallacher, James Kemp, Madchester, Maryna Ravioli, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Matijap, Tckma, GurraJG, Bbatsell, AnaZ, GregorB, Brendanconway, MarcoTolo, GraemeLeggett, Adjam, Wgsimon, Marudubshinki, Dumell, Nilshennes, Dysepsion, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Alienus, Magister Mathematicae, Chun-hian, FreplySpang, Zoz, Icey, Bolinball, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Vary, Tangotango, Suirotra, SMC, BradGad, Unyo~enwiki, Nneonneo, Infosocialist, Peripatetic, Brighterorange, Jpetts, Thekohser, Ian Dunster, Nandesuka, Husky, Yamamoto Ichiro, MJGR, Titoxd, Madcat87, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, DDerby, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, DannyWilde, Alhutch, MacRusgail, Nivix, CarolGray, CaptainCanada, RexNL, Gurch, TeaDrinker, Adamburton, Chobot, DVdm, Random user 39849958, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Adoniscik, ColdFeet, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jamesmorrison, MGodwin, RobotE, A.S. Brown, Dannycas, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Danis1911, Pigman, Monkey Tennis, Crumbsucker, SpuriousQ, BillMasen, Stephenb, Lord Voldemort, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Ugur Basak, Big Brother 1984, Manxruler, Finbarr Saunders, Eddie.willers, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Stephen Burnett, Wiki alf, Paki.tv, Jaxl, Welsh, Garrick92, Rjensen, BlackAndy, Journalist, Cleared as filed, JDoorjam, Nick, Vivenot, Anetode, Brian Crawford, Jpbowen, Number 57, RUL3R, Kwh, Semperf, Tony1, Aleichem, Syrthiss, Samir, SFC9394, Aunk, Gadget850, Saintamh, Todeswalzer, Bota47, Jpeob, Brisvegas, Wknight94, Iron Ghost, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Lt-wiki-
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
249
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CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
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and Anonymous: 2094 • British Empire Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire?oldid=684104971 Contributors: AxelBoldt, TwoOneTwo, JHK, Derek Ross, David Parker, Mav, The Anome, Jeronimo, DanKeshet, ClaudineChionh, Rmhermen, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, Mswake, Mintguy, Montrealais, Hephaestos, Olivier, Rickyrab, Chuq, Ram-Man, Stevertigo, Spiff~enwiki, Edward, Smelialichu, Pathew, Earth, Jtdirl, Jahsonic, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Collabi, Sam Francis, Wapcaplet, Mic, Ixfd64, Chinju, 172, IZAK, Sannse, Prasenberg, Delirium, Skysmith, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Jebba, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Ugen64, Cgs, RadRafe, Poor Yorick, Vzbs34, Cadr, Dpol, Andres, Jiang, Kaihsu, Deisenbe, Palfrey, John K, Ruhrjung, Chelman, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, Ilyanep, Raven in Orbit, Jengod, HolIgor, Alex S, Charles Matthews, Majabl, Rob.derosa, RickK, Graculus, Timc, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Johnkendall1, Tpbradbury, Astrotrain, Morwen, Paul-L~enwiki, Ed g2s, Nickshanks, Mackensen, Andrew Yong, Jecar, Cabalamat, Bcorr, Francs2000, Savasas, Lumos3, Huangdi, Earl Andrew, Waerth, Moncrief, Stephan Schulz, Nurg, Romanm, Gandalf61, Huxley75, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Timrollpickering, Bkell, Sheridan, Hadal, JackofOz, Wereon, Hlaw, Rev.Ision, Seano1, SoLando, Wayland, Jooler, Davidcannon, Adam78, Tye, Dave6, Marc Venot, Steve Casburn, Nunh-huh, Wighson, Meursault2004, Zigger, Average Earthman, Everyking, Bkonrad, Wyss, Curps, Michael Devore, Seraosha, Tom-, Mboverload, Siroxo, Iceberg3k, Grant65, PlatinumX, Bobblewik, Avaragado, Neilc, Fishal, Auximines, Ben Arnold, Utcursch, Keith Edkins, LiDaobing, Formeruser-81, Quadell, Antandrus, Madmagic, Kvasir, Daniel,levine, Mr impossible, Plasma east, CaribDigita, Adamsan, Josquius, OwenBlacker, Maximaximax, RetiredUser2, Kbrooks, PFHLai, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Joyous!, Herschelkrustofsky, Irpen, Trek011~enwiki, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, Hardouin, Brianiii, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Esperant, Thorwald, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Shipmaster, An Siarach, Imaglang, Bornintheguz, Alexrexpvt, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Agnistus, Guanabot, Rameses, Nigel033, Ivan Bajlo, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Altmany, Beiramar, MarkS, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Dewet, ESkog, Jaberwocky6669, Kbh3rd, Rohitganguli, Swid, Jnestorius, Aranel, Tyler Tvedten, Pmetzger, RJHall, CanisRufus, El C, Kwamikagami, Kross, Susvolans, Juppiter, Art LaPella, Adambro, Causa sui, Noren, Bobo192, Mpbx3003, Longhair, John Vandenberg, Dpaajones, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Jguk 2, JW1805, Wiki-Ed, L.Willms, Nk, Darwinek, Alphax, Townmouse, Twobells, Pschemp, Polylerus, Krellis, Pharos, Pearle, Jonathunder, Voyager, Elerium~enwiki, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Alfanje~enwiki, Duffman~enwiki, Ricardo monteiro, 119, Tek022, Ben davison, Babajobu, CR7, Andrewpmk, Andrew Gray, Lord Pistachio, Riana, Wikidea, Cloud Strife~enwiki, Ashley Pomeroy, Lectonar, CJ, LunarLander, Plange, Mrholybrain, Hu, PeteVerdon, Hadžija, Bart133, Burwellian, Civil Servant, Wtmitchell, Velella, Benson85, Crablogger, Almafeta, Jrleighton, Garzo, Amorymeltzer, RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Gene Nygaard, Nightstallion, HenryLi, Lucidity, TShilo12, Sam Vimes, Bastin, Othello Monster, Stemonitis, Gmaxwell, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Doctor Boogaloo, Borderer, PoccilScript, Guy M, Brunnock, Ganeshk, Deeahbz, Pol098, Commander Keane, WadeSimMiser, Jeff3000, Sean II, Sir Lewk, Jrkarp, Lapsed Pacifist, Kglavin, Terence, SDC, Noetica, Junes, M040601, Doric Loon, RomeW, GraemeLeggett, Palica, Wbkelley, Slgrandson, Gettingtoit, RichardWeiss, JEB90, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Descendall, Cuchullain, BD2412, Mucky Duck, F2002yann, Dwaipayanc, Dvyost, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Koavf, Vary, PinchasC, Chochem, TheRingess, SpNeo, The wub, Mikm, Rui Silva, Fish and karate, Leithp, RCBot~enwiki, Falphin, Titoxd, LJ Holden, Astatine, RobertG, Windchaser, Ground Zero, Kiwichris, Jcmurphy, Margosbot~enwiki, JdforresterBot, Nivix, CarolGray, AJR, Hottentot, Chris Bennett, Mark83, Rune.welsh, CaptainCanada, RexNL, Gurch, AlexCovarrubias, Ayla,
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Arctic.gnome, Str1977, President Rhapsody, NightWolf1298, Atrix20, TeaDrinker, Stinhein, Gareth E Kegg, Butros, Chobot, Secant, DaGizza, Visor, Gdrbot, Smithkl2, Cactus.man, Muckish, Wjfox2005, Algebraist, Peter Grey, Jpfagerback, YurikBot, Wavelength, ChiLlBeserker, Sceptre, I need a name, Hairy Dude, Jachin, JarrahTree, Boreanesia, RussBot, John Smith's, Fabartus, Jtkiefer, Maszanchi, Lofty, Ivirivi00, Padraig, Danbarnesdavies, Gravecat, Yamara, Van der Hoorn, Stephenb, Grubber, Rincewind42, CambridgeBayWeather, Monkeytrumpets, Simon Lieschke, Wimt, Ritchy, Lusanaherandraton, United88, Anomalocaris, Marcus Cyron, Keithgreer, Window, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Paki.tv, John Barleycorn, The Ogre, Grafen, Thatdog, Erielhonan, Boyswish, Ou tis, Jaxl, Welsh, Rjensen, Lexicon, Cleared as filed, Nick, Rbarreira, Robdurbar, Humansdorpie, Code65536, Matticus78, Countakeshi, GHcool, XGustaX, Misza13, Nick C, Tony1, Sir Edgar, Epa101, Dbfirs, Roche-Kerr, M3taphysical, DeadEyeArrow, Haraald, Scope creep, CalgaryWikifan, Fenian Swine, Maunus, Alpha 4615, HLGallon, Pydos, AjaxSmack, Igiffin, Nudge Edwards, Deville, Phgao, Zzuuzz, Imperial avis, Edouard-lopez, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Closedmouth, WayeMason, Puritan Nerd, Pietdesomere, Josh3580, Sicamous, Tom walker, GraemeL, Rande M Sefowt, JoanneB, LeonardoRob0t, Hayden120, Yodakii, Mais oui!, Rhyddfrydol, Garion96, Kungfuadam, Bend It Like Beck, Arthur Wellesley, Shtove, Maxamegalon2000, Fastifex, Kingboyk, Star trooper man, GrinBot~enwiki, Roke, Rehevkor, Nick-D, Wallie, Luk, BomBom, SmackBot, Britannicus, Narson, Hux, Pfly, MiniEntente, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, DarbyAsh, Pavlovič, Wehwalt, MarshallStack, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Setanta747 (locked), Bwithh, Pandion auk, Delldot, Eskimbot, Cooksey87, Jab843, Kintetsubuffalo, TharkunColl, HeartofaDog, Alsandro, Toonmon2005, Sloman, Hmains, Honbicot, Jamie C, Bluebot, Ciriii, Parmesan, Jibbajabba, Skookum1, SlimJim, Persian Poet Gal, Tatty, Rex Germanus, Ian13, Bjmullan, JackyR, Jprg1966, Kleinzach, Kemet, Joel Bastedo, Breadandcheese, Dlohcierekim's sock, El Gringo, Robth, Aridd, DHN-bot~enwiki, DemolitionMan, Bellahdoll, Brad E. Williams, VirtualSteve, GoodDay, John Reaves, Rama's Arrow, Camillus McElhinney, Dethme0w, Yaf, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Fishhead64, MyNameIsVlad, HoodedMan, Danielkueh, OrphanBot, Lazar Taxon, Geoffrey Gibson, Uzawaung, Scotsboyuk, Gibnews, GeorgeMoney, Andy120290, Addshore, Edivorce, Allan McInnes, Phaedriel, Grover cleveland, AndySimpson, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, Emre D., Oanabay04, VegaDark, Jiddisch~enwiki, Mr Minchin, Kevlar67, RolandR, Dreadstar, Segafreak2, Eran of Arcadia, Trieste, SouthEastLad, Badgerpatrol, Weregerbil, Xen 1986, KeithB, Phrique, Ericl, S@bre, N Shar, Padem, Evlekis, Ck lostsword, Pilotguy, Skinnyweed, Ged UK, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, DCB4W, Ohconfucius, Qwerty0, Xtrememachineuk, The undertow, SashatoBot, Twolves, Jombo, Nishkid64, LtPowers, Harryboyles, BrownHairedGirl, Zone, RyanAlbarelli, John, Livingintellect, Heimstern, SilkTork, Fast track, Bill Bisco, ML5, CPMcE, Warniats, Korean alpha for knowledge, Mrlopez2681, Soumyasch, MilborneOne, Dussst, Tktktk, Bensonby, CaptainVindaloo, Goodnightmush, Gnevin, Majorclanger, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Bawantha, Yogesh