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AN ABSOLUTE IRON AGE CHRONOLOGY OF THE LEVANT AND THE MEDITERRANEAN Lorenzo Nigro

During the last two decades archaeologists and historians working in Southern Levant and the Mediterranean have multiplied their efforts to address the issue of Iron Age periodization and its absolute chronology, starting from the ‘Dark Age’ of the last two centuries of the 2nd millennium BC1 and going down into the first half of the 1st millennium BC2. Ancient sources and archaeological record have been sounded out by scholars in search of chronological reference points, anchors to fix in time strata and related sets of material culture. A reliable timetable has been traditionally provided by the Egyptian Pharaohs’ list, recently also verified through a radiocarbon-based regeneration3. It was useful when Egyptian inscribed items were found in primary deposition, even though also Egyptian chronology has its own uncertainties. Furthermore, radiocarbon dating when used as a clue to check if one or another chronological reconstruction was reliable, proved to be not so accurate to become a decisive tool for 1st millennium BC chronology. The goal of these efforts basically was to support historical reconstructions. They actually needed a robust backbone, depending on sources always 

Department of Sciences of Antiquities, Rome “La Sapienza” University. Reliefs and inscriptions of Pharaoh Merneptah mentioning the clash with the SeaPeoples in his 8th regnal year (1190 BC) and the city of Ras-Shamra/Ugarit destroyed with a group of cuneiform tablets of the royal archives attesting the date (1189 BC) and the causes (an invasion) of this destruction remain the main epochal reference points for the beginning of the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Levant (Liverani 1988, 635-638). This longue durée process, in facts, lasted until the end of the Ramesside Dynasty around 1070 [1076] BC (tabs. 1, 4). 2 For an overview on this issue see Mazar 2005; 2011; Finkelstein 2005; Finkelstein - Piasetzky 2011. 3 Manning 2006; Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010. Unfortunately, the latter study does not include dates later the end of the 20th Dynasty (Ramses XI). Anyhow, radiocarbon dates (combined with reign-length information included in the model) for the New Kingdom cover a period from the 17th to the 21st Dynasties, and thus provide brackets beyond its beginning, and end. Results basically agree with the traditional chronology (von Beckerath 1997; Shaw 2000), in which the New Kingdom starts in 1550 BC, though radiocarbon dates imply that the period might have begun, and ended, earlier by about a decade than the traditional consensus date. 1

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bearing a definite rate of incertitude. The questionable reliability attributed to sources pushed scholars to look for external supports to their reconstructions obtained through archaeology, stratigraphy, statistics, but also archaeometry, paleo-environmental studies, etc. The more these reconstructions were complex – opposite of lex parsimoniae 4 – the more they needed a spider’s web of interrelated data to sustain them. Hence, intermingled connections of data have grown up apparently becoming an inextricable bush, or a M.C. Escher’s lithography depicting a fascinating but often impossible construction (fig. 1). Moreover, chronological systems (and multiplied terminologies) have complicated the interrelation between sites and even regions, as it is evident if one tries to connect the Levant with central or western Mediterranean (tab. 4).

Fig. 1 - Escher’s architecture: a possible metaphor of self-based chronological systems.

Conversely, if one considers chronology a tool and not a goal, the simplest scheme fitting the largest number of cases (in observance to the above mentioned lex parsimoniae) may help to better exchange archaeological information across the Mediterranean from Syria-Palestine to the Iberian Peninsula. For the sake of such task, that is an easier correlation of sites and strata, the following Levantine New Chronology (LNC) is suggested by the present author (tabs. 1-2). 4

This principle, introduced by Aristotle (384-322 BC), and transmitted by Averroes (Ibn Rush 1126-1198 AD), was a logic corollary of the method of science (about its limits: Courtney - Courtney 2008).

