Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence

Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence

Dissertation Manuscript Submitted to Northcentral University Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

by SUZANNE DARROW-MAGRAS

Prescott Valley, Arizona October 2015

Approval Page

Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience oflnternet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence

By

Suzanne Darrow-Magras

Approved by:

LJ,du.)~

11/2/15

Chair: Leah Wickersham-Fish, Ph.D.

Date

Certified by:

~~~ Dean of School: Dr. Rebecca Wardlow, Ed.D.

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uW1sDate

Abstract Online high schools provide alternatives for non-graduates opting to return to school, yet student attrition from these programs is a known problem. Internet-Based Learning SelfEfficacy (IBLSE) is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity. IBLSE influences student persistence in online courses, yet non-graduates often have low self-efficacy due to previous negative school experiences. Despite a lack of research on student experiences within online high schools, investment in these programs continues. This research gap presents a problem, as educational stakeholders are unable to leverage data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school, in an effort to provide stakeholders with this necessary data. Self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and as a lens to evaluate findings. Purposive sampling identified five individuals who completed at least three courses at Career Online High School or who graduated within the past year. Phenomenological techniques of epoché, reduction, and imaginative variation helped identify the shared essences of the phenomenon under review. A coding process allowed for detailed data analysis and the identification and interpretation of common themes. Eleven major composite themes were identified from the interview data: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious

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experience. Findings demonstrated alignment with the hypothesized sources of selfefficacy and to concepts of self-regulated learning, expectancy, and adult learning theories. Findings also aligned with research on IBLSE and the achievement of student goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning environment. Study findings aligned with research on online high school best practices as well as research on common student challenges in online learning environments. Results contributed to understanding the factors that promote student IBLSE and persistence in online high schools. This study assists educational stakeholders in understanding and supporting student IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments.

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Acknowledgements I first learned about the “Law of Attraction” through the book The Secret by Rhonda Byrne and further explored the influence of thought on manifestation through the work of inspirational teachers like Esther and Jerry Hicks, Michael Losier, Mike Dooley, Darryl Anka and Matt Khan. Internalizing the concept that I attract whatever I think about, good or bad, significantly changed how I approached life decisions and interacted with others. The topic of virtual high schools has long been of interest to me. I live in the U.S. Virgin Islands where only 60% of adults have high school diplomas. I have also taught in a St. Thomas public high school and I know there is a need for school choice, especially for students that need flexible schedules and for those that struggle in traditional school environments. I wanted to study the use of virtual high schools by nongraduates, in the hopes that this modality could provide a viable option for local residents. In particular, I wanted to understand the perspective of successful online students and use this information to inspire, motivate and support others to graduate. As I explored theoretical frameworks, I came across the work of Dr. Albert Bandura and self-efficacy theory. Dr. Bandura demonstrated that an individual’s ability to achieve a goal depends on whether or not the individual believes he or she can achieve the goal. With this information in mind, I was able to align my personal beliefs with validated research and demonstrate to my family and friends that I wasn’t so crazy after all. I sent an email to Dr. Bandura, thanking him for his work, and told him about my research proposal. Dr. Bandura is 89 years old and professor emeritus at Stanford University. While I did not expect a reply, I was thrilled to receive his one-sentence response, “May the efficacy force be with you.” I often reflected on Dr. Bandura’s wish for me, as the dissertation journey required immense dedication, focus, perseverance and most of all, super Jedi-like self-efficacy powers. I’ve found that a self-efficacy mindset makes all the difference. I would like to thank the Career Online High School staff for sharing their data and students with me. Thank you Dr. Howard Liebman, Wendy Kauffman, Teresa Salafrio and Dr. John Padgett for trusting and believing in me. I know that you will use the study findings to continue your uplifting work. I am also humbled and sincerely v

thankful to the students interviewed for this study. Your personal stories of triumph over adversity were inspirational and speaking with you was heart-opening. I would also like to thank the experts that helped to review my study proposal and interview protocol and whose work is used extensively in this study: Dr. Dale Schunk, Dr. Ellen Usher, and Dr. Chin-Chung Tsai. Thank you to my Dissertation Chairs, Dr. Gregory Hickman and Dr. Leah Wickersham-Fish, and to my committee members Dr. Eugene J. Polles and Dr. Scott Burrus, for your feedback and support. I sincerely appreciate the support I received from my employer and colleagues at International Capital & Management Company and the Cancer Treatment Centers of America (CTCA). The CTCA approach to cancer care has long incorporated the mindbody connection of fostering hope and healing through self-efficacy. I also received immeasurable support from family and friends who never stopped believing that I could earn my PhD. Thank you to my amazing husband Dana Magras for your kindness, patience and love over the past six years of this dissertation journey. To the entire Magras family circle, thank you for always loving and supporting me. I am blessed to share this accomplishment with my mother, MaryAnn Darrow, my father, Michael Darrow and my stepmother Irene Darrow. Thank you for always giving me your unwavering support. To my sisters, Christine Darrow, Lynn Chylinski, Maribeth Darrow and extended family members, thank you for your love and encouragement. To my daughters, Jade Sunshine Barber and Alice Moon Barber, I dedicate this dissertation to you. You are my life, my heart and my love. Always believe in your dreams and follow your passion. I love you.

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Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Background ................................................................................................................... 3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 5 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 8 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 14 Nature of the Study ..................................................................................................... 14 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 17 Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 19 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 27 Documentation ............................................................................................................ 28 The Problem of High School Dropout ........................................................................ 29 Returning to High School ........................................................................................... 36 Online High Schools for Reentry Purposes ................................................................ 41 Human Development, Learning and Self-Efficacy..................................................... 47 Student Motivation and Internet-Based Learning Self Efficacy ................................. 57 Self-Efficacy, Expectancy, and Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments.. 60 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 65 Chapter 3: Research Method............................................................................................. 66 Research Methods and Design(s)................................................................................ 70 Population ................................................................................................................... 74 Sample......................................................................................................................... 77 Materials/Instruments ................................................................................................. 80 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ................................................................. 81 Assumptions................................................................................................................ 87 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 89 Delimitations ............................................................................................................... 90 Ethical Assurances ...................................................................................................... 91 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 97 Results ......................................................................................................................... 97 Evaluation of findings ............................................................................................... 166 Summary ................................................................................................................... 182 Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ...................................... 186 Implications............................................................................................................... 189 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 196 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 209 vii

References ....................................................................................................................... 213 Appendixes ..................................................................................................................... 223 Appendix A: Permission to Conduct Study and Publish Program Names ..................... 223 Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email/Script ........................................................ 224 Appendix C: Participant Introductory Email .................................................................. 225 Appendix D: Participant Informed Consent Form .......................................................... 226 Appendix E: Interview Scheduling Email ...................................................................... 228 Appendix F: Interview Guide ......................................................................................... 229 Appendix G: Follow-Up Interview Email and Guide ..................................................... 231 Appendix H: Member Check Email, Transcript ............................................................. 232 Appendix I: Member Check Email, Individual Textural Description ............................ 233 Appendix J: Copyright Information…………………………………………………….234

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List of Tables Table 1. Participant Demographic Information ............................................................... 100 Table 2. Composite Textural Themes and Definitions .................................................... 142

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List of Figures Figure 1. Moustakas’ (1994) Modified van Kaam Method of Data Analysis. ................ 85 Figure 2. Composite Themes by Participant ................................................................. 143

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction This phenomenological study explored the lived student experiences of InternetBased Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) and persistence within an online high school. IBLSE is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity (Tsai, Chuang, Liang, & Tsai, 2011). Study participants were former high school non-graduates who opted to return to school online. This study used the term ‘non-graduate’ to indicate individuals who have formally withdrawn from traditional high school. Prior phenomenological research with this population revealed that individuals prefer to be called non-graduates as the term ‘dropout’ has negative connotations that signify quitting and those that drop out of school are often perceived as failures (Hynes, 2014). Use of this terminology allowed for avoidance of judgment of a marginalized population. This phenomenological study aimed to highlight the voices of non-graduates who returned to high school online. These students were the experts on online high school persistence and their stories deserved to be heard and honored (Hynes, 2014). According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2012), approximately 3.1 million students formally withdraw from school each year. A highly skilled, educated population is fundamental to the economic strength of the United States, yet this is threatened as individuals that leave school have lower median incomes, higher rates of unemployment, greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in comparison to their graduate counterparts (Balfanz, Bridgeland, Moore, & Fox, 2013; Chapman, Laird, & KewalRamani, 2010; Hynes, 2014; Miller, McCardle, & Hernandez, 2010; Wilkins 2011). Adverse effects of high school dropout on communities include lower tax contributions, greater reliance on

2 federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid, and higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008; Aud, Wilkinson-Flicker, Kristapovich, Rathbun, Wang, & Zhang, 2013; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011). High school dropout remains a serious national concern despite improvements in the dropout rate and significant investment in student dropout prevention and recovery (Amos, 2008; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). There is some balance to this negative trend as the majority of non-graduates eventually obtain completion certificates (Aud, Wilkinson-Flicker, Kristapovich, Rathbun, Wang, & Zhang, 2013). According to the National Center for Education Statistics approximately 88% of adults ages 25 to 29 had high school completion certificates in 2012. Non-graduates can return to school through in-person adult education programs or through online high school programs (Wilkins, 2011). They can also opt to take a high school equivalency exam, such as the General Educational Development (GED) test (Wilkins, 2011). Student attrition from online high schools is a known problem, with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). There is a lack of high-quality research on the effectiveness of online learning at the high school level, yet this lack of data has not hindered program expansion efforts (Hawkins, Graham, Sudweeks & Barbour, 2012; Molnar, Rice, Huerta, Shafer, Barbour, Miron, & Horvitz, 2014). As investment and enrollment in online high school programs grows, educational stakeholders have an increased urgency to understand student attrition from these programs (Barbour & Reeves, 2009).

3 Support of student self-efficacy in online high school programs can mitigate the problem of student attrition from these environments, as high student self-efficacy levels correlate with educational program persistence (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara, Fida, Vecchione, Del Bove, Vecchio, Barbaranelli, & Bandura, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011). The exploration of the lived experiences of students who are successful in online high schools can fill literature gaps on student self-efficacy and persistence in this environment. Educational stakeholders can use study data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. This chapter includes background information on the utilization of online high schools by former non-graduates and student self-efficacy in these environments. The study’s problem and purpose statement are included within this chapter, followed by information on self-efficacy theory, which served as the study’s theoretical framework, and related information on IBLSE. This chapter also includes research questions, the nature and significance of the study, definitions of key terms and concludes with a summary. Background Online high schools have existed since the mid-1990’s (Oliver, Osborne, Patel, & Kleiman, 2009). Initial online programs catered to accelerated students by providing access to advanced coursework and specialized, remote instructors (Oliver et al., 2009). Early online high school efforts also targeted rural students, the underserved and special needs populations (Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Critics of online high schools identified concerns about teacher and course quality, program funding, school certification, and social and moral aspects of learning online (Roblyer, 2006).

4 Online education utilization in the United States, across all academic levels, continues to grow exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011). In the 2003–2004 school year, U.S. public school districts reported that 0.3 million students were enrolled in K-12 online programs and by the 2008-2009 school year this number increased to over 1 million students (Queen & Lewis, 2011). Today’s online high schools provide students with a range of individualized opportunities including college-level courses for advanced students and credit-recovery opportunities for students at-risk of failure or dropout (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Cavanaugh, Repetto, & Wayer, 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). For students that have formally withdrawn from traditional school, there are online high schools that cater specifically to non-graduate populations (Wilkins, 2011). Online learning components such as student-paced programming, flexible schedules, and individualized curricula appeal to these individuals (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010). However, students with previous negative school experiences often struggle in online high school programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond, Linton, Smink, & Drew, 2007). Student attrition from online high schools is a known problem, with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). High attrition rates may indicate student dissatisfaction with online learning and this can affect student success (Roblyer, 2006). Students may leave online high school for several reasons including feeling that the school does not meet their needs or that family or employment obligations interfere with coursework (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011).

5 Some students may struggle with independent work and feel isolated in the online environment (Wilkins, 2011). Support of student self-efficacy in online high school programs can mitigate the problem of student attrition from these environments as high student self-efficacy levels correlate with educational program persistence (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011). Self-efficacy theory comes from Albert Bandura’s (1977a) seminal work on social cognitive theory and indicates a person’s belief in his or her competence to perform tasks and attain goals. Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Self-efficacy can influence the choices students make, the amount of effort exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Practitioner support of student self-efficacy discourages student procrastination in the online environment and improves student use of learning strategies (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Students with selfprofessed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage, as self-efficacy overestimation can result in higher student motivation and achievement and in improved student self-confidence in comparison to those with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Statement of the Problem Over the past decade, student enrollment in online high schools has increased exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains

6 a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Research on the use of online high school programs by non-graduates is limited as university-level students are typically the subject of online learning studies and research is primarily quantitative (Tsai et al., 2011). Despite stakeholder investment into online high schools and increased student enrollment there is little high-quality research on learning effectiveness in this environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen & Lewis, 2011; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). There is an increased urgency to understand and reduce student attrition from these environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Researchers also do not fully understand how high school students acquire the necessary skills, attitudes, and habits to learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Molnar et al., 2014). Although high student selfefficacy levels are indicative of persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008), non-graduates can have low self-efficacy due to previous negative school experiences and fear of failure can cause students to leave school once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007; Schunk & Mullen, 2012). The aforementioned research gaps and concerns present a problem as educational stakeholders have a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Miller et al., 2010; Molnar et al., 2014; Roblyer, 2006). As a result, stakeholders are unable to leverage research-based data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions (Roblyer & Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).