Khandke, Ckatz, Railsmart, Kjempe~enwiki, Basilbrushleo, 16@r, Tarikur, Loadmaster, Gunray, Andypandy.UK, Suspicious mole, Makyen, George The Dragon, Billreid, Mr Stephen, MainBody, InedibleHulk, Georgeg, CharlesMartel, Ryulong, Sijo Ripa, Citicat, Bioarchie1234, Lestari~enwiki, Autonova, Scotwood72, Burto88, Levineps, BranStark, Not so salty, Nonexistant User, Iridescent, Quantum Burrito, Laddiebuck, Greetj, The Giant Puffin, Brandizzi, Joseph Solis in Australia, IvanLanin, TurabianNights, Provocateur, GDallimore, Igoldste, Shoreranger, Blehfu, Punnytno1, Coxs, Civil Engineer III, KenWalker, Courcelles, Anger22, Heliomance, Mr. RX99, Eluchil404, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, The Letter J, Plasma Twa 2, Jorgito0246, AbsolutDan, ChrisCork, Orangutan, TheBeaver, SAMDEHAM, Threadnecromancer, SkyWalker, INkubusse, OSmeone, JForget, TORR, InvisibleK, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Deon, David s graff, Unionhawk, Van helsing, The ed17, Aherunar, Jom~enwiki, JohnCD, Carpenoctem, Banedon, Fabrib, Ruslik0, Stevo1000, Yarnalgo, 345Kai, ShelfSkewed, Hserus, WeggeBot, Moreschi, Cecyrose, Richard Keatinge, Maxrandom777, Equester, Hemlock Martinis, Michfan2123, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, Danrok, Jackyd101, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Vanished user 45po45lr87gj, Red4tribe, Justinmcl, Steel, Two hundred percent, Fair Deal, Scales67, Red Director, Corpx, Jayen466, Palmiped, Elustran, Hispalois, Demomoke, Doug Weller, Christian75, Twelsh, DumbBOT, Jayk bakner, Monster eagle, Interwiki gl, BhaiSaab, FastLizard4, Kozuch, Daven200520, Gazzster, Jacob..., Victoriaedwards, Computerfan, ACamposPinho, Michael Johnson, Rosser1954, Oike, Malleus Fatuorum, Jbalcock, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Kahastok, Jmg38, Blowski, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral, Sry85, Mojo Hand, Berria, Oliver202, Deskavanagh, Pjvpjv, Marek69, John254, SGGH, Woody, NorwegianBlue, Folantin, Ackees, 25162995, James086, X201, Tellyaddict, Turkeyphant, Grahamdubya, Zachary, CharlotteWebb, Michael A. White, Tocino, Didgebaba, Stevvvv4444, Floridasand, Sean William, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Cultural Freedom, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Sion8, Paul from Michigan, QuiteUnusual, Peter50, Tangerines, LinaMishima, Jj137, TimVickers, Semifreddo, Yarovit, Chill doubt, North Shoreman, Iamlondon, Gdo01, DarthShrine, RedCoat10, NJW494, Kingreka, Tucu Mann, Elaragirl, Bjenks, Ghmyrtle, H7dders, Ross SF, IIIV, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Dan D. Ric, Leuko, Husond, Jimothytrotter, JenLouise, Barek, MER-C, LeedsKing, Ericoides, MelForbes, Arch dude, Indisciplined, Redking7, Lord Johnson, Charles01, Der loewe schlaft nie!, Sarah777, Rueben lys, GGreeneVa, East718, Kerotan, Joshua, Amitkinger, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Moni3, Magioladitis, Zobh, Trickman~enwiki, El Greco, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Stonemad GB, AuburnPilot, Squidward843, Kuyabribri, JNW, L.V., Alexander Domanda, SHCarter, Jéské Couriano, Inmate20, Puddhe, Tedickey, Phunting, Snowded, CS46, Catgut, Radakrisnan, EagleFan, Imeisel, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Hamiltonstone, Allstarecho, Gomm, Vssun, DerHexer, Jacknameguy, Patstuart, StanCan, TLinden, Declangraham, Lost tourist, DGG, LairdKeir, Atarr, Wittyname, Neonblak, Hdt83, MartinBot, Andycole, Intesvensk, ExplicitImplicity, Flexdream, Kiore, Rihojo, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Lamato, Cowherpower, Mschel, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Sparks1, Hairchrm, PrestonH, Bentaguayre, Lilac Soul, Francis Tyers, EdBever, Tgeairn, Burpcycle, BGOATDoughnut, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1, Paralingua, DrKiernan, Jimmybears1006, Adavidb, Alec - U.K., UBeR, Tebriggs, Uncle Dick, 72Dino, Ymirfrostgiant, Blotto adrift, Marcsin, Fuzzcore, McSly, TheTrojanHought, Barkerben, L'Aquatique, JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Carbon-code, HiLo48, NewEnglandYankee, Londo06, Nwbeeson, DadaNeem, SJP, Ahuskay, Tanaats, Olegwiki, Lzverckaun, Biofoundationsoflanguage, Cmichael, Juliancolton, Corriebertus, Vanished user 39948282, DorganBot, Natl1, Ajfweb, Thomas Hall, Ja 62, Andy Marchbanks, Sir Isaacson, CardinalDan, Tonyob, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Djflem, Fainites, Wikieditor06, ACSE, Black Kite, Lights, Hugo999, Ruairidhbevan, VolkovBot, That-Vela-Fella, Marylandwizard, Packerman101, The Duke of Waltham, Jeff G., Fundamental metric tensor, Seattle Skier, Davidwr, Ryan032, Chitrapa, Philip Trueman, JayEsJay, Magafuzula, Paulturtle, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Jomasecu, Pahari Sahib, GimmeBot, MOTORAL1987, Mogsmar5, Planetary Chaos, Thatstheway, Rei-bot, Z.E.R.O., Magnius, Sankalpdravid, Sarthella, Andreas Kaganov, Hellclanner, Lradrama, Drummers80, Clarince63, Seraphim, Martin451, Choppie3000, Supertask, LeaveSleaves, Bleaney, Mkpumphrey, PDFbot, Vgranucci, Jeremy Bolwell, Jermerc, Cosmos416, Teatord, Krazywrath, Shanata, Malus Catulus, Larklight, Userofwiki, Billinghurst, Usergreatpower, Haseo9999, Ian Goggin, Yk Yk Yk, Wolfrock, Graymornings, Jpeeling, Fameasjordan, Falcon8765, Anna512, Dmejico, Manopingo, Freddyfreddy, Necris, Djmckee1, Insanity Incarnate, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Kobalt64, Liveangle, Signsolid, EmxBot, Kmberv, MNorthman, Givegains, Wraithdart, XXXX YOU, Arjun024, Darkieboy236, Bumpusjones, The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick, SieBot, Coffee, Whiskey in the Jar, Dusti, Whitehatnetizen, Frans Fowler, PeterCanthropus, WereSpielChequers, Skidbladnir, ToePeu.bot, DanceMasta, VVVBot, Caltas, Bielle, Gashmak, Backwalker, SE7, Smsarmad, Lime.green.girl, Miremare, JabbaTheBot, Andrew Steller, TerritorialWaters, Vulcan's Forge, Waygugin, PookeyMaster, Aillema, Happysailor, Tiptoety, Radon210, Qst, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Robster1983, Prestonmag, Allmightyduck, Cameron, Eastbayway, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Chrisedwards2004, Faradayplank, Goustien, Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, Nmf1, Hobartimus, PalaceGuard008, GeMet, Aramgar, Musse-kloge, Jmiotto, La Parka Your
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CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
Car, Belligero, Aumnamahashiva, Paiev, MichiganCharms, Torchwoodwho, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Krishnadevaraya, Pl7687, Sutton78, Barrowinfurness, Georgette2, Dalampasigan, 67689v, Krabby.Scabby.Abby, WikiLaurent, Doortmont, Dabomb87, Nn123645, Torch1234, Jza84, Pinkadelica, Kortaggio, Barrowinfurness1, Denisarona, Lloydpick, Wee Curry Monster, Finetooth, Jr6767t, Telaviv1, Hadseys, Amazonien, Velvetron, Troy 07, Explicit, Gauravchauhan4, Quellem, Atif.t2, Dancingwombatsrule, RegentsPark, Felipe Aira, Tanvir Ahmmed, MBK004, Elassint, ClueBot, Atletiker, Phoenix-wiki, Traveler100, Binksternet, Cencini, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Meisterkoch, RWardy, Swedish fusilier, Samsknee, TomRed, Professorial, RashersTierney, Jappalang, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Shark96z, Vasyatka1, Mariya Oktyabrskaya, Ukabia, Dingiswayo, CasualObserver'48, Gwyddgwyrdd, Der Golem, SuperHamster, JTBX, Andrewtopper, CounterVandalismBot, Harland1, LizardJr8, Parkwells, Hellskicthen, Piledhigheranddeeper, Amym91, F-402, Supergodzilla2090, DragonBot, Excirial, Quercus basaseachicensis, Jusdafax, Taifarious1, Resoru, GoldenGoose100, Waleyo, Marshy100, G.I Bob, Tasmaniacs, Ebglider91, Fishiehelper2, Lartoven, Kiwibeca, Shalimer, Yorkshirian, LikeThatWillHappen, Waseyazim, Sbfw, Antodav2007, 3d vector, Bailitothemexicanfajita, DMooney7, JayWhitney, Audaciter, Ottawa4ever, Hhahha, Erenwip, Thingg, Lindberg, Kallahan, Darren23, Meriturge~enwiki, Lord Cornwallis, DerBorg, Ddevivo, Floul1, Versus22, Dana boomer, Smarkflea, IJA, Spencer1212, BurgererSF~enwiki, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, DumZiBoT, Runoble, Life of Riley, Thisour, Stoljaroff1987, Yun-Yuuzhan, BarretB, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, Fastily, Spitfire, Pichpich, Beburos, Psych0-007, Lord alexandre, AndreNatas, Little Mountain 5, Rreagan007, Rockybiggs, Skarebo, WikHead, Wahrhaft, Badgernet, Alexius08, Tameamseo, JinJian, Jakezing, Cradel, Asidemes, Tripsalso, SelfQ, Thatguyflint, Harjk, MDaisy, Jack forbes (renamed), Urbanmyth139, Engkamalzack, Sergeant Expert, Cxz111, Kyang1993, Sirgameington, AVand, AtomAtom, Scheshul, Beamathan, Guoguo12, Mspence835, Ave Caesar, Nulli secundus, Wannabe rockstar, Trasman, GSMR, LaGrandefr, Ronhjones, Nomad2u001, Jeanne boleyn, Fieldday-sunday, Ironholds, Alfn23, Leszek Jańczuk, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Zzanger, Cst17, Captain Fox, Aryasamaj~enwiki, TindleM8, Daicaregos, Master Editor2008, Pedroppcc~enwiki, Bongma, Debresser, SpBot, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, Lemonade100, Tassedethe, Justpassin, Strawless, Ehrenkater, Damwiki1, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Emekaesogbue, Gail, Zorrobot, MuZemike, Jarble, Greyhood, Ret.Prof, Swarm, Frehley, Jackelfive, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Mooretwin, Thelord12, BirgittaHo, Stonesrock54327487, Clmcc, ㄏㄨㄤㄉㄧ, Gunnar Hendrich, Jean.julius, IW.HG, Tempodivalse, Magog the Ogre, Instertnamehere, Babydoll9799, AnomieBOT, PonileExpress, Altgeld, Disstonian, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Utinomen, YeshuaDavid, Gold Wiz113, Gnomeselby, Jim1138, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Ulric1313, NickK, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Kieran4, Maxis ftw, Roux-HG, Dunlavin Green, M1569, EuroHistoryTeacher, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Cliftonian, Thezygs01, Xqbot, Sionus, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Kiernanh, Millahnna, 3mar5000, Grim23, BritishWatcher, Electoral08, ManasShaikh, Almabot, Jamquinbon, Miesianiacal, Nageshvkl, Anotherclown, RibotBOT, Robmuntzawesome, Doulos