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Damascus raids in the second half of the 9th century BC. A date around 840 BC might fit the stratigraphic evidence of several sites destroyed at the time, and fulfill the mean of various dating systems proposed11. Period Iron IA 1200/1190-1136 Iron IB 1136-960 Early 1136-1070 Late 1070-960 Iron IIA 960-840 Early 960-925 Late 925-840 Iron IIB 840-732/722/701

Hazor13 Tell elMutesellim 12

VIIA [LB III]

gap

VIB

XII/XI

Tell esLachish 15 Sarem/ 14 Tel Rehov (D7-D6) VI [LB III]

VII (D5-D3)

gap

Arad16 Ashdod

Beth Shan18

Tell esSafi19

gap

XIIIb

VI (lower VI)

A7

gap

XIIIa

A6

XII-XI

upper VI/ lower V

X

V

A4

17

VIA VB VA-IVB IVA

Iron IIC III 732/722/701-586 Iron III II 586-535

X-IX VIII-V

VI (D2)

V

XII

V (D1) IV-III

IV-III

XI IX X-VIII VIII

A5

A3-A2 IV

IV

II

II

VII-VI VII

gap

gap

III

I

gap

gap

gap

gap

VI

Tab. 2 - Iron Age Levantine New Chronology (LNC) and related stratigraphic sequence of some Palestinian key sites. A glance to main sites in different areas of Palestine, with their stratigraphic sequences may substantiate the table on archaeological grounds (tab. 2), while very difficult remains – at every extent – to correlate strata and events known from different sources. A preliminary contribution is to enlist such events and corresponding documentary data within the grid of Levantine New Chronology. Finally, what it has been 11

Fiaccavento in this volume, § 3.2.2. Megiddo was used as example due to the wide popularity of its Iron Age stratigraphy put forward by the Oriental Institute of Chicago Expedition (see also Finkelstein - Zimhoni - Kafri 2000). However, the Megiddo stratigraphy still has many unsolved problems (see, for instance, Mazar 2008 versus Finkelstein 2009). 13 Mazar 2008; Ben-Tor - Ben Ami - Sandhaus 2012. 14 Mazar et al. 2005. 15 Ussishkin ed. 2004, Vol. 1, 60-95. 16 Herzog 2002. 17 Dothan - Zukerman 2004; Mazar 2007. 18 Panitz-Cohen - Mazar eds. 2009, 1-30. 19 Maeir ed. 2012, 19-56, fig. 1.3. 12

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suggested for Palestine might be set into the Mediterranean panorama as illustrated on table 420. Period

Dating

Iron IA

1200/1190 Merneptah faces the Sea People/ -1136 Destruction of Ugarit, Hazor, Megiddo, Beth Shan

Major historical events

Iron IB

1136-960

th

Early 1136-1070 End of the 20 Dynasty (1077) Late 1070-960 Last presence of Philistine pottery

Iron IIA

960-840

Early 960-925

Late 925-840

Main documents or sources 21

Stele of Merneptah

(1208)

Tiglath-Pileser I trip to the Levant 22

Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostrakon

Palestine being occupied by new groups Early building activities in Judah and central hills

Inscriptions of Kings of Byblos: Ahiram, Ittobaal […] Yehimilk, Abibaal 23 (on a bust of Shoshenq I) , Elibaal (on a bust of Osorkon I), Shipitbaal

925 raid of Pharaoh Shoshenq I Incipit of Omride dynasty in Samaria

Stele of Shoshenq I from Megiddo ca.) [1 Kings 14:25-26]

24

(925

Iron IIB

840732/722/ 701

853 battle of Qarqar against Shalmaneser III (Israel allied of Hadad-‘ezer king of Damascus) 840 Hazael of Damascus

Jehu on Shalmaneser III’s Black Obelisk 25 Samaria Ostraka 26 Stele of Mesha (840) [2 Kings 3] 27 Stele of Tel Dan [2 Kings 10:32-33] Balaam text from Deir ‘Alla

Iron IIC

732/722/ 701-586

Tiglath-Pileser III subjugates AramDamascus Shalmaneser V conquests Samaria Siege of Jerusalem (701) and takeover of Lachish (701) by Sennacherib

Sennacherib’s inscriptions at Khorsabad (conquest of Samaria, 722, and siege of Jerusalem, 701) [2 Kings 17:3-6; 2 Kings 18:13-15] 29 Ekron inscription

