Rittberger & Zangl (2006) International Organizations - Chapter 1

Contents Preface List of Figures and Tables List of Acronyms PAR ART TI

x xii xiii

THEOR THE ORY Y AND HISTO HISTOR RY OF INTERN INTERNA ATIO TIONAL NAL ORGANIZATIONS

1

Introduction Defining international organizations Distinctions between international organizations Analytical classification of international organizations Overview of the book

3 5 8 10 12

2

Theories of International Organizations The realist school The institutionalist school The idealist school Theories of international organizations Conclusion

14 14 16 20 23 24

3

History of International Organizations War and power politics Industrial expansion Transportation Communication Social regulation Intellectual property World economic crises Trade relatio relations ns Monetary relations Human rights violations Protection of universal human rights Regional protection of human rights Developmental disparities Financing developmen developmentt Development and trade Environmental degradation Conclusion

25 25 33 33 34 35 36 37 41 43 44 45 48 49 50 52 53 55

v

vi

Contents

PAR ART T II

POLICY-MA POLICY -MAKIN KING G IN INTERN INTERNA ATIO TIONAL NAL ORGANIZATIONS

4

International Organizations as Political Systems Constitutional structure of international organizations Institutional structure of international organizations Plenary organs Executive councils Administrative staff Courts of justice Parliamentary assemblies Representation of social interests Conclusion

63 63 65 66 71 73 74 75 76 77

5

Actors’ Demands and Support: the Input Dimension Representatives of member states Administrative staff Parliamentary assemblies Interest groups Communities of experts Conclusion

78 78 81 83 84 85 86

6

Decision-making in International Organizations: the Conversion Process Decision-making models Intergovernmental negotiations Majority voting Rational choice Standard operating procedures Bureaucratic politics Programme decisions and operational decisions Programme decisions Operational decisions Conclusion

88 88 88 89 90 90 91 92 92 97 101

What International Organizations Produce: the Output Dimension Policy programmes Effects Binding nature Programmes and decision-ma decision-making king Operational activities Specification

102 102 103 104 106 106 107

7

Contents Implementation Monitoring Adjudication Sanctions Operations and decision-making Information activities Collecting and publishing information Independently generating information Exchanging information Conclusion PART III

vii 107 108 109 110 112 113 113 115 116 116

ACTIVITIES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

8

Security Violent self-help Policy programme of the UN Operations of the UN Collective security: enforcement Consensual security I: peaceful settlement of disputes Consensual security II: peacekeeping Information activities of the UN Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Dynamics of arms procurement Policy programme of the UN Operations of the IAEA Information activities of the IAEA Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Conclusion

123 124 125 127 127 132 133 136 136 138 138 140 143 143 144

9

Welfare and Economic Relations Global trade relations (WTO) Policy programme of the WTO Operations of the WTO Information activities of the WTO Evaluation of the organization’s outputs European trade relations (EU) Policy programme of the EU Operations of the EU Information activities of the EU Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Global financial relations (IMF) Policy programme of the IMF Operations of the IMF

145 146 146 149 152 153 154 154 155 157 158 159 160 163

viii

Contents Information activities of the IMF Evaluation of the organization’s outputs European monetary relations (EU) Policy programme of the EU Operations of the ECB Information activities of the ECB Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Disparities in development (World Bank) Policy programme of the World Bank Group Operations of the World Bank Group Information activities of the World Bank Group Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Conclusion

165 166 167 167 169 170 171 171 172 174 177 178 178

10

The Environment Protection of the ozone layer Policy programme of UNEP and WMO Operations of UNEP and WMO Information activities of UNEP and WMO Evaluation of the organizations’ outputs Climate change Policy programme of UNEP and WMO Operations of UNEP and WMO Information activities of UNEP and WMO Evaluation of the organizations’ outputs Conclusion

180 181 181 184 185 186 187 187 190 190 192 192

11

Human Rights Global human rights protection Policy programme of the UN Operations of the UN Information activities of the UN Evaluation of the organization’s outputs European human rights protection Policy programme of the Council of Europe Operations of the Council of Europe Information activities of the Council of Europe Evaluation of the organization’s outputs Conclusion

193 195 195 198 202 203 203 204 205 207 207 208

Contents 12

Between a World State and International Anarchy: Global Governance Models of international relations International anarchy World hegemony World state Global governance Conclusion

References Index

ix

209 209 210 212 213 214 215 216 235

Chapter 1

Introduction International organizations are a new phenomenon in the time-honoured world of politics. They first emerged during the 19th century and became ever more important over the course of the 20th century. Whether it is the United Nations or the European Union, international organizations are neither the continuation of traditional power politics, albeit with new means, nor the expression of an evolutionary process leading to t he formation of a global or regional superstate. They simply allow states to broach problems they have in common, some uniting them and some dividing them, in a collective decision-making process. International organizations are thus involved in innumerable issue areas – from A as in Arms Control to Z as in Zimbabwe’s land reform. Without them it would be difficult to address the substance of much of contemporary international politics. International organizations touch upon several academic disciplines, especially International Relations, International Law and International Political Economy. Moreover, Diplomatic and International History shed light upon the birth and growth of individual international organizations in the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus research into and teaching of these relatively new structural elements of International Relations is gaining ever more importance and attention. Our starting point in this book is the everyday political knowledge of  the average citizen who, through the media, is regularly confronted with news in which one international organization or another plays a significant role, be it a well-known, global organization such as the United Nations Organization (UN), one or more of its Specialized Agencies, or related organizations. Until a few years ago, international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (IBRD) were relatively unknown. More recently, however, the well-publicized protests of their opponents during their annual meetings have considerably raised their international profile. This seems appropriate, given the substantial political influence exerted by these organizations as well as by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Regional organizations such as the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) remain an important focus of broad political interest. The international organizations cited so far only represent a fraction of  the approximately 250 international governmental organizations (IGOs) 3

4

International Organizations

existing at present, not to mention the approximately 6,000 international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) which we shall consider later (Yearbook of International Organizations 2003/04). The foundation of the United Nations after the Second World War triggered the mushrooming of  international organizations of the most disparate kinds, and that expansion is still continuing today (see Chapter 3). Not only have their numbers increased noticeably but so have their political significance, their financial resources and their personnel. Since it is a truism in politics that ‘money talks’ – and international organizations are no exception here – let us cast a brief preliminary glance at the budgets of international organizations. The United Nations had an appropriated regular budget of 2.89 billion US dollars for the budget year 2002/03. Added to this were the budgets of the Specialized Agencies, which amounted to a further almost 2.5 billion US dollars. Voluntary contributions to aid agencies and related organizations of the United Nations as well as the special budgets for financing peacekeeping operations grew significantly to an estimated 4 billion US dollars for the budget year 2002/03. By comparison, the budget of the European Union (EU-15) amounted to almost 100 billion Euros for the year 2003, reflecting the higher degree of regional integration in Europe. The practical importance of international organizations is further evident when we consider the size of loans and grants made by the international development banks and funds. For example, in the Asian crisis of  1997 and 1998 the World Bank and its subsidiary the International Development Association (IDA) alone granted loans totalling almost 58 billion US dollars. The total lending volume of the World Bank Group in the 1990s amounted to over 220 billion US dollars, thus exceeding by several times the sum of all previously approved loans (World Bank 2000). The World Bank Group administration budget for 2003 was 1.6 billion US dollars (see World Bank 2003: 7). The quantity and quality of the staff of international organizations are another indicator of their relevance and political weight. The United Nations alone employs 35,000 people in approximately 600 offices worldwide, of whom 14,500 are at the New York headquarters and a further 4,000 work at the UN’s European centres in Geneva and Vienna. Together with its various Specialized Agencies, the United Nations family has over 64,000 employees (Ayton-Shenker 2002: 286–90). The World Bank is the largest Specialized Agency with 10,000 employees (www.worldbank.org), followed by the World Health Organization (WHO) with 4,000. Statistically, there is one employee in the UN system for every 100,000 people in the world. In the European Union there are seven so-called Eurocrats for every 100,000 EU citizens. Around 31,000 Eurocrats, with 24,000 posts in the Commission, followed by the European Parliament

Introduction

5

with 4,200 civil servants and the EU Council with 2,900 (European Commission 2003), reflect the political weight of the EU. With such financial and human resources at their disposal, international organizations have a significant impact on a range of issues, and the agendas of international organizations are as virtually all-encompassing as those of domestic political systems.