7 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. Former non-graduates who have experienced success within online high schools are the experts on online high school persistence and their stories deserve to be heard (Hynes, 2014). The themes that emerged from the study interview data provide necessary information for the development of strategies to improve student persistence and enhance student academic performance in online learning environments (Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014). Research on how students approach difficult academic experiences and generate positive outcomes is necessary and beneficial (Hynes, 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is within the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart Horizons Career Online Education (“About Us,” 2015). The district is located in Pensacola, Florida (“About Us,” 2015). COHS program managers assisted with participant recruitment and participants included a purposive sample of five students that completed at least three COHS courses or graduated within the past year. There are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). The researcher conducted semi-structured, telephone-based interviews, which were approximately one hour in length. Data was analyzed with a seven-step phenomenological process designed by the seminal work of van Kaam (1966) and modified by Moustakas (1994). This process included: listing and preliminary grouping

8 of relevant expressions, reduction and elimination of expressions, clustering of expressions to establish core themes, theme validation, development of individual textural and structural descriptions, and development of textural-structural meanings of the experience (Moustakas, 1994). A coding process allowed for detailed data analysis and the identification and interpretation of common themes (Moustakas, 1994). A composite description of the phenomenon synthesized all data as a whole (Moustakas, 1994). Theoretical Framework Self-efficacy theory, Bandura’s (1977a) seminal work, served as the study’s framework and lens to evaluate findings on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school. Self-efficacy theory was appropriate for this study as theory application can indicate foundational information about an individual’s personal belief system and what the individual perceives himself or herself capable of accomplishing in an online learning environment. Study findings extended the literature on IBLSE as it pertained to the experiences of former non-graduates in online high schools. Educational stakeholders can use this data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition from online high school programs. In his seminal work, Bandura (1977b) developed social learning theory to explain human learning through social interaction and observation of others. Social learning theory consists of three central concepts that influence human behavior: (a) cognitive or personal factors, such as knowledge, expectations and attitudes; (b) environmental factors, such as social norms, and one’s ability to influence one’s environment; and (c) behavioral factors, such as skill and practice (Bandura, 1977b). Initially, researchers

9 based learning theory on behavioral tenants and Bandura’s inclusion of cognitive processes indicated a fundamental change in how researchers interpreted the learning process (Schunk, 2008). With this transformation, researchers viewed learners as active seekers and processors of knowledge and not as passive receivers of information or blank slates (Schunk, 2008). Social cognitive theory emerged from social learning theory to encompass the effects an individual’s cognitive processes have on all types of human behaviors, including learning behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Social cognitive theory includes the following constructs: reciprocal determinism, self-regulation and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Reciprocal determinism is the interrelationship between an individual’s learned behavior and the environment (Bandura, 1986). Self-regulation is a self-influence process consisting of self-monitoring one’s behavior to include: (a) causes and effects; (b) self-judgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of personal morals, standards and circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior, to include self rewards and self-punishments (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy indicates a person’s belief in his or her competence to perform tasks and attain goals (Bandura, 1977a). There is a long history of philosophical and psychological interest in beliefs about personal control and the term ‘self-efficacy’ is a modern development (Maddux, 2012). Researchers used self-efficacy beliefs as predictors to determine whether an individual will be motivated to engage in a particular goal and to what degree an individual will persevere and achieve a goal (Bandura, 1977a). There is no all-purpose self-efficacy assessment tool as self-efficacy is relative to particular situations or domains of function (Bandura, 1997, 2006).

10 Self-efficacy is not be confused with intention (what one says one will do), although research showed that intentions can be influenced by self-efficacy beliefs (Maddux, 2012). Self-efficacy is also not be confused with self-esteem (one’s perception of one’s competence and self-worth), yet self-esteem can influence student academic achievement (Maddux, 2012; Zuffiano, Alessandri, Gerbino, Kanacri, Di Giunta, Milioni, & Caprara, 2013). Self-efficacy is not defined as a personality trait, but as belief in one’s ability to attain desired goals within specific domains and circumstances (Maddux, 2012). Individuals have differentiated self-efficacy beliefs as they relate to specific functional domains (Bandura, 2006). As such, an individual’s expectations about performing a specific task is relative to a particular situation (Bandura, 2006). High selfefficacy in one domain does not automatically correlate with high self-efficacy in another (Bandura, 2006). For example, an individual with a high sense of academic self-efficacy may feel confident in achieving academic goals, but may have a low sense of physical activity self-efficacy and may shy away from physical activity-related goals (Bandura, 2006). The higher an individual’s self-efficacy in a particular domain, the more likely he or she will achieve a goal and vice versa; individuals with low self-efficacy in a domain are likely to struggle to attain goals in that area (Bandura, 1977a). For individuals lacking requisite knowledge and skills, no amount of self-efficacy will produce competent performance (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Perceived self-efficacy beliefs can fluctuate due to changes in environmental conditions or personal conditions such as an individual’s motivation level or state of mind (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Personal self-efficacy expectations are hypothesized to come from four

11 information sources: (a) performance accomplishment, which refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal; (b) vicarious experience, which refers to personal witness of task attainment by others; (c) verbal persuasion, which refers to attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion; and (d) physiological and emotional states, which refers to the physiological arousal an individual exhibits in consideration of a particular task or goal (Bandura, 1977a). Performance accomplishment has the greatest effect on self-efficacy as repeated successes or failures can raise or lower personal expectations (Bandura, 1977a; Usher & Pajares, 2008). When students complete academic tasks, they interpret and evaluate the results and develop personal competence judgments according to their interpretations (Usher & Pajares, 2008). The experience of personal mastery in a domain has enduring effects on individual self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Verbal encouragement from trusted parents, teachers and peers can boost student confidence on academic tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008). A student’s strong emotional reaction to school-related tasks can provide clues to the expected success or failure and high anxiety can undermine student self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Increasing a students’ physical and emotional well-being and reducing stress and negative emotional states strengthens self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares). Self-efficacy beliefs are known to have a biological impact and can influence the release of catecholamines which are neurotransmitters related to management of stress and perceived threats (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 2012). Self-efficacy beliefs play a role in the release of endorphins which can impact sensations of pain and euphoria (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 2012). Researchers leveraged self-efficacy sources to influence student academic

12 achievement, to improve student performance, and facilitate student goal attainment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Researchers also used self-efficacy theory to indicate optimism levels in students, to identify and mitigate student anxiety, and facilitate academic help-seeking behaviors (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Research findings demonstrated that student self-efficacy had implications on achievement, motivation and self-regulation in online learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011). IBLSE, which indicates a student’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011), has been used to predict student motivation to enroll, exert effort, and complete an online course, and to predict student satisfaction with learning online (Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011). Locus of control is the degree to which individuals perceive that outcomes result from their own behaviors (internal control) or from forces external to themselves (external control) (Lefcourt, 2014). Individual attribution of control can influence behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes experienced as well as self-efficacy beliefs (Lefcourt, 2014). Those with an internal control may believe they are responsible for their success while those with an external control may believe that external forces, like luck, impact outcomes (Lefcourt, 2014). Researchers found that students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage as self-efficacy over-estimation can result in higher student motivation, achievement and student self-confidence, in comparison to students with a realistic sense of their capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk &

13 Meece, 2006). There is some controversy on this topic as researchers found that among academically at-risk high school students, student over-estimation of academic selfefficacy resulted in poor social skills, behavior problems, and lower academic competence (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). The challenge for educators is to enhance student self-efficacy, while ensuring students have the requisite skills needed for success (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Other conflicting self-efficacy research indicated that individuals with high levels of self-efficacy may overestimate abilities to attain goals and may experience failure, while those with low self-efficacy levels can feel motivated to achieve goals to prove they can accomplish challenging tasks (Settlage, Southerland, Smith, & Ceglie, 2009). Additionally, an individual who is highly skilled, yet has low self-efficacy, can be limited in what he or she can achieve (Schunk & Meece, 2006; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Some researchers claimed that Bandura’s utilization of self-efficacy to predict performance is limited as self-efficacy may only indicate an individual’s momentary perception of capability, whereas self-concept or self-esteem, (one’s perception of one’s competence and self-worth), may provide a more valid prediction of performance (Maddux, 2012). Additional known sources of self-efficacy not explored by Bandura include the role of optimism, the use of motivational self-talk, and the use of imagery (Usher & Pajares, 2008). There is a need to understand how student self-efficacy is fostered and sustained in the online learning environment and to understand how existing theories can be adapted for this modality (Bekele, 2010; Hartnett, St. George, & Dron, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011).

14 Research Questions Phenomenological research questions are interpretive and generate data that reveals lived experiences and shared essences of a phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). For this study, the phenomenon under investigation was the student experience of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school. The study problem, a lack of information on student experiences of this phenomenon and the resulting inability for educational stakeholders to leverage this data to reduce student attrition was addressed through Research Question 1. Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose, to understand how educational stakeholders can leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments and use this information to inform programming decisions. Q1. What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within an online high school? Q2. How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions? Nature of the Study This qualitative phenomenological study described the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within an online high school. A qualitative approach was appropriate as this method allowed for the exploration of a social issue from the participants’ point of view and indicated the meaning attributed to this experience (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). A qualitative design aligned with theoretical contribution as this approach generated information on student self-efficacy in an online learning environment.

15 A phenomenological approach was optimal for the study as researchers utilized this method to understand the essence of shared experiences and to convey fundamental meanings (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological methods allow researchers to adopt a holistic, inductive, non-judgmental approach to the exploration of how others perceive events (Moustakas, 1994). This approach was appropriate based on study goals as it allowed the researcher to understand the phenomenon from the participant’s point of view and revealed data on how the phenomenon interacted with other factors in a participant’s life (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology provided a deliberate, sensitive approach to research that was appropriate given the study population. A phenomenological approach allowed for the voices of marginalized groups, like nongraduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994). In their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and Pajares (2008) cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological approach, including an interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other researchers were successful in using a phenomenological approach to capture the lived experiences of former non-graduates engaged in high school/adult education programs (Hynes, 2014). There is a need to hear the voices of students and incorporate their ideas into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). The researcher considered other methodologies for the study but they were not appropriate based on study goals. Quantitative methodologies use objective data collection and analysis methods, which did not align with the study’s framework or the goal to understand the phenomenon from the participant’s point of view (Maxwell, 2013). Quantitative data does not indicate the rich, detailed descriptions that make a study

16 unique (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher explored other research designs, but they were not appropriate for the study. A case study would allow for in-depth investigation of students and programs through observation, interview and document review, but this method would not allow for exploration of lived experiences (Yin, 2014). A grounded theory approach involves theory development and this method would not allow for the application of a self-efficacy framework (Maxwell, 2013). Narrative inquiry was a less desirable approach as it involved studying individuals through the stories they tell about their lives and would not target the experience of student IBLSE and persistence in an online high school (Maxwell, 2013). Ethnography is similar to phenomenology and was under consideration as the research design. Ethnography involves holistic descriptions and interpretations of cultural behaviors and cultural groups over a prolonged period, yet a phenomenological study was preferred as it focused on understanding meaning through the lens of the participant (Maxwell, 2013). The study had ethnographic elements due to the nature of the research, but the study’s focus was the unique lived experience of the phenomenon and its relation to theory, making a phenomenological approach the preferred design route. The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is within the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart Horizons Career Online Education and is located in Pensacola, Florida (“About Us,” 2015). Study participants included a purposive sample of five students that completed at least three COHS courses or graduated within the past year. There are no rules regarding sample

17 size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). The researcher examined participants via a semi-structured telephone interview. Bandura’s (2006) ‘Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales’ aided interview question development, along with sample qualitative self-efficacy interview questions found within Usher and Pajares (2008) and sample phenomenological interview questions found within Moustakas (1994). Interviews were transcribed verbatim and phenomenological analysis of interview data followed a modified van Kaam methodology to generate common themes (Moustakas, 1994). As part of the data analysis process, the researcher identified student self-efficacy expressions and related them to Bandura’s (1977a) theorized sources of selfefficacy. Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) managed study data. The data collection plan was appropriate and aligned with the purpose of the study, to examine the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. Data collection from multiple participants generated this needed empirical information and analysis processes indicated how participant experiences related to the theoretical framework. Findings provided insight into the shared characteristics of former non-graduate students in online high school environments. Significance of the Study The problem of high school dropout, at the rate of approximately 3.1 million students per year, is a serious national concern (Amos, 2008; Balfanz et al., 2013;

18 Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). A highly skilled, educated population is fundamental to the economic strength of the United States, yet this is threatened as individuals that leave school can expect to have lower median incomes, higher rates of unemployment, greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in comparison to their graduate counterparts (Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Hynes, 2014; Wilkins 2011). Adverse effects of high school dropout on communities include lower tax contributions, a greater reliance on federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid, and higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008; Aud et al., 2013; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011). Research that addresses the problem of high school dropout and fosters development of dropout recovery and reentry strategies is deemed worthwhile (Hynes, 2014; Wilkins, 2011). Although online high schools provide viable alternatives for non-graduates, student attrition from these programs remains a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). As investment and enrollment in online education programs grows, there is an increased urgency to understand and reduce student attrition in these environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). High levels of student self-efficacy correlate with student persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011), and practitioner support of IBLSE in online high schools may mitigate the problem of student attrition. Researchers do not fully understand how high school students acquire the necessary skills, attitudes, and habits to learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Molnar et al., 2014). Although the use of online schools by non-graduates is commonplace, there is little research in this topic area (Roblyer & Davis, 2008). During the literature review, no

19 qualitative studies on former non-graduate experiences of self-efficacy in online high schools were identified. The lack of research on student experiences of IBLSE in online high schools results in a problem as educational stakeholders are unable to leverage critical data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions (Roblyer & Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). This study generated this necessary data. As a result, more students may receive the support they need to earn completion degrees, improve earning power, and obtain an overall higher quality of life. Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows the voices of marginalized groups, like non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994). There is a need to incorporate student ideas into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a venue for students to express themselves and share their experiences of IBLSE and persistence. Study findings extended the literature on student IBLSE and persistence as it pertained to the experiences of former non-graduates in an online high school environment. Definition of Key Terms Academic Self-Efficacy (ASE). The construct of ASE indicates a learner’s perception of academic learning; this term is interchangeable with that of student selfefficacy (Tsai et al., 2011). Andragogy. Andragogy is a Greek term, which means ‘man-leading,’ and can be contrasted with the Greek term, pedagogy, which means ‘child leading’; within education, andragogy is the science of helping adults learn (Knowles, 1980). Averaged Freshman Graduation Rate. The averaged freshman graduation rate is the proportion of public high school freshmen who graduate with a regular diploma

20 four years after starting ninth grade; this rate is an estimate of on-time graduation from high school (Chapman et al., 2010). Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE). CSE is a construct indicating an individual’s perceived confidence in utilizing computer technologies in a variety of capacities and situations (Tsai et al., 2011). Concrete Operational Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the concrete operational stage occurs during the elementary school years as children apply cognitive operations to problems that involve concrete objects (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Constructivist Learning Theory. Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), constructivist learning theory indicated that individuals create their understanding of the world they live in through interactions with their environment and with others (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Credit Recovery. Credit recovery is an educational program feature where student retake failed coursework for high school credit or obtain high school credit through activities such as mastery testing, community service, or work/life experience (Wilkins, 2011). Disconnected Youth. Disconnected youth is a term that describes young high school non-graduates that are neither working or in school (Bloom, Thompson, & Ivry, 2010). Dropout Recovery. Dropout recovery involves activities conducted by school districts or community organizations to identify and re-enroll non-graduates back into traditional school (Wilkins, 2011). Dropout Reentry. Dropout reentry refers to a non-graduate’s return to high

21 school to obtain a high school credential; within the context of the study, this term is unrelated to the criminal justice system and the reintegration of former offenders into mainstream society (Wilkins, 2011). Educational Stakeholder. The term educational stakeholder refers to any person, group or organization that has an interest or concern in education (Saxena, 2014). Epoché. Epoché is a Greek term meaning ‘suspension of judgment’; in phenomenological research, epoché, or ‘bracketing’, refers to researchers refraining from judgment and setting aside bias (Moustakas, 1994). Event Dropout Rate. The event dropout rate is the percentage of students who dropped out of high school between the beginning of one school year and the next, without earning a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010). Expectancy. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will yield greater results; in regards to workplace learning, expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that training participation will lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills or abilities (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992) Expectancy Theory. Developed by business school professor Victor Vroom, expectancy theory indicated that individuals are motivated to behave in certain ways based on perceived results of behavior, with correlations between perceived desirability of an outcome and an individual’s motivation level (Vroom, 1964). Formal Operations Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the formal operations stage occurs in early adolescence and continues into adulthood and is demonstrated by an individual’s ability to solve complex problems, infer possibilities,

22 hypothesize, and think ahead (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Four-Year Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate. The four-year adjusted cohort graduation rate is the common calculation used by all U.S. state governors for tracking high school dropout; to calculate the rate, divide the annual number of on-time graduates by the number of first-time ninth graders, four years earlier (Balfanz et al., 2013). High School Credential. A high school credential refers to any type of high school completion degree, including a General Educational Development (GED) test credential and demonstrates that a student has met all state requirements for high school graduation (Chapman et al., 2010). Instrumentality. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, instrumentality refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will result in expected outcomes; in regards to workplace learning, instrumentality refers to an individual’s perception that knowledge, skills, or abilities gained from training will lead to specific outcomes, such as respect from peers, pay increases, and improved job performance (Mathieu et al., 1992) Internet-Based Learning (IBL). The construct of IBL refers to learning that occurs within a general online learning environment (Tsai et al., 2011). Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE). The construct of IBLSE indicates student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or an online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Internet Self-Efficacy (ISE). The construct of ISE indicates an individual’s confidence in general skills and knowledge in using the Internet (Tsai et al., 2011). Non-graduate. The term non-graduate refers to an individual who has officially withdrawn, or ‘dropped out’ of high school (Hynes, 2014).