Iron III

586-535

Nebuchadnezzar II destruction of Jerusalem (586) Cyrus’ Edict of Restoration (538)

Babylonian Chronicles : destruction of Ashkelon (604) and siege of Jerusalem (597) [2 Kings 25]

28

30

Arad letters

31

Lachish letters

32

Tab. 3 - Levantine New Chronology and major historical events/sources. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Pharaonic dating according to Hornung - Krauss - Warburton eds. 2006. Hasel 1994. Misgav - Garfinkel - Ganor 2009. Ash 1999, 61. Fisher 1929, figs. 8-9, 60-61. Birnbaum 1957. Dearman ed. 1989. Biran - Naveh 1993; 1995; Athas 2003. Pritchard 1969, 284-285; Luckenbill 1924, 32-33. Gitin - Dothan - Naveh 1997. Grayson 1975, 100-102. Aharoni - Naveh 1981, 11-74. Torczyner et al. 1938.

Lorenzo Nigro

Tab. 4 - Comparative timetable of the Levant and Mediterranean 1200-525 BC (according to Velleius Patercolus, Historiae Romanae I, 2,4, Cadiz was founded in 1101 BC; the traditional date of the foundation of Carthage descends from Timaeus of Tauromenium, The Histories, cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities I, 74,1; while archaeological data so far available do not go back earlier than 760 BC).

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The range of error of this system – i.e. a timetable trying to minimize difference between different chronologies proposed so far and fixed chronological datum points – is around 1.5 %, that is, on a period of ten centuries, 15 years. The latter is the maximum oscillation accepted for most reliable dates (for example Pharaoh Shoshenq’s raid into Palestine: 925 BC)33 to validate the table, also considering astronomic periodical observations in ancient Egypt. The Levantine New Chronology is offered to scholars as a simple tool summarizing the efforts of many, to whom is addressed the author admiration for the continuous commitment towards a more convincing and firmly based historical reconstruction.

Bibliography AHARONI, Y. - NAVEH, J. Arad Inscriptions (Judean Desert Studies), Jerusalem 1981. 1981 ASH, P.S. David, Solomon and Egypt. A Reassessment (Journal for the Study of the Old 1999 Testament, Supplement Series 297), Sheffield 1999. ATHAS, G. The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Interpretation (Journal for 2003 the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series 360; Copenhagen International Seminar 12), Sheffield 2003. VON BECKERATH, J. 1997 Chronologie des pharaonischen Ägypten. Die Zeitbestimmung der ägyptischen Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. (Münchener ägyptologische Studien 46), Mainz 1997. BEN-TOR, A. - BEN AMI, D. - SANDHAUS, D. Hazor VI: The 1990-2009 Excavations. The Iron Age, Jerusalem 2012. 2012 BIRAN, A. - NAVEH, J. 1993 “An Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan”, in Israel Exploration Journal 43 (1993), pp. 81-98. 1995 “The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment”, in Israel Exploration Journal 45 (1995), pp. 1-18. BIRNBAUM, S.A. 1957 “II. Inscriptions. A. Ostraca” in J.W. Crowfoot - G.M. Crowfoot - K.M. Kenyon, The Objects from Samaria (Samaria-Sebaste. Reports of the Works of the Joint Expedition in 1931-1933 and of the British Expedition in 1953. No 3), London 1957, pp. 9-32. BRONK RAMSEY, C. - DEE, M.W. - ROWLAND, J.M. - HIGHAM, T.F.G. - HARRIS, S.A. - BROCK, F. QUILES, A. - WILD, E.M. - MARCUS, E.S. - SHORTLAND, A.J. 2010 “Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt”, in Science 328 (5985) (2010), pp. 1554-1557.

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Manning 2006, 351.