Defining international organizations The term ‘international organization’ entered both scientific and everyday vocabulary surprisingly recently. During the last third of the 19th century expressions such as ‘international public union’, ‘international office’ or ‘commission’ were commonly used in the literature. For many international organizations at the time this term was wholly appropriate as long as these unions, offices or commissions really were organizations with clearly delimited technical and administrative competencies. A very early example is the Rhine River Commission, which was founded in the aftermath of the Congress of Vienna and whose task it was (and remains) to facilitate and coordinate the navigation of the Rhine with its international traffic. The term ‘international organization’ was probably introduced into scientific discourse around 1867 by the Scottish legal scholar James Lorimer in some of his later publications. Lorimer’s works were well-known in England and were also translated into French. By 1880, the German publicist Constantin Frantz was championing ‘federalism as … a principle for … international organizations’. Thus the expression was probably familiar to interested academics and publicists by the end of the 19th century. In an early systematic discussion of this new phenomenon Georg Jellinek (1882) subsumed it under the study of associations between states. In Germany the decisive acceptance of the concept occurred with Walther Schücking’s treatise The Organization of the World  (Die Organisation der Welt ) (1908) which was published in France in an abridged version entitled L’organisation internationale. In the US the expression ‘international organization’ was disseminated by its use in Paul S. Reinsch’s textbook Public International Unions (1911) (Potter 1945: 803–6). The term ‘international organization’ was indirectly recognized in Article 23 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which suggests the creation of specialized international organizations for the promotion of  international cooperation. The establishment of the International Labour Organization (ILO) was a direct consequence of Article 23. However, Article 24 of the Covenant continued using the older expressions such as

6

International Organizations

‘international office’ or ‘commission’ for those organizations already in existence at that time. Finally, Articles 23 and 24 were employed by the League of Nations in order to establish its identity as a general organization with a universal vocation. This muddled nomenclature persisted throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Only after the Second World War was a comprehensive concept of international organization accepted and did the organizations themselves adopt this name. The Preamble of the United Nations Charter ends with the specific mention that the signatories ‘do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations’. Three separate conceptions of international organizations are particularly striking: their roles as instruments, as arenas and as actors (Archer 2001; Rittberger, Mogler & Zangl 1997). International organizations are often seen as instruments with which states pursue their own interests as best as they can and in which political processes primarily reflect the interests of the most powerful member states. For example, US diplomacy harnessed the UN in its dealings with Communist states during the Cold War. As an arena, however, international organizations resemble a playing field more than a tool of state policy. In this sense, international organizations are permanent institutions of conference diplomacy in which states may exchange information, condemn or justify certain actions and coordinate their national political strategies. For example, the UN is often seen as an arena for international environmental politics (Rittberger, Mogler & Zangl 1997). While the image of international organizations as an arena emphasizes that the member states are the principal actors involved, the third image of  international organizations is based on the premise that states have either pooled or delegated their sovereignty so that international organizations themselves embody the characteristics of a corporate actor (Moravcsik 1998: 67 ). Decisions are made in or through international organizations by a collectivity of states, and the crucial point here is that without the relevant organization decisions would not have been made in the same way. The UN Security Council is sometimes considered as such a corporate actor. International organizations are a specific class of international institutions. In particular, two types of international institutions can be distinguished: international regimes, and international organizations. Both types are international social institutions characterized by behavioural patterns based on international norms and rules, which prescribe behavioural roles in recurring situations that lead to a convergence of reciprocal expectations. However, international regimes and international organizations differ in two ways. While international regimes always relate to specific issue areas such as the protection of the ozone layer or the protection of human rights, inter-

Introduction

7

national organizations can transcend the boundaries of issue areas. The United Nations and the European Union are examples of organizations active in several issue areas. Furthermore, while international organizations can function like actors, international regimes do not possess actorlike qualities. Thus the United Nations, the World Bank, the European Union and NATO are international organizations because they can function as or like collective actors. In their instrumental capacity, international organizations function as quasi-actors, often at the bidding of their most powerful member states. As arenas, however, the outcome of negotiations within international organizations suggests the existence of a collective actor. Finally, when functioning as a corporate actor, international organizations are real actors who are capable of independent action internally as well as externally thanks to pooled or delegated sovereignty. By contrast, international regimes are issue-area-specific international institutions characterized by basic principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which behavioural expectations converge. International regimes do not function as actors (Krasner 1983b: 1). At first glance, the close linkage between both forms of international institution may be somewhat confusing. Nevertheless, we must differentiate three relationships between international regimes and international organizations which are ultimately founded on different levels of abstraction (Bedarff 2000: 20): 1

The issue-area-specific principles, norms, rules and decision-making processes encompassed by the concept of an international regime can be embedded in an international organization in which several regimes are anchored. On this interpretation, international organizations are more comprehensive than regimes. For example, one can view the UN as an international organization in which the principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures of such widely differing regimes as that for the protection of human rights or the protection of the ozone layer are anchored.

2

The issue-area-specific principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures of an international regime can be drawn from different international organizations. On this interpretation, international regimes are more comprehensive than international organizations. An example is the nuclear nonproliferation regime, which includes both the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the London Suppliers’ Group (LSG). Yet over and above that, the nuclear non-proliferation regime is based on the principles, norms, rules and decision-making processes that are

8

International Organizations contained in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but not in the structure of an international organization.

3

International organizations can support international regimes just as international regimes can be supportive of international organizations. International organizations can have two tasks in connection with international regimes: firstly, given their ability to generate norms, they can be the driving force behind the creation of new regimes; secondly, they can contribute to the effectiveness of regimes by monitoring the implementation of norms and rules of regimes. For example, bodies of  the United Nations were involved in negotiations for the NPT, while the IAEA is permanently involved in its implementation.

Distinctions between international organizations While our approach underlines the status of international organizations as social institutions, our main focus is on intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the UN, the WTO, or the EU, as opposed to international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) such as Amnesty International, Greenpeace or Transparency International. At first glance, the differentiation between IGOs and INGOs appears straightforward. IGOs have a membership composed of states, usually represented by governmental agents; the membership of INGOs is made up of non-governmental actors. Nevertheless, the cases of the European University Association (EUA), or the International Labour Organization (ILO) reveal ambiguities due to mixed membership. In order to differentiate between these principal categories of international organizations, we shall follow standard practice by ascertaining whether their existence is based on a direct or indirect multilateral governmental act. If an international organization is founded neither through an intergovernmental agreement nor a decision of an existing IGO, the new body is classified as an INGO. See Table 1.1. There are two subsets of INGOs, transnational umbrella organizations and transnational organizations. Our analysis touches only marginally on the first subset, including, for example, organizations like the World Council of Churches (WCC), the Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederations of Europe (UNICE), and the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC). Our concern here lies more with so-called ‘transnational organizations’ (TNOs), that is, non-governmental organizations with affiliates in various countries and a hierarchical structure in which affiliates cannot overrule the centre. Transnational organizations are further differentiated according to whether their activities are ‘for profit’ or are more ori-

Introduction

9

Table 1.1  International organizations and non-governmental organizations in international politics (rough classification)

IGOs International Governmental Organizations

INGOs International NonGovernmental Organizations

United Nations (UN) European Union (EU) Organization of American States (OAS) Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Bank (IBRD)

Umbrella organizations: World Council of Churches (WCC) Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederations of Europe (UNICE) European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC)

Profit-oriented transnational organizations

Non-profitoriented transnational   organizations

DaimlerChrysler Microsoft Allianz

Roman Catholic Church International Olympic Committee Greenpeace Amnesty International

ented towards the common good (with charitable or ‘not-for-profit’ status). The former are usually called transnational (or multinational) companies. Examples of these are DaimlerChrysler, Microsoft and the Allianz Group. ‘Not-for-profit’ TNOs are, for example, the Roman Catholic Church, the International Olympic Committee, Greenpeace and Amnesty International. Since our focus is on IGOs rather than INGOs, the latter only come into play when they participate in policy-making processes within the framework of global (United Nations) or regional (European Union) organizations. They may then be considered as elements of a multilevel system of  regional or global governance (Huntington 1973; Jacobson 1984: 10–11; Cutler, Haufler & Porter 1999).