23 Performance Accomplishment. In self-efficacy theory, performance accomplishment refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal (Bandura, 1977a). Physiological and Emotional States. In self-efficacy theory, physiological and emotional states refers to the physiological and emotional arousal an individual exhibits in consideration of a particular task or goal (Bandura, 1977a). Preoperational Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the preoperational stage occurs during the preschool years and includes the development of symbolic schemes, meaning children are able to represent objects and events with symbols such as language, mental images, and gestures (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Reciprocal Determinism. In social cognitive theory, reciprocal determinism is the interrelationship between an individual’s behavior and the environment (Bandura, 1986). Reentry Programs. Reentry programs are high school credential programs for non-graduates; this term is not to be confused with reentry as it relates to the correctional system (Wilkins, 2011). Schemes. In constructivist learning theory, schemes are patterns of thoughts or actions that children use to interact with the environment (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to the theoretical construct that an individual’s ability to achieve a goal depends on whether or not the individual believes he or she can achieve the goal (Bandura, 1977a). Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). SRL refers to the metacognitive, self-directed practices and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning

24 effectiveness (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). Sensorimotor Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the sensorimotor stage occurs in infancy and includes simple and action-oriented schemes such as reaching for, grasping, and pulling objects, goal-directed behavior, and object permanence (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Social Cognitive Theory. Developed by American psychologist Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory emerged from social learning theory to encompass the effects an individual’s cognitive processes have on all types of human behaviors, including learning behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Social Learning Theory. Developed by American psychologist Albert Bandura, social learning theory indicated that humans learn from one another through observation, imitation and modeling (Bandura, 1977b). Status Completion Rate. The status completion rate is the percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have earned a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010). Status Dropout Rate. The status dropout rate is the percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have not earned a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010). Student Self-efficacy. Student self-efficacy refers to a student’s personal belief in his or her ability to complete an academic task and this term is interchangeable with that of academic self-efficacy; students demonstrate this construct by setting specific and proximal goals, self-evaluating, self-motivating, and self-regulating learning behaviors (Zimmerman, 2008).

25 Urban Youth. The term urban youth refers to young people that live in metropolitan areas and whose families are recent immigrants or who are financially impoverished (Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Valence. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, valence refers to an individual’s perception of the importance of an expected outcome; in regards to workplace learning, valence refers to the personal importance of training outcomes to the individual (Mathieu et al., 1992) Verbal Persuasion. In self-efficacy theory, verbal persuasion refers to attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a). Vicarious Experience. In self-efficacy theory, vicarious experience refers to personal witness of task attainment by others (Bandura, 1977a). Summary This chapter included background information on online high schools, the utilization of these programs by former non-graduates and the impact of student selfefficacy in learning environments. The study’s problem and purpose statement were included in this chapter, followed by information on self-efficacy theory and related information on IBLSE. This chapter included the study’s research questions, information on the nature and significance of the study and definitions of key terms. The utilization of a phenomenological research design indicated alignment with the study problem, purpose and research questions. Rich, detailed descriptions, which reflect the lived experiences of individuals, are possible with qualitative phenomenological methodology and can indicate shared patterns, themes, and essences of experiences (Moustakas, 1994). Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory provided a robust

26 study framework, which aligned with the nature of the study. Study data indicated shared essences of the phenomenon under review and educational stakeholders can use this information to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. Research that supports non-graduate attainment of high school completion degrees and fosters development of dropout recovery and reentry strategies is considered worthwhile (Hynes, 2014; Wilkins, 2011).

27 Chapter 2: Literature Review Although there is a plethora of research on the topics of high school dropout and dropout prevention, there is little research on the use of online high schools to mitigate the problem of high school dropout (Wilkins, 2011). While online high schools have been in existence for decades, researchers still do not fully understand how students learn within these environments and research on the non-graduate experience of these programs is even more limited (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Hynes, 2014; Molnar et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Self-efficacy research validity improves when it is domain-specific as individual self-efficacy beliefs are relative to particular environments and tasks (Bandura, 1997, 2006). Although there is research on self-efficacy within academic domains, there is a lack of information on Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) which indicates a student’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or in an online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Additionally, research on the topic of online learning environments and student self-efficacy is primarily quantitative and focused on the experiences of university-level students (Tsai et al., 2011). This chapter familiarizes readers with current literature on topics relevant to the study and demonstrates the need for research on the experiences of former non-graduates enrolled in online high schools. The review provides foundational information in support of the study purpose: to examine the phenomenon of student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with information to reduce student attrition. This review incorporates various seminal, current and peer-reviewed resources to provide the appropriate perspective.

28 A review of the phenomenon of high school dropout indicates the gravity of this national problem. Information on high school reentry provides an overview of student pathways back to high school. A review of the use of online high schools for reentry purposes indicates the utilization of this modality with non-graduate populations. Information on self-efficacy, development and learning provides theoretical context on the human learning experience. A discussion of student motivation and IBLSE provides insight into the online student experience. Additional information on expectancy theory and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) theory, as they related to self-efficacy theory, provides perspective on theory development, theory overlaps, and practical applications. Documentation A search of Northcentral University databases utilizing the Roadrunner Search Discovery Service facilitated in the location of scholarly, peer-reviewed articles from the following databases: (a) Ebrary, (b) EBSCOhost Education Research Complete, (c) EdIT Digital Library, (d) ERIC Education Research, (e) ProQuest Educational Journals, (f) Sage Journals Online, (g) Science Direct, (h) SpringerLink, (i) Taylor and Francis Online, and (j) Wiley Online Library. Additional Northcentral University resources included the Northcentral Dissertation Database and ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. Professional books served as resource and seminal material and the Google Scholar search engine helped locate full text, peer reviewed, and seminal resources. Searches of the following government and professional websites and education clearinghouses assisted in identifying education statistics and trends: (a) U.S. Department of Education and the National Center for Education Statistics; (b) U.S. Census Bureau; (c) America’s Promise Alliance, Civic Enterprises and Everyone Graduates Center; (d)

29 Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; (e) National Dropout Prevention Center; (f) National Education Policy Center; and (g) Alliance for Excellent Education. Key search terminology included various combinations of the following terms: high school dropout, online high school, virtual high school, online learning, Internet-based learning, online education, online education for high school dropouts, student attrition and persistence from online programs, social cognitive theory, self-efficacy theory, expectancy theory, self-regulated learning theory, adult learning theory, online selfefficacy, and academic motivation. The Problem of High School Dropout School reform efforts have led to significant improvements in the high school dropout rate, yet each year more than one million public high school students fail to graduate on time with their original freshman class; this equates to one-fifth of the United States freshman student body (Balfanz et al., 2013). The statistics for urban youth and minority groups such as African Americans, Native Americans and Hispanics are even more distressing as only 50% of the members of this population graduate on time (Balfanz et al., 2013; Schunk & Mullen, 2012). In 2008, the national status dropout rate was 8%, indicating that approximately 3.0 million 16 to 24-year-olds were either not enrolled in high school or had not earned a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010). High school dropout is a crisis in the United States as more than 3.1 million students leave school each year (Aud et al., 2013). Historically, national dropout rates have been difficult to gauge as state education agencies use varied calculations to report dropout data (Balfanz et al., 2013). Due to these inconsistencies, researchers from the National Center for Education Statistics

30 analyzed four specific rates in a compendium report which included graduation and dropout data from 1972–2008 (Chapman et al., 2010). Rates studied included: (a) the event dropout rate (percentage of students who dropped out of high school between the beginning of one school year and the next without earning a high school credential); (b) the status dropout rate (percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have not earned a high school credential); (c) the status completion rate (percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have earned a high school credential); and (d) the averaged freshman graduation rate (proportion of public high school freshmen who graduate with a regular diploma four years after starting ninth grade and is an estimate of on-time graduation from high school) (Chapman et al., 2010). In 2010, all state governors agreed to utilize a single calculation, the four-year adjusted cohort graduation rate, to track dropout and ensure for standardized accountability (Balfanz et al., 2013). To calculate this rate the annual number of on-time graduates is divided by the number of first-time ninth graders, four years earlier (Balfanz et al., 2013). Improvements have occurred across all rates over time, yet findings showed that females and White and Asian/Pacific Islander students were more likely to graduate on time and experience fewer instances of dropout in comparison to males and to African American, American Indian/Alaska Native and Hispanic students (Chapman et al., 2010). Student dropout can have serious impacts on individuals, communities, and economies (Amos, 2008). Non-graduates can expect to have lower median incomes, higher rates of unemployment, greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in comparison to their graduate counterparts (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins

31 2011). Non-graduates earn on average, $10,000 a year less than those with a high school diploma and over the course of a lifetime a college graduate will earn approximately $1 million dollars more than a high school dropout (Amos, 2008). Thus, researchers called dropping out of high school “a million dollar mistake” (Amos, 2008, p. 8). Negative effects of high school dropout on communities included economic hardship due to lower tax contributions, a greater reliance on federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid, and higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011). Individuals that leave school are likely to be navigating toxic environments in their homes, schools and neighborhoods that are not typical of the wider U.S. population (Hynes, 2014). Many are exposed to violent behaviors, affected by negative family health issues, and subjected to school environments and policies that are dangerous, unsupportive or disrespectful (Hynes, 2014). Findings from the National Dropout Prevention Center showed student dropout correlated with 25 risk factors in four major areas: individual, family, community and school (Hammond et al., 2007). Examples of individual risk factors included having special needs such as learning disabilities, early adult responsibilities, poor school attendance, and misbehavior in school (Hammond et al., 2007). Family risk factors included low socioeconomic status, low education level of parents, needing to care for a family member and high family mobility (Hammond et al., 2007). Community risk factors include urban and geographic location, impoverishment, a high minority population, and high levels of violence and drug-related crime (Hammond et al., 2007). School related dropout risk factors are numerous and included school size, high student-teacher ratio, student body characteristics (such as percentage of minority and

32 low-income students), student body academic performance and problems with attendance, violence, and school safety (Hammond et al., 2007). Other school-related risk factors included school policies and structures that can impede student promotion such as high-stakes testing and standards-based reforms (Hammond et al., 2007). Lack of relevant curriculum, uninteresting coursework, and harmful school discipline practices can also cause students to leave school (Hammond et al., 2007). The aforementioned risk factors can contribute to the student experience of educational trauma, which is the unintentional ill-treatment or discrimination of students by an educational system (Gray, 2015). This type of trauma can impact individuals, families and communities and can lead to feelings of helplessness and disempowerment (Gray, 2015). The problem of high school dropout often reflects a disconnect with adults in the academic community (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). When interviewed, nongraduates cited compounding reasons for leaving school including parenthood, the need to obtain employment, poor grades, lack of connection to, or dislike of school, unfair school discipline practices, uninteresting classes, unsupportive teachers, trouble getting along with teachers, and court involvement (Bloom et al., 2010; Burzichelli, Mackey, & Bausmith, 2011; Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Other factors include homelessness, incarcerated parents and being in foster care, yet these types of risk factors are often out of the control of young people who feel they must leave school in order to meet basic needs (Hynes, 2014). Non-graduates often remain in environments that are unsupportive of academic and vocational achievement (Hynes, 2014). Young people value their connections with others and the value placed on relationships can influence whether or not an individual

33 stays in school or drops out (Hynes, 2014). Researchers advised practitioners to provide additional support to students experiencing risk factors and build upon student strengths to encourage persistence and/or reentry (Hynes, 2014). Researchers advised educational stakeholders to use caution when labeling a student as ‘at-risk’ (Hickman & Wright, 2011). In a study exploring at-risk students involved in a mentoring program, it was revealed that the earlier a student enrolled in the program, the less likely he or she would be to complete the program and graduate high school (Hickman & Wright, 2011). Findings indicated that the younger a student was labeled as at-risk the more likely he or she would experience life-long problematic behaviors (Hickman & Wright, 2011). Student dropout is not a sudden event; student disconnection from school is a long-term process (Hynes, 2014). There is no single, underlying risk factor that leads to student dropout, yet dropout risks are higher when multiple risk factors are present (Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins 2011). Research showed that 63% of non-graduates eventually obtain a high school credential within eight years of their original graduation date (Bloom et al., 2010). Approximately 10% of non-graduates are persistently disconnected; these individuals never re-engage with education or workforce development programs (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). In a phenomenological study exploring student experiences of high school dropout, researchers found that individuals who leave school do not want to be called dropouts, they prefer to be called ‘non-graduates’ and their decision to discontinue formal education as, ‘leaving school’ (Hynes, 2014). The term ‘dropout’ has negative undertones that signify quitting and those that drop out of school are often perceived as

34 ‘losers’ (Hynes, 2014). Researchers advised educational stakeholders to reframe the term student dropout as ‘interrupted enrollment’ as this conveys a more positive outlook for student return to school (Hynes, 2014). It is important to see beyond the data and understand that non-graduates are not statistics, but unique individuals with hopes, dreams and stories that deserve to be honored (Hynes, 2014). Individuals that leave high school often show considerable resilience and are able to recover from difficult situations, yet this resilience may not be sufficient to help them re-engage with school (Hynes, 2014). These individuals need authentic connections with adults and peers that care about them, support and guide them, and provide them with access to educational programs and social services (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Drysdale, Graham, & Borup, 2014; Hynes, 2014). An individual’s personal resilience, in conjunction with social and institutional supports, can enhance the academic reentry path (Hynes, 2014). Created by the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences in 2002, the “What Works Clearinghouse” serves as an open-access, evidence-based database for practices that work in education (Burzichelli et al., 2011). The Clearinghouse contains information on dropout prevention and allows educational stakeholders to research dropout prevention strategies, review program effectiveness, identify programs that address special needs students, and make decisions as to which strategies may generate success (Burzichelli et al., 2011). Proven effective dropout prevention programs include those that make educational quality a top priority, report accurate data, utilize early warning and intervention systems, have high expectations and standards, promote teacher effectiveness and encourage parental engagement (Balfanz et

