Road Divider ReportL
Short Description
movable traffic lane divider...
Description
A PROJECT REPORT ON STUDY AND FABRICATION OF
FLEXIBLE ROAD DIVIDER SUBMITTED BY
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PROJECT GUIDE PROF. PROF. ------------------------------------- --
H.O.D. PRINCIPAL PROF PROF.---------------------
SHRI.SHRI.------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING .
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200----200---
1
-------------------------------200----200--C E R T I F I C A T E
Cert Certif ifie ied d that that this this Repor eportt subm submit itte ted d by Shri/Ku -------------------R!""/S#$% N!. ----------------------------a student of FINAL FINAL YEAR of the course in ---- IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING as a part of Seminar / Project work as prescribed by the B!$r& !' T#(h)i($" E*$i)$%i!) for the subject -------------------------------- And that I
hae instructed/!uided him for the said work from time to time and I found him to be satisfactori"y pro!ressie# And that fo""owin! students were associated with him for his work. $oweer his Contribution was proportionate % 1. ------------------------------------------------- --------------
&.------------------------&.-------------------- -----
'.---------------------------------
(.-------------------------
).--------------------------------And that the said work has been assessed by me and I am satisfied that the same is upto the standard enisa!ed for the "ee" of the course. And that the said work may be promoted to the *+terna" *+aminer.
+NAME OF GUIDE , SIGN
,A*----------------,A*-----------------
+NAME OF H.O.D , SIGN
,A*-------------------,A*--------------------
+NAME OF PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL , SIGN
,A*--------------------,A*---------------------
'
-------------------------------200----200--C E R T I F I C A T E
Cert Certif ifie ied d that that this this Repor eportt subm submit itte ted d by Shri/Ku -------------------R!""/S#$% N!. ----------------------------a student of FINAL FINAL YEAR of the course in ---- IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING as a part of Seminar / Project work as prescribed by the B!$r& !' T#(h)i($" E*$i)$%i!) for the subject -------------------------------- And that I
hae instructed/!uided him for the said work from time to time and I found him to be satisfactori"y pro!ressie# And that fo""owin! students were associated with him for his work. $oweer his Contribution was proportionate % 1. ------------------------------------------------- --------------
&.------------------------&.-------------------- -----
'.---------------------------------
(.-------------------------
).--------------------------------And that the said work has been assessed by me and I am satisfied that the same is upto the standard enisa!ed for the "ee" of the course. And that the said work may be promoted to the *+terna" *+aminer.
+NAME OF GUIDE , SIGN
,A*----------------,A*-----------------
+NAME OF H.O.D , SIGN
,A*-------------------,A*--------------------
+NAME OF PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL , SIGN
,A*--------------------,A*---------------------
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--------- -------------------------- ( -- ) 200-----200--------
SUBMISSIO N I 0u"" ame2 Shri /Ku -----------------------R!""/ S#$% N!.-------------------- a student of FINAL YEAR of the course in DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING humb"y submit
that I hae comp"eted comp"eted from the Seminar Seminar / Project work as described described in this Report from from time to time by usin! my own ski"" ski"" and study between between the period period 0rom AUGUST 200 TO APRIL 200 as per the instruction / !uidance of ame of eacher2---------------------------------And that fo""owin! students were associated with me for this work. $oweer the teacher has appro approed ed 3uant 3uantum um of my contr contribu ibuti tion. on. And that that I hae hae not copied copied the Repor Reportt or it4 it4s an appreciab"e part from any other 5iterature in contraention of the academic ethics. 1. ------------------------------------------------- --------------
&.------------------------------------&.-------------------- -----------------
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,ate%--------------------- Si!nature of the Student2
)
------DEFINATION OF PROJECT------
P => Planning before carring carring o!" "#e $or% R => O =>
Ra$ &a"erial re'!ire( for for "#e $or%
Organi)a"ion of "#e $or%
J
=>
E
=> E,"i&a"ion of &a"erial &a"erial re'!ire( in "#e $or%+
Join" effor" effor" *!" in "o "#e $or%+
C => Co,"ing of "#e $or%+ T
=> Tec#ni'!e, !,e( in *erfor&ing+
&
Acknowledgement 6e e+press esteemed !ratitude and sincere thanks to our worthy "ecturer !uide PROF. -------------- our ocabu"ary do not hae suitab"e words benefitin! to hi!h standard at know"ed!e and e+treme sincerity deiation and affection with they hae re!u"ar"y encoura!ed us to put heart and sou" in this work. 6e are a"so thankfu" to our H.O.D. PROF. ----------- whose adices and kind co-operation wrou!ht out throu!h discussion proide for comp"etion of this project and a"so thanks to our workshop superintendent and a"" the Assistants who he"ped a "ot for comp"etion of this project. 6e a"so coney !reat thanks to our $onorab"e Pri)(i$" ---------------- who he"ped a "ot for comp"etion of this project. 7ur parents and re"aties who a"ways bear with us in ery critica" situation hae contributed a !reat dea" in makin! this for us. As we !ie e+pression to our "oe and appreciation for them our heart infi"".
hankin!.
(
INDE N$# %h# %!i(
Sr.N!
1
A8SRAC
2
**, 07R PR79*C
S*5*CI7 70 PR79*C
3
IR7,:CI7 70 7-C7;*I7A5 **R
FIGURES SR NO. 1 2 3 ! " # $ % 1& 11 12 13
DESCRIPTION
PAGE NO
Set up flow diagram
CHAPTER-01 ABSTRACT
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A road is an identifiab"e route way or path between p"aces. Roads are typica""y smoothed paed or otherwise prepared to a""ow easy trae"# thou!h they need not be and historica""y many roads were simp"y reco!ni@ab"e routes without any forma" construction or maintenance. raffic f"ows on the ri!ht or on the "eft side of the road dependin! on the country. In countries where traffic f"ows on the ri!ht traffic si!ns are most"y on the ri!ht side of the road roundabouts and traffic circ"es !o counter-c"ockwise and pedestrians crossin! a two-way road shou"d watch out for traffic from the "eft first. In countries where traffic f"ows on the "eft the reerse is true. About )& of the wor"d by popu"ation drie on the "eft and >> keep ri!ht. 8y roadway distances about 'B drie on the "eft and ?' on the ri!ht een thou!h ori!ina""y most traffic droe on the "eft wor"dwide.