10

International Organizations

 Analytical classification of international organizations This rough-and-ready categorization of international organizations needs to be fleshed out by a more detailed analytical classification concentrating on IGOs. For this, as a first step, we employ the membership and competencies of international organizations as criteria. Membership can be open or restricted, with the universal organizations of the UN family at one pole. Within this family, even if complete universality of membership is rare, a universal organization’s statutes and activities do not permanently exclude a state from membership. At the other pole, limitations to membership are defined by specific organizations. Membership of particular international organizations can be limited by many criteria such as geography, economy or culture. Examples are the European Union (EU), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) or the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). As with membership, the competencies of international organizations also vary substantially, ranging from comprehensive organizations such as the UN or the EU, whose competencies cover a multitude of different issue areas, to sectoral organizations, which are limited in their competencies. This category includes not only the Specialized Agencies of the United Nations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), but also a multitude of specific organizations, such as the European Space Agency (ESA). On the basis of these two dimensions of membership and competencies we can draw up a 2 x 2 matrix containing four different types of international organizations (Jacobson 1984: 12). Since we want to think of both dimensions as a continuum we shall use a two-dimensional coordinate to depict the classification of different international organizations. See Figure 1.1. While membership and competencies can be regarded as a first step in classifying IGOs analytically, other dimensions have more fundamental significance. The functional  dimension focuses on the main tasks of an international organization, be they programme organizations or operational organizations. Programme organizations deal primarily with programme formulation, that is, the setting of behavioural and distributive norms and rules. They can play a prominent role in the establishment of  international regimes. Operational organizations, on the other hand, concentrate on implementation, especially the monitoring of compliance with norms and rules. The UN or the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) are examples of programme organizations; the IMF, the World Bank, and IAEA are operational organizations.

Introduction

11

Figure 1.1  International organization (typology I)

Competence Comprehensive UN

Membership

EU

Universal

Restricted ILO  WHO

ESA OPEC

Issue-specific

A further classification of international organizations can be derived from their decision-making authority. Programme organizations are concerned with the obligations of individual members, while operational organizations focus on their capacity for implementation. Programme organizations can thus be differentiated into strongly binding and loosely binding international organizations, while operational organizations can be separated into those that are strong and those that are weak in implementation. The EU and the WTO are strongly binding programme organizations, while the OSCE and WHO are more loosely binding. Correspondingly, the IMF and the World Bank are operational organizations strong in implementation, while the UNHCR is weaker. International organizations can also be distinguished according to the degree to which states  pool or delegate decision-making authority. In strictly intergovernmental organizations such authority is neither pooled nor delegated. These organizations – for instance the OSCE, OPEC or the International Coffee Organization (ICO) – are limited to providing services intended to facilitate the intergovernmental self-coordination of national decision-making units. Ultimately, national autonomy and sovereignty are maintained, since there must be a consensus among all the participating national decision-making units. Supranational organizations, by contrast, are based on a more hierarchical mode of coordination through centralized decision-making procedures. Although decentralized national governments remain participants in international organizations’ decision-making, consensus between them is not always required. In the EU, for instance, members pool sovereignty in the Council of Ministers where binding

12

International Organizations Table 1.2  International organizations (typology II) Function

Authority

Delegation

Example

Intergovernmental

United Nations

Supranational

EU

Intergovernmental

OSCE

Supranational

IWC

Intergovernmental

OPEC

Supranational

IMF World Bank

Intergovernmental

ICO

Supranational

UNHCR

Strongly binding Programme organizations

Loosely binding

Strong in implementation Operational organizations

Weak in implementation

decisions can be made by qualified majority, and they delegate sovereignty to the European Court of Justice where decisions are made by independent judges. See Table 1.2.

Overview of the book  Scientific analysis is not merely a question of systematic description; it must also lead to general statements about causes and effects. We therefore have to deal with the conditions and circumstances that give rise to the creation of international organizations as well as the effects they might have. Given this understanding of scientific analysis, four fundamental questions weave their way through this volume:

Introduction

13

•

Why are international organizations created? Chapter 2 gives an introduction to the various theories of international organizations, while Chapter 3 offers an empirical analysis of the conditions that led to the creation of international organizations in six issue areas of international politics.

•

What effect does the existence of an international organization have on collective decision-making processes? Chapters 4 to 7 examine how collective decisions in international organizations are reached. To this end international organizations are conceived as political systems in which the demands and support (inputs) of different actors are transformed into decisions and activities (outputs) by means of various conversion processes.

•

What are the effects of the decisions and activities of international  organizations on international cooperation? Are there differences between issue areas? We shall deal with this topic in Chapters 8 to 11. Starting with the specific obstacles to international cooperation in the areas of security, welfare and human rights, we analyse the extent to which selected international organizations can assist in overcoming these obstacles to cooperation (as an outcome).

•

Does the establishment of international organizations indicate a fundamental transformation of the structure of international relations? In Chapter 12 we go beyond the effects of international organizations in specific issue areas to examine whether the presence of international organizations is likely to transform structures in international relations in general.

But first, what is the theoretical background and where do we stand in the available range of theoretical approaches?

Index Note: Organizations and initiatives are listed under their full names, with their acronyms in brackets afterwards. All organizations and initiatives coming under the aegis of the UN are listed as subentries of ‘United Nations’. All organizations and initiatives coming under the aegis of the EU are listed as subentries of ‘European Union’. Abbott, Kenneth W., 104 abuse of power, 46 Abyssinia, 28 acid rain, 54 actors’ demands and support, 78–87 adjudication, 109–10 Adler, Emanuel, 21, 115 administrative staff, 73–4, 81–3 Adriatic Sea, 130 advocacy networks, 22, 85 Afghanistan, 72, 127, 130 African Union (AU), 29, 32 agricultural prices, in Europe, 99, 108 agriculture, 39, 51 air transport, 38 Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), 188 Allianz Group, 9 Allison, Graham T., 88, 90, 91 Alston, Philip, 46, 91, 199, 205 Alter, Karen J., 75, 110, 157 American hegemony, 16 Amin, Idi, 195 Amnesty International, 8, 9, 46, 49, 76, 85, 116, 194, 201 analytical classification of international organizations, 10–12 anarchical self-help system, 15 anarchy, international, 21, 63, 210–11, 212, 214, 215 Andersen, Stephen O., 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186 Angola, 72, 126, 130 Annan, Kofi, 82, 98, 99, 132 ANZUS Pact, 29, 32 Apartheid regime, in South Africa, 129, 130, 193, 195 Appellate Body, WTO, 74, 151 Arab League, 29, 32 Arab states, 211 Archer, Clive, 6, 28 Argentina, 128 arms control agreements, 91 arms procurement, 133–44 Armstrong, David, 26, 27, 28