35 al., 2013). Educational stakeholders are encouraged to integrate student voices and ideas into the development of student dropout prevention and reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). Researchers with America's Promise Alliance, Civic Enterprises and the Everyone Graduates Center at Johns Hopkins University explained that a national, strategic plan, like the “Civic Marshall Plan” can alleviate the dropout crisis (Balfanz et al., 2013). When developing dropout recovery strategies, educational stakeholders are advised to provide multiple, targeted pathways to education success, as there is no universal method to re-engage students (Balfanz et al., 2013; Hickman & Wright, 2011). Recovery programs and interventions should operate simultaneously to meet the needs of students (Balfanz et al., 2013). Other researchers believed that the problem of high school dropout should be reframed as a public health issue as this action would bring other organizations, such as health institutions and civil rights groups, into the dropout conversation (Miller et al., 2010). Low adult literacy levels also pose a public health challenge as today’s increased literacy demands can limit workplace opportunities and restrict access to healthcare resources (Miller et al., 2010). Despite the fact that 40 million Americans have only the most basic literacy, there is a lack of research focused on adult learners to inform remediation efforts (Miller et al., 2010). Researchers agreed that dropout factory schools, where only 60% of freshman students make it to their senior year, should be the first targets of educational reform efforts (Balfanz et al., 2013). There is no single, underlying factor that contributes to student dropout and there is no single type of intervention that can end the dropout crisis (Balfanz et al., 2013; Hammond et al., 2007; Hickman & Wright, 2011). Despite positive

36 trends in reducing student dropout and the emergence of innovative dropout prevention strategies, there is still a significant need for research and continued efforts to reduce the dropout rate. Returning to High School More than 6 million people nationwide, between the ages of 16 and 24 are high school non-graduates (Balfanz et al., 2013). High school dropout recovery and reentry programs allow non-graduates to have another chance to complete their high school education (Wilkins, 2011). Dropout recovery involves student re-enrollment into traditional schools, while reentry programs are non-traditional and allow for student selfenrollment (Wilkins, 2011). Educational stakeholders have established high school reentry programs as charter schools, as day or evening adult education centers, or as online programs (Wilkins, 2011). Non-graduates can also opt to take a high school equivalency exam, such as the General Educational Development (GED) test (Wilkins, 2011). Some high school recovery and reentry programs target a younger demographic, while others focus on non-graduates that are significantly over-age, under-credited and disconnected (Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). Individuals who have left school may not realize there are options to return, they may feel embarrassed to return, or may not feel welcome in school environments (Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins, 2011). To locate and re-engage non-graduates, stakeholders can promote brick and mortar high school programs that are suitable for all non-graduates (Wilkins, 2011). Brick and mortar programs may not require students to have technical computer skills and can provide additional services such as one-on-one staffing, on-site daycare and connections to social workers, mental health experts, and

37 counseling services (Bloom et al., 2010). Non-graduates can be located via telephone, text, personalized letters, home visits, and through collaboration with community-based organizations, re-engagement fairs, media campaigns and other forms of direct outreach (Hynes, 2014; Wilkins, 2011). Educational stakeholders can use a targeted approach to locate specific members of the non-graduate population, such as those willing and able to go back to school online (Wilkins, 2011). Participation in online high school requires students to have basic computer skills to navigate the online framework, to complete and submit assignments, and to communicate with instructors (Oliver et al., 2009). Aspects of the online environment that appeal to this demographic include flexible scheduling, student-paced content, on-demand access to diverse knowledge sources and the availability of multimedia content and tools (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2009; Oliver et al., 2009). Potential students can be located through online marketing, social networking sites, and email campaigns (Wilkins, 2011). Educational stakeholders can improve reentry program enrollment by addressing risk factors, utilizing a variety of strategies, and providing multiple reentry points for non-graduates (Hammond et al., 2007; Burzichelli et al., 2011; Wilkins 2011). Credit recovery and credit accrual are important aspects of high school reentry programs as students can retake failed coursework through online programs, obtain credit by mastery testing, or obtain credit for life skills, community service or work experience (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). All credit recovery and high school reentry students by definition have special needs (Wilkins, 2011). Flexible programming, meaningful curricula, robust services and supports, and one-on-one staff involvement can

38 help meet the special needs of students and reduce barriers to school completion (Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). Partnerships between schools, job sites, daycares, and community-based organizations can improve student re-enrollment and graduation rates (Wilkins, 2011). For non-graduates who are under-credited and over-age, (individuals beyond age 24 who are no longer eligible for traditional public school and are far from meeting diploma credit requirements), the return to traditional school is unrealistic (Bloom et al., 2010). For these individuals, reentry options that incorporate school, career training and/or college coursework are more feasible as students can earn a high school credential while gaining career skills and/or college credit (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). Research findings showed that programs that incorporate career awareness and offer participants monetary stipends are more successful in comparison to other programs (Bloom et al., 2010). This demonstrates that paid work, such as job shadowing and apprenticeship, is an effective student motivation tool (Bloom et al., 2010). Reentry program facilitators and academic coaches can have a significant impact on student academic success (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). It is important that facilitators and coaches have a passion for working with non-graduates and provide students with personalized learning experiences (Cavanaugh et al., 2013, Wilkins, 2011). Other recommendations include low practitioner-student ratios and the active engagement of program facilitators in students’ lives, such as listening to students’ needs, collaborating with students to set educational goals, connecting students to community resources, facilitating relationships with the students’ family members, and understanding the students’ social and emotional needs (Wilkins, 2011).

39 Students with previous negative school experiences can struggle in high school reentry programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). There are no national dropout statistics specific to non-graduate populations, nor are there national statistics for online education programs as they all operate in different manners (J. Wilkins, personal communication, January 1, 2013). Some states operate schools for students within that state and some operate independently, which results in different reporting requirements (J. Wilkins, personal communication, January 1, 2013). Students that leave reentry programs cited different reasons for attrition, other than the reasons provided for initial drop out (Wilkins, 2011). Students may feel that reentry programs do not meet their needs or they may have family-related issues that interfere with coursework (Wilkins, 2011). High school reentry programs are often a last educational resort for non-graduates and stakes are high; there is a real need to understand student experiences to influence student outcomes (Wilkins, 2011). There is also a need for research on how students generate positive academic outcomes despite challenging circumstances (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Research controversy on the subject of high school reentry programs included concerns about success rates, academic rigor and lack of proven effective strategies (Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). High school reentry programs that claim high success rates, such as the U.S. Department of Labor’s Job Corps and YouthBuild USA, screen out individuals who do not demonstrate strong self-motivational skills and these programs may not reach disconnected youth who are most in need (Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). Given these filters, higher

40 success rates in these programs are statistically plausible. Regarding rigor, researchers believed that if programs receive federal funding, they should adhere to the same highquality standards as those found in traditional education models (Balfanz et al., 2013; Tucker, 2007). In addition, researchers believed there is a need for empirical research to evaluate the effectiveness of specific high school reentry program strategies in order to identify model programs and best practices (Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). There is controversy around the new General Educational Development (GED) test (Mulhere, 2015). In 2014, the GED was updated to align with new Common Core State Standards and the cost to take the exam doubled (from an average of $60 to $120); as a result, the number of people earning a GED has declined significantly (Mulhere, 2015). In 2014, approximately 248,000 people took the test and only 86,000 earned a GED in comparison to 2013 data, where approximately 800,000 people took the test, and 560,000 earned a GED (Mulhare, 2015). The non-profit American Council on Education has historically overseen the GED exam, but this changed in 2011 when the large, forprofit education technology company, Pearson, took over exam management (Mulhere, 2015). Critics of the new exam explained that the test is more difficult, more expensive and is only accessible by computer, which poses additional obstacles for an already vulnerable population (Mulhere, 2015). Many states have stopped using the GED due to the price increase and the availability of high school equivalency exams from other vendors such as Educational Testing Services and CTB/McGraw-Hill (Mulhere, 2015). GED testing officials explained the update was necessary to reflect today’s high school rigor and transitions to new tests often indicate a temporary drop in the pass rate as many

41 rush to take the old test (Mulhere, 2015). Teachers also have yet to acclimate to the new test format (Mulhere, 2015). Research showed that individuals with GEDs have lower incomes than their high school diploma earning counterparts, their degree is not as valued by employers, and they are not as successful in college (Quinn, 2014). Researchers recommended that educational stakeholders focus on non-graduate and adult learner education best practices versus simply teaching individuals how to pass a test (Quinn, 2014). Online High Schools for Reentry Purposes Emerging technologies have changed how and when learning occurs and can lead to new models of education (Collins & Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007). New learning technologies allow individuals to pursue educational interests on their own terms, outside of traditional brick and mortar institutions (Collins & Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007). The popularity of the Internet has led to public acceptance of online learning as an established learning modality across all academic levels (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011). Online learning is one of the fastest-growing trends in education and as such, there is increased urgency to understand online students and learning environments so as to improve student success (Roblyer, 2008). Online high schools are transforming public and adult education and have expanded educational opportunities for non-graduates (Balfanz et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Online high schools have existed since the mid-1990’s and initial online programs catered to accelerated students by providing access to advanced coursework and to specialized, non-local instructors (Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Today’s online high schools are also used for credit recovery and reentry

42 purposes (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Online high schools have a unique organizational model, and as such, they must take program design, course quality, instructional methods and student achievement into consideration (Molnar et al., 2014). Curricula and instruction within the online model must meet quality standards as determined by state and regional education boards (Oliver et al., 2009). Online high school programs may align with the iNACOL (International Association for K–12 Online Learning) Standards of Quality for Online Courses and/or the National Education Association standards on curriculum, instructional design, and teacher quality (Oliver et al., 2009). Some states require teachers to have an online teaching certification while others allow educators in various certification areas to teach online (Oliver et al., 2009). There are advantages to using online learning with non-graduates, especially for those with special needs. Benefits include on-demand, individualized access to diverse knowledge sources, enhanced student engagement and responsibility, lessened student competitiveness, and reductions in student bullying (Collins & Halverson, 2009; Hart, 2012; Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011). Additional benefits include flexible learning environments and schedules, credit recovery opportunities, student-paced programming, and the availability of multimedia content and tools to assist those that may be struggling (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). Online high schools are advantageous for individuals who are significantly over age and far from meeting high school completion requirements as stigmas are lessened (Balfanz et al., 2013). Students can opt to complete course work independently or using a hybrid model which encompasses both online instruction and face-to-face support

43 (Wilkins, 2011). According to the research, a hybrid model is preferable for nongraduates due to the provision of in-person support (Wilkins, 2011). Student attrition from online courses is a known problem in both the United States and internationally, and across all academic levels (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Some online high schools have reported dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Students new to online learning can initially feel overwhelmed and can experience feelings of anxiety and fear (Kim & Frick, 2011). Other disadvantages of the online learning environment include technology and communication challenges, technology-skill related problems, challenges in meeting the unique needs of special needs students, and student feelings of isolation (Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009). Other factors indicated in online student attrition included perceived lack of time, low student motivation, cognitive overload and competing priorities such as family and career demands (Kim & Frick, 2011). Student perception of course difficulty can also lead to decreased motivation and increased anxiety (Kim & Frick, 2011). To alleviate the aforementioned concerns, educational stakeholders can screen students for technical proficiency, require students to complete an online orientation prior to starting coursework, and integrate online homerooms and web-based/phone-based conferences into the curriculum (Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). Regular teacher/student communication is encouraged, especially for students with weak independent work skills, poor self-motivation, poor time-management and special needs (Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). The use of calendar and project management software can help online students manage deadlines and the number of online courses a

44 student can take at one time should be limited (Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). Students in brick and mortar high school reentry programs often have access to involved staff that provide personalized academic, social and emotional support or connections to local businesses that provide students with meaningful training experiences (Balfanz et al., 2013; Burzichelli et al., 2011). Due to the autonomous nature of the online high school environment, students are often responsible for their own learning and the aforementioned support systems are difficult, if not impossible, to incorporate into an online program (Roblyer & Davis 2008; Wilkins, 2011). Online course design factors which improve student motivation and achievement include incorporation of real-world tasks and social learning activities, quality course content, accessible learning support, user-friendly design, multimedia content, and a positive learning climate (Bekele, 2010; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter, Maier & Macher, 2010). Students with previous negative school experiences often struggle in high school reentry programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). Career Online High School (COHS) founder, Dr. Howard Liebman is an expert on educational trauma and believed trauma can evoke a lifelong ‘flight or fight’ response (H. Liebman, personal communication, May 19, 2014). His drive to remove barriers to student success helped him establish an online education model centered on the provision of one-on-one student support (H. Liebman, personal communication, May 19, 2014). Research suggested that traditional brick and mortar classroom strategies for atrisk populations such as the ‘5 C’s’ (connect, climate, control, curriculum and caring community), also be addressed in online high school environments (Cavanaugh et al.,

45 2013). To address the 5 C’s, practitioners can: (a) help students make connections between education and their future; (b) provide a safe, positive and caring learning environment; (c) teach students how take control of their learning (i.e., promote independence); (d) help students engage with the curriculum; and (e) demonstrate to students that they are valued members of a caring community (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Drysdale et al., 2014). The importance of the instructor’s role in an online course is key as quality teacher/student interactions and instructor support contribute to positive learning outcomes and improved student satisfaction (Hartnett et al., 2011; Paechter et al., 2010). Online reentry program facilitation requires a unique skill set that is not present in mainstream teacher education programs, and it is recommended that practitioners undergo specialized professional development activities (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Tucker, 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Practitioners need to understand the varying needs of students in online courses and how to apply effective online learning best practices (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). Researchers suggested that reentry program facilitators identify mentors who are qualified, experienced educators and have both special education and online teaching experience (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Although the online high school model is the fastest growing form of school choice, controversy surrounds this topic (Molnar et al., 2014). There is lack of basic statistical data such as the number of full-time online high schools in operation, the number of students enrolled in these schools, and program expansion rates (Molnar et al., 2014). In the 2012-2013 school year, 30% of full-time public online schools did not receive state accountability ratings, and of those schools that did, only 33.76% (231