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COURTNEY, A. - COURTNEY, M. 2008 “Comments regarding ‘On the Nature of Science’”, in Physics in Canada 64/3 (2008), pp. 7-8. DEARMAN, J.A. Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab, Atlanta 1989. 1989 DOTHAN, T. - ZUKERMAN, A. 2004 “A Preliminary Study of the Mycenean IIIC:1 Pottery Assemblages from Tel Miqne-Ekron and Ashdod”, in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 333 (2004), pp. 1-54. FINKELSTEIN, I. 2005 “A Low Chronology Update: Archaeology, History and Bible”, in T.E. LEVY - T. HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 31-42. 2009 “Destructions: Megiddo as a Case Study”, in in J.D. SCHLOEN (ed.), Exploring the longue durée. Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager, Winona Lake, In. 2009, pp. 113-126. FINKELSTEIN, I. - PIASETZKY, E. 2011 “The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing?”, in Near Eastern Archaeology 74/1 (2011), pp. 50-54. FINKELSTEIN, I. - ZIMHONI, O. - KAFRI, A. 2000 “The Iron Age Pottery assemblages from Areas F, K and H and their stratigraphic and chronological implications”, in I. FINKELSTEIN - D. USSISHKIN - B. HALPERN (eds.), Megiddo III. The 1992-1996 Seasons (Tel Aviv Monograph Series 18), Tel Aviv 2000, pp. 244-324. FISHER, C.L. 1929 The Excavation of Armageddon (Oriental Institute Communications 4), Chicago 1929. GITIN, S - DOTHAN, T. - NAVEH, J. 1997 “A Royal Dedicatory Inscription from Ekron”, in Israel Exploration Journal 47 (1997), pp. 1-16. GRAYSON, A.K. Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (Text from Cuneiform Sources, V), New 1975 York 1975. HASEL, M.G. 1994 “Israel in the Merneptah Stele”, in Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 296 (1994), pp. 45-61. HERZOG, Z. 2002 “The Fortress Mound at Tel Arad: An Interim Report”, in Tel Aviv 29/1 (2002), pp. 3-109. LIVERANI, M. Antico Oriente. Storia, società, economia, Roma-Bari 1988. 1988 LUCKENBILL, D.D. The Annals of Sennacherib, (Oriental Institute Publications 2) Chicago 1924. 1924 MANNING, S.W. 2006 “Radiocarbon Dating and Egyptian Chronology”, in E. HORNUNG - R. KRAUSS D.A. WARBURTON (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1, the Near and Middle East, Vol. 83), Leiden 2006, pp. 328355.

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MAEIR, A.M. (ed.) Tell es-Safi/Gath I: The 1996/2005. Volume 1: Text; Volume 2: Plates 2012 (Ägypten und Altes Testament 69), Wiesbaden 2012. MAZAR, A. 2005 “The Debate over the Chronology of the Iron Age in the Southern Levant: Its History, the Current Situation and a Suggested Resolution”, in T.E. LEVY - T. HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 15-30. 2007 “Myc IIIC in the Land Israel: its Distribution, Date and Significance”, in M. BIETAK - E. CZERNY (eds.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. III (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 9), Vienna 2007, pp. 571-582. 2008 “From 1200 to 850 B.C.E.: Remarks on Some Selected Archaeological Issues”, in L.L. GRABBE (ed.), Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIA (c. 1250-850 B.C.E.). Volume. 1, The Archaeology (European Seminar in Historical Methodology 7; Library of Hebrew Bible 491), London 2008, pp. 86119. 2011 “The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint”, in Near Eastern Archaeology 74/1 (2011), pp. 105-111. MAZAR, A. - BRUINS, H.J. - PANITZ-COHEN, N. - VAN DER PLICHT, J. 2005 “Ladder of Time at Tel Rehov Stratigraphy, archaeological context, pottery and radiocarbon dates”, in T.E. LEVY - T. HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 193255. MISGAV, H. - GARFINKEL, Y. - GANOR, S. 2009 “The Ostracon”, in Y. GARFINKEL - S. GANOR (eds.), Khirbet Qeiyafa, Vol. 1. Excavation Report 2007-2008, Jerusalem 2009, pp. 243-257. PANITZ-COHEN, N. - MAZAR, A. (eds.) Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean, 1989-1996. Volume III. The 13th-11th Century 2009 BCE Strata in Areas N and S (Tel Beth-Shean Valley Archaeological Project Publication 3), Jerusalem 2009. PRITCHARD, J.B. (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Third Edition with 1969 Supplement), Princeton 1969. SHAW, I. (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford 2000. 2000 TORCZYNER, H. - HARDING, L. - LEWIS, A. - STARKEY, J.L. Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) I: The Lachish Letters (The Wellcome Archaeological 1938 Research Expedition to the Near East Publications, Volume I), London 1938. USSISHKIN, D. (ed.) The renewed excavations at Lachish (1973-1994) (Institute of Archaeology 2004 Monograph Series 22), Tel Aviv 2004.