Asian crisis, 1997, 4, 164, 165, 178 Association of German Railway Administrations, 38 Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 9, 32, 43 Atlantic Charter, 45 Attac, 85 Austria, 65 autonomy, national, 11, 15, 92, 93, 97, 106, 112, 121, 123 Ayton-Shenker, D., 4 Bailey, Sidney D., 72 balance of power, 15, 18, 191 Balkan question, 26 Balkan Wars, 31 Barnett, Michael N., 23, 113 Basch, Paul F., 35 ‘Battle of the Sexes’, 19 Baumgart, Winfried, 27 Beckman, Peter R., 142, 144 Bedarff, Hildegard, 7 Beigbeder, Yves, 73 Beise, Marc, 147, 148, 150, 151 Belgium, 43, 95 Berlin Congresses, 26 Berne Convention for the Protection of  Literary and Artistic Works, 37, 39 Bhagwati, Jagdish, 149 Bildt, Carl, 133 binding nature of policy programmes, 104–5 biomedicine, 48 Boekle, Henning, 202 Boli, John, 197 Bornschier, Volker, 94 Borrmann, Christine, 95, 100 Bosnia, 29, 30, 73, 112, 126, 129, 201 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 131, 134 Bosnian Serbs, 131 Bothe, Michael, 30, 127, 132 Boughton, James, 44 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 47, 82, 98, 99, 135 Bradley, Anthony W., 204, 205

235

236

Index

Braithwaite, John, 37, 43, 44 Brazil, 162, 178 Breitmeier, Helmut, 86, 116, 181, 182, 183, 184, 188, 191 Brenton, Tony, 188 Bretton Woods system, 40, 41, 43, 44, 160, 162, 172 Brinkmeier , Friederike, 205, 208 Britain, see United Kingdom British hegemony, 16 Brock, Lothar, 132 Brown, Janet Welsh, 54, 81, 181, 184 Brunell, Thomas L., 157 Brunner, Stefan, 65 Brzoska, Michael, 112 BSE, 60 Bundesbank, German, 168 bureaucracy, 97, 99, 100 bureaucratic politics model of decisionmaking, 91–2, 97, 100, 112, 149, 155, 175 Busch, Marc L., 152 Cambodia, 47, 135, 195 Cameron, David R., 168 Canada, 43, 182 Canan, Penelope, 182, 183, 185, 186 Cancun, WTO Ministerial Conference, 153 capital markets, 50, 166, 173, 174 Carr, Edward H., 14 causal beliefs, 22 Central Office for International Carriage by Rail, 38 Charter of Paris, CSCE, 31 Chasek, Pamela S., 54, 81, 181, 184, 187 Chatfield, Charles, 22, 85 Chayes, Abram, 108, 112, 142 Chayes, Antonia, 108, 112, 142 Chechnya, 48, 111, 201 Chellaney, Brahma, 141 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), 109, 144 Chesterman, Simon, 126, 132, 137 child labour, 36 Chile, 195 China, 28, 64, 71, 103, 139, 140 Chinkin, Christine, 76 Churchill, Winston S., 45 Clements, L. J., 205 climate change, 187–92 cloning, human, 48 CO2 emissions, 188 Coate, Roger A., 28, 133, 135 Code of Conduct for the Transfer of  Technology, 52

cognitive condition, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 41, 42, 45, 49, 53 Cohn, Theodore H., 147, 148, 149 Cold War, 6, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 81, 124, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 137, 138, 144, 172, 197, 201, 204, 205, 208 Coleman, James S., 21 Colijn, Ko, 142 collective actors, 7 Colonels’ coup, in Greece, 111 Common [European] Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 31, 70, 73, 105 Communist regimes/system, 6, 30, 45, 204, 205 competencies, 5, 10, 33, 44, 53, 54, 63, 64, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 99, 109, 127, 134, 156, 159, 184, 209 Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF), World Bank, 175, 176 comprehensive test-ban treaty (CTBT), 140 Concert of Europe, 26, 27, 55 Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, 86, 188–9, 191 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 31, 32, 198 Congo question, 26 Congress of Vienna, 5, 26 consensus procedure, 68 constitutional structure of international organizations, 63–5 consumer protection, 103, 150 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 116 conversion process, 88–101 coordination games without distributional conflict, 19 coordination games with distributional conflict, 19 copyright, 33, 37 corporate actor, 6, 7 Cortright, David, 112 Côte d’Ivoire, 130 Council of Europe, 11, 31, 48, 49, 72, 75, 110, 111, 194, 204–8 Committee of Experts, 205 Committee of Ministers, 73, 204, 206, 208 Court of Arbitration, Permanent, 27 courts of justice, 74–5 Crimean War, 26 criminal justice/law, 70, 103, 105 Croatia, 129 cross-border issues, 19, 33, 34, 42, 46, 53, 54, 126

Index currencies, 41, 43, 159, 160, 161, 162, 165, 167, 168, 170 customs union, 42, 43, 154, 156 Cutler, A. Claire, 9 Cyprus, 65 Czech Republic, 65 Czechoslovakia, former, 198 Czempiel, Ernst-Otto, 121, 126, 214 DaimlerChrysler, 9 Danube River Commission, 38 Daws, Sam, 72 Dayton Accord, 133 de Zayas, Alfred, 200 decision-making in international organizations, 88–101 decolonialization, 49, 52, 56, 125, 172 Deen, Thalif, 81 defining international organizations, 5–8 Deighton, A., 32 Delors, Jacques, 82, 158, 168 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 130 den Dekker, Guido, 142 Denmark, 65, 95 Depledge, Joanna, 190 Deutsch, Karl W., 17, 18 developmental disparities, 49–53, 171–8 Di Blase, Antonietta, 36 diamonds, 112 Dicke, Klaus, 136, 196 Diederichs, Udo, 74 DiIulio , John J., Jr, 88, 89, 96 dilemma games with distributional conflict, 20 dilemma games without distributional conflict, 19 Dirks, Jan, 36 discrimination, 36, 46, 141, 147, 148, 196 Dispute Settlement Body (DSB)/Dispute Settlement Procedure, WTO, 42, 151, 152 distinctions between international organizations, 8–9 Doha Round, GATT, 150, 153 Donnelly, Jack, 46, 193, 195, 196, 205 Downs, Anthony, 90 Doyle, Michael W., 135 Drahos, Peter, 37, 43, 44 drinking water, quality of, 107 Driscoll, David D., 163 Dülffer, Jost, 27 Dumbarton Oaks, 64 Dutch hegemony, 16 Earth Summit, 54, 188

237

East Timor, 29, 126, 135, 201 Eastern Bloc, 30, 139 East–West relations, 19, 30, 31, 32, 47, 48, 49, 57, 81, 128, 131, 137 Ebock, Kerstin, 126, 127 effects of policy programmes, 103–4 Efinger, Manfred, 123, 145, 180, 193 Eichengreen, Barry, 43, 162, 167, 168 Einhorn , Jessica P., 178 El Salvador, 135 Elbe River Commission, 38 electronic components, 150 Elias, Norbert, 213, 215 embargoes, 111, 129, 130, 193, 201 Emergency Financing Mechanism (EFM), IMF, 164 employers’ associations, 36 Enderlein, Henrik, 171 Engel, Christian, 95, 100 Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF), IMF, 164 environmental degradation, 25, 53–5, 56, 57, 115, 180–92 epistemic community, 22, 86, 115, 116, 177, 186, 191 Eritrea, 130 Estonia, 65 Ethiopia, 130 European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), 43 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 43 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 12, 65, 74, 75, 109, 110, 111, 156, 157 European Economic Community (EEC), 43, 44, 95, 154, 156 European Human Rights Charter, 204 European integration, 17, 84 European Movement, 48, 204 European Patent Office, 37, 39 European Space Agency (ESA), 10 European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), 8, 9 European Union (EU), 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 31, 32, 40, 43, 44, 53, 54, 60, 64, 65, 68, 69, 70, 73, 74, 75, 77, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 91, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, 107, 111, 146, 147, 154–9, 167–71, 182, 183 Cohesion Fund, 81, 95, 104 ‘comitology’, 155 Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), 73 Common Market Programme, 83 Completing the Internal Market , White Paper, 158