Christos, BSTemple, GhalyBot, Moxy, MerlLinkBot, Howsa12, WaysToEscape, Elemesh, Joshua Darkins, Žiedas, Gollumgainsford1, Flarkins, RightCowLeftCoast, BoomerAB, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Catterick, Skylark2008, Tangent747, Ariellaa~enwiki, Íochtar, Tobby72, MusicInTheHouse, Xhackz0rx, Sky Attacker, D'ohBot, Eustaquio abichuela, Haeinous, Phanar, Buckfever, MCBot, Solonus, Eagle4000, Bambuway, Thehunt99, Free the kingdom of tibet, Biker89, OgreBot, RedKnight 1, Citation bot 1, Kobrabones, Yo Dawg! What's Going On Today?, Rgljuarez, Intelligentsium, AdmiralKolchak, SpacemanSpiff, Pekayer11, Pinethicket, Elockid, Lewishicking, 10metreh, Newmiracle, Loyalist Cannons, Courtneyrox52696, Yahia.barie, Wales77, JackBauer2009, Wikitza, A1n2t3o4n5, Achaemenes, Moonraker, Tom991, Jschnur, Xfact, The flatulent sewage eater, Chakuwiki, Yellqazwsx, Hiroshima1, Jaguar, Wikiain, Jamesinderbyshire, Secret Saturdays, Gasta220, Cliniic, Ozhistory, Arbero, Flosssock1, Willdasmiffking, TobeBot, Argolin, DixonDBot, Mr Mulliner, Bfaught, Gvotno, Dinamik-bot, MitchTurner84, Qazmlp1029, Jethwarp, January, Bluefist, AmyzzXX, VraumDse, Jmfriesen, Dusty777, Mauri96, Canuckian89, Diannaa, P1234567890qwertyuiopasdfghjkl, Tbhotch, AnneDrew55, Pokadots122, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Chhoro, Emcglobal, Gd21091993, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, TjBot, IANVS, RepliCarter, Wikichick775, Beyond My Ken, Myownworst, WildBot, Mackay 86, Salvio giuliano, Liamvdw, Menoplasa, Sergius-eu, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, AlexHormann, Look2See1, Fireinthegol, Mengmang, Laurel Lodged, NotAnonymous0, Jameswilsonneal, MrTranscript, Damoman, Tommy2010, Jbower47, MrGRA, Ll0l00l, Wikipelli, Werieth, OllieNS, Der Träumer (DE), AvicBot, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, Fæ, Cutiepie650, Dolovis, Chryed, Juhrere, Battoe19, H3llBot, Variy touch, Chrisishabs, Jonathanho727, Confession0791, Helscream123, Mehrdad1900s, Tiganusi, Demiurge1000, Writerzakwynn, Brandmeister, Sahimrobot, Zuggernaut, Shrigley, Quite vivid blur, Cutedrdave, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, Jaspreetjohal, NZ PUG, Luilainez, Skanta479, Мурад 97, Herk1955, Bmbtms, DASHBotAV, FeatherPluma, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Outofsinc, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Mechanical digger, Reginald Bottspanke, Atleogpaul, OpTic Snip3z, Sahil2305, But I'm Bwitish, Jenova20, Iloveandrea, Hupaleju, Rishav1001, Osterluzei, Omnisome, Ooooooppppppp, Fraytel, Rezabot, Zia demion, Runehelmet, Picaballo, Bradrangers, BomberOD1, Darrend67, TomJonesIII, Calidum, Hengist Pod, Sjj5goku, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Paulogatle, Alanparkinson, M0rphzone, FoxyLadyNicolay, HIDECCHI001, Wiki13, Uhlan, ObiterDictum.nz, Lukethedukeofyork, Zyxwv99, Solomon7968, Lyeel, RJR3333, Cadiomals, D Namtar, Xwejnusgozo, Jeancey, Min.neel, Michael Cockrell, Bumblefrenzy, Arguegroup, Ernio48, BedsBookworm, AlexTheGrand, Glacialfox, Oleg-ch, Achowat, RGloucester, Argus2980, Muffin Wizard, Retireduser455656, Justincheng12345-bot, Dallasb78, Narniawarrior114, Xuxalliope, Tandrum, Dikaalnas, Lubiesque, Murray114, Sam2295, Mons.logan, Hausofbrad, Kelvinsong, Qexigator, Birkeen, E4024, Dexbot, Mogism, Steve92341, Kovieb, Ryanbrz, Comrade commie, Tommy Pinball, Wikipean, ChemTerm, JustAMuggle, Allthestrongbowintheworld, Xwoodsterchinx, Mrandrewnohome, Sav1yo12345, Rob984, Jamesmcmahon0, Ransewiki, LordOfTheCardies, NJRobbie, Swibe, Msundqvist, Lindenhurst Liberty, 展翅飛翔, Fortis est Veritas, Spyglasses, Gywon, Eagle3399, Russianbritish, Turgeis, UnbiasedVictory, N0n3up, HYH.124, Archsouls, Gani94, HenryGladney, Monkbot, Rmm553, JuanRiley, Precarious15, Krishnachaitan, Snow Lion Fenian, CharltonChiltern, SuffrenXXI and Anonymous: 2295 • MacDonald sisters Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacDonald_sisters?oldid=684783376 Contributors: Delirium, Wjhonson, Academic Challenger, Ruszewski, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Gurubrahma, PKM, SmackBot, JimmyGuano, Marc Kupper, Bluebot, Evangelista, Wundermac, MartinCollin, BrownHairedGirl, Joseph Solis in Australia, Darrah, Adam Keller, Cydebot, DonBarton, TonyTheTiger, Mafmafmaf, Ste4k, Roundhouse0, Ekabhishek, DuncanHill, P64, VolkovBot, Nancy, Pm2726, JasonAQuest, Addbot, Green Cardamom, EmausBot, Mythic Writerlord, The Traditionalist, Julian Felsenburgh, Westfield2015 and Anonymous: 11 • John Lockwood Kipling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockwood_Kipling?oldid=685152196 Contributors: Shyamal, Nichalp, Mike Rosoft, Czrisher, Theinfo, Ruszewski, Dabbler, Woohookitty, Bjones, FeanorStar7, Kelisi, Sparkit, Lockley, FlaBot, Kingka, Garion96, Mhardcastle, SmackBot, Alanmaher, Dl2000, Adam Keller, Cydebot, Alaibot, TonyTheTiger, Nick Number, Fatidiot1234, Ekabhishek, DuncanHill, Waacstats, Textorus, Atulsnischal, Keith D, BrokenSphere, Johnbod, Dahliarose, Pahari Sahib, GroveGuy, Drutt, BOTijo, Mackthefinger, Gordonofcartoon, Seaaron, Jeremiestrother, Iohannes Animosus, RogDel, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Sionk, GrouchoBot, Green Cardamom, Full-date unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, CWoods34, ZéroBot, Mar4d, Anir1uph, Chryed, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, VIAFbot, Newsailormon, TropicAltē, KasparBot, Westfield2015 and Anonymous: 26 • Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
253
Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava?oldid=672927586 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Bryan Derksen, SimonP, Montrealais, Gabbe, Jdforrester, Ugen64, Big iron, John K, Marknew, Alex S, Adam Bishop, Trontonian, Nohat, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Proteus, Bearcat, Earl Andrew, PBS, Nurg, Timrollpickering, JackofOz, Nunh-huh, Netoholic, Lupin, Zigger, Mpntod, Duncharris, Wmahan, Opera hat, Piotrus, Zbd, Sam Hocevar, Faedra, D6, Rich Farmbrough, YUL89YYZ, Ibagli, Bender235, CanisRufus, Worldtraveller, CDN99, 23skidoo, Fenster, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Voyager, Craigy144, Lightdarkness, Fawcett5, BrentS, Stemonitis, Gmaxwell, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Isnow, Staatenloser~enwiki, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, The wub, Arctic.gnome, Choess, Russavia, Valentinian, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, Danbarnesdavies, Stormbay, Gaius Cornelius, Cryptic, Rjensen, Michael Drew, DeadEyeArrow, Sailorman john, Open2universe,
[email protected], Saltmarsh, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Marktreut, Bluebot, Skookum1, Rakela, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Dr pda, Wizardman, John, Eurodog, Dicdoc, HJMG, Tryde, KenWalker, Trevor Sinclair, CmdrObot, Nunquam Dormio, Birdhurst, No1lakersfan, Cydebot, ST47, Tectar, JCO312, Aricci526, Victoriaedwards, Mattisse, Count-Dracula, Phoe, Escarbot, RobotG, Jonnyk84, Ekabhishek, Missionconsort, Ericoides, Demophon, Connormah, Parsecboy, Henning M, Lonewolf BC, Septuagent, Keith D, R'n'B, DrKiernan, Peter Clarke, Takvaal, Xyl 54, Histmag, Stephennt, Paulturtle, GimmeBot, Plazak, Phe-bot, SE7, Jonas Poole, Lightmouse, Maelgwnbot, Duffy2032, All Hallow's Wraith, El bot de la dieta, MelonBot, DumZiBoT, Kolsteinz, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Tassedethe, Luckasbot, Amirobot, Watchfox, Citation bot, Miesianiacal, Green Cardamom, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Komitsuki, Redrose64, I dream of horses, Plucas58, Moonraker, Crusoe8181, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Llorando, Chewings72, HandsomeFella, ClueBot NG, OhSoHeartless, Asalrifai, Andrew Gwilliam, BG19bot, Laggan Boy, VIAFbot, Julian Felsenburgh, Ajaythomas0007, Robin S. Taylor, KasparBot, Dark Ambients and Anonymous: 38 • Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Jamsetjee_Jeejebhoy_School_of_Art?oldid=685013769 Contributors: Paul Barlow, Shyamal, Hemanshu, Utcursch, Mukerjee, IndianCow, Brainy J, Dabbler, Kamezuki, Mel Etitis, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Tachs, SmackBot, Npindia, Dl2000, CmdrObot, Randhirreddy, Darthbreather, Cydebot, Ekabhishek, Magioladitis, The Anomebot2, Rahuldongre, JaGa, Sid9000, Dan arndt, Rrostrom, DrLeonP, Sankalpdravid, Byomkesh Bakshi, Artabhijeet, Drutt, Martarius, Kanishka72, Auntof6, Somno, Abrahamlast, Art years, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, Addbot, Issyl0, Yobot, Theonlynitin, AnomieBOT, Sionk, Prakhardeep, FrescoBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje, Jethwarp, Linguisticgeek, NikhilSah, Kadamshardul, Mundugumor, Verbcatcher, Yashwantbhavsar, Mogism, Melonkelon, Evano1van, Maneeshmandanna, Aakash Singh India, Anoop.doshi, Hpathare, Peppy Paneer and Anonymous: 53 • Rudyard Lake Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudyard_Lake?oldid=682798219 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Pigsonthewing, RedWolf, Omassey, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Art LaPella, Ruszewski, Malanc, Peter Shearan, Dave.Dunford, SP-KP, PS2pcGAMER, Ydam, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Aidan Croft, Philverney, Para, Regan123, Mr Stephen, Alanmaher, Tmopkisn, Ekabhishek, Nthep, Magioladitis, Jllm06, Spellmaster, OrchWyn, Mayalld, NinetyCharacters, Addbot, LilHelpa, OgreBot, John of Reading, Bs0u10e01, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, Ducknish, Mogism, York in progress and Anonymous: 21 • Edward Burne-Jones Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burne-Jones?oldid=685208750 Contributors: Sjc, Danny, Deb, Heron, Hephaestos, Bcrowell, Ihcoyc, Djnjwd, Charles Matthews, Zoicon5, Wetman, Lempicka, Pigsonthewing, Smallweed, Mervyn, JackofOz, Jor, Barbara Shack, Michael Devore, Duncharris, Solipsist, Tagishsimon, Keith Edkins, SimonArlott, Merseysites, Pethan, Cglassey, Grstain, D6, Xezbeth, CanisRufus, Audrey, Man vyi, Nk, Obradovic Goran, Philip Cross, Craigy144, Rodw, Iain