Road construction re3uires the creation of a continuous ri!ht-of-way oercomin! !eo!raphic obstac"es and hain! !rades "ow enou!h to permit ehic"e or foot trae". and may be re3uired to meet standards set by "aw or officia" !uide"ines. he process is often be!un with the remoa" of earth and rock by di!!in! or b"astin! construction of embankments brid!es and tunne"s and remoa" of e!etation this may ino"e deforestation2 and fo""owed by the "ayin! of paement materia". A ariety of road bui"din! e3uipment is emp"oyed in road bui"din!. After desi!n approa" p"annin! "e!a" and enironmenta" considerations hae been addressed a"i!nment of the road is set out by a sureyor he Radii and !radient are desi!ned and staked out to best suit the natura" !round "ee"s and minimi@e the amount of cut and fi"". L
•
ransit-oriented dee"opment are residentia" and commercia" areas desi!ned to ma+imi@e access to pub"ic transport.
Supply and demand
See a"so% ransportation ,emand Dana!ement
6idenin! works underway on the D'( motorway to increase the number of "anes. Con!estion can be reduced by either increasin! road capacity supp"y2 or by reducin! traffic demand2. Capacity can be increased in a number of ways but needs to take account of "atent demand otherwise it may be used more stron!"y than anticipated. Critics of the approach of addin! capacity hae compared it to Gfi!htin! obesity by "ettin! out your be"tG inducin! demand that did not e+ist before2.
K?LKBL
1E
Reducin! road capacity has in turn been attacked as remoin! free choice as we"" as increasin! trae" costs and times. Increased supp"y can inc"ude% •
Addin! more capacity at bott"enecks such as by addin! more "anes at the e+pense of hard shou"ders or safety @ones or by remoin! "oca" obstac"es "ike brid!e supports and widenin! tunne"s2
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Addin! more capacity oer the who"e of a route !enera""y by addin! more "anes2
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Creatin! new routes
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raffic mana!ement improements see separate section be"ow2
Reduction of demand can inc"ude% •
Parkin! restrictions makin! motor ehic"e use "ess attractie by increasin! the monetary and non-monetary costs of parkin! introducin! !reater competition for "imited city or road space. KEL Dost transport p"annin! e+perts a!ree that free parkin! distorts the market in faour of car trae" e+acerbatin! con!estion.K1FLK11L
•
Park and ride faci"ities a""owin! parkin! at a distance and a""owin! continuation by pub"ic transport or ride sharin!. Park-and-ride car parks are common"y found at metro stations freeway entrances in suburban areas and at the ed!e of sma""er cities.
•
Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other trae" modes. Dethods inc"ude traffic ca"min! and the shared space concept.
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Road pricin! char!in! money for access onto a road/specific area at certain times con!estion "ee"s or for certain road users 'F
o
GCap and tradeG in which on"y "icensed cars are a""owed on the roads. K1'L
A "imited 3uota of car "icences are issued each year and traded in a
free market fashion. his !uarantees that the number of cars does not e+ceed road capacity whi"e aoidin! the ne!atie effects of shorta!es norma""y associated with 3uotas. $oweer since demand for cars tends to be ine"astic the resu"t are e+orbitant purchase prices for the "icenses pricin! out the "ower "ee"s of society as seen Sin!apores Certificate of *ntit"ement scheme.K1)L o
Con!estion pricin! where a certain area such as the inner part of a con!ested city is surrounded with a cordon into which entry with a car re3uires payment. he cordon may be a physica" boundary i.e. surrounded by to"" stations2 or it may be irtua" with enforcement bein! ia spot checks or cameras on the entry routes. Dajor e+amp"es are Sin!apores e"ectronic road pricin! the 5ondon con!estion char!e system and the Stockho"m con!estion ta+.
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Road space rationin! where re!u"atory restrictions preent certain types of ehic"es from driin! under certain circumstances or in certain areas. o
umber p"ate restrictions based on days of the week as practiced in seera" "ar!e cities in the wor"d such as AthensK1&L De+ico City and So Pau"o.K1(L In effect such cities are bannin! a different part of the automobi"e f"eet from roads each day of the week. Dain"y introduced to combat smo! these measures a"so reduce con!estion. A weakness of this method is that richer driers can purchase a second or third car to circument the ban. Kcitation needed L
o
Permits where on"y certain types of ehic"es such as residents2 are permitted to enter a certain area and other types such as throu!h'1
traffic2 are banned. K1(L 0or e+amp"e 8ertrand ,e"anoe the mayor of Paris has proposed to impose a comp"ete ban on motor ehic"es in the citys inner districts with e+emptions on"y for residents businesses and the disab"ed. K1>L •
Po"icy approaches which usua""y attempt to proide either strate!ic a"ternaties or which encoura!e !reater usa!e of e+istin! a"ternaties throu!h promotion subsidies or restrictions. o
Incenties to use pub"ic transport increasin! moda" shares. his can be achieed throu!h infrastructure inestment subsidies transport inte!ration pricin! strate!ies that decrease the mar!ina" cost/fi+ed cost ratiosK1?LK1BL and improed timetab"in!.K1ELK'FL
o
Cyc"in! promotion throu!h "e!is"ation cyc"e faci"ities subsidies and awareness campai!ns.K'1L he ether"ands has been pursuin! cyc"e friend"y po"icies for decades and around a 3uarter of their commutin! is done by bicyc"e. K''LK')L
o
e"ecommutin! encoura!ed throu!h "e!is"ation and subsidies. K'&L
o
7n"ine shoppin! promotion K'(LK'>L potentia""y with automated de"iery booths he"pin! to so"e the "ast mi"e prob"em and reduce shoppin! trips made by car.K'?L
Traffic management
:se of so-ca""ed Inte""i!ent transportation system which !uide traffic% •
raffic reportin! ia radio or possib"y mobi"e phones to adise road users
•
;ariab"e messa!e si!ns insta""ed a"on! the roadway to adise road users
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ai!ation systems possib"y "inked up to automatic traffic reportin! ''
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raffic counters permanent"y insta""ed to proide rea"-time traffic counts
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Coner!ence inde+in! road traffic monitorin! to proide information on the use of hi!hway on-ramps
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Automated hi!hway systems a future idea which cou"d reduce the safe intera" between cars re3uired for brakin! in emer!encies2 and increase hi!hway capacity by as much as 1FF whi"e increasin! trae" speeds Kcitation needed L
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Parkin! !uidance and information systems proidin! dynamic adice to motorists about free parkin!