238

Index

European Union (EU) – continued  Economic and Financial Committee (ECOFIN), 170 Economic and Social Committee (ESC), 77, 84 Emissions Limits for Vehicles with Smaller Engines, EC Directive, 95 euro, 44, 90, 98, 168, 169, 170, 171 Eurocrats, 4 European Central Bank (ECB), 90, 98, 168, 169–71 European Commission (EC), 4, 5, 60, 65, 73, 74, 82, 94, 95, 98, 99, 108, 110, 155, 156, 157, 168, 170 European Constitutional Treaty, 65, 76, 105 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), 48, 49, 204, 205, 206 European Council/Council of the European Union, 65, 67, 68, 70, 80, 94, 98 European Court of Human Rights, 48, 49, 205, 206, 207 European Currency Unit (ECU), 167 European Monetary System (EMS), 40, 44, 167, 168, 169 European Monetary Union (EMU), 40, 44, 168, 169 European Parliament (EP), 4, 65, 74, 75, 83, 84, 95, 111, 155, 157, 159 European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), 31 European Social Charter, 48, 49, 204, 205 European System of Central Banks (ESCB), 169 first pillar, 70, 73, 74, 82, 95, 104 Rapid Reaction Force, 31 Regional Fund, 74 second pillar, 70 Single European Act (SEA), 43, 54, 65, 68, 69, 76, 81, 82, 84, 94, 100, 154 Stability and Growth Pact, 169, 170 Structural Fund, 74, 81, 95, 104 third pillar, 70 Treaty of Amsterdam, 31, 65, 68, 69, 70, 76, 105, 111, 154 Treaty of Maastricht, 44, 65, 68, 69, 76, 77, 81, 82, 84, 94, 95, 111, 154, 157, 168, 169 Treaty of Nice, 65, 68, 70, 74, 76, 105, 154 Treaty of Rome, 69, 94, 154 Werner Plan, 94, 167, 168 European University Association (EUA), 8 Evans, Peter B., 93

exchange rate, 43, 44, 160, 161, 167, 170 executive councils, 71–3 experts, 46, 51, 78, 85–6, 87, 115, 116, 143, 151, 155, 175, 176, 182, 185, 186, 190, 192, 200 Extended Fund Facility (EFF), IMF, 163 fairness, 93 Falke, Josef, 155 Falkland Islands, 128 Fascist regimes, 45, 49 federal states, 17 Ferdowsi, Mir A., 52, 81 Ferreira , Francisco H. G., 175 Feske, Susanne, 43 Finland, 65 Finnemore, Martha, 22, 23, 113, 194 First World War, 21, 26, 27, 32, 36, 41, 55, 56 Fischer, David, 139, 142 football, 63, 78 forced labour, 36 ‘form follows function’, 17 Forster, Anthony, 32 Forsythe, David P., 28, 133, 135, 137, 198, 201, 202 France, 5, 27, 28, 33, 43, 60, 69, 71, 79, 80, 81, 94, 95, 103, 139, 168 Frantz, Constantin, 5 free trade, 22, 23, 40, 41, 42, 43, 154, 159 Frieden , Jeffrey A., 167, 168 Friedrich, Carl J., 17 Gareis, Sven Bernhard, 127, 135, 136, 202 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 37, 40, 41, 42, 52, 75, 103, 114, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 160, 173, 212 General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS), 40, 42, 147, 149, 150 General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB), IMF, 164 General Postal Union, 34, 39 German Mark (D-Mark), 168 German reunification, 94 Germany, 5, 27, 28, 30, 41, 43, 45, 60, 79, 81, 94, 95, 115, 168, 183, 195 Gilbert , Christopher L., 172, 173 Gill, George, 27 Gilpin, Robert, 15, 16, 160, 161, 162, 212 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry, 167 Global Development Finance, World Bank report, 177 Global Environmental Facility (GEF), World Bank, 184, 190

Index global governance, 214–15 global warming, 53, 54, 187, 188 gold standard, 40, 41, 43 Goldberg , Jörg, 176 Goldstein, Judith, 22, 115 Gordenker, Leon, 73 grants, 4, 37, 51 Gränzer, Sieglinde, 23 Great Depression, 40, 41 Greece, 65, 81, 95, 111, 133 Greene, Owen, 185 greenhouse gas emissions, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192 Greenpeace, 8, 9, 76, 85 Grenada, 126 Grieco, Joseph M., 15, 16, 211 Groom, A. J. R., 26, 33 Group of 77, 81 Gulf War, 1991, 107, 112, 131, 143 Haas, Ernst B., 60 Haas, Peter M., 17, 21, 22, 86, 115, 116, 181, 182, 186 Hague Peace Conferences, 27 Haiti, 47, 112, 130, 201 Hammarskjöld, Dag, 29, 133 Harrigan, Jane, 176 Harris, David, 205 Hart, Jeffrey A., 160, 161, 162, 173 Hasenclever, Andreas, 14, 19, 85, 211 Haufler, Virginia, 9 Hauser, Heinz, 42, 149, 150 Havana Charter, 41, 42 health, see public health Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, IMF, 164 hegemonic condition, 16, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 41, 42, 45, 50, 53 hegemony, world, 212–13 Helleiner, Eric, 41, 43, 44, 160, 161, 162, 163 Helsinki, Final Act of, CSCE, 31, 198 Higgott, Richard, 175, 176, 178 history of international organizations, 25–57 Hix, Simon, 81, 83, 95 Höffe, Otfried, 213 Hofmann, Jeanette, 35, 104 Holbrooke, Richard, 133 Holtrup, Petra, 189, 192 Howorth, Jolyon, 32 human rights, 6, 7, 13, 22, 23, 25, 44–9, 56, 57, 77, 82, 91, 103, 109, 111, 113, 116, 117, 121, 126, 129, 137, 193–208, 209

239

Human Rights Watch, 46, 49, 116, 194, 198, 201 Hungary, 65 Huntington, Samuel P., 9 hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 103, 116, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187 IAEA Activity Report , 143 IAEA Bulletin, 143 idealist school of international organizations theory, 20–3 IMF Research Bulletin, 166 implementation of operational activities, 107–8 income tax, 104 India, 140, 144 industrial expansion, 33–7 inflation, 165, 169, 170 information activities, 113–16 inputs of international organizations, 13, 60, 61, 78–87, 88, 106 institutional structure of international organizations, 65–77 institutionalist school of international organizations theory, 16–20 intellectual property, 36, 37, 42, 147, see also Trade-Related Aspects of  Intellectual Property interdependence, 16, 17, 18, 45, 213, 214, 215 interest constellations, 16, 19, 20 interest groups, 84–5 interest orientation, 22 interest rates, 90, 98, 165, 169, 170 Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), 38 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 86, 191 intergovernmental negotiations model of  decision-making, 88–9, 93, 94, 95, 97, 106 Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), 109, 140 internal market, 74, 81, 82, 94, 100, 104, 147, 154, 158, 159 International Association for Labour Legislation, 36, 39 International Aviation Commission, 38 International Bureau for Weights and Measures, 34, 38 International Capital Markets, IMF report, 166 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), 34, 38 International Coffee Organization (ICO), 11, 12