Bell, Fontgirl, FeanorStar7, Etacar11, Fred J, Stefanomione, Ilya, BD2412, Lockley, Bill37212, Jksolomon, FlaBot, Daderot, Nihiltres, Akahige719, Choess, Svencb, PKM, Kjlewis, Alma Pater, RussBot, Pyrotec, Jpbowen, Zwobot, Gadget850, David Underdown, Nikkimaria, Saudade7, Tyrenius, SmackBot, JimmyGuano, Carl.bunderson, Chris the speller, Madmedea~enwiki, TheLeopard, Colonies Chris, Thief12, Mike hayes, Smallbones, Wizardman, Juliancumbria, Colourman, Charivari, Lambiam, BrownHairedGirl, John, The Man in Question, Neddyseagoon, Tryde, Courcelles, GiantSnowman, John Thaxter, Jane023, Cydebot, Oosoom, Krylonblue83, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Peter morrell, TonyTheTiger, Edwardx, Marek69, RobotG, TimVickers, Handsaw, Modernist, Hassocks5489, XyBot, Triviaa, Rothorpe, Vanish2, Indon, Brammen, Keith D, CommonsDelinker, Afluegel, Ephebi, Peter I. Vardy, Cobi, Rodolph, Derekbd, Marcuslim, RRKennison, Andreas Kaganov, L. Clareton, Ahmedgnz, Autodidactyl, Anarchangel, Bashereyre, FinnWiki, SieBot, StAnselm, SE7, Lucasbfrbot, Kjhughes, Stephanie Pina, Lightmouse, The Stickler, Martarius, Jnowarke, Skäpperöd, Peanut4, Rotational, Jumbolino, Benjamw, BOTarate, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Acrasia7, Dorimant, Fluffernutter, MrOllie, Jack the Giant-Killer, LaaknorBot, Eviannivea, Daicaregos, Jomunro, AndersBot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ginnypars, Jan Arkesteijn, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jimi 66, LilHelpa, Prairieavenue, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Krscal, Mattis, Bccarafe, FrescoBot, Fortdj33, Roundtheworld, Riabmag, AustralianMelodrama, Mercy11, Caractecus, RjwilmsiBot, Lung salad, Beyond My Ken, Androstachys, EmausBot, Angelcynn, ZéroBot, H3llBot, Aegoceras, Jisc digitisation, ChuispastonBot, Somewhatdazed, Kelli.hansen, CaroleHenson, Widr, Naomiger, Swansnic, Helpful Pixie Bot, OttawaAC, The Traditionalist, Paulgtimms, Smintheus Fellin, Carpediem6655, Gawhyte, Karacolon, WilliamDigiCol, RotlinkBot, Noel Lovatt, Masato.harada, DavidBrooks-AWB, KasparBot and Anonymous: 60 • Edward Poynter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Poynter?oldid=672642272 Contributors: Malcolm Farmer, Camembert, Jdforrester, Lee M, Lowellian, Wjhonson, Solipsist, Pethan, D6, Ham II, Bender235, CanisRufus, Ruszewski, AndreasPraefcke, Newprogressive, Emerson7, BD2412, Quale, Lockley, CalJW, RussBot, Jpbowen, Juanpdp, Wames, Eskimbot, Apeloverage, GoodDay, Kittybrewster, Colourman, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Neddyseagoon, Cydebot, Goldfritha, TonyTheTiger, Escarbot, Dsp13, Xn4, Waacstats, O'Donoghue, Андрей Романенко, The Duke of Waltham, Benhur767, TXiKiBoT, BOTijo, SieBot, SE7, Lucasbfrbot, Jack1956, Shadygrove2007, MikeVitale, Ewawer, Hafspajen, Rotational, Stepshep, Camboxer, Addbot, Stephen2nd, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, Jan Arkesteijn, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Ulysses elias, GrouchoBot, Erik9, Green Cardamom, Plucas58, RedBot, Chelmsford261, Trappist the monk, Leondumontfollower, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Ὁ οἶστρος, Brandmeister, Ruskinmonkey, ChuispastonBot, Poshseagull, CaroleHenson, Ct232323, BG19bot, VIAFbot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 19 • Stanley Baldwin Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin?oldid=684251427 Contributors: Andre Engels, Deb, SimonP, Mintguy, Rbrwr, Edward, Michael Hardy, Paul Benjamin Austin, G-Man, Angela, Jdforrester, Gem~enwiki, LouI, John K, JASpencer, Charles Matthews, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Sabbut, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Andrew Yong, Proteus, Camerong, Adam Carr, Lumos3, KuatofKDY, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Smallweed, Postdlf, Timrollpickering, Smb1001, Hadal, JackofOz, Wereon, Danceswithzerglings, Cyrius, Dmn, Stirling Newberry, Everyking, Varlaam, Formeruser-83, Bobblewik, Fys, Opera hat, Mr impossible, Rdsmith4, Necrothesp, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Keresaspa, Kelson, Marcus2, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, YUL89YYZ, Bender235, Sc147, Brian0918, Ylee, Art LaPella, Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki, Pperos, Redf0x, Nsaa, Ocohen, SPLATT, Kessler, Jeltz, Carbon Caryatid, Craigy144, Saga City, Vanky, Alai, Axeman89, KTC, Japanese Searobin, Woohookitty, Polycarp, Isnow, J M Rice, DavidCane, Shortenfs, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Nightscream, Durin, FlaBot, Ground Zero, Djrobgordon, JdforresterBot, Nivix, Gareth E Kegg, Chobot, Jaraalbe, YurikBot, Danbarnesdavies, GusF, Subsurd, Gaius Cornelius,
254
CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
Rjensen, Xdenizen, Bigpad, RFBailey, Formeruser-82, Tony1, Michael Drew, Davidsteinberg, Echris1, Homagetocatalonia, Nikkimaria, JRawle, Npeters22, Fram, Mais oui!, Ief, Philip Stevens, Backnumber1662, Bravado01, BomBom, SmackBot, Britannicus, Iacobus, Finavon, Piccadilly, Arniep, Galloglass, Hmains, Bluebot, Catchpole, JaT~enwiki, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, George Ho, Nathan.tay, Jajhill, Rrburke, Mindstar, Grover cleveland, AndySimpson, Mitrius, Thomas1974, MartinCollin, Tim riley, Checco, Esrever, BrownHairedGirl, John, Jperrylsu, Green Giant, Jaywubba1887, Thomas Gilling, RandomCritic, Mathsguy, Hera1187, Neddyseagoon, Wellesradio, Jkaharper, Dl2000, WilliamJE, Hawkestone, MJO, Longlivefolkmusic, AlbertSM, RM21, Richard Keatinge, Cydebot, Road Wizard, Bellerophon5685, MWaller, Trident13, DonBarton, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Counter-revolutionary, TonyTheTiger, Barnej, Count-Dracula, Astynax, Brett Dunbar, Phoe, Libs23, RobotG, Just Chilling, NSH001, DShamen, Politicaljunkie23, DuncanHill, Dsp13, Charles01, Rothorpe, Demophon, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Connormah, Tedickey, Waacstats, Avicennasis, Snowded, KConWiki, Textorus, NatGertler, R'n'B, DrKiernan, EATC, Troutsneeze, Chiswick Chap, Bcp67, 49danesway, Joanenglish, S, Hugo999, Sam Blacketer, The Duke of Waltham, HFJ, Philip Trueman, Martinevans123, Paulturtle, TXiKiBoT, Clithering, Autodidactyl, Duncan.Hull, Rcb1, AlleborgoBot, Pdfpdf, Rontrigger, SieBot, Brenont, Kernel Saunters, BotMultichill, Adam.bailin, SE7, Cwkmail, Woblosch, Alexanderps, Lachrie, Adam37, ViennaUK, G.-M. Cupertino, Aumnamahashiva, Mcbill88, Dabomb87, Duffy2032, Placid2, ClueBot, Pointillist, DragonBot, Dinostan, Alexbot, Electrobe, Thetfordian, JasonAQuest, Quoodle1972, Irvine22, Liberal Humanist, BarretB, Longstudios, Good Olfactory, Surtsicna, Janinho, Addbot, Claytnb, Anon-Nemous, Mr Hall of England, Favonian, Louieblakesarmiento, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Wholetone, Detective81, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpuff, Ahern94, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Utinomen, Ulric1313, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Aquila89, Tiller54, OldBridgnorthian, Green Cardamom, D'ohBot, XeBot, Redrose64, Ericsback, Bjkijkjr83, Plucas58, Alexknibb, Moonraker, HonouraryMix, Trappist the monk, LukeM212, Willdow, Number79, RjwilmsiBot, WildBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Egroeg1, Reu126, IncognitoErgoSum, Yt95, Canitouchyourchild, Letmetouchyouthere, Winner 42, JSquish, Zictor23, Ayrshire95, Ὁ οἶστρος, Jkl678, Goonhead5, Room711, Rcsprinter123, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Movses-bot, Goldblooded, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Asalrifai, Charlie Cornelius, Leta1000flowersbloom, BG19bot, Gardner95, John Cummings, Kaltenmeyer, OttawaAC, PicturePrince, Highground5, Teresa Ngan, Simonc30, HueSatLum, Cloptonson, Dexbot, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, VIAFbot, Marxistfounder, Cherubinirules, ArmbrustBot, EncyclopaediaNilssonia, JAaron95, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Robin S. Taylor, Jesmond Devon, Marcelo Armando, Koszary1995, Elmeter, KasparBot, JorisEnter, BrandonHelix555, Susangatesuk, Neve-selbert and Anonymous: 160 • Sir J.J. Institute of Applied Art Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_J.J._Institute_of_Applied_Art?oldid=677262469 Contributors: Utcursch, Cmdrjameson, Chirag, RJFJR, Mel Etitis, Lendorien, Peripatetic, Fallstorm, Syrthiss, TheMadBaron, SmackBot, Roger Davies, Mathwizard1232, ImpuMozhi, OrphanBot, Sahal, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Npindia, Dl2000, Mr. Science, Shruti.s.shetty, Ekabhishek, MegX, Geniac, The Anomebot2, Filll, Naniwako, DrLeonP, Barkeep, Mikemoral, Cannand1, Ea1973, Editm, XLinkBot, Sanika Tipre, Lightbot, Fraggle81, Materialscientist, Tamarindspice, Hrshtpnd, Salilmaladkar, MrNiceGuy1113, Ajit Palkhiwale, RAKE72, Wondrousm and Anonymous: 64 • Amah (occupation) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amah_(occupation)?oldid=683807170 Contributors: Olivier, Huaiwei, Dr.frog, Reinyday, Cmdrjameson, Philip Cross, Carbon Caryatid, Danaman5, Mcy jerry, Instantnood, Woohookitty, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Adjusting, Winhunter, Quuxplusone, RussBot, Caerwine, Jecowa, Mairibot, Sadads, Blakegripling ph, HongQiGong, Aherunar, Neelix, Cydebot, Heroeswithmetaphors, Goldenrowley, Waacstats, Fritz Bollmann, Defaultname01, Cingraham, VolkovBot, Marknagel, Raymondwinn, Anglicanus, Hzh, Boneyard90, Addbot, Queenmomcat, AkhtaBot, Mpilting, Georgebaily, Eumolpo, FrescoBot, ZhBot, ZéroBot, GrindtXX, Manytexts and Anonymous: 18 • National College of Arts Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_College_of_Arts?oldid=685361124 Contributors: Zundark, Edward, Arpingstone, Sohailstyle, Rich Farmbrough, Bobo192, Giraffedata, Woohookitty, Mandarax, BD2412, Crzrussian, Rjwilmsi, Esprit15d, Schajee, DoriSmith, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, AnOddName, Noeticsage, Whpq, CmdrObot, Thekhizer, Afinebalance, Rzafar, Samar, Ekabhishek, Burhan Ahmed, Magioladitis, Notarar, Khalid Mahmood, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Sasajid, Muqeemkhan, Ipigott, Jamesontai, Pahari