46 schools) were rated as academically acceptable (Molnar et al., 2014). There are variations in online school policies as they relate to course completion and retention metrics (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010). This lack of standardization results in stakeholder inability to analyze differences between school programs and accurately understand program effectiveness (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010). Public, full-time online high schools typically serve few Black and Hispanic students, low-income students or those with special education needs and the on-time graduation rate is half the national average of 43% (Molnar et al., 2014). Researchers criticized variance among online programs in regards to rigor and options for personalization (Tucker, 2007). States continue to invest in and expand online schooling despite a lack of high-quality, research-based evidence supporting this decision (Molnar et al., 2014). In regards to for-profit online schools, stakeholders brought lawsuits against one education management company for misleading investors by concealing information on finances, student attrition and academic performance (Molnar et al., 2014). There is additional controversy in regards to online education programming for special needs students, such as those at-risk, those with disabilities, credit recovery students and high school non-graduates. In comparison to accelerated students within the online learning model, credit recovery students are less apt to rate online courses as “good” or “excellent” and are less apt to want to enroll in additional online courses (Oliver et al., 2009). Credit recovery students self-reported significantly lower technical skills than accelerated students, which led researchers to conclude that credit recovery students, who by definition are academically disadvantaged, may be disadvantaged in the

47 online environment (Oliver et al., 2009). Despite increases in online learning utilization there is still a dearth of empirical evidence on online high schools, to include limited information on student performance, student satisfaction and student retention in these environments (Hawkins et al., 2012). There is a lack of information on student success and interactions within the online high school model and resulting correlations with teaching best practices (Hawkins et al., 2012). There is a need to develop and standardize online high school policies on course completion and retention metrics, so as to provide the educational community with usable data (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010). Data on online learning specific studies, such as those that examine student attrition and outcomes in online learning programs, is also needed (Artino & Stephens, 2009). There is a need for empirical research to understand how to support students engaged in online high school reentry programs and to improve understanding of online high school best practices. Human Development, Learning, and Self-Efficacy To improve understanding of the student experience of online high school reentry, foundational information on self-efficacy, human development, and learning is included in this review. The following content includes theoretical information based on the work of Piaget, Hall, Bandura and Knowles, as well as information on practical applications, theoretical limitations, and self-efficacy influences in learning environments. This information provided perspective on the human learning experience and informed study recommendations. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), approached human development from a cognitive point of view (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Piaget made valuable

48 contributions to the field of developmental psychology and his efforts led to the creation of constructivist learning theory (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Constructivists hold that individuals create their own understanding of the world they live in through interactions with their environment and with others (Meece & Daniels, 2008). In his four-stage theory of development, Piaget explained that children’s ways of thinking progresses through four different stages where children develop new cognitive structures, or schemes (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Schemes are patterns of thoughts or actions that children use to interact with their environment (Meece & Daniels, 2008). The first Piagetian stage, the sensorimotor stage, occurs in infancy and includes simple and action-oriented schemes such as reaching for, grasping and pulling objects, goaldirected behavior and object permanence (Meece & Daniels, 2008). The preoperational stage occurs during the preschool years and includes the development of symbolic schemes, meaning children are able to represent objects and events with symbols such as language, mental images and gestures (Meece & Daniels, 2008). In the concrete operational stage, which occurs during the elementary school years, children apply cognitive operations to problems that involve concrete objects (Meece & Daniels, 2008). The last stage of cognitive development, the formal operations stage, occurs in early adolescence and continues into adulthood and is demonstrated by an individual’s ability to solve complex problems, infer possibilities, hypothesize, and think ahead (Meece & Daniels, 2008). As individuals mature, they begin to understand the world in relation to the cognitive operations they have developed in a process known as assimilation (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Individuals modify existing cognitive

49 structures to understand new information in a process known as accommodation (Meece & Daniels, 2008). To apply Piagetian theory in the classroom, practitioners are advised to design learning environments that meet students where they are, on a cognitive level, and provide opportunities to challenge students as they encounter new information (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Practitioners should encourage students to be active participants in the construction of their own learning and to think for themselves (Meece & Daniels, 2008). It is recommended that adult power be reduced in the classroom; practitioners are advised to play the role of organizers, collaborators and guides as they help students learn how to learn, facilitate the exchange of ideas and foster student exploration of ideas and concepts (Meece & Daniels, 2008). There are limitations to Piagetian stage theory as individuals can acquire cognitive operations earlier and later than hypothesized and the context of an individual’s experience can influence the specific skills developed (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Piaget’s theory fails to take other factors into account that can affect cognitive development such as family, culture, the quality and quantity of an individual’s education, medical conditions, and emotional or physical trauma (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Critics hold that the theory only covers a fraction of an individual’s lifespan, as individuals attain the formal operations stage in adolescence and the remainder of the adult life experience includes other stages (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Additionally, for practitioners, a discovery-based classroom is not always the best option as explicit teaching and demonstrations help students create knowledge (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Adolescence is the time period from puberty into the early 20’s and involves

50 significant physical, social, cognitive and emotional changes, which in turn can have a profound effect on motivation and learning (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006; Weil, Fleming, Dumontheil, Kilford, Weil, Rees & Blakemore, 2013). Identity formation plays an important role during adolescence, to include the development of cognitive and metacognitive abilities (Schunk & Meece, 2006; Weil et al., 2013). Changes in family, school and peer environments also impact adolescents’ beliefs in their abilities to succeed, both in and out of school environments (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006). American psychologist, G. Stanley Hall, (1844-1924), is considered the ‘father of adolescence’ as he was the first psychologist to champion adolescent psychology as its own branch worthy of study and he developed scientific methods associated with this field (Arnett, 2006). Hall’s accomplishments were many; he was the first psychology professor at John Hopkins University, he founded the American Psychological Association, he launched the American Journal of Psychology and served as the first president of Clark University (Goodchild, 2012). Hall based his seminal work and approach to adolescent psychology on Darwin’s theory of evolution; Hall believed human development was a biological evolution (Arnett, 2006). Prior to adolescence, Hall believed children were more animalistic and less evolved in nature and adolescence signified a time of rebirth, to include the emergence of human traits (Arnett, 2006). Hall (1904) described adolescence as a time of ‘storm and stress’ and documented the emotions of adolescents as vacillating between euphoria and depression and between sensitivity and callousness, to include intense feelings of curiosity and an emphasis on peer relationships. Hall (1904) noted additional aspects of the turbulent adolescent

51 experience to include parental conflict, moodiness, and risk-taking behavior. While many facets of Hall’s research hold true today, his theories on eugenics, the role of women in society, and the evolutionary status of people of color have been heavily criticized and disproven (Goodchild, 2012). Research further demonstrated that not all adolescents experience storm and stress as they mature (Arnett, 2006). American psychologist Albert Bandura (1977b) approached child and adolescent development from a social cognitive perspective. In his seminal work, Bandura was particularly interested in the exploration of aggression in adolescent boys and in treating aggressive behaviors by identifying sources of violence (Bandura & Waters, 1959). In interviews with both aggressive boys and their parents, Bandura found that parents often encouraged and reinforced their sons’ aggression towards others (Bandura & Waters, 1959). In a subsequent landmark study on aggression in children, Bandura identified that when aggressive behavior is modeled, such as children witnessing someone interacting aggressively with an inflatable ‘Bobo doll’, that children imitate aggressive behaviors (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). Bandura (1997) found that early self-efficacy development was influenced by two factors, a child’s capacity for symbolic thought (the ability to understand cause and effect relationships) and the capacity for self-observation and self-reflection. As children learn that they are separate from other things and people, they begin to understand how their actions can affect their environment (Bandura, 1997). A child’s development of language and symbolic thought is associated with a capacity for self-awareness and sense of personal agency (Bandura, 1997). Studies demonstrated that during adolescence, student self-efficacy levels and

52 student academic interest drop as individuals become emotionally complex (Klassen, 2010). Declines in student self-efficacy beliefs are most noticeable during the student transition from middle school to high school and these declines can carry-over into high school (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Adolescents with learning disabilities can find schooling to be particularly challenging as they often lag behind peers in academic skill and academic self-confidence (Klassen, 2010). These deficits can result in lowered persistence and decreased engagement on academic tasks (Klassen, 2010). Educational stakeholders can support adolescents with learning disabilities by teaching students how to set goals, evaluate academic progress and use academic help-seeking behaviors (Klassen, 2010). As adolescent cognition matures, individuals improve in their ability to analyze and interpret their capabilities to complete tasks and obtain goals (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Metacognition, which is one’s ability to reflect upon thoughts and behaviors, influences an individual’s ability to organize study activities (Cera, Mancini & Antonietti, 2013; Weil et al., 2013). Metacognition processes relate directly to task performance, as also seen in self-efficacy research (Cera et al., 2013; Weil et al., 2013). Metacognitive experiences play a monitoring role and influence behavior by providing individuals with information on implemented strategies, strategy effectiveness, and outcome assessments (Cera et al., 2013). Metacognitive abilities increase during adolescence and plateau in adulthood and can be observed as increased egocentricity, an improved sense of self, and developed self-awareness (Weil et al., 2013). The adolescent development period can be challenging and stressful for students, as well as those close to them, due to the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur during

53 this time (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Adolescents become more aware of task performance during the same developmental timeframe as when they begin valuing the judgments of others, developing identities and separating from their families (Weil et al., 2013). Family finances, parental education levels, social resources, and family use of child-motivation techniques have a direct effect on adolescent self-efficacy (Fan & Williams, 2010; Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Families with financial means are often able to provide their children with a greater number of experiences and exposures to positive academic and social models, thus improving their children’s selfefficacy (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Socioeconomic status is a major predictor of high school dropout (Balfanz et al., 2013), and children with a lower socioeconomic status are more likely to experience learning difficulties, which in turn can result is lower selfefficacy for learning (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Although parental involvement in a child’s education can have a positive, influential effect on student self-efficacy, too much parental involvement can have the opposite effect (Fan & Williams, 2010). Researchers recommended studies on student self-efficacy and student motivation outcomes based on the type and amount of parental involvement provided (Fan & Williams, 2010). Researchers recommended that practitioners provide additional support for students from a lower socioeconomic status in order to foster student use of academic strategies and improve student academic selfconfidence (Klassen, 2010). Schooling can influence adolescent self-efficacy through instructional practices, the amount and type of teacher feedback and attention, grading practices, the use of

54 competition, and management of school transitions (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Research showed that competitive classroom environments and too much teacher support can decrease student self-efficacy, as these can make students feel incompetent (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Practitioners can improve student self-efficacy by providing a supportive classroom environment and promoting smooth transitions and structuring curriculum to build on prior student knowledge (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Peers influence student self-efficacy as peer relationships contribute to adolescent socialization and the views adolescents have of themselves (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Vicarious experience, the personal witness of task attainment by others, is a known source of personal self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977a). Adolescents that view their peers as accomplishing, or not accomplishing, tasks or goals are more likely to believe that they too, can succeed or fail based on what they have witnessed (Schunk & Meece, 2006). As adolescents tend to select friends based on similarity to themselves, such as common interests, academic and athletic ability, background experiences, gender, and ethnicity, the potential influence of peer modeling and the effect on self-efficacy is greatly enhanced (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Parents can influence the impact of peer modeling by promoting the home environment as welcoming for their children’s friends (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Adult learning theory provides a framework for stakeholders to understand the experiences and preferences of adult learners (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2014). Stakeholders can use core principles of adult learning theory to develop effective adult learning processes (Knowles et al., 2014). The most well-known theory of adult learning is andragogy. Andragogy is a Greek term meaning ‘man-leading,’ and can be contrasted

55 with another Greek term, pedagogy, which means ‘child leading’ (Corley, 2012). Within education, andragogy is the science of helping adults learn (Knowles, 1980). German educator Alexander Kapp first utilized the term andragogy in this regard and German historian and philosopher Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy developed the concept into an educational theory (Corley, 2012). Educator Malcolm Knowles later popularized andragogy in the U.S. (Corley, 2012) There are six principles to andragogy: the learner's need to know, self-concept of the learner, prior experience of the learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn (Knowles et al., 2014). Knowles (2014) believed that as adults mature, they become self-directed learners. Adult learners draw on their own experiences to aid the learning process and new learning is most effective when immediately applied (Knowles et al., 2014). Within andragogy, it is assumed that adults are ready to learn when they take on new social or life roles, when a problem motivates them, or they are internally motivated by their own desire to learn (Knowles et al., 2014). To apply theoretical andragogy concepts within learning environments, practitioners are advised to assess and personalize learning to meet the unique needs of adult learners and ensure they understand why they are learning new knowledge, skills and abilities (Knowles et al., 2014). Learning should be active and allow adult learners to perform learning tasks (Knowles et al., 2014). Students should apply new learning immediately to address real-world problems (Knowles et al., 2014). Practitioners can support self-directed learning by using student self-assessments, which identify learning gaps and allow for the development of learning objectives and activities that align with identified areas of need (Corley, 2012). Practitioners can

56 support self-directed learning by fostering positive student attitudes and encouraging students to reflect on what they are learning (Corley, 2012). Within the online classroom, practitioners should support adult learners to explore their own study topics and ensure they understand why they are learning specific content (Frey & Alman, 2003). Online activities should be problem-based, with application to relevant, real-life events (Frey & Alman, 2003). Researchers recommended studies to explore academic self-esteem and selfefficacy beliefs regarding self-regulated learning behaviors (Zuffiano et al., 2013). Also recommended are studies exploring metacognition and awareness of task performance in relation to adolescent self-awareness and self-identity (Weil et al., 2013). Studies that explore the relationship between adolescent delinquency, self-efficacy and goal setting behaviors are recommended (Carroll, Gordon, Haynes, & Houghton, 2013). The self-efficacy of urban youth warrants study, as there are correlations between cultural and economic disadvantages and dropping out of high school (Hynes, 2014; Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Researchers recommended studies exploring student underestimation and overestimation of self-efficacy beliefs due to controversy on this issue (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). To elucidate, some researchers found that student over-estimation of academic self-efficacy resulted in positive outcomes such as improved student self-confidence, effort and persistence, yet self-efficacy overestimations, particularly among academically at-risk students, can result in poor social skills, behavior problems, and lower academic competence (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). Research that explores the adolescent and adult experience of self-efficacy in online programs can help to fill literature gaps in the aforementioned topic areas.