%ther associated •
Schoo" openin! times arran!ed to aoid peak hour traffic in some countries priate car schoo" pickup and drop-off traffic are substantia" percenta!es of peak hour traffic2. Kcitation needed L
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Considerate driin! behaiour promotion and enforcement. ,riin! practices such as tai"!atin! and fre3uent "ane chan!es can reduce a roads capacity and e+acerbate jams. In some countries si!ns are p"aced on hi!hways to raise awareness whi"e others hae introduced "e!is"ation a!ainst inconsiderate driin!.
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;isua" barriers to preent driers from s"owin! down out of curiosity often ca""ed Grubberneckin!G in the :nited States2. his often inc"udes accidents with traffic s"owin! down een on roadsides physica""y separated from the crash "ocation. his a"so tends to occur at construction sites which is why some countries hae introduced ru"es that motorway construction has to occur behind isua" barrier
')
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Speed "imit reductions as practiced on the D'( motorway in 5ondon. 6ith "ower speeds a""owin! cars to drie c"oser to!ether this increases the capacity of a road. ote that this measure is on"y effectie if the intera" between cars is reduced not the distance itse"f. 5ow intera"s are !enera""y on"y safe at "ow speeds.
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5ane sp"ittin!/fi"terin! where space-efficient ehic"es usua""y motorcyc"es and scooters ride or drie in the space between cars buses and trucks. his is howeer i""e!a" in many countries bein! perceied as a safety risk. K'BL
&y country 'ustralia
raffic durin! peak hours in major Austra"ian cities such as 8risbane Sydney and De"bourne is usua""y ery con!ested and can cause considerab"e de"ay for motorists. Austra"ians re"y main"y on radio and te"eision to obtain current traffic information. > mi"es '>> km2 of accumu"ated 3ueues out of ('' mi B)( km2 bein! monitored. K)1L ,espite imp"ementation since 1EE? of road space rationin! by the "ast di!it of the p"ate number durin! rush hours eery weekday traffic in this 'F mi""ion city sti"" e+periences seere con!estion. Accordin! to e+perts this is due to the acce"erated rate of motori@ation occurrin! since 'FF) in So Pau"o the f"eet is !rowin! at a rate of ?.( per year with a"most 1FFF new cars bou!ht in the city eery day and the "imited capacity of pub"ic transport. he subway has on"y )B mi"es >1 km2 of "ines thou!h '' further mi"es are under construction or p"anned by 'F1F. *ery day many citi@ens spend between three up to four hours behind the whee". In order to miti!ate the a!!raatin! con!estion prob"em since 9une )F 'FFB the road space rationin! pro!ram was e+panded to inc"ude and restrict trucks and "i!ht commercia" ehic"es. K)'LK))L ! edit " New *ealand
ew Oea"and has fo""owed stron!"y car-oriented transport po"icies since after 6or"d 6ar II especia""y in the Auck"and area where about one third of the countrys popu"ation "ies2K)&L and current"y has one of the hi!hest car-ownership rates per capita in the wor"d after the :nited States. K)(L 8ecause of the ne!atie resu"ts con!estion in the bi! centres is a major prob"em. Current measures inc"ude both the construction of new road infrastructure as we"" as increased inestment in pub"ic transport which had stron!"y dec"ined in a"" cities of the country e+cept 6e""in!ton.
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#nited +ingdom
In the :nited Min!dom the ineitabi"ity of con!estion in some urban road networks has been officia""y reco!nised since the ,epartment for ransport set down po"icies based on the report Traffic in Towns in 1E>)% ,ven when everything that it is possi$ly to do $y way of $uilding new roads and e-panding pu$lic transport has $een done. there would still $e. in the a$sence of deli$erate limitation. more cars trying to move into. or within our cities than could possi$ly $e accommodated/K)>L.
he ,epartment for ransport sees !rowin! con!estion as one of the most serious transport prob"ems facin! the :M. K)?L 7n 1 ,ecember 'FF> Rod *ddin!ton pub"ished a :M !oernment-sponsored report into the future of 8ritains transport infrastructure. he *ddin!ton ransport Study set out the case for action to improe road and rai" networks as a Gcrucia" enab"er of sustained productiity and competitienessG. *ddin!ton has estimated that con!estion may cost the economy of *n!"and Q'' bn a year in "ost time by 'F'(. $e warned that roads were in serious dan!er of becomin! so con!ested that the economy wou"d suffer. K)BL At the "aunch of the report *ddin!ton to"d journa"ists and transport industry representaties introducin! road pricin! to encoura!e driers to drie "ess was an Geconomic no brainerG. here was he said Gno attractie a"ternatieG. It wou"d a""e!ed"y cut con!estion by ha"f by 'F'( and brin! benefits to the 8ritish economy tota""in! Q'B bn a year.K)EL
7n 0ridays in Ca"ifornia Interstate ( is often con!ested as 5os An!e"es residents trae" north for the weekend.