Sahib, WereSpielChequers, Denisarona, Sfan00 IMG, EoGuy, Showtime2009, Auntof6, Ahmedomar001, Raaid, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Thelessermortal, Silvereye96, Addbot, Akbar.pakurdu, Favonian, KaiKemmann, Lightbot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Gobbleswoggler, AnomieBOT, Hairhorn, Abbascon, LilHelpa, Arshadfazl, Sionk, Shayanshaukat, Javedakhtarpk, Wajiharaza, FrescoBot, DevilMind007, Winterst, FudgeFury, Zamzamah, Tbhotch, John of Reading, Asifrnaqvi~enwiki, AsceticRose, John Cline, Josve05a, Mar4d, Thine Antique Pen, FrenchMiss, Captain Assassin!, Minhaj rafi, Blithecocoa, Renegadegill, ClueBot NG, Webastion, Ayazsardar, Azad.sohail, Dewaar, BG19bot, Mansoorahm, Artmartxx, Jozoisis, Commiegirl, Sozo1982, Aminaart, Umairnasirali, Fylbecatulous, Khairs, Malihameed, Kabalistic, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyhbot, EuroCarGT, Zhdmayo, ComfyKem, Faizan, Acetotyce, Jodosma, Sania Malik, B14709, Umer Mengal, JaconaFrere, Tahir Bin Qallandar, Hamzamurtaza5, Moeezdevil, EoRdE6, Argehlan, Alidoggar and Anonymous: 196 • Lahore Museum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore_Museum?oldid=662823720 Contributors: Booyabazooka, Sohailstyle, Pharos, Woohookitty, BD2412, Bhadani, Tedder, Jaraalbe, Siddiqui, Jpbowen, Fram, Salamurai, BrownHairedGirl, Fast track, Joseph Solis in Australia, Aamirm, Afinebalance, Fatidiot1234, Dr. Blofeld, Samar, Ekabhishek, Waacstats, The Anomebot2, JaGa, Shinas, STBot, Nomi887, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Talhasaeedpcs, Stepheng3, Omarpk, Belasd, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, M2545, Annmbeha, Rubblesby, TobeBot, FudgeFury, Gajus, John of Reading, Look2See1, AlphaGamma1991, ZéroBot, Ronakshah1990, BG19bot, RobertBr, Joplin, NearThatTown, Tsar Bomba, YFdyh-bot, Gfosankar, AlanBOT, Awaisdev, Courage respect, Mohsin17, Filedelinkerbot, Mattgwade, KasparBot and Anonymous: 16 • Civil and Military Gazette Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_and_Military_Gazette?oldid=673340588 Contributors: Shyamal, Pascal666, Irrawaddy, Grutness, Woohookitty, RussBot, Johnpacklambert, Bigforrap, SchreiberBike, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Mishae, John of Reading, ZéroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, AK456 and Anonymous: 2 • The Pioneer (newspaper) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pioneer_(newspaper)?oldid=683893531 Contributors: Utcursch, Chirag, Firsfron, Ewlyahoocom, Muchness, Pratheepps, Obnoxious, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Kiranc, Aelfthrytha, Thunderboltz, Bharatveer, Haphar, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Fayenatic london, EyeMD, Dsp13, Dekimasu, Fowler&fowler, Lordeaswar, Aguenther, Flyer22, 718 Bot, Alexbot, TheRedPenOfDoom, XLinkBot, Pings, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Gail, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Kkm010, Helpful Pixie Bot, Theoldsparkle, Shashankmehrotra, Patrakaar, Sweepy and Anonymous: 35 • Chums (paper) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chums_(paper)?oldid=585954692 Contributors: Bearcat, Tim!, SmackBot, Kintetsubuffalo, Bduke, Egel, Coyets, T@nn, Karl432, Waacstats, Daemonic Kangaroo, Spshu, GrahamHardy, Softlavender, WereSpielChequers, ClueBot, Arjayay, Iohannes Animosus, Dawynn, Jesse V., Philafrenzy, Senator2029, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 6
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
255
• Plain Tales from the Hills Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_Tales_from_the_Hills?oldid=660070379 Contributors: Zigger, Varlaam, Rustl, RHaworth, Koavf, Pegship, Od Mishehu, Kevinalewis, Levana Taylor, Phaedriel, Archibald Tuttle, Das Baz, Tony Corsini, Sanjay Tiwari, Cydebot, TonyTheTiger, RobotG, Nickpheas, MacAuslan, Aviad2001, GrahamHardy, Lamro, DisassemblyOfReason, Bigforrap, Goustien, Henry Merrivale, Addbot, Yobot, Windmont, Walkingtalkingmammal, The Madras, ChrisGualtieri, Hmainsbot1, Zariane, MahneLV and Anonymous: 4 • Under the Deodars Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Deodars?oldid=680065269 Contributors: Koavf, Chris the speller, Ohconfucius, Gobonobo, Cydebot, TonyTheTiger, DuncanHill, GrahamHardy, Ninjatacoshell, Good Olfactory, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Shadowjams, Kges1901 and Anonymous: 3 • The Phantom 'Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phantom_'Rickshaw_and_other_Eerie_Tales? oldid=653553837 Contributors: Rustl, Koavf, ShelfSkewed, Mato, TonyTheTiger, GrahamHardy, Ninjatacoshell, Good Olfactory, Yobot, OgreBot, ClueBot NG, PhnomPencil and Anonymous: 5 • Wee Willie Winkie and Other Child Stories Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wee_Willie_Winkie_and_Other_Child_Stories?oldid= 671591780 Contributors: J M Rice, Koavf, Scwlong, Ohconfucius, TonyTheTiger, Belovedfreak, GrahamHardy, Ninjatacoshell, Good Olfactory, Yobot, Fraggle81, I dream of horses, Ltkilo, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 3 • From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Sea_to_Sea_and_Other_Sketches% 2C_Letters_of_Travel?oldid=654735778 Contributors: Paul A, Pegship, SmackBot, Kevinalewis, Bluebot, MNewnham, Fuhghettaboutit, TonyTheTiger, RobotG, Student7, Randy Kryn, Addbot, Yobot, DiverDave, Diannaa, BattyBot and Anonymous: 1
35.2.2
Images
• File:1867_Edward_Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/1867_Edward_ Poynter_-_Israel_in_Egypt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Renewal Original artist: Edward Poynter • File:1869_Edward_Poynter_-_Andromeda.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/1869_Edward_Poynter_-_ Andromeda.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Sotheby's Original artist: Edward Poynter • File:1890sc_Pears_Soap_Ad.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/1890sc_Pears_Soap_Ad.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:1909magazine_vijaya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/1909magazine_vijaya.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by Sreejith K (talk) Original artist: Fowler&fowler at en.wikipedia • File:1921ajmalkhan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/1921ajmalkhan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1800_1899/congress/presidents/1921ajmalkhan.jpg Original artist: ? • File:1stViscountHalifax.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/1stViscountHalifax.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://multitext.ucc.ie/d/Sir_Charles_Wood_1800-85_by_William_Walker_c_1870 Original artist: William Walker • File:24_Crooms_Hill,_Greenwich,_London-11July2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/24_Crooms_ Hill%2C_Greenwich%2C_London-11July2010.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Huize Vrouwe Orwell in Londen Original artist: Patrick van IJzendoorn • File:6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/6th_Earl_of_Mayo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transfered from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Ugen64 at en.wikipedia • File:Ajaz_Anwar_in_Islamabad.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Ajaz_Anwar_in_Islamabad.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Khalid Mahmood • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Andrew_Bonar_Law_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Andrew_Bonar_Law_02.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ggbain.35667. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Unknown (Bain News Service, publisher) • File:Astley,_Worcs,_Astley_Hall_2_back.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Astley%2C_Worcs%2C_ Astley_Hall_2_back.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ViennaUK • File:Astley,_Worcs,_Baldwin_memorial_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Astley%2C_Worcs%2C_ Baldwin_memorial_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ViennaUK • File:Australian_53rd_Bn_Fromelles_19_July_1916.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Australian_53rd_ Bn_Fromelles_19_July_1916.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the ID Number: A03042 This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Credit line: Donated by Lance Corporal C.H. Lorking of the 53rd Battalion • File:Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Avro_Vulcan_Bomber_RAF.JPEG License: Public domain Contributors: DF-ST-86-11850 Original artist: Sgt. David S. Nolan, US Air Force
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• File:B_0110A.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/43/Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg License: ? Contributors: [1] Original artist: ? • File:Barnhill_(Cnoc_an_t-Sabhail)_-_geograph.org.uk_-_451643.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/ Barnhill_%28Cnoc_an_t-Sabhail%29_-_geograph.org.uk_-_451643.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From this image at geograph.org.uk; transferred by User:RHaworth using geograph_org2commons. Original artist: Ken Craig • File:Batemans_front.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Batemans_front.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Photograph taken by me Original artist: David Brooks • File:Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Battle_of_Waterloo_1815.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Napoleon.org.pl Original artist: William Sadler II • File:Beguiling_of_Merlin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Beguiling_of_Merlin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Wildman, Stephen: Edward Burne-Jones: Victorian Artist-Dreamer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0870998595 Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: Unknown • File:Blue_plaque_Edward_Burne-Jones.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Blue_plaque_Edward_ Burne-Jones.