240

Index

International Court of Justice (ICJ), 69, 75, 109, 110, 133, 214 International Criminal Court (ICC), 47, 48, 49, 202 International Development Association (IDA), 4, 50, 51, 172 International Finance Corporation (IFC), 50, 51, 52, 172, 174 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 51, 52 international governmental organizations (IGOs), 3, 8, 9, 10 International Hygiene Code, 39 International Institute of Agriculture, 35, 39 International Labour Conference, 66 International Labour Organization (ILO), 5, 8, 10, 36, 39, 67, 71, 76, 84, 114 International Maritime Committee, 38 International Maritime Organization (IMO), 33, 38, 53, 54 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 40, 41, 43, 44, 69, 70, 71, 85, 91, 107, 146, 159–67, 168, 171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 212 international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), 4, 8, 9 international norms, 6, 92, 97 international office, 5, 6 International Office for Public Hygiene (OIHP), 35, 39 International Olympic Committee (IOC), 9 international public union, 5 International Radiotelegraph Conferences, 38 international regimes, 6, 7, 8, 10, 54 international relations, models of, 209–15 International Regulations for the Prevention of Collisions at Sea, 33 International Sanitary Code, 35 International Sanitary Conferences, 39 International Seabed Authority, 96 International Social Conference, 39 International Statistics Conference, 38 international system, 15, 16, 20, 23, 27, 36, 123, 211, 212 International Telecommunications Convention, 38 International Telecommunications Union (ITU), 34, 38, 103 International Telegraph Union, 34, 38 International Trade, GATT report, 114 International Union of Railways (UIC), 34, 38 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 80, 85, 108

Internet, 35, 39, 103 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 35, 39, 103 Inventory of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes, 140 Iran, 126, 134 Iraq, 29, 60, 100, 107, 108, 126, 128, 130, 131, 132, 134, 141, 142, 144 Ireland, 65, 95, 138 Israel, 140, 144, 211 Italian lira, 168 Italy, 27, 28, 43, 95  Jackson, John H., 42, 151, 152  Jacobson, Harold K., 9, 10, 26, 64, 66, 82, 93  Janis, Mark W., 204, 205  Japan, 27, 28, 79, 150, 182, 184, 189  Jellinek, Georg, 5  Jervis, Robert, 123  Jetschke, Anja, 203  Joerges, Christian, 155  Johannesburg, Earth Summit, 54  Jönsson, Christer, 74, 156  Jørgensen, K. E., 32 Kahler, Miles, 149, 160 Kambanda, Jean, 202 Kanbur, Ravi, 175, 177 Kant, Immanuel, 21, 26 Kapstein, Ethan Barnaby, 43 Karns, Margaret P., 28 Kashmir, 133 Katzenstein, Peter J., 23 Kaul, Hans-Peter, 65 Kay, Richard S., 204, 205 Keck, Margaret E., 22, 85, 198 Keeler, John, 32 Keely, Louise C., 175 Kellogg-Briand Pact, 27, 32 Kennedy Round, GATT, 149 Kennedy, Paul, 15, 16 Keohane, Robert O., 16, 18, 22, 26, 30, 75, 80, 109, 110, 115, 206, 212 Kindleberger, Charles P., 16 Klein, Eckart, 205, 208 Klingebiel, Stephan, 51 Klotz, Audie, 23, 193, 203 Kohl, Helmut, 94 Korean War, 112, 131 Korey, William, 47, 197 Kosovo, 29, 30, 108, 126, 128, 129, 130, 132, 135, 201 Kötter, Wolfgang, 139, 142 Krasner, Stephen D., 7, 172, 195

Index Krugman, Paul R., 43, 44 Kühne, Winrich, 131, 135, 137, 201 Kulessa, Manfred, 53 Kurdish population of Iraq, 126 Kuwait, 29, 60, 103, 128, 130, 131 Kyoto Protocol, 54, 86, 89, 189, 190, 191 Latvia, 65 League of Nations, 5, 6, 21, 26, 27, 28, 32, 36 Lee, Kelly, 35 Leib, Volker, 35 liberal economic order, 40, 41, 171, 173 liberal trade relations, 147, 160, 161 Liberia, 130 Libya, 80, 130 Liese, Andrea, 36, 193, 194, 197, 201 Lipson, Charles, 147 List, Martin, 111 Lister, Frederick K., 68, 88 literacy, 37 Lithuania, 65 Lloyd, Lorna, 26, 27, 28 loans, 4, 43, 50, 51, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176 logic of appropriateness, 21 logic of expected consequences, 21 Loibl, Gerhard, 63, 64, 65 London Agreement, 115 London Ambassadors’ Conferences, 26 London Suppliers Club/Group, 7, 141, 143 Loosch, Reinhard, 142 Lopez, George A., 112 Lorimer, James, 5 Lowi , Theodore J., 103, 104, 106, 121 Luard, Evan, 28, 33, 34, 35 lumber products, 112 Luterbacher, Urs, 187 Luxembourg, 43, 75, 95 Luxembourg Compromise, 69 Maier, Jürgen, 55 majority voting model of decision-making, 89–90, 93, 95, 96, 106 malaria, 35 Malta, 65 Mangone, Gerard J., 33, 34 March, James G., 21 Marchisio, Sergio, 36 Marin Bosch, Miguel, 140 maritime navigation, 38 Marks, Gary, 91 Marr, Simon, 190 Martenczuk, Bernd, 30, 127, 132 Martin, Lisa L., 19 Matsushita, Mitsou, 147

241

Maurer, Andreas, 69, 76, 84 Mavroidis, Petros C., 147 Mayer, Peter, 14, 19, 211, 214 Mayntz, Renate, 106 McGowan, Francis, 157 McNamara, Robert, 175 Mearsheimer, John J., 15, 210 Mechanism for Consultation and Cooperation with regard to Emergency Situations (Berlin mechanism), CSCE, 31 mediation, 133 Médicins sans Frontières, 136 member states, representatives of, 78–81 Mendrinou, Maria, 156 Metzger, Martina, 50, 51, 172 Meuse River Commission, 38 Mexico, 43, 44, 162, 164, 165, 178 Microsoft, 9 Middle East, 24 Miller, Lynn H., 137 Milosevic, Slobodan, 202 Mingst, Karen A., 28 Missbach, Andreas, 189 Mitrany, David, 17 Mittag , Jürgen, 77 Mitterrand, François, 94 Modelski, George, 16 Mogler, Martin, 6, 137, 213, 214 Mole, Nuala, 205 monetary relations, 43–4 monitoring, 108–9 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 54, 81, 103, 115, 183, 184, 186 Moravcsik, Andrew, 6, 43, 75, 89, 94, 95, 109, 154, 168, 193, 204, 206 Morgenthau, Hans J., 14, 15 Morocco conferences, 26 Mosley, Paul, 176 most favoured nation status, 41, 42 motor cars, 150 Müller, Harald, 70, 139, 140, 142 Müller, Thorsten, 23, 95, 139 Namibia, 65, 135 Napoleonic Wars, 26, 32, 55, 56 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), US, 186 Nazi regime, 45, 49, 195, 204 neo-protectionism, 40 Netherlands, the, 43, 95 Neuhold, Hanspeter, 31 New Arrangements to Borrow, IMF, 164 Neyer , Jürgen, 155 Nixon, Richard M., 44