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#nited States
he e+as ransportation Institute estimated that in 'FFF the ?( "ar!est metropo"itan areas e+perienced ).> bi""ion ehic"e-hours of de"ay resu"tin! in (.? bi""ion :.S. !a""ons '1.> bi""ion "iters2 in wasted fue" and >?.( bi""ion in "ost productiity or about F.? of the nations B ?)
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,ener Co"orado is one of the first imp"ementations of Du"ti-moda" "anes in orth America. In ,ener 5i!htrai" is run manua""y to preent any accidents. he second iteration of "i!ht rai" ca""ed the -R*U Project successfu""y imp"emented 1? mi"es of dua"-track "i!ht rai" bike path and a"so widened conentiona" roadways a"on! most major arteries in the ,ener Detro Area 8i! Idea for ransportation in 8an!a"ore - P"an for on Dotori@ed ransportation in 8an!a"ore 6hen peop"e refer to 8an!a"ore they immediate"y isua"ise the chaotic traffic scenario. A "ot of concern has been e+pressed oer the years on the con!estion issue with !oernment "aunchin! seera" schemes to improe its traffic 8ui"din! seera" Roads 0"yoers etc2 but a"as no so"utionVV Prob"em 8an!a"ore has appro+imate"y >.B mi""ion trips dai"y. :rban spraw" in years has increased the trip "en!ths which has resu"ted in decreasin! mode share of pub"ic transportation and increase in priate automobi"es. he prob"em is not insufficient roads as made out by the authorities but the priority !ien to improe ehicu"ar f"ow rather than improin! peop"e moements. he transportation share is near"y 'F of the 8an!a"ores "anduse which simu"ates internationa" practice. han why so much con!estionW )(
As per my estimate 8an!a"ore "oses out near"y 'FB mi""ion Rs per day due to con!estion A ery Conseratie *stimate2. he root cause for con!estion can be known from the fact that the BB of tota" ehic"es constitute on"y two whee"ers and four whee"ers which contribute on"y )E of tota" rips. So"ution It is ery surprisin! to know that near"y '( of trips are made in ran!e of 1-( km. ear"y &F of those trips are made by motorised share Cars/8ikes2. 6e need to e"iminate those trips by usin! non motorised transportation such as by wa"kin! cyc"in! etc. Proide Pedestrian 0aci"ities. 8an!a"ore "acks !ood pedestrian faci"ities. Pedestrians hae to compete with ehic"es hawkers and encroachment to !ain space. It is fact that near"y &F of peop"e ki""ed in accidents in 8an!a"ore are pedestrians. Improin! footpaths are ery economica" way of sustainab"e transportation which we often ne!"ect. he pedestrian crossin!s are ery rare to find in 8an!a"ore roads. In fact you may find more number of f"yoers in 8an!a"ore than !rade separated pedestrian faci"ities. Authorities need to improe footpaths/ proide pedestrian faci"ities at war footin!. Proide Cyc"in! 0aci"ities Cyc"in! as a mode of transport is irtua""y non-e+istent in 8an!a"ore "ess than '2. 8an!a"ore has near"y &??B() cyc"es. Such a "ar!e number of cyc"es does not transform into trips on roads basica""y due to "ack of faci"ities "ess than 1( operationa" trips2. If proper faci"ities such as cyc"e tracks are proided by the authorities than the mode share has the potentia" to improe in 8an!a"ore. It can a"so be dee"oped as a feeder to pub"ic transportation by proidin! sma"" parkin! faci"ities near prominent bus stops. Internationa""y the City-8ike System is the new )>
bi! thin!. It ino"es proision proision of city bikes with proper infrastructure infrastructure month"ymonth"yannu annua" a""y "y-f -fee ees2 s2 with with see seera ra"" park parkin in! ! "ots "ots pro proid ided ed by the the pri priat atee part party y. It is considered to be the best option to demotorise thus hain! a sustainab"e city. raffic con!estion is a condition on networks that occurs as use increases and is characteri@ed by s"ower speeds "on!er trip times and increased 3ueuein! 3ueuein!.. he most common e+amp"e is the physica" use of roads roads by by ehic"es. 6hen traffic demand is !reat enou!h that the interaction between ehic"es s"ows the speed of the traffic stream con!estion is incurred. As demand approaches the capacity of a road or of the intersections a"on! the road2 e+treme traffic con!estion sets in. 6hen ehic"es are fu""y stopped for periods of time this is co""o3uia""y known as a traffic jam. Con!esti Con!estion on caused caused by eacuees f"eein! $urricane Rita. Rita. raffic in a"" "anes of the hi!hway is trae"in! in the same direction. raffic con!estion occurs when a o"ume of traffic or moda" sp"it !enerates sp"it !enerates demand for space !reater than the aai"ab"e road capacity. here are a number of specific circum circumsta stance ncess which which cause cause or a!!ra a!!raate ate con!es con!estio tion# n# mo most st of them them reduce reduce the the capacity of a road at a !ien point or oer a certain "en!th or increase the number of ehic"es re3uired for a !ien throu!hput of peop"e or !oods. About ha"f of :.S. traffic con!estion is recurrin! and is attributed to sheer wei!ht of traffic# most of the rest is attributed to traffic incidents road works and weather eents. K1L Speed and f"ow can a"so affect network capacity thou!h the re"ationship is comp"e+ raffic research sti"" cannot fu""y predict under which conditions a Gtraffic jamG as opposed to heay but smooth"y f"owin! traffic2 may sudden"y occur. It has been found that indiidua" incidents such as accidents or een a sin!"e car brakin! heai"y in a preious"y smooth f"ow2 may cause ripp"e effects a cascadin! fai"ure2 fai"ure 2 which then spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when otherwise norma" f"ow mi!ht hae continued for some time "on!er. K'L
)?
CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL MATERIAL SELECTION SELECTIO N
he proper se"ection of materia" for the different part of a machine is the main objectie in the fabrication fabrication of machine. machine. 0or a desi!n en!ineer it is must that he be fami"iar fami"iar with the effect effect which the manufacturin! process and heat treatment hae on the properties of materia"s. he Choice of materia" for en!ineerin! purposes depends upon the fo""owin! factors% 1. Aai"ab ai"abi"i i"ity ty of the materia materia"s. "s. '. Suitabi"ity Suitabi"ity of of materia"s materia"s for the the workin! workin! condition condition in serice. ). h hee cost cost of of mat mater eria ia"s "s.. &. Physica Physica"" and chemi chemica" ca" prope properti rties es of mater materia". ia". (. Dechanic Dechanica" a" properti properties es of materia materia". ". he mechanica" properties of the meta"s are those which are associated with the abi"ity of the materia" to resist mechanica" forces and "oad. 6e sha"" now discuss these properties as fo""ows% 1. Stren!th Stren!th % It is is the abi"ity of of a materia" materia" to to resist resist the e+terna""y e+terna""y app"ied forces '. Stre Stress% ss% 6itho 6ithout ut break breakin! in! or yie"d yie"din! in!.. h hee inte interna rna"" resist resistanc ancee offe offere red d by a part part to an e+terna""y app"ied force is ca""ed stress. ). Stiffn Stiffness% ess% It is the abi"ity abi"ity of materia materia"" to resist resist deformatio deformation n under stresses. stresses. he he modu"es modu"es of e"asticity of the measure of stiffness. &. *"asti *"asticity city%% It is the property property of a materia" materia" to re!ain its ori!ina ori!ina"" shape after after deformati deformation on when the e+terna" forces are remoed. remoed. his property is desirab"e for materia" materia" used in too"s and machines. It may be noted that stee" is more e"astic than rubber. (. P"astic P"asticity ity%% It is the property property of a materia" materia" which which retain retain the deforma deformation tion produce produced d under "oad permanent"y. his property of materia" is necessary for for!in! in stampin! ima!es on coins and in ornamenta" work. )B
>. ,ucti ,ucti"i "ity ty%% It is the the prope propert rty y of a mate materia ria"" enab"i enab"in! n! it to be drawn drawn into wire wire with with the app"ication of a tensi"e force. A ducti"e materia" must be both stron! and p"astic. he ducti"ity is usua""y measured by the terms percenta!e e"on!ation and percent reduction in area. he ducti"e materia"s common"y used in en!ineerin! practice are mi"d stee" copper a"uminum nicke" @inc tin and "ead. ?. 8ritt"eness% 8ritt"eness% It is the property property of materia" materia" opposite opposite to ducti"e. It is the Property of breakin! of a materia" with "itt"e permanent permanent distortion. 8ritt"e materia"s materia"s when subjected to tensi"e "oads snap off without !iin! any sensib"e e"on!ation. Cast iron is a britt"e materia". B. Da""e Da""eab abi"i i"ity ty%% It is a speci specia" a" case case of ducti ducti"i "ity ty which which permit permitss mate materia ria"" to be ro""e ro""ed d or hammered hammered into thin sheets a ma""eab"e materia" shou"d be p"astic but it is not essentia" to be so stron!. he ma""eab"e materia"s common"y used in en!ineerin! en!ineer in! practice are "ead "ead soft stee" wrou!ht iron copper and a"uminum. E. o ou!hn u!hness% ess% It is the propert property y of a materia materia"" to resist the fractu fracture re due to hi!h impact impact "oads "oads "ike hammer hammer b"ows. b"ows. he tou!hness tou!hness of the materia" materia" decreases decreases when it is heated. heated. It is measured by the amount of absorbed after bein! stressed up to the point of fracture. his property is desirab"e desirab "e in parts subjected to shock an impact "oads. "oads . 1F. Resi"ience% Resi"ience% It is the property of a materia" to absorb ener!y ener!y and to resist rock and impact "oads. It is measured by amount of ener!y absorbed per unit o"ume within e"astic "imit. his property is essentia" for sprin! materia". 11. Creep% 6hen 6hen a part is subjected to a constant stress at hi!h temperature temperature for "on! period of time it wi"" under!o a s"ow and permanent deformation ca""ed creep. his property is considered in desi!nin! interna" combustion en!ines boi"ers and turbines. 1'. $ardness% It is a ery important important property property of the meta"s and has a wide erity erity of meani meanin!s n!s.. It embra embrace cess many many diff differe erent nt prope properti rties es such such as resis resista tance nce to wear wear scratchin! deformation and mach inabi"ity etc. It a"so means the abi"ity of the meta" to cut another meta". he hardness is usua""y e+pressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of makin! the test. he hardness of a meta" may be determined by the fo""owin! test. a2 8rin 8rine" e""" hardn hardnes esss test test b2 Rockwe"" hardness test c2 ;icker ;ickerss hardness hardness a"so a"so ca""ed ca""ed diamond diamond pyramid2 pyramid2 test and and d2 Shar Sharee sca" sca"er eros osco cope pe..