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Oosoom at English Wikipedia • File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from personal copy and annotated by me (Fowler&fowler«Talk» 04:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew • File:BritishArmyFlag2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/BritishArmyFlag2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Bosanko • File:British_Burma_1937_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_British_Burma_%281937%29. svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Burmapeacockforhistory.svg Original artist: Burmapeacockforhistory.svg: The original uploader was Stepshep at English Wikipedia • File:British_Decolonisation_in_Africa.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/British_Decolonisation_in_ Africa.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Hejsa. Blank map from File:BlankMap-World3.svg Original artist: The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick * t (log) • File:British_Empire_1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cambridge University Library Original artist: Unknown • File:British_Empire_1921.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/British_Empire_1921.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Original artist: Vadac. • File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/ British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned and reduced from personal copy by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 18:10, 5 August 2007 (UTC) Original artist: Edinburgh Geographical Institute; J. G. Bartholomew and Sons. • File:British_Indian_empire_in_1936.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/British_Indian_empire_in_1936. png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Mir Almaat 1 S1 • File:British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg License: Public domain Contributors: based on Canadian Red Ensign.svg: and Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg: Original artist: Barryob • File:British_Raj_coins_during_Edward_VII_and_George_V,_Indian_Museum,_Kolkata.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/3a/British_Raj_coins_during_Edward_VII_and_George_V%2C_Indian_Museum%2C_Kolkata.jpg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Royroydeb
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:British_colonies_1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/British_colonies_ 1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1923; the map is unchanged from the 1911 original version. Original image at the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas at Austin. Original artist: William Robert Shepherd • File:British_forces_arrival_mandalay1885.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/45/British_forces_arrival_ mandalay1885.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://ogimages.bl.uk/images/019/019PHO000000312U00019000%5BSVC2%5D.jpg Original artist: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837-1912) • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-064-03A,_Subhas_Chandra_Bose_bei_Heinrich_Himmler.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101III-Alber-064-03A%2C_Subhas_Chandra_Bose_bei_Heinrich_Himmler. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Alber, Kurt • File:Bundi_palace1990.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7b/Bundi_palace1990.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Burne-jones_cophetua.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Burne-jones_cophetua.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Wildman, Stephen: Edward Burne-Jones: Victorian Artist-Dreamer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0870998595 Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Cabinet_mission_to_india1946. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 17:09, 17 March 2011 (UTC) from British library collection on Indian independence Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Innotata using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Unknown, British government photograph • File:Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Recollections of Calcutt for over half a century By MONTAGUE MASSEY WITH ILLUSTRATIONS CALCUTTA: THACKER, SPINK & CO 1918 Original artist: Unknown • File:Cameron_and_Sarkozy_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Cameron_and_Sarkozy_3.jpg License: OGL Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/number10gov/5140227828/ Original artist: Prime Minister's Office • File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: from the National Maritime Museum, United Kingdom Original artist: Nathaniel Dance-Holland • File:Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Carl_Spitzweg_021-detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Diese Datei: File:Carl Spitzweg 021.jpg Original artist: Carl Spitzweg • File:Challenger_2_Tank_During_Amphibious_Demonstration_MOD_45152080.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/f/fb/Challenger_2_Tank_During_Amphibious_Demonstration_MOD_45152080.jpg License: OGL Contributors: • Photo http://www.defenceimagery.mod.uk/fotoweb/fwbin/download.dll/45153802.jpg Original artist: Cpl Kellie Williams, RLC • File:Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sfan00_IMG using CommonsHelper. source: Story of Pakistan Original artist: ? • File:Chums_28_August_1895.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Chums_28_August_1895.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan of original Original artist: Staff of Chums • File:Clive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Clive.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sterlingtimes.org/memorable_images56.htm (http://www.sterlingtimes.org/clive_of_india.jpg) NPG link: http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw01347/Robert-Clive-and-Mir-Jafar-after-the-Battle-of-Plassey-1757 Original artist: Francis Hayman • File:Collier_1891_rudyard-kipling.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Collier_1891_rudyard-kipling.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: John Collier • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Copybook_example_text_of_isaac_barrow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Copybook_example_text_of_ isaac_barrow.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:David'{}s_Charge_to_Solomon,_by_Burne-Jones_and_Morris,_Trinity_Church,_Boston,_Massachusetts.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/David%27s_Charge_to_Solomon%2C_by_Burne-Jones_and_Morris%2C_Trinity_ Church%2C_Boston%2C_Massachusetts.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: en wikipedia Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Delhi_Durbar_1903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Delhi_Durbar_1903.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:Jungpionier • File:Departmental_ditties_cover.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Departmental_ditties_cover.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Original uploader was Sanjay Tiwari at en.wikipedia
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• File:DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Red_flag_waving.svg Original artist: Red_flag_waving.svg: Wereon • File:Dufferin_Indian_Viceroy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Dufferin_Indian_Viceroy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Fawcett5 at English Wikipedia • File:Earth_clip_art.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Earth_clip_art.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http: //openclipart.org/people/yeKcim/yeKcim_earth.svg Original artist: yeKcim on the Open Clip Art Library • File:Eden,_Anthony.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Eden%2C_Anthony.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photographs/view.php?id=13057&rr= Original artist: United States Army Signal Corps • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Edward_Burne-Jones.The_last_sleep_of_Arthur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Edward_ Burne-Jones.The_last_sleep_of_Arthur.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.illusionsgallery.com/Arthur-avalon.html via English Wikipedia Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Edward_Burne-Jones_Sidonia_von_Bork.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Edward_Burne-Jones_ Sidonia_von_Bork.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Wildman, Stephen: Edward Burne-Jones: Victorian Artist-Dreamer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0870998595 Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Edward_Burne-Jones_The_Golden_Stairs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Edward_ Burne-Jones_The_Golden_Stairs.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Wildman, Stephen: Edward Burne-Jones: Victorian Artist-Dreamer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998, ISBN 0870998595 Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Edward_J_Poynter,_by_Alphonse_Legros.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Edward_J_Poynter% 2C_by_Alphonse_Legros.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bonhams Original artist: Alphonse Legros • File:El_Alamein_1942_-_British_infantry.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/El_Alamein_1942_-_ British_infantry.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph E 18474 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 4700-32) Original artist: Chetwyn (Sgt), No 1 Army Film & Photographic Unit • File:Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/ Emergency_trains_crowded_with_desperate_refugees.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/ pritchett/00routesdata/1900_1999/partition/trains/trains.html Original artist: Unknown • File:En-British_Empire-article.oga Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/En-British_Empire-article.oga License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Derivative of British Empire Original artist: Speaker: Mrandrewnohome Authors of the article • File:Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_Force.