57 Student Motivation and Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy In the online environment, student self-efficacy and academic motivation are closely connected (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011). Motivation is a process of sustainment in a goal-directed activity (Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Academically motivated students demonstrate high levels of learning activity engagement and persevere on tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Bekele, 2010). Motivation is a critical factor for student persistence in online learning, which can be due to the autonomous nature of the online environment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Bekele, 2010). Research on student motivation to learn online is often approached from the perspective of the student to include intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors (Hartnett et al., 2011; Malinovski, Vasileva, Vasileva-Stojanovska, & Trajkovik, 2014). For intrinsically motivated students, an autonomous online learning environment is ideal due to opportunities to customize and adjust personal learning paths (Hartnett et al., 2011). Other intrinsic motivational factors include personal satisfaction, personal interest, and enjoyment in task completion (Hartnett et al., 2011). Intrinsically motivated students are more persistent and more likely to achieve academic goals in the online environment in comparison to their extrinsically motivated counterparts (Malinovski et al., 2014). Extrinsically motivated students may participate in courses if they believe coursework will improve their performance or if there is the promise of a desired award (Cheng, Wang, Moormann, Olaniran, & Chen, 2012). Other extrinsic motivational factors include negative consequence avoidance, the perception of tasks as valuable and relevant, and the desire to meet others’ expectations (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick,

58 2011; Paechter et al., 2010). Although intrinsic student motivation is longer lasting than extrinsic motivation, external motivational factors, like good grades and social influence, serve as effective drivers in online learning environments (Malinovski et al., 2014). Research showed that student motivation to learn online is dependent upon situational aspects, such as the nature of assignments and perceived relevance of assignments (Hartnett et al., 2011). The following factors also influenced student motivation: (a) if the course is a requirement; (b) students’ prior knowledge of material; and (c) student belief that an online course is a way to earn good grades with minimal effort (Hartnett et al., 2011). Research findings demonstrated that self-efficacy theory adds significantly to the online learning knowledge base as this framework has significant implications for student achievement, motivation and self-regulation (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009). Bandura (1986) believed that an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs are key to the capacity to make choices. It is important for practitioners to be mindful of and understand aspects of student self-efficacy in the online environment as self-efficacy influences the choices students make, the amount of effort and persistence exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching learning tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Researchers approached self-efficacy and online learning from different perspectives and use the following definitions for relevant terminology: (a) InternetBased Learning (IBL) refers to the general online learning environment; (b) Academic Self-Efficacy (ASE) indicates a learner’s perception of academic learning; (c) Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) indicates an individual’s perceived confidence in using a computer;

59 (d) Internet Self-Efficacy (ISE) indicates an individual’s confidence in general skills and knowledge in using the Internet; and (e) Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) indicates a learner’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or in an online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Research on student selfefficacy in online learning environments typically falls into one of three categories: general ISE, the interrelationship between ASE and IBL, and IBLSE (Tsai et al., 2011). Research on CSE is more extensive in comparison to ISE due to the relatively new innovation of Internet technology (Tsai et al., 2011). CSE research typically falls into two categories: general CSE, which indicates an individual’s general beliefs about computer skills, and application-specific self-efficacy, which indicates an individual’s belief in his or her ability to utilize a particular computer application, such as Microsoft Word (Tsai et al., 2011). With CSE, individuals are more likely to adopt new computer technologies if they perceive that the technologies will be beneficial, if the technologies are easy to use, and if individuals believe they will be successful in using them (Cheng et al., 2012). Ease of technology use correlates with self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, improved student confidence and intention to use technology, and positive user attitudes (Cheng et al., 2012). CSE research findings have implications for software developers and online learning program administrators as student experiences of the learning environment are essential to student success (Cheng et al., 2012). Additional research is needed on the practical application of IBLSE theory into practice and development of standardized and operationalized online learning terminology (Artino, Hemmer, & Durning, 2011; Tsai, 2011). Experimental design studies are recommended to determine how interventions affect student self-efficacy and

60 student perceptions of online course quality (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Yang & Park, 2011). Student IBLSE is an evolving topic of study that warrants review given the extent of educational stakeholder investment in this modality (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). IBLSE correlates with student motivation in the online environment and is critical to student persistence in autonomous online environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Bekele, 2010). Research in this topic area can have significant impact for educational stakeholders, program administrators, software developers, and students. Self-Efficacy, Expectancy, and Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments Self-efficacy theory, the study’s theoretical framework, has significant overlaps with other theories including expectancy theory and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) theory. Understanding the interconnections and differences between these theories improved study data analysis. The following discussion provides background information on the aforementioned theories, on the practical application of theories, and information on self-efficacy theory overlaps and discrepancies. In his seminal work, Vroom (1964) formulated the expectancy theory of motivation as a means to understand employee motivation and choice in the workplace and to guide management best practices. Expectancy theory indicated that individuals are motivated to behave in certain ways based on perceived results of behavior and there are correlations between perceived desirability of an outcome and an individual’s motivation level (Lunenburg, 2011; Vroom, 1964). Findings indicated that self-efficacy has a direct impact on expectancy and that self-efficacy can have a greater effect than expectancy on goal attainment (Bandura, 1986). Researchers recommended additional studies to improve understanding of the relationship between expectancy and self-

61 efficacy (Williams, 2010). The expectancy theoretical model consists of three motivational variables: expectancy, instrumentality and valence (Vroom, 1964). To elucidate: (a) expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will yield greater results; (b) instrumentality refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will result in expected outcomes; and (c) valence refers to an individual’s perception of the importance of the expected outcome (Vroom, 1964). Employee motivational levels can be determined by examining relationships between these three variables (Vroom, 1964). An individual with low motivation may not believe he or she can put forth the effort required to obtain an outcome, may not believe the outcome is attainable or may not have a desire to obtain the outcome (Vroom, 1964). Conversely, an individual that is highly motivated may be confident that he or she can exert the required effort, may believe that the outcome is attainable and may have a strong desire for the outcome (Vroom, 1964). Tharenou utilized the expectancy theoretical model to identify workplace environmental and situational factors that affected employee motivation to learn, including organizational policies and supports, social interactions, and job challenges (as cited in Cheng et al., 2012). In a seminal study, researchers adapted the expectancy theoretical model to understand employee-learning efforts in the workplace (Mathieu et al., 1992). Theoretical tenets for workplace learning included: (a) expectancy, as it refers to an individual’s perception that training participation will lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills or abilities (KSA’s); (b) instrumentality, as it refers to an individual’s perception that KSA’s gained from training will lead to specific outcomes, such as respect from peers, increases in pay and improved job performance; and (c) valence, as it

62 refers to the personal importance of training outcomes to the individual (Mathieu et al., 1992). Along a similar line, research on the topic of online learning and students with disabilities demonstrated that motivation increases and learning occurs when students make real connections with learning content and understand why they are learning it (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Student motivation is a necessary component for student success within an online learning environment and when students believe that content is relevant, motivation to learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Researchers applied expectancy theory to determine success factors of online learning and computer technology adoption in the workplace (Cheng et al., 2012; Paechter et al., 2010). Findings showed that employees were more likely to engage in online learning activities if they believed the activities would improve on-the-job performance and if management perceived and promoted the learning as valuable (Cheng et al., 2012). Organizational support, such as the promise of monetary awards and promotions based on online learning participation, fostered online learning adoption (Cheng et al., 2012). Individuals were more likely to adopt new technologies if they believed adoption would generate desired outcomes (Paechter et al., 2010). Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) refers to the metacognitive, self-directed practices and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). SRL includes the selection and utilization of the following learning strategies: goal setting, content review, rehearsal and memorization, forming mental images, self-recording, and seeking assistance from others (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Bandura (1986) initially incorporated the construct of

63 self-regulation into social cognitive theory and defined it as a self-influence process consisting of: (a) self-monitoring of one’s behavior to include causes and effects; (b) selfjudgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of personal morals, standards and circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior to include self rewards and selfpunishments. In his seminal work, Zimmerman (1986) developed SRL theory to expand upon social cognitive theory as it related to student learning processes and there are connections to self-efficacy and SRL. Researchers opting to study student SRL used a cyclical model with three phases: (a) forethought, to include task analysis and self-motivation beliefs; (b) performance, to include self-control and self-observation techniques; and (c) self-reflection, to include self-judgment and self-reaction behaviors and beliefs (Zimmerman, 2008). The forethought phase includes the sub-processes of student self-efficacy and expectancy, and self-regulation correlates with positive self-efficacy beliefs (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Zimmerman 2008). Characteristics of proactive, self-regulated learners include self-confidence, high self-efficacy, initiative and perseverance (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Self-regulated, high-performing learners take responsibility for learning outcomes, have an awareness of academic shortcomings, and utilize adaptive strategies to mitigate deficiencies (Artino et al., 2011; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Students that perceive they are not in control of their learning environments have low academic selfefficacy and this can negatively affect the use of SRL strategies (Artino et al., 2011). SRL theory is unique in comparison to self-efficacy and expectancy theory as SRL indicates how students select, organize and create personal learning environments, versus

64 the indication of student beliefs or perceptions about learning tasks (Zimmerman, 1990). Students adapt SRL processes to fit online learning environments and computer technologies have emerged to assist students with SRL techniques (Winters, Greene, & Costich, 2008). These technologies allow educational stakeholders to access data on student utilization of SRL-support tools, such as note taking, content tagging, searching, and using online help (Winters et al., 2008; Zimmerman, 2008). Educational stakeholders can use this type of data to indicate students’ cognitive processes and to develop strategies to support struggling students (Winters et al., 2008; Zimmerman, 2008). Student SRL behaviors can be developmentally progressive, meaning behaviors may develop over time, and this can affect the type of support instructors provide to students (Artino & Stephens, 2009). To support SRL in the online classroom, practitioners can instruct students in SRL strategies, set assignment deadlines and facilitate discussions to encourage selfmonitoring (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Practitioners are advised to provide students with explicit instructional support during online learning activities and promote student selfefficacy by modeling best practices (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Instructor support of SRL processes can help to reduce student procrastination and build student critical thinking skills (Artino & Stephens, 2009). There is some controversy in the field as practical applications of SRL and selfefficacy theories may not improve student outcomes in online environments (Yang & Park, 2011). In one study example, researchers embedded SRL strategies into an online course, to include strategies on improving self-efficacy, and then surveyed students about strategy use (Yang & Park, 2011). Embedded self-efficacy strategies included peer

65 feedback, such as students encouraging and praising one another, and attribution feedback such as students responding to positive peer feedback (Yang & Park, 2011). The rationale for embedded strategies was based on Bandura’s (1977a) hypothesis that personal self-efficacy expectations can be influenced by verbal persuasion (Yang & Park, 2011). Results indicated that the embedded self-efficacy strategies had no significant effect on student use of SRL strategies in the online environment (Yang & Park, 2011). Expectancy theory, SRL theory, and self-efficacy theory are frameworks that practitioners can utilize to understand student motivation to learn in the online environment. Among online students, high expectancy and self-efficacy levels and the use of SRL techniques often indicated academic success (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Cheng et al., 2012; Zimmerman, 2008). Self-efficacy and expectancy are interconnected as the more confident an individual feels about the importance of a task, the more likely he or she will exert effort to obtain a positive outcome (Vroom 1964). Research indicated that self-efficacy had a direct impact on expectancy and had a greater effect than expectancy on whether an individual achieved a goal (Bandura, 1986). Summary This chapter familiarized readers with current literature on topics relevant to the study and demonstrated the need for research on the experiences of former non-graduates enrolled in online high schools. The review provided foundational information in support of the study purpose: to examine the phenomenon of student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence, in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with information to reduce student attrition. This review incorporated various seminal, current and peer-reviewed resources to provide the appropriate perspective.

66 A review of the phenomenon of high school dropout indicated the gravity of this national problem and information on high school reentry provided an overview of student options to return to school. A review of the use of online high schools for reentry purposes indicated the utilization of this modality with non-graduate populations and information on self-efficacy, development and learning provided theoretical context on the human learning experience. A discussion of student motivation and IBLSE provided insight into the online student experience. Additional information on expectancy theory and SRL theory, as they related to self-efficacy theory, provided perspective on theory development, theory overlaps, and practical applications. Information on controversies within the aforementioned topic areas was also discussed. During the course of this study, several gaps in the literature were identified. There is lack of basic statistical data, such as the number of full-time online high schools in operation, the number of students enrolled in these schools, and program expansion rates (Molnar et al., 2014). Empirical research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of high school reentry program strategies in order to identify model programs and best practices (Bloom et al., 2010; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Wilkins, 2011). Data is needed to understand how to support online high school students (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). There is a need to hear the voices of students and incorporate their ideas into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). Data on online learning specific studies, such as those that examine student attrition and outcomes in online learning programs, is lacking (Artino & Stephens, 2009). There is a need to understand how learning occurs in the online environment, how

67 student motivation is fostered and sustained, and how existing theories can be adapted for the online environment (Bekele, 2010; Hartnett et al., 2011; Tsai et al., 2011; Winters et al., 2008). Research is needed on how students generate positive academic outcomes, despite challenging circumstances (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Additional research is needed on the practical application of IBLSE theory into practice and development of standardized and operationalized online learning terminology (Artino, Hemmer, & Durning, 2011; Tsai, 2011). Experimental design studies are recommended to determine how interventions can affect student self-efficacy and student perceptions of online course quality (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Yang & Park, 2011). Literature on child, adolescent and adult learning and development informed study findings. Further studies are recommended to explore metacognition and awareness of task performance in relation to adolescent self-awareness and self-identity (Weil et al., 2013), as well as studies that explore the relationship between adolescent delinquency, self-efficacy and goal setting behaviors (Carroll et al., 2013). Researchers recommended additional studies to explore academic self-esteem and self-efficacy beliefs in regards to self-regulated learning behaviors (Zuffiano et al., 2013). The self-efficacy of urban youth and those with special needs warrants study, as there are connections between cultural and economic disadvantages and dropping out of high school (Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Researchers recommended the exploration of student underestimation and overestimation of academic self-efficacy, as both positive and negative student outcomes can result from this behavior (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). Student self-efficacy and motivation studies, based on type and amount of parental involvement, are also needed (Fan & Williams, 2010).