[ROSAPAT 11]

[PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES Essays on disastrous agents characterization and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant Edited by LORENZO NIGRO

ROME 2014 «LA SAPIENZA» EXPEDITION TO PALESTINE & JORDAN

[PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES Essays on disastrous agents characterization and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant

Edited by LORENZO NIGRO with contributions by L. NIGRO, M. LIVERANI, C. MORHANGE, A. SALAMON, G. BONY, C. FLAUX, E. GALILI, J.-P. GOIRAN, D. ZVIELY, F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN, F. HÖFLMAYER, M. SALA, E. GALLO, A. MASSAFRA, C. FIACCAVENTO

ROME 2014

ROME «LA SAPIENZA» STUDIES ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALESTINE & TRANSJORDAN EDITOR: L. NIGRO EDITORIAL BOARD: M. SALA

VOLUME 11 L. NIGRO (ed.)

Overcoming Catastrophes. Essays on disastrous agents characterization and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant

(= Rome «La Sapienza» Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan, 11) © Copyright 2014 «La Sapienza» Expedition to Palestine & Jordan Sezione di Orientalistica - Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità P.le A. Moro, 15 – 00185 Rome – ITALY All rights reserved. Copy or reproduction of parts of text or illustrations is strictly forbidden without the explicit written permission given by «La Sapienza» Expedition to Palestine & Jordan. pp. 272, 17 x 24 cm, B/W illustrations. ISBN 9788898154081 ISSN 1826-9206

ROSAPAT 11

i

CONTENTS Premise by L. NIGRO - The PRIN 2009 Project: “The Seven Plagues. Catastrophes and destructions in Palestine and Egypt during the pre-classical period” ............... iii Section 1 - Methodology and framework of the project ............................ 1 L. NIGRO - The Seven Plagues Project: Method and Results ................................. 3 M. LIVERANI - Dealing with catastrophes ........................................................... 15 C. M ORHANGE, A. SALAMON, G. BONY , C. FLAUX, E. GALILI , J.-P. GOIRAN , D. ZVIELY Geoarchaeology of tsu namis and th e reviva l of neo-catastr ophism in the Eastern Mediterranean ............................................................................................... 31 Section 2 - Palestine .................................................................................. 53 L. NIGRO - The Archaeol ogy of C ollapse and Resilience: Tell es-Sultan/ancient Jericho as a Case Study ................................................................................. 55 F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN - Man/environment interactions in the Bronze Age Levant: clim atic crisis or fl uctuations, c hronology an d settlem ent pattern s in the Third Millennium Syrian arid steppe area villages.............................................. 87 F. H ÖFLMAYER - Dating Catastr ophes and Collapses i n the ancient Near East: the end of the first urbanization in the Southern Levant and the 4.2 ka BP event ..... 117 E. GALLO - Destructions in Early Bronze Age Southern Levant ............................ 141 M. SALA - Archaeology versus Chron ologies: a r eassessment of Early Bronze Age phasing in the light of the PRIN 2009 Project results at Khirbet al-Batrawy ........ 171 A. MASSAFRA - The end of the Middle Bronze age in Southern Levant: was Sharuhen the only city conquered by Ahmose? ..............................................................185 C. FIACCAVENTO - Destructi ons toward s the end of the 2 nd and during the 1 st millennium BC in Southern Levant.................................................................. 205 L. NIGRO - An Absolute Iron Age Chronology of the Levant and the Mediterranean 261