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Ensign_of_the_Royal_Air_ Force.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fasting_buddha_at_lahore_museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Fasting_buddha_at_lahore_ museum.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Photograph taken on site Original artist: Patrik Germann • File:Flag_Portugal_(1640).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_Portugal_%281640%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: XVII century Original artist: myself, based on ancient national symbol. • File:Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_ Austria-Hungary_%281869-1918%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: vectorized by Sgt_bilko, change name by User:Actarux for use in same templates • File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion (original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version) • File:Flag_of_Courland_(state).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Flag_of_Courland_%28state%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sir Iain • File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningyou. • File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden • File:Flag_of_England.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/be/Flag_of_England.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946)_crowned.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_ %281861-1946%29_crowned.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.prassi.cnr.it/prassi/content.html?id=1669 Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown • File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from http://www.pantone. com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see upload history • File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art website Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_British_Army.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_the_British_Army.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work, created in Adobe Illustrator CS2; Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here; Uploads by Zscout370 to w:Image:Flag of the British Army.svg Original artist: Philip Ronan • File:Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_(1801).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_the_ British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_British_Straits_Settlements_(1874-1942).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Flag_of_ the_British_Straits_Settlements_%281874-1925%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: "The Flags of the British Empire" (PDF). The National Geographic Magazine 32: 383. 1918. Retrieved on 12 January 2009. The image SVG comprises elements from Image:Government Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg with crown from Image:Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg Original artist: Himasaram • File:Flag_of_the_Colony_of_Aden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_the_Colony_of_Aden.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: O • File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden • File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: DsMurat* talk • File:Flag_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Flag_of_the_ Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.svg Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_ Emirates.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fort_St._George,_Chennai.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Fort_St._George%2C_Chennai.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Old source New source Original artist: Jan Van Ryne (1712–60); Publisher: Robert Sayer • File:Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood,_Vanity_Fair,_1870-04-09.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 6/60/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%2C_Vanity_Fair%2C_1870-04-09.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Vanity Fair, 9 April 1870 Original artist: “ATn”Alfred Thompson
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• File:Frederick_Hollyer_Edward_Burne-Jones_and_William_Morris_1874.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/34/Frederick_Hollyer_Edward_Burne-Jones_and_William_Morris_1874.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Christopher Wood, Burne-Jones, London, Phoenix reprint fo 1997 edition, 1999, ISBN 0753807270 Original artist: Frederick Hollyer • File:Frederick_Hollyer_portrait_of_Georgiana_Burne-Jones_c1882.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/ Frederick_Hollyer_portrait_of_Georgiana_Burne-Jones_c1882.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from The Earthly Paradise: Arts and Crafts by Wiliam Morris and his Circle in Canadian Collections, edited by Katharine A. Lochnan, Douglas E. Schoenherr, and Carole Silver, Key Porter Books, 1993, ISBN 1-55013-450-7 Original artist: Frederick Hollyer • File:Frederick_Temple_Belfast.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Frederick_Temple_Belfast.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Peter Clarke using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Peter Clarke at English Wikipedia • File:Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Brown, Judith. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1989, p. 116. Original artist: Unknown • File:Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Via [1] Original artist: ? • File:Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mkgandhi.org/gphotgallery/1915-1932/pages/b2.htm Original artist: Unknown • File:Gao_Yinzhang_-_The_blessing_of_the_good_and_the_joyfullness.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/ 24/Gao_Yinzhang_-_The_blessing_of_the_good_and_the_joyfullness.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mothers and Sons Original artist: The artist Gao Yinzhang lived 1835-1906 in Yang Liu Qing of Tian Jin (city). • File:George-orwell-BBC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/George-orwell-BBC.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.penguinbooksindia.com/en/content/george-orwell Original artist: BBC • File:George_Curzon2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/George_Curzon2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ggbain.16113. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress) • File:George_Orwell_in_Hampstead_-_geograph.org.uk_-_432863.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/ George_Orwell_in_Hampstead_-_geograph.org.uk_-_432863.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: ceridwen • File:Georgiana_Burne-Jones_by_Edward_Coley_Burne-Jones.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/ Georgiana_Burne-Jones_by_Edward_Coley_Burne-Jones.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Sotheby's Original artist: Edward Burne-Jones • File:Gopal_krishan_gokhale.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Gopal_krishan_gokhale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from sv.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Rudolf 1922 at Swedish Wikipedia • File:Grave_of_Eric_Arthur_Blair_(George_Orwell),_All_Saints,_Sutton_Courtenay_-_geograph.org.uk_-_362277.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Grave_of_Eric_Arthur_Blair_%28George_Orwell%29%2C_All_Saints%2C_Sutton_ Courtenay_-_geograph.org.uk_-_362277.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Brian Robert Marshall • File:HenryJames1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/HenryJames1897.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: Casey Abell made a scan made of the physical photograph and originally uploaded it to the English Wikipedia) Original artist: Unknown • File:HenryJamesPhotograph.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/HenryJamesPhotograph.png License: Public domain Contributors: taken from the frontispiece of Short Story Classics (American) Volume Three, edited by William Patten, copyright 1905, printed by P.F. Collier & Son. Photographer unknown. Scanned by English Wikipedian, MakeRocketGoNow. Original artist: Unknown photographer • File:HenryJamesatage16.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f6/HenryJamesatage16.JPG License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Henry_James_Sr._and_Henry_James_Jr._in_1854.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Henry_ James_Sr._and_Henry_James_Jr._in_1854.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned by uploader from Menand, Louis (2001), The Metaphysical Club, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 78, ISBN 0-374-52849-7. From a daguerreotype by Mathew Brady. Original artist: Mathew Brady • File:Henry_James_by_John_Singer_Sargent_cleaned.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Henry_James_ by_John_Singer_Sargent_cleaned.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery: NPG 1767 Original artist: John Singer Sargent (died 1925) • File:Henry_James_grave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Henry_James_grave.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Midnightdreary • File:Hindu_percent_1909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Hindu_percent_1909.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: From the Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned from personal copy and annotated by me (Fowler&fowler«Talk» 20:51, 22 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John George Bartholomew