)E
he science of the meta" is a specia"i@ed and a"thou!h it oerf"ows in to rea"ms of know"ed!e it tends to shut away from the !enera" reader. he know"ed!e know"ed!e of materia"s materia"s and their properties is of !reat si!nificance for a desi!n en!ineer. he machine e"ements shou"d be made of such a materia" which has properties suitab"e for the conditions of operations. In addition to this a desi!n en!ineer must be fami"iar with the manufacturin! processes and the heat treatments hae on the properties of the materia"s. In desi!nin! the arious part of the machine it is necessary to know how the materia" wi"" function in serice. 0or this certain characteristics or mechanica" properties most"y used in mechanica" mechanica" en!ineerin! practice are common"y determined determined from standard tensi"e tests. In en!ineerin! practice the machine parts are subjected to arious forces which may be due to either one or more of the fo""owin!. 1. *n *ner er!y !y tran transm smit itte ted d '. 6ei!ht i!ht of mach machin inee ). 0ric 0ricti tiona ona"" resis resistan tance ce &. Inert Inertia ia of rec recipr iproca ocati tin! n! part partss (. Chan Chan!e !e of of tem tempera peratu ture re >. 5ack 5ack of of ba"a ba"ance nce of moi moin! n! parts parts he se"ection of the materia"s depends upon the arious types of stresses that are set up durin! operation. he materia" se"ected shou"d with stand it. Another criteria for se"ection of meta" depend upon the type of "oad because a machine part resist "oad more easi"y than a "ie "oad and "ie "oad more easi"y than a shock "oad. Se"ection of the materia" depends upon factor of safety which in turn depends upon the fo""owin! factors. 1. Re"i Re"iab abi"i i"itie tiess of prop propert ertie iess '. Re"i Re"iab abi"i i"ity ty of of app" app"ie ied d "oad "oad ). he certaint certainty y as to to e+act e+act mode mode of of fai"ur fai"uree &. he e+tent e+tent of of simp" simp"ify ifyin! in! assum assumpti ptions ons (. h hee e+te e+tent nt of of "oca "oca"i "i@e @ed d >. he e+ten e+tentt of initia" initia" stresse stressess set up durin! durin! manufa manufactur cturin! in! ?. he e+tent e+tent "oss "oss of "ife "ife if fai" fai"ure ure occur occurss B. he e+ten e+tentt of "oss "oss of prope property rty if if fai"ure fai"ure occurs occurs
M$%#ri$" u#&
&F
Mi"& %##" R#$!);
1. Di"d stee" is readi"y aai"ab"e in market '. It is economica" to use ). It is aai"ab"e in standard si@es &. It has !ood mechanica" properties i.e. it is easi"y machinab"e (. It has moderate factor of safety because factor of safety resu"ts in unnecessary wasta!e of materia" and heay se"ection. 5ow factor of safety resu"ts in unnecessary risk of fai"ure >. It has hi!h tensi"e stren!th ?. 5ow co-efficient of therma" e+pansion PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL;
D.S. has a carbon content from F.1( to F.)F. hey are easi"y wie"dab"e thus can be hardened on"y. hey are simi"ar to wrou!ht iron in properties. 8oth u"timate tensi"e and compressie stren!th of these stee" increases with increasin! carbon content. hey can be easi"y !as we"ded or e"ectric or arc we"ded. 6ith increase in the carbon percenta!e we"d abi"ity decreases. Di"d stee" sere the purpose and was hence was se"ected because of the aboe purpose BRIGHT MATERIAL;
It is a machine drawned. he main basic difference between mi"d stee" and bri!ht meta" is that mi"d stee" p"ates and bars are for!ed in the for!in! machine by means is not for!ed. 8ut the materia"s are drawn from the dies in the p"astic state. herefore the materia" has !ood surface finish than mi"d stee" and has no carbon deposits on its surface for e+trusion and formation of en!ineerin! materia"s thus !iin! them a !ood surface finish and thou!h retainin! their meta""ic properties
&1
C'APTER (&% -AC'INE DESIGN
Machine design INTRODUCTION
he subject of DAC$I* ,*SI.( - m /s Rpm of motor X 1BFF rpm 7ut put rpm re3uired X '&rpm Da+ "oad X 1FF k! X 1FF + E.B1 X EB1 Da+ "oad transported X 1'Fk! X 1'F+ E.B1 X 11?? umber of sta!e in !ear bo+ X ' Ratio of !earin! X1 % ?&.B
CA5C:5AI7 07 0IA5 SP**, H 7RN:* 70 S=S*D
Power of motor
X
P
X
1B>.( watt.
'Z P X ---------------->F 6here [ Rpm of motor
X
1BFF
[or3ue transmitted 'Z + 1BFF + 1B>.( X --------------------->F
X F.EBE-m
X EBE.E -mm
X EEF -mm &>
CA5C:5AI7 70 7RN:* 78AI 8= Fr ? F
As out put force is more than re3uired force a"ue so desi!n of transmission system is safe.
DESIGN OF CHAIN DRI9E (F
6e know RASDISSI7 RAI7 X O' / O1 X '/1 X )F/)FX 1 0or this transmission ratio number of teeth on pinion sprocket is in the ran!e of )( to '( so we se"ect number of teeth on pinion sprocket as )F teeth. So O1 X O' X )F teeth S,L,CT2%N %3 42TCH %3 S4R%C+,T
he pitch is dicided on the basis of RPD of sprocket. RPD of pinion sprocket is aeiab"e in norma" condition it is X ?' rpm 0or this rpm a"ue we se"ect pitch of sprocket as 1'.?mm from tab"e. P X 1'.?mm CA5C:5AI7 70 DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* 8*6** SPR7CM*S
$* RASDISSI7 RAI7 X O' / O1 X )F/)F X 1 which is "ess than ). So from tab"e MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE X C4 J )F to (F mm 2
6here C4 X
,c1 J ,c' '
C4 X
11' J 11' '
C4 X 11' mm
DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* X 11' J )F to (F mm 2 DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* X 1(F mm
CALCULATION OF 9ALUES OF CONSTANTS ./ .0 .1 .2 .3 .4
5oad factor M1 X 1.'( 5oad with mi"d shock 2 (1
F$(%!r '!r &i%$)(# r#u"$%i!) K2 = 1.24 @ Fi*#& (#)%#r &i%$)(#
0actor for center distance of sprocket M) XF.B 0actor for position of sprocket M& X 1 5ubrication factor M( X 1.( periodic2 Ratin! factor M> X 1.F sin!"e shift2
C'LC#L'T2%N %3 0'L#, %3 3'CT%R %3 S'3,T5
0or pitch X 1'.? H speed of rotation of sma"" sprocket X ?' rpm 0AC7R 70 SA0*= X B.(( CA5C:5AI7 70 ;A5:* 70 A5576A85* 8*ARI< SR*SS 0or pitch X 1'.? H speed of rotation of sma"" sprocket X ?'rpm A5576A85* 8*ARI< SR*SS X '.B? k! / cm ' X '.B? ] EB1 / 1FF X'B /mm'
C'LC#L'T2%N %3 C%,332C,NT %3 S'6 +
0or hori@onta" position coefficient of sa! M X > CA5C:5AI7 70 DAUID:D *SI7 7 C$AI As we know ma+imum tor3ue on shaft X ma+ X 1B + 1F) -mm 6here 1 X ension in ti!ht side ' X ension in s"ack side 717' X center distance between two shaft 0rom fi!. Sin ∝ X R1 - R'
717'
Sin ∝ X 1FF - )F >>F Sin ∝ X F.1 ('
∝ X > T% 32ND θ θ X 1BF ^'∝ 2 U ).1&/1BF θ X 1BF ^']> 2 U ).1&/1BF θ X '.E rad
we know that 1/' X eµθ 1/' X eF.)( + '.E 1 X 1.1 ' 6e hae X 1 ^ ' 2 U R 1BFFF X 1.1 ' ^ ' 2 U 1FF ' X 1BFF 1 X 1.1 U 1BFF 1 X 1EBF So tension in ti!ht side X 1EBF 6e know Stress X force / area Stress induced X 1EBF/ ).1& ] B ' / & 2 Stress induced X )E.&1 /mm' As induced stress is "ess than a""owab"e desi!n of chain is safe .