68 Theory is an important aspect of educational pedagogy and is an essential resource for practitioners in comprehending how learning happens, how students approach learning tasks, and how student outcomes can be improved. Established learning and motivation theories have undergone extensive testing by researchers, yet theories are evolving due to the emergence of educational technologies and theory modification will continue to develop over time. Practitioners can utilize theory to inform educational practices and make research-based decisions. Practical application of theory can improve course design, enhance teaching methods and inform organizational policy. Self-efficacy theory is perhaps the most significant framework that practitioners can use to inform practice as theory application can influence student belief systems (Maddux, 2012). Practitioners can use research-based strategies, based on self-efficacy principles, to help students overcome fear of failure, to mitigate negative student reactions towards learning tasks and to address students’ feelings of low academic selfefficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Helping students understand that their thoughts and beliefs about learning tasks can influence their actual abilities to accomplish them can aid students to focus on self-fulfilling prophesies they would actually like to experience (Usher & Pajares, 2008).

69 Chapter 3: Research Method This chapter describes the research method for this qualitative, phenomenological study to understand student experiences of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) and online high school persistence. Chapter sections include: the research method and design, the study population and sampling method, materials and instruments, data collection, processing and analysis processes, study assumptions, limitations and delimitations, as well as information on ethical assurances. Over the past decade, student enrollment in online high schools has increased exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Despite stakeholder investment into online high schools and increased student enrollment, there is little high-quality research on learning effectiveness in this environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen & Lewis, 2011; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Although high student self-efficacy levels are indicative of persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008), non-graduates can have low self-efficacy due to previous negative school experiences and fear of failure can cause students to leave school once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007; Schunk & Mullen, 2012). The aforementioned research gaps and concerns present a problem as educational stakeholders have a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Miller et al., 2010; Molnar et al., 2014; Roblyer, 2006). As a result, stakeholders are unable to leverage researchbased data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions (Roblyer &

70 Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to provide educational stakeholders with this necessary information. The intent of the research questions was to generate data that revealed lived student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence. Research Question 1 addressed the problem and data reflective of this question indicated connections between IBLSE and learning outcomes. Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose and data reflective of this question indicated ways educational stakeholders can leverage student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. Q1. What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? Q2. How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions? Research Methods and Design(s) This qualitative phenomenological study described the phenomenon of student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within an online high school. Qualitative selfefficacy studies are more effective than quantitative studies in understanding the selfefficacy sources students deem to have a greater impact on their academic success (Bandura, 1997). A qualitative approach allowed for the exploration of the phenomenon from the student’s point of view and indicated the meaning students attribute to this experience (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). This approach generated rich data as verbatim

71 participant interview transcription ensured for a comprehensive interview portrayal (Moustakas, 1994). A qualitative design aligned with theoretical contribution as this approach generated information on student self-efficacy in online learning environments (Usher & Pajares, 2008). A phenomenological, modified van Kaam research methodology was optimal for the study as researchers utilized this methodology to understand the essence of shared experiences and to convey fundamental meanings (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological methods allow researchers to adopt holistic and inductive approaches to the exploration of how others perceive events (Moustakas, 1994). Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), a German mathematician and philosopher, developed phenomenology and Adrian van Kaam, a Catholic priest and psychologist, further operationalized the methodology (Bailey, 2013; Moustakas, 1997). American psychologist Clark Moustakas (1923 –2012) adapted Husserl’s phenomenological approach to include modifications to van Kaam’s method of analysis (Blau, 2013; Moustakas, 1994). Husserl used the words ‘transcendental’ and ‘phenomenology’ interchangeably to explain the research methods used to describe phenomena (Moustakas, 1994). Within phenomenology, researchers used the process of epoché, which is a Greek term meaning ‘suspension of judgment,’ to remove themselves from the experience being studied and reach a “transcendental state of freshness and openness, a readiness to see in an unfettered way” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 41). Another phenomenology method is researcher use of imaginative variation, which involves researcher use of imagination and reflection to identify underlying themes, or units of meaning, within participant transcripts (Moustakas, 1994).

72 Another phenomenological approach is hermeneutical or interpretive phenomenology, which comes from the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger (Moustakas, 1994). Hermeneutical phenomenology involves researcher use of his or her own experiences to interpret participant experiences and the researcher acts as an insider versus a distant observer (Moustakas, 1994). This approach was not recommended for this study, as the researcher did not have experience with the phenomenon under review. In their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and Pajares (2008) cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological approach, including an interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other researchers were successful in using a phenomenological approach to capture the lived experiences of high school non-graduates (Hynes, 2014). It is important to see beyond statistics and understand that data on student dropout consists of unique individuals with hopes, dreams and stories that deserve to be honored (Hynes, 2014). Phenomenological research is an effective method that allows others to hear the voices of online high school students. A phenomenological approach addressed literature gaps in IBLSE and achievement in online high schools (Hammond et al., 2007; Tsai et al., 2011; Tucker, 2007; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Wilkins, 2011). The researcher considered other methodologies for the study, but they were not appropriate based upon study goals. Quantitative methodologies use objective data collection and analysis methods that did not align with the study’s self-efficacy theory framework or the study’s goal to understand the phenomenon from the experience of study participants (Maxwell, 2013). Quantitative methods do not generate rich, detailed descriptions that make a study unique (Moustakas, 1994).

73 The researcher explored other research designs, but they were not appropriate for the study. A case study would allow for in-depth investigation of individuals and programs through observation, interview and document review, but this method would not allow for exploration of lived experiences (Yin, 2014). A grounded theory approach would not fit as this method involves the development of theory and this study was framed by self-efficacy theory (Maxwell, 2013). Narrative inquiry was a less desirable approach as this method involved studying individuals through the stories they tell about their lives and would not be applicable to understanding core essences of the phenomenon under review (Maxwell, 2013). Ethnography is similar to phenomenology and was under consideration as a research design. Ethnography involves holistic descriptions and interpretations of cultural behaviors and cultural groups over a prolonged period while a phenomenological study focuses on understanding meaning through the lens of the individual participant (Maxwell, 2013). The study may have ethnographic elements due to the nature of the research, but the study’s focus is on the unique lived experiences of the phenomenon and their relation to theory, making the phenomenological study the preferred design route. Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and lens to evaluate findings. This theory was appropriate as application indicated foundational information about student belief systems and what students perceived themselves to be capable of accomplishing in an online learning environment (Tsai et al., 2011). Selfefficacy correlates with academic achievement and study data indicated relationships between student self-efficacy and academic success in the targeted domain (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).

74 Population The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is a private school within the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart Horizons Career Online Education (“About Us,” 2015). The district, located in Pensacola, Florida, was founded by educator Dr. Howard Liebman in 2009 and COHS was launched in 2010 (“About Us,” 2015). The school is a division of ed2go, which is an online learning provider for adults and ed2go is owned by Cengage, an international education services company (“About Us,” 2015). COHS is accredited by the AdvancED Accreditation Commission, which is the national commission that confers the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Council on Accreditation and School Improvement accreditation seal (“Accreditation,” 2015). Smart Horizons Career Online Education program contacts for this study included Dr. Howard Liebman, Superintendent and Chief Executive Officer, Wendy Kauffman, Chief Operating Officer, Teresa Salafrio, Director of Academics and Principal of Schools, and Dr. John H. Padgett Jr., Director of Strategic Partnerships. The researcher did not have a prior relationship with the school and received permission to conduct a study with COHS and publish the name of the school, district, and program managers. Permission documentation is located in Appendix A. The Smart Horizons Career Online Education district has partnerships with career colleges (e.g., Brown Mackie, City College), major corporations (e.g., Walmart, McDonald’s, Taco Bell), public libraries (e.g., Los Angeles, Sacramento, Cincinnati, Fountaindale, State of New Jersey), correctional facilities (e.g., Florida), workforce boards (e.g., Chicago, Seattle), and non-profit organizations (e.g., National Urban

75 League, Clinton Global Initiative) (“Leadership,” 2015). There is also an international partnership in South Africa (“Announcements,” 2015). As of August 2015, COHS had 2,766 active students enrolled and 1,498 graduates (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). Approximately 20% of COHS students self-enroll (private pay), while others enroll through partnerships with career colleges (20%), correctional facilities (12%), school districts (10%), public libraries (20%), and corporations/workforce boards (18%) (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). The average programcompletion time is 10-12 months and 72% of students matriculate into post-secondary programs (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). Approximately 42% of COHS students are employed, 68% are African American or Hispanic, 71% are female, and the average student is 27 years old (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). COHS offers complete, 18-credit, career-based high school diplomas geared towards helping adults prepare for the workplace (“About Us,” 2015). The school’s mission focuses on ensuring non-graduates receive the education they need to enter today’s workforce, with diplomas and credentialed career certificates available in the following areas: General Career Preparation, Childcare and Education, Certified Protection Officer, Certified Transportation Services, Homeland Security, Office Management, Retail Customer Service Skills, and Food and Customer Service Skills (“About Us,” 2015). Students must officially withdraw from traditional high school in order to enroll into COHS. The minimum age requirement to self-enroll is 16, but different partner

76 programs may have different age restrictions (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). The English proficiency level for COHS coursework is grade 5-6 for core academic courses and grade 8 or higher for career courses (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). New COHS students receive a New Student Checklist and complete an online orientation within the school’s Learning Management System (LMS) (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). COHS students start with career course electives, which creates early engagement and is intrinsically motivating as content is of personal student interest (Hartnett et al., 2011; Malinovski et al., 2014 ;W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). The COHS program uses a mastery model where students can retake failed coursework or exams until they are passed (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). COHS program software includes remediation activities, as well as audio options for students that prefer to have content read aloud (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). Struggling students can take advantage of one-on-one certified academic instructor support and technology support is always available (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). In locations where COHS has partnerships with career colleges, there are on-site computer labs and facilitators to support program participation (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). COHS academic coaches play a critical role in establishing a trust-based relationship with students and are essential to tracking student progress, communicating with students on a regular basis and in maintaining student motivation (W. Kauffman &

77 T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). Prior to enrollment, academic coaches discuss school readiness factors with students, including motivation to return to school, commitment/ time available to dedicate to school work, access to relevant technology and the Internet, and relevant technology skills. Partner programs with required on-site participation may assess for student readiness to attend regular, in-person sessions (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). Academic coaches spend the majority of their time engaged in student follow-up; their primary responsibility is student motivation and ensuring students are on-pace to graduate within 18 months of program commencement (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). For a fee, students can receive extensions beyond the 18 months, but this practice is strongly discouraged (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). LMS software with tracking and reporting capabilities allows academic coaches to monitor student activities and extended student inactivity results in a phone call from the student’s academic coach (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). Although there are many mechanisms in place to mitigate student dropout, the COHS attrition rate mirrors other similar online schools, with student attrition around 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Sample Study participants included a purposive sample of five participants, ages 16 and over, who completed at least three COHS courses, or graduated within the past year. There are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). Purposive, or purposeful sampling, is a non-

78 probability sampling method that involves the selection of individuals from a predefined group (Maxwell, 2013). The study excluded individuals that completed fewer than three courses, as they may not have had the breadth of experience required to speak about the phenomenon under investigation. Also excluded were individuals that graduated over a year ago, as they may not have been able to recall experiences in as vivid detail as more recent graduates. COHS enrollment is only open to individuals ages 16 and older that have completed eighth grade and have officially withdrawn from traditional high school. Thus, the population was reflective of this program requirement. Study participants were working towards, or received, a COHS diploma and career certificate in any of the aforementioned fields of study. Participants included those that were solely virtual, meaning they did not have an affiliation with a COHS partner organization and access to site-based support services, as well as those able to take advantage of site-based support. Participants included those that transferred high school credit into COHS, as well as those that started COHS from the first semester of ninth grade. Students with completion extensions were included in the study. The study population was appropriate to the study’s problem as all participants had experience with the phenomenon under review and were able to verbalize their experiences and provide recommendations for students that might be struggling. COHS program managers assisted in the recruitment of participants. Program managers identified a cross-representation of students and considered the following factors: (a) student demographics, such as gender, age, educational attainment level, and geographical location; (b) the availability and student use of on-site computer labs and on-site program facilitators; and (c) student motivation levels. Use of a criterion

79 sampling strategy ensured all participants had experience with the phenomenon under investigation (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). As the sample is not random, findings are not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. There are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). As previously mentioned, the COHS model utilizes academic coaches to provide individualized support for students. Coaches regularly communicate with students by telephone and email and foster a trust-based relationship to maintain student motivation and track student progress. COHS program managers worked with the academic coaches to contact study participants, via email or telephone, depending on the participants’ preferred method of communication. Coaches used the Participant Recruitment Email/Script in Appendix B. Once academic coaches and program managers received written or verbal permission from interested participants, they shared participant contact information with the researcher, who followed up with participants. As the study population is purposive, and the pool of study participants was limited, a general recruitment posting was not an effective way to solicit participants. Personal solicitation ensured participants met study criteria. The researcher took care to mitigate compromising the voluntariness of the agreement to participate and ensured potential participants did not feel pressured or obligated to volunteer due to relationships with academic coaches. Clear scripting within the Participant Recruitment Email/Script (Appendix B) highlighted that participation was voluntary and not participating had no bearing whatsoever on COHS program success or relationships with academic coaches.