35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:Hong_Kong_Convention_Centre_(5714951833).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Hong_Kong_ Convention_Centre_%285714951833%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Hong Kong Convention Centre Original artist: Simon_sees from Australia • File:Horses_hauling_timber_Ontario.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Horses_hauling_timber_Ontario. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library and Archives Canada / PA-012941 Original artist: Library and Archives Canada / PA-012941 • File:ImperialConference.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/ImperialConference.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number C-000964 and under the MIKAN ID number 3362798 Original artist: LAC does not have any information as to the identity of the photographer, so the {{PD-UK-unknown}} license tag is used. If the image were taken on behalf of the United Kingdom government, it would also be public domain as per {{PD-UKGov}}. • File:Imperial_Federation,_Map_of_the_World_Showing_the_Extent_of_the_British_Empire_in_1886_(levelled).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Imperial_Federation%2C_Map_of_the_World_Showing_the_Extent_of_the_ British_Empire_in_1886_%28levelled%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://maps.bpl.org/id/M8682/ Original artist: Walter Crane • File:India-rail-1870.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/India-rail-1870.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:IndiaPolitical1893ConstablesHandAtlas.jpg Source: IndiaPolitical1893ConstablesHandAtlas.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://books.google.com/books?id=-kAuAAAAYAAJ Original artist: John Bartholomew and Co., Edinburgh
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• File:India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Numismatic Collection, National Museum of American History Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:India_railways1909a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from this web site by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 14:16, 19 September 2007 (UTC) Original artist: Unknown • File:Iqbal_Allahabad.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Iqbal_Allahabad.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jallianwallah.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Jallianwallah.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jamsetjee_Jejeebhoy.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Jamsetjee_Jejeebhoy.png License: Public domain Contributors: Maggie Keswick, Clara Weatherall (2008). The Thistle and The Jade. p. 21. ISBN 0711228302. Original artist: George Chinnery • File:Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3a/Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916. jpg License: ? Contributors: by me (Fowler&fowler«Talk» 20:18, 18 September 2007 (UTC)) from this web site Original artist: ? • File:John_Lockwood_Kipling_és_Rudyard_Kipling.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/John_ Lockwood_Kipling_%C3%A9s_Rudyard_Kipling.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/library/speccoll/ images/rudyard_lockwood_kipling.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Jungle_book_1894_138.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/87/Jungle_book_1894_138.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:KatharBritishClub.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/KatharBritishClub.JPG License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from this website by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 12:27, 23 September 2007 (UTC). Original artist: ? • File:Kims_Gun_in_Lahore_Pakistan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Kims_Gun_in_Lahore_Pakistan. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:KingBaldwin1926.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/KingBaldwin1926.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number C-013263 and under the MIKAN ID number 3362809 Original artist: Library and Archives Canada / C-013263
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• File:KingRoyals1927.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/KingRoyals1927.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number C-000307 and under the MIKAN ID number 3400966 Original artist: Unknown • File:Kipling_If_(Doubleday_1910).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Kipling_If_%28Doubleday_1910% 29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rudyard Kipling • File:Kipling_TIME_cover_19260927.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Kipling_TIME_cover_19260927. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19260927,00.html Original artist: TIME • File:Kipling_cover_art.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Kipling_cover_art.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Two images from the part of the covers of books by Rudyard Kipling (Methuen &Co. 1919 and Macmillan &Co, 1930). Images scanned by User:Dabbler to illustrate the article on Kipling. I created this image from two images that are in the public domain as copyright has expired. S.Balakrishnan, Creative Consultant, New Delhi Original artist: The artist is probably Lockwood Kipling, Rudyard Kipling's father. • File:Kipling_nd.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Kipling_nd.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Bain News Service, publisher • File:Kipling_swastika.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Kipling_swastika.png License: Public domain Contributors: From en:wikipedia 21:34, 20 Sep 2004 by Malcolm Farmer Original artist: Rudyard Kipling • File:Kiplingseastcoast2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Kiplingseastcoast2.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Sanjay Tiwari at English Wikipedia • File:Kiplingsengland3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a7/Kiplingsengland3.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kiplingsindia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/40/Kiplingsindia.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kitchener-Britons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Kitchener-Britons.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Alfred Leete • File:KitsLaneNo2WallingtonHertzUK2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/ KitsLaneNo2WallingtonHertzUK2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dennis3333 • File:Lahore_railway_station1880s.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Lahore_railway_station1880s.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:LambHouseInterior.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/LambHouseInterior.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lamb_House,_Rye.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Lamb_House%2C_Rye.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 Contributors: Photographed by Elizabeth B. Thomsen, en:User:Ethomsen Original artist: Elizabeth B. Thomsen • File:Location_of_the_BOTs.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Location_of_the_BOTs.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Location of the BOTs.png: Original artist: Richardprins • File:LordMelgund1885.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/LordMelgund1885.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lord_Dufferin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Lord_Dufferin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number Copy negative C-021574 and under the MIKAN ID number 3215128 Original artist: The Notman studio, Ottawa William J. Topley, proprietor • File:Lord_Dufferin_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Lord_Dufferin_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.historyforsale.com/productimages/jpeg/23747.jpg Original artist: Lord Dufferin • File:Lord_Dufferin_portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Lord_Dufferin_portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.gg.ca/rh/vr/rm-tent-01_e.asp Original artist: unknown artist after Francis Montague Holl • File:Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Robert Montgomery Martin (1858). The Indian Empire. Volume 2. Original artist: Engraved by D. J. 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CHAPTER 35. FROM SEA TO SEA AND OTHER SKETCHES, LETTERS OF TRAVEL
• File:Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a8/Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif License: ? Contributors: Downloaded from this web site by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 15:09, 23 September 2007 (UTC) Original artist: ? • File:Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7d/Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg License: ? Contributors: Downloaded by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 12:23, 22 September 2007 (UTC) from this web site. Original artist: Photographer unknown. • File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg License: LGPL Contributors: http://ftp.gnome.org/pub/GNOME/sources/gnome-themes-extras/0.9/gnome-themes-extras-0.9.0.tar.gz Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING • File:Operation_Crusader.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Operation_Crusader.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Galleries/main.php?g2_itemId=755 Original artist: Original uploader was Idleguy at en.wikipedia • File:OrwellBurmaPassport.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/OrwellBurmaPassport.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://therebelkind.blogspot.com/2011_02_01_archive.html Original artist: ? • File:Orwell_hampstead_home.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Orwell_hampstead_home.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: User:Deben Dave • File:P_history.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/P_history.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Kontos • File:Parliament_House_Canberra_NS.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Parliament_House_Canberra_ NS.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JJ Harrison (
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35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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35.2. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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35.2.3
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