242

Index

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), 22, 23, 46, 47, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 116, 136, 152, 175, 177, 178, 181, 185, 192, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 207 norm orientation, 22 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 40, 43 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 3, 7, 17, 23, 29, 30, 31, 32, 130, 131, 132 North Korea, 128, 144 North, Douglass C., 21 North–South divide, 49 not-for-profit organizations, 9 nuclear non-proliferation, 7, 143, 144 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 8, 108, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143 nuclear technology, 80, 140, 141, 143 Nugent, Neill, 68, 69, 70, 85, 154, 155, 169 Nuremberg, 202 Nye, Joseph S., Jr, 16, 18, 80 Oberthür, Sebastian, 190 Obstfeld, Maurice, 43, 44 Ohloff, Stephan, 152 oil, 80, 103, 112 Olsen, Johan P., 21 operational activities, 106–13 operational decisions, 97–100 Oppermann, Thomas, 110, 111, 157 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 10, 115, 175 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 10, 11, 12, 23, 31, 32, 75 Organization for the Prohibition of  Chemical Weapons, 144 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 10, 11, 12, 52, 80, 188 Organization of African Unity (OAU), 29, 32 Organization of American States (OAS), 9, 29, 32 Osiander, Andreas, 26, 28 Ott , Hermann E., 188, 190 outputs of international organizations, 13, 60, 61, 78, 87, 88, 102–17, 136, 143, 153, 158, 166, 171, 178, 186, 192, 203, 207, 208 Owen, David (Lord), 133 Oxfam, 136 Oye, Kenneth A., 214

ozone layer, 6, 7, 53, 54, 86, 103, 115, 116, 181–7, 190 Ozone Layer Bulletin, 185 ‘pacta sunt servanda’ (treaties must be observed), 63, 110 Pagnucco, Ron, 22, 85 Pakistan, 140, 144 Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 35 Paris Convention for the Protection of  Industrial Property, 37, 39 Parker, Robert A. C., 41 parliamentary assemblies, 75–6, 83–4 parliaments, national, 66, 75, 83, 90, 107, 159 Parson, Edward A., 182, 183, 184 Pauly, Louis W., 44, 161 Peace of Westphalia, 25, 44 peacekeeping, 4, 29, 99, 108, 127, 133–6, 137, 138 Perman, Roger, 181 Peters, Guy B., 91 Peters, Ingo, 31 Petersberg Tasks, 31 Peterson, M. J., 181 Pilat, Joseph F., 109 Pinochet, Augusto, 195 plenary organs, 66–71 Pol Pot, 195 Poland, 65 policy programmes, 102–6 political systems, international organizations as, 63–77 Pollack, Mark A., 82 Porter, Gareth, 54, 81, 181, 184 Porter, Tony, 9 Portugal, 65, 81, 95 Portuguese hegemony, 16 post Washington Consensus, World Bank, 178 Potter, Pitman B., 5 Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), IMF, 164 Price, Richard, 28 principled beliefs, 22 Prisoners’ Dilemma, 19, 20 problem condition, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 40, 42, 45, 49, 53 programme decisions, 92–6 public health, 35, 39, 150 Putnam, Robert D., 93 quasi-actors, 7 quest for power, 14 radioactive waste, 54

Index railways, 38 rational choice model of decision-making, 90, 92, 97, 98, 99, 112, 113, 169, 175 realist school of international organizations theory, 14–16 Redmond, John, 26, 27, 28 reflexive concept of action, 20 Regelsberger , Elfriede, 73 Reichman, Nancy, 182, 183, 185, 186 Reinhardt, Eric, 152 Reinsch, Paul S., 5 Rhine Navigation Act, 33 Rhine River Commission, 5, 38 Riggirozzi, Maria Pia, 178 Risse, Thomas, 21, 22, 193, 194, 196, 198, 203 Risse-Kappen, Thomas, 110 Rittberger, Berthold, 76, 83 Rittberger, Volker, 6, 14, 19, 123, 137, 145, 180, 193, 211, 212, 213, 214 river navigation, 38 Rivlin, Benjamin, 73 Roberts, Adam, 28, 29 Roman Catholic Church, 9 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 45 Ropp, Stephen C., 196 Rosenau, James N., 214 Rothermund, Dietmar, 41 Rowlands, Ian, 187, 191 Rudolph, Christopher, 202 Ruggie, John Gerard, 41, 147 Russia/Russian Federation, 48, 71, 103, 111, 144, 162, 165, 166, 189, 190, 208 Rwanda, 47, 112, 128, 130, 135, 202 Saint-Pierre, Abbé de, 26 sanctions, 110–12 Sandholtz, Wayne, 82, 84, 158 Saudi Arabia, 80, 103 Schanz, Kai-Uwe, 42, 149, 150 Schirm, Stefan A., 165 Schlotter, Peter, 31 Schmidt, Helmut, 167 Schmitz, Hans-Peter, 203 Schmuck, Otto, 68 Schoenbaum, Thomas J., 147 Schrogl, Kai-Uwe, 103 Schubert, Klaus, 60 Schücking, Walther, 5 Seattle, WTO Ministerial Conference, 3, 55, 153 Second World War, 4, 6, 28, 32, 34, 36, 41, 43, 45, 49, 56, 160, 195, 202, 203, 209

243

security, 123–44 security communities, 17, 18 security dilemma, 15, 25, 27, 28, 123, 124, 137, 138, 143 Seidl-Hohenveldern, Ignaz, 63, 64, 65 Senghaas-Knobloch, Eva, 36 Senti, Richard, 42, 55, 147, 150 Serbia and Montenegro, 128, 130 Sharma, Madhava K., 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186 Shepsle, Kenneth A., 21 Shi’ite population of Iraq, 126 Siddiqi, Javed, 35 Sierra Leone, 130, 202 Sikkink, Kathryn, 22, 85, 193, 194, 198 Simma, Bruno, 65 Simmons, Alan, 205 Slaughter , Anne-Marie, 75, 109, 206 slavery, 46, 196 Slovakia, 65 Slovenia, 65 smallpox, 35 Smith, Jackie, 22, 85 Smithsonian Agreement, IMF, 162 Snidal, Duncan, 19 social interests, representation of, 76–7 social movements, 22, 85 Somalia, 29, 47, 85, 112, 126, 128, 130, 134, 135, 201 South Africa, 47, 111, 128, 129, 130, 193, 195, 201 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 29, 32 South Korea, 128 sovereignty, 6, 7, 11, 12, 27, 41, 44, 45, 60, 66, 83, 129, 159, 171, 213 Soviet Union, see USSR Spain, 65, 81, 95 Spar, Debora L., 35 Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), IMF, 44, 71, 162, 168 specification of operational activities, 107 Spector, Leonard, 141 Spero , Joan Edelman, 160, 161, 162, 173 Sprinz, Detlef, 187, 189 Squire, Lyn, 177 ‘stag hunt’, 19 standard operating procedures model of  decision-making, 90–1, 92, 97, 99, 113 Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), IMF, 163 Stein, Arthur A., 19 Steiner, Henry J., 199, 205 Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 133 Stone Sweet, Alec, 157 Stone, Diane, 177, 178

244

Index

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 109, 140 Strategic Concept, NATO, 30 Straubhaar, Thomas, 214 Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP), World Bank, 175 struggle for power, 15 Sudan, 73, 130, 201 Supplemental Reserve Facility (SRF), IMF, 164 supranational organization, 17 Sweden, 65 Switzerland, 80 Tajikistan, 134 Tallberg, Jonas, 74, 156, 157 Talmon, Stefan, 96 tariffs, 42, 43, 145, 146, 149, 160 Taylor, Paul, 26, 72 technological progress, 17 telegraphic networks, 34, 38 territorial inviolability, 137 Tetzlaff, Rainer, 71, 173, 175 Thatcher, Margaret, 94 theories of international organizations, 14–24 Thomas, Daniel C., 198 Thomas, George M., 197 Tiananmen Square, 195 Tokyo Round, GATT, 149, 150 Toronto Group, on CFCs, 182 torture, 46, 196 Toye, John, 176 trade barriers, 41, 42, 113, 147, 149, 150 trade policy, 24, 52, 94, 152, 153, 154, 156, 159 Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB), WTO, 151 Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPs), 37, 39, 40, 42, 147, 149, 150 trade relations, 41–3 trade unions, 36, 76, 84, 85 TRAFFIC, monitoring body for CITES, 116 transnational organizations (TNOs), 8, 9 transnational umbrella organizations, 8 transparency, 123, 124, 138, 142, 144, 145, 146, 166, 180, 181, 185, 190, 194, 200, 207 Transparency International, 8, 76 transport, 33, 34, 35, 38, 99, 175 Treaty of Brussels, 31 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), 109