CALC5LATION OF MINIM5M 6REA.ING LOAD OF CHAIN Ca"cu"ation of chain e"ocity X ).1&]p2 / >FFFFSin 1BF / O12 2 X ).1&]?'2 / >FFFFSin 1BF / )F2 X F.F)(m / sec 6e know ()
N X ]?(]n] Ms / 6here X rpm of sma"" sprocket N X minimum breakin! "oad of chain ; X chain e"ocity .n X a""owab"e factor of safety Ms X M1]M']M)]M&]M(]M> N X ?']?(]B.((]1.B?( / F.F)( N X '&?))E'.B> k!f As minimum "oad bearin! capacity is much more than app"ied "oad so desi!n of chain is safe.
DESIGN OF SHAFT 8*,I>1
Ra J Rb X 1BFFF akin! moment about A Rb + >'F X 1BFFF + (F( Rb X 1BFFF + (F( >'F
Rb X 1&>>1.'E Ra J Rb X 1BFFF Ra X 1BFFF - Rb Ra X 1BFFF ^ 1&>>1 Ra X )))E CA5C:5AI7 70 DAUID:D 8*,I< D7D* 6e see ma+imum bendin! moment occur at point C Da+ bendin! moment X Ra + (F( Da+ bendin! moment X )))E + (F( Da+ bendin! moment X 1>B>1E( mm
(>
Da+imum bendin! moment X 1>B>1E( -mm Da+imum tor3ue X '&B>F -mm App"y !uest theory of fai"ure ma+ ' J Dma+ '
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
'&B>F ' J 1>B>1E( '
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
1>B>1E( ^ mm
:sin! tortion formu"a e
X
Z/1> + ds) + fs
1>B>1E(X Z /1> + )F ) + fs induced fs induced X?> / mm '
_ EF / mm'
As induced stress is ery "ess in torsion desi!n of shaft is safe ,*SI(
6e know the channe" is subject to a+ia" compressie "oad In co"umn section the ma+imum bendin! moment occurs at channe" of section D X Rc + 5/' D X 1BFFF + ()F/' D X &??FFFF -mm 6e know fb X D/O O X t " + b J b '/>22 O X ( &F + >( J >( '/>22 (B
O X ))F& mm) ow check bendin! stress induced in C section
fb induced X D/O fb induced X &??FFFF /))F& X 1&.&) / mm ' As induced stress a"ue is "ess than a""owab"e stress a"ue desi!n is safe. fb X Permissb"e bendin! stress X 1'F / mm fb induced _ fb a""owab"e $ence our desi!n is safe. DESIGN OF 6ELDED JOINT OF CHANNEL %
he we"ded joint is subjected to pure bendin! moment . so it shou"d be desi!n for bendin! stress. 6e know minimum area of we"d or throat area
A X F.?F? + s + " 6here
s X si@e of we"d " X "en!th of we"d
A X F.?F? + ( + ?( J &F J )( J (B J)( 2
A X F.?F? + ( + '&)
A X B(E mm'
(E
8endin! stren!th of para""e" fi""et we"d
P X A + fb
fb X BF / mm '
As "oad app"ied at the end of channe" joint is 1BFFF . So moment !enerated at the we"ded joint is
D XP + 5 X 1BFFF+ ?( X 1)(FFFF ^ mm
we know fb X D /O
O X 8$) ^ bh) ----------------------
>$
&F + ?() ^ )( + (B ) OX
-----------------------------------
> + ?(
O X 'FEB'&
Ca"cu"atin! induce stress dee"oped in we"ded joint
fb induced
X 1)(FFFF / 'FEB'& >F
X >.&) /mm ' As induce stress is "ess then a""owab"e stress the desi!n is safe.
C'APTER( 1& -AN0)ACT0RING he process of conersion of raw materia" in to finished products usin! the three resources as Dan machine and finished sub-components. Danufacturin! is the term by which we transform resource inputs to create :sefu" !oods and serices as outputs. Danufacturin! can a"so be said as an intentiona" act of producin! somethin! usefu" . he transformation process is Shown be"ow-
Input out put
*"ement :sefu" product Dateria" Products ,ata Mnow"ed!e *ner!y Serices ;ariab"e cost
Conentiona" process
ransformation Dachines Interpretation Ski"" 0i+ed cost
Reenue
>1
It s the phase after the desi!n. $ence referrin! to the those a"ues we wi"" p"an he arious processes usin! the fo""owin! machines%i2
:niersa" "athe
ii2
Di""in! machine
iii2
ob to be m=ced +) ?haping operation
>?
If "en!th of cuttin! stokes breadth of job feed H cuttin! speed are known time re3uired to comp"ete job may be ca"cu"ated as#
5 % @ + ( A m)=666 B C " ?. ob being studies , purpose for the record is re*uired.