Truman, Harry S., 41 Tussie, Diana, 178 Uganda, 195 Underdal, Arild, 108 unemployment, 36, 104, 113, 115, 165 Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederations of Europe (UNICE), 8, 9 UNITA, Angola, 72 United Kingdom, 27, 28, 33, 40, 41, 57, 60, 64, 65, 71, 79, 80, 94, 95, 103, 139, 160, 168, 175 United Nations Agenda for Peace, 82, 135 Brahimi Report, 137 Charter, 6, 28, 29, 31, 41, 42, 45, 47, 63, 64, 65, 69, 72, 76, 84, 103, 105, 109, 110, 111, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 195, 198, 201, 202 Children’s Fund (UNICEF), The State of the World’s Children, 114 Commission on Human Rights, 45, 46, 49, 91, 109, 110, 116, 195–203 Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 86 Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 96 Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 52, 64, 114 Common Fund, 52 General Customs Preferential System, 52 Integrated Commodities Programme, 52 Trade and Development Report , 114 Convention Against Torture and other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 46, 197, 200 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, 46, 197, 200 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 46, 197, 199, 200 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 197 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 46, 197 Decade for Human Rights Education , 203 Development Programme (UNDP), 51, 52, 104, 113, 114, 184, 190

Index United Nations – continued  Human Development Report , 113, 114 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), 41, 45, 46, 47, 71, 72, 76, 84, 195, 198, 199, 200 Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), 53, 54 Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 79, 114 World Education Report , 114 Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament, 139 Environment Programme (UNEP), 53, 54, 86, 114, 115, 181–92 Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer (CCOL), 185 Ozone Trends Panel, 186 The State of the Environment , 114 The State of the World Environment , 114 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 35, 39, 114 World Food Report , 114 Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 54, 86, 89, 188, 190 General Assembly, 52, 54, 64, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 75, 81, 89, 96, 99, 105, 110, 111, 125, 126, 129, 137, 138, 139, 188, 192, 196, 199, 200 Global Compact, 82 good offices, 132, 133 High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, 137 Human Rights Study Series , 203 Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), 52, 53, 64, 79, 104 Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) on climate change, 188 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 7, 8, 10, 80, 108, 140–4 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the Civil Pact), 45, 196, 199 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the Social Pact), 46, 196, 197 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 202 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 202 Military Staff Committee, 130, 131 ONUC, peacekeeping mission in Congo, 135

245

Peace Building Commission (proposed), 138 Rio de Janeiro, Conference on the Environment and Development, 54, 89, 188, 191 Security Council, 6, 28, 29, 30, 47, 60, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 85, 99, 100, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 142, 143, 201, 202, 213, 214 non-permanent members, 27, 71, 72 P5 (five permanent members), 29, 71 Special Commission on Iraqi nuclear weapons, 142 Specialized Agencies, 3, 4, 10, 55, 72, 105, 108 Stockholm, Conference on the Human Environment, 54 UNIIMOG, Iran–Iraq peacekeeping mission, 134 UNMIBH, peacekeeping mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 134 UNMIK, peacekeeping mission in Kosovo, 135 UNMOT, peacekeeping mission in Tajikistan, 134 UNMOVIC, Special Commission on Iraqi nuclear weapons, 100 UNOSOM, peacekeeping mission in Somalia, 134, 135 UNPREDEP, military mission in Macedonia, 134, 135 UNPROFOR, Protection Force in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 131, 135 UNSCOM, Special Commission on Iraqi nuclear weapons, 100 UNTAG, peacekeeping mission in Namibia, 135 World Economic and Social Survey, 114 World Health Organization (WHO), 4, 11, 35, 39, 114 World Health Report , 114 United States, 4, 5, 6, 17, 18, 21, 27, 28, 29, 41, 43, 44, 45, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 64, 71, 79, 80, 81, 85, 103, 112, 124, 126, 131, 132, 133, 139, 149, 150, 153, 160, 161, 162, 164, 170, 173, 174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 192, 212 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 45, 47, 49, 196, 197 Universal Postal Union (UPU), 34, 35, 39 Urquhart, Brian, 29 Uruguay Round, GATT, 37, 42, 52, 148, 149, 150

246

Index

USSR, 27, 28, 29, 30, 45, 64, 124, 127, 131, 139, 144, 182, 198 van der Wee, Hermann, 41 Vance, Cyrus, 133 Varwick, Johannes, 127, 135, 136, 202 Victor, David G., 190, 192 Vienna Convention for the Protection of  the Ozone Layer, 54, 103, 115, 182, 184 Vines, David, 172, 173, 175, 177 violent self-help, 124–38 von Urff, Winfried, 99 Wallace, Helen, 74, 76, 91, 100, 155, 157, 158 Wallace, William, 32, 74, 155, 157 Wallander, Celeste A., 26, 30 Waltz, Kenneth N., 15, 210 Wapenhans Report, World Bank, 175, 176 war and power politics, 15, 21, 25–32, 47, 55, 56, 57, 85, 108, 126, 127, 134, 135, 143, 172, 202 war crimes, 47, 202 war crimes tribunals, 47 wars of unification, German and Italian, 26 Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) (Warsaw Pact), 29, 30, 32 Weber, Albrecht, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 Wegner, Manfred, 168 weighting of votes, 68, 69, 70 weights and measures, 33, 34, 38 Weiss, Thomas, 28, 133, 135 welfare and economic relations, 145–79 welfare state, 104 Wendt, Alexander, 21 Weser River Commission, 38 Wessels, Wolfgang, 155 Western European Union (WEU), 31, 130 Wettestad , Jørgen, 181, 182, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191 whaling, 80, 85, 108 Wilkinson, Rorden, 147, 148, 150, 151 Williamson, John, 175 Wilson, James Q., 88, 89, 96 Wilson, Woodrow, 21, 27 Wolf , Dieter, 158, 168, 169, 171 Wolf , Klaus Dieter, 96, 103 Wolf, Dieter, 94 Wolfensohn, James D., 175 Wolfrum, Rüdiger, 68, 69

Woods, Ngaire, 175 World Bank (IBRD), 3, 9, 41, 50, 51, 52, 69, 70, 85, 91, 104, 107, 113, 114, 171–8 Annual Report, 177 World Climate Conference, 191 World Conference on Human Rights, 47, 197 World Council of Churches (WCC), 8, 9 World Development Report , World Bank, 113, 114, 177 world economic crises, 37–44, 56 World Economic Outlook, IWF report, 114, 166 world hegemony, 212–13 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 37, 39 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 53, 54, 86, 181–92 World Plan of Action for the Ozone Layer, 182 World Trade Charter, 41 World Trade Organization (WTO), 3, 8, 11, 23, 24, 29, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 55, 85, 103, 114, 146–53, 154, 156, 158, 159, 171, 178, 212 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 116 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), 35, 39 Woyke, Wichard, 127 Yamin , Farhana, 190 Yearbook of International Organizations , 4, 56 Young, Oran R., 110 Yugoslavia, former, 30, 47, 128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 202 Zacher, Mark, 28 Zanders, Jean Pascal, 144 Zangger, Claude (‘Zangger Committee’, IAEA), 140 Zangl, Bernhard, 6, 19, 24, 75, 80, 93, 94, 108, 109, 137, 152, 168, 171, 185, 213, 214 Zelikow, Philip, 88, 90 Zimbabwe, 3, 47, 129 Zolberg , Aristide R., 214 Zürn, Michael, 19, 24, 75, 83, 123, 145, 180, 193, 212, 214 Zysman, John, 82, 84, 158