6A7 C'ARTS Outli8e pro9e:: 9;art :low process chart $ man type :low process chart $ material type :low process chart $ e*uipment type 6+7 C'ARTS u:i8g time :9ale i)
multiple activity chart
ii)
simo chart
iii)
&.3..?. chart
6 C7 DIAGRA-S INDICATING -OE-ENTS < -ODE,S i)
:low diagrams
ii)
?tring diagrams
iii)
8ycle graph
iv)
8hromo cycle graph
v)
ravel chart
(0) o compare between two or more alternative methods. (1) o select operations for a detailed study.
:ollowing chart shows the method study chart for manufacturing different ?)
9b>ects $-
?Y3+9%? 8ICIY
&B'93I' B?4%
9peration
It indicated main steps in a process method or procedure.
Inspection
Inspection is an act of checking for correctness of the *uantity or *uality of the items.
ransport
his indicates a movement of workers 3aterials or e*uipment from place to place. 'elay occurs when something stops the process , product waits for ne"t event.
'elay (temporary storage) ?torage
It indicates when any ob>ect is internationally retained in a state or location , removal of the ob>ect re*uires proper authori#ation.
8hange of operation
It indicates change of operation or process.
9peration cum ransportation
"ample J rticles are being painted as they are transported by the chain conveyor. Inspection "ample J powder milk tin is being cum 9peration weighed.(inspection) s it is filed. +oth the events occur simultaneously.
FLO6 PROCESS CHARTS @MATERIAL TYPE
12 PART M.S.Ch$))#"
SR. 7. 1 '
,ISCRIPI7 70 ACI;I= Inspection of raw materia" Raw materia" ?&
&
purchasin! Darkin! and cuttin! of materia" Chan!e of operation
(
Chamferin! the ed!es
>
Inspection of finished an!"es Stora!e
)
?
4'RT 7 D.S.P5A* 0RAD*
SIO* ^ AS P*R $* ,RA6I<
Sr.o.
Actiities
1. '. ). &. (. >. ?. B. E. 1F. 11. 1'. 1). 1&. 1(. 1>
Raw Dateria" Doed to m/c shop Cuttin! aken to we"din! m/c. 6eddin! Doed to surface !rinder 2
o determine standards of production performance that may be used to contro" costs.
B'
ELEMENTS OF COST ENCOUNTERED IN THE PROJECT ;
he cost encountered in this project are materia" cost "abour cost cost of standard parts desi!nin! cost and cost of indirect e+penses.
1
DESIGN COST ; he desi!nin! cost is ca"cu"ated by considerin! the amount taken by the desi!ner if so2 and the cost of desi!nin! materia" +
2
MATERIAL COST ; he materia" cost can be ca"cu"ated by findin! the tota" o"ume of the materia" used and the wei!ht of the materia". 0or ca"cu"ation the a"ue and the wei!ht the fo""owin! procedure is adopted %
a2
In actua" procedure there are some ho"es and shapes cut. 8ut they are considered to be so"id whi"e ca"cu"ation the tota" o"ume of materia" used.
b2
6hi"e ca"cu"ation the o"ume the trian!"e shaped parts and the shaped parts are considerin! as rectan!u"ar or s3uare p"ates.
c2
he wei!ht of the parts is ca"cu"ation by mu"tip"yin! the tota" o"ume and the density of the materia" D.S.2 which is e3ua" to ?.?>>>(+1F ^) M!/Cc.
d2
he tota" cost can be obtained by mu"tip"yin! the tota" wei!ht by the rate of materia".
B)
A
RA6 MATERIAL , STANDARD MATERIAL COST
SR NO
PART NAME
RATE
100>
4000
2
MOTOR
1800
1
1800
SHAFT
44/>
8
330
3
SPROKET
8/%##%h
72
475
4
CHAIN
00/ M
M
:00
5
PEDESTAL BEARING
40
3
1300
7
CHAIN SPROKET SET
300
1
300
8
CHANNEL
30/ >
4
200
:
SPRING
140
1
140
10
DI9IDER
200
1
200
11
ELASTOMER
240
1
240
12
NUT BOLT 6ASHER
--------
-------
240
1
12 9 CON9ERTOR
40
1
40
13
6ELDING ROD
4 /(
24
124
14
COLOUR
00/"i%
0.74 "i%
224
TOTAL
-----/-
B&
B DIRECT LABOUR COST
Sr.)!. 1. 2. . 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. :. 10.
R$%# #r
O#r$%i!)
H!ur
Tur)i)
10
140
1400
Mi""i)
2
140
00
Dri""i)
7
100
700
6#"&i)
15
174
2800
Gri)&i)
50
180
T$i)
30
120
Cu%%i)
8
30
20
G$ (u%%i)
8
40
300
A#"
2
100
200
P$i)%i)
2
100
200
TOTAL
5720/-
h!ur
A!u)%
INDIRECT COST B(
Tr$)!r%$%i!) (!% = 400/C!!"#)% , "uri($)% = 100/Dr$i) (!%
= 400/-
Pr!#(% r#!r% (!%
= 2000/-
TOTAL INDIRECT COST = 2100/-
TOTAL COST R$ M$%#ri$" C!% S%& P$r% C!% Dir#(% L$!ur C!% I)&ir#(% C!% T!%$" (!% !' r!#(%
= ----- 5720 2100
T!%$" (!% !' r!#(%
= ------ /-
B>
CHAPTER 14 PREACUTIONS , SAFETY MEASURES
:ollowing precautions and safety measures are taken to make our creation a grand success.
PRECA0TION$) the spring tension in the top plate of road divider plate should be ad>usted uniformly /) the alignment of chain drive arrangement should be properly done. 0) 'o not allow the vehicle to touch divider 1) he system should be robustly designed.
SA)ET -EAS0RES$-
) 'o not touch the top plate when the vehicle is passing by. /) 'o not touch the open wires of the transmission system.
C'APTER(1" B?
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