80 Materials/Instruments A semi-structured Interview Guide consisting of open-ended questions and supportive scripting aided the researcher in identifying patterns and themes related to self-efficacy in an online learning environment (see Appendix F). Interviews allow researchers to understand objective and subjective aspects of an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs, including how beliefs influence performance (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Other researchers successfully used interview protocols to capture the lived experiences of nongraduates engaged in high school reentry programs (Hynes, 2014). A semi-structured interview process allowed for follow-up questions when clarification was needed (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). The semi-structured format allowed for adaptability as conversation naturally digressed from the original, planned questions (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). There is no standardized approach to self-efficacy measurement as self-efficacy is relative to specific tasks, environments and situations (Bandura, 2006). Study interview questions were based on Bandura’s (2006) recommendation that researchers develop custom measurement tools to fit the particular domains under review. Self-efficacy research evaluated at domain-specific levels helps improve result validity (Bandura, 1997, 2006). The interview questions were specific to the online learning domain and to the domain-specific construct of IBLSE. Question design aligned with Bandura’s (1977a) four theorized sources of self-efficacy: performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Bandura’s (2006) ‘Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales’ aided question development, along with sample qualitative self-efficacy interview questions found within Usher and Pajares

81 (2008), and sample phenomenological interview questions found within Moustakas (1994). To establish protocol credibility and transferability, the researcher used nonleading interview questions to ensure for unbiased responses from the participants’ own experiences (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). The questions helped the researcher to understand the context of the participants’ experiences, to construct their experiences, and reveal meanings behind experiences (Flood, 2010). Questions that may have evoked an emotional response, such as those related to online program challenges or past schooling experiences, were located at the end of the interview to allow for the establishment of interviewer/interviewee rapport. The researcher emailed experts with extensive experience in the fields of selfefficacy research, online learning and IBLSE, and asked them to review all interview questions. The researcher edited to questions based on feedback from: (a) Dr. Dale Schunk, former Dean and current Professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro; (b) Dr. Ellen Usher, Associate Professor, Director of the P20 Motivation and Learning Lab and Chair of the Educational Psychology Program at the University of Kentucky; and (c) Dr. Chin-Chung Tsai, Chair Professor of the Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education at the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology. The aforementioned authors’ research was used extensively in support of this study. Expert feedback helped reduce study risks and ensured for the credibility and dependability of the interview tool (Cozby, 2011). Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis Once participants were identified, the researcher emailed students using the

82 Participant Introductory Email, located in Appendix C. This email included the Participant Informed Consent Form (Appendix D). Once the signed informed consent documentation was received from participants, the researcher sent the Interview Scheduling Email (Appendix E) to provide background information on self-efficacy and to schedule the initial telephone interview. Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy terminology was modified to improve participant understanding: (a) performance accomplishment was replaced with ‘mastery experiences’; (b) vicarious experience was replaced with ‘observing others’; (c) verbal persuasion was replaced with ‘verbal persuasion by others’; and (d) physiological and emotional states was replaced with ‘mood’ (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010). To comprehend the phenomenon under review, the researcher used a semistructured Interview Guide (Appendix F) to conduct a telephone interview of a purposive sample of five students that completed at least three courses at Career Online High School (COHS) or that graduated within the past year. The intent of the interview was to explore the perceptions and lived experiences of non-graduates as they related to IBLSE and online high school persistence. Prior to the start of each interview, the researcher conducted a brief review of the Informed Consent documentation (Appendix D), to include participant permission for audio recording. The interview did not continue without participant permission to record. Scripting within the Interview Guide (Appendix F) allowed the researcher to address any questions related to the definition of self-efficacy and the theorized sources. The researcher ensured the interview climate was comfortable for the participant, which allowed the participant to respond honestly and comprehensively (Moustakas,

83 1994). Interviews lasted approximately one hour and the semi-structured interview process allowed for follow-up questions when clarification was needed (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). Although the researcher prepared for follow-up interviews (Appendix G), no additional data was required. The researcher used a digital recorder and transcription software, Dragon Naturally Speaking, to capture and transcribe participant conversation verbatim, which allowed for the reconstruction of participants’ personal experiences (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). Once interview transcription was complete, member checking occurred. Member checking is a process in which the researcher checks back in with participants once interviews are completed and transcribed (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher contacted participants with a Member Check Email/Transcript (Appendix H) and asked participants to review, confirm and recommend changes (Maxwell, 2013). When the individual textural descriptions were complete, the member check process was repeated to allow participants to review individual textural descriptions to ensure they reflected lived experiences. Epoché is a Greek term meaning ‘suspension of judgment’ (Moustakas, 1994). In the phenomenological research process, epoché, or ‘bracketing’ involves the researcher refraining from judgment and setting aside bias in order to reach a “transcendental state of freshness and openness, a readiness to see in an unfettered way” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 41). Prior to interviewing participants, and throughout all phases of research, the researcher used bracketing to set aside personal knowledge, attitudes and assumptions regarding the phenomenon under review (Moustakas, 1994). The use of journaling helped the researcher to record and reflect upon thoughts,

84 beliefs, and ideas that arose during the data collection and data analysis phases. Journaling helped identify and mitigate researcher prejudices. The researcher engaged in self-reflection of her own beliefs on topics such as online education, high school dropout, education policy, poverty, immigration, and religion, and used reflection and imaginative variation to craft the study’s textural and structural themes. Phenomenological analysis of interview data followed a modified van Kaam methodology (see Figure 1) and involved the processes of phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation and synthesis (Moustakas, 1994).

85

Figure 1. Moustakas’ (1994) modified van Kaam method of data analysis

During the phenomenological reduction process, individual textural descriptions were developed for each participant (Moustakas, 1994). This process included individual analysis of each transcript and the listing and grouping of every expression related to the

86 experience of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school (Moustakas, 1994). Initial statements were all given equal value (horizonalization; Moustakas, 1994). From this list, overlapping and repetitive statements were combined to identify the invariant elements in a process known as reduction and elimination (Moustakas, 1994). These elements were then clustered, labeled thematically, and checked for validity against the complete transcript to establish core themes, which were used to create individual textural descriptions (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher then used imaginative variation, which is using imagination and reflection to identify underlying themes, or units of meaning (Moustakas, 1994). From this process, individual structural and textural-structural descriptions were created to describe the meanings and essences of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). A composite description was then developed and all relevant data was synthesized to represent the study participants as a whole (Moustakas, 1994). As part of the data analysis process, the researcher identified and related domainspecific expressions of student self-efficacy to Bandura’s (1977a) four theorized sources of self-efficacy: performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Examples of described student self-efficacy experiences included: (a) positive attitudes toward tasks; (b) demonstrations of coping mechanisms; (c) demonstrations of effort expended and maintained despite obstacles; and (d) demonstrations of self-motivation techniques (Bandura, 1977a). Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) managed study data. After reviewing several CAQDAS software platforms, the researcher selected ATLAS.ti based on functionality and capability to support phenomenological analysis

87 processes such as managing, coding, sorting, and retrieving data. This tool facilitated the coding process and aided in connecting data components to identify patterns and themes (Saldana, 2013). Coded data identified alignment and misalignment with the theoretical propositions of Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory and the student experience of IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments. The data collection, processing, and analysis plan was appropriate and aligned with the study’s purpose to examine student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence, in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition. This plan indicated responses to the research questions: (a) What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools?; and (b) How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions? Data collection from multiple participants generated extensive empirical information on the phenomenon under investigation. Self-efficacy correlates with academic achievement and the study indicated relationships between student self-efficacy and academic success in the targeted domain (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Understanding student IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments can provide insight into the shared characteristics of students in these programs. Assumptions There were several assumptions in regards to the study population and research design. The researcher assumed participants were truthful in their responses to the interview questions and that they fully shared their stories with a reasonable amount of

88 accuracy. To promote participant honesty, a brief review of the informed consent document highlighted aspects of the study such as anonymity, confidentiality and the ability to withdraw from the study at any time. This review confirmed assumptions that participants understood participation was voluntary, that they understood the study’s and the value of their input. Additionally, this review allowed participants to understand that the researcher intended no harm and was an ethical professional in the education community. The researcher assumed basic participant understanding of self-efficacy construct and the theorized sources of self-efficacy. A key philosophical assumption of a qualitative study design is that individuals create their own reality as they interact in their own societal worlds and this results in individualized, subjective meanings of experiences (Moustakas, 1994). Another assumption was that much could be learned through in-depth study of a limited number of participants (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The researcher assumed the qualitative research process allowed for the interpretation of the experiences of others and that the phenomenon descriptions were from the participant’s point of view (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher assumed that the use of bracketing would aid in setting aside personal researcher knowledge, attitudes and assumptions about the phenomenon under review (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher assumed the application of the theoretical framework was appropriate for the study and that the use of a modified van Kaam methodology would generate common themes (Moustakas, 1994). It was assumed that the criterion sampling method ensured participants met study criteria and that the expertreviewed interview protocol would generate the intended results.

89 Limitations Although the sample size of five study participants helped ensure that study data was manageable and generated rich, thick data, the greatest study limitations were the use of a single study site, the limited number of participants involved, and the limited participant demographic. Due to the nature of the researcher/study site relationship, greater access to student data was restricted. These limitations could lead to questions of study quality, yet there are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). As the study sample was not random, and only involved students that attended online courses at COHS, findings are not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. As only one data source was used for this study, there was no opportunity for data triangulation, which reflected a limitation. A proactive approach to identify and address study limitations and potential credibility and transferability threats helped mitigate study criticism. There are inherent limitations in qualitative studies as the data and interpretations are subjective and not precisely quantified (Cozby, 2011; Yin, 2014). To mitigate criticism and strengthen study credibility and transferability, the researcher defined constructs in specific terms, related concepts to the study framework, and cited published research where terms were operationalized (Yin, 2014). Within the study, the construct of IBLSE was clearly defined and the interview protocol and data analysis process were aligned with Bandura’s (1977a) sources of self-efficacy. Findings were aligned to known, published research. The interview protocol was a study limitation as the researcher developed this new tool. Self-efficacy protocols applied in too broad a fashion may only reflect an

90 individual’s ambiguous, generalized capabilities, or attitudes about capabilities, versus self-efficacy assessments that are applied to a criteria-based task (Pajares, 1995). The study’s protocol was not based on a criteria-based task and data was reflective of a variety of aspects of Career Online High School including program enrollment, online coursework and working with an academic coach. As such, this wide scope represents an additional study limitation. The researcher’s experience as a novice interviewer was a limitation. The interview protocol mitigated researcher bias and kept the researcher on task (Yin, 2014). As the interviews took place over the phone, there was no opportunity to factor participant body language or facial expressions into the data, which was a limitation. Another limitation was a lack of familiarity with the participants and a lack of opportunity and time to build a trusted relationship. Although the researcher’s use of bracketing supported study result credibility, transferability and dependability, the researcher’s biases, beliefs, and personal experiences may be seen as potential limitations to the interview process and to the data analysis process (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher followed a meticulous study design to minimize researcher bias and prevent generation of inaccurate or misleading data (Moustakas, 1994). Delimitations Several characteristics limited the study’s scope and defined its boundaries. Delimiting factors included the research problem and phenomenon under investigation, the study’s purpose, research questions, research design, purposive sampling method and the theoretical framework. The study site was a delimitation as research only took place in affiliation with Career Online High School. The study population was not delimited

91 geographically as the online school is accessible nationwide. The study was delimited by reentry pathway and only involved students that self-enrolled (private pay) or enrolled through corporate or library partnerships. COHS students enrolled through school districts or correctional facilities were not included in this study. To meet study criteria, all participants needed to have completed at least three courses at COHS or needed to have graduated within the past year. COHS enrollment is only open to individuals ages 16 and older, that have completed eighth grade and have officially withdrawn from traditional high school. This study was focused on the experiences of former non-graduates. Study focus was not delimited by the experiences of adult learners or the use of career-focused education in online high schools. Participants may have been working towards, or may have received, a COHS diploma and career certificate in any of the COHS fields of study. Ethical Assurances The Northcentral Institutional Review Board (IRB) granted study approval prior to any data collection (Dissertation Resource Manual, 2015). IRB approval indicated study integrity and adherence to ethical principles. The study aligned with the Belmont Report which outlined basic ethical principles for behavioral research with human subjects including: (a) respect for persons (acknowledge autonomy, protect those with diminished autonomy, ensure subjects participate willingly and with adequate information); (b) beneficence (maximize benefits, minimize possible harm); and (c) justice (ensure for equal distribution of study burdens and benefits on study subjects) (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979).

92 The population studied was considered vulnerable as it included minorities and the economically disadvantaged; no additional burdens were placed on study participants (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). Study participants were autonomous adults that provided informed consent to participate in the study. Participants were required to submit a signed copy of the Participant Informed Consent Form, which is located in Appendix D. This non-technical, jargon-free document included: (a) the study’s purpose and procedures; (b) information on deception; (c) participation requirements; (d) the names and numbers of research personnel; (e) compensation information; (f) potential risks and benefits of participation; (g) clarifications of anonymity/confidentiality procedures; and (h) information regarding the participant’s right to withdraw from the study (Cozby, 2011). The researcher was prepared to read aloud the informed consent documentation for individuals with disabilities or secure translators for individuals with limited English proficiency (Morton & Cunningham-Williams, 2009). The researcher used an Interview Guide (Appendix F) to review the informed consent documentation and obtain verbal permission to audio record the session. The interview did not continue without participant permission to record. The researcher reminded participants that they could stop the study at any time and did not need to respond to questions that made them uncomfortable. Individuals studied may have experienced educational or other trauma while enrolled in traditional high school, and as such, the potential for psychological stress, fear, and anxiety was possible during the interview process (Cozy, 2009). Examples of sensitive issues for non-graduates include leaving school, family, homelessness, teen pregnancy and learning disabilities (Balfanz et

93 al., 2013). Researcher presence can compound participant stress as individuals may be asked to reflect upon dramatic or unpleasant life events (Cozby, 2011). To mitigate the potential of participant stress, questions were worded in a sensitive and respectful manner and questions which may have evoked an emotional response (e.g., “Tell me about your past schooling experiences; what were you like as a learner?”) were located at the end of the interview to allow for the establishment of interviewer/interviewee rapport (Cozby, 2011). The researcher provided personalized attention to study participants and conducted the study with extreme care and sensitivity (Yin, 2014). If participants utilized non-standardized English during the data collection process, the researcher interpreted transcriptions in order to protect participant identity and ethnicity and to avoid reader misunderstanding (Oliver, Serovich, & Mason, 2005). When the researcher interpreted transcriptions, care was taken to ensure analysis and results were unaffected by alterations and that interpretations were respectful to participants (Oliver et al., 2005). Two rounds of member checking ensured for interview data credibility and reduced the threat of data misinterpretation (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher contacted participants with a Member Check Email/Transcript (Appendix H) and asked participants to review, confirm and recommend changes (Maxwell, 2013). When the individual textural descriptions were complete, the member check process was repeated to allow participants to review individual textural descriptions to ensure they reflected lived experiences. During the data collection process, the researcher worked to ensure participants had a positive reaction to the study’s purpose and felt empowered as a result of study participation (Moustakas, 1994).

94 The researcher stored all electronic research data on a computer that was password and security protected and backed-up data to an external storage drive on a nightly basis. Data hardcopies were stored in a locked filing cabinet within a locked room. Data and research materials were only accessible to the researcher and the dissertation chair. The researcher did not attach signed informed consent forms to interview transcriptions. Within the reported data and findings, the researcher replaced the names of participants with pseudonyms to ensure for anonymity. The researcher took great care to reassure study participants that all data was private and confidential. After five years, the researcher will destroy all research materials by shredding all hard copies and permanently deleting all electronic files. Conducting ethical research is more than ensuring participants provide informed consent and that IRB approval is granted; ethical research involves commitments to study participants, (e.g., confidentiality, privacy, respect, beneficence, justice), that researchers must honor (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). Ethical considerations must take priority over all other aspects of a study, no matter how impactful the research. When working with marginalized and vulnerable populations it is of critical importance that there is implicit trust between participants and researchers (Cozby, 2011). Study participants should understand and feel that the researcher has their best interest at heart (Cozby, 2011). An ethical, trustworthy approach to research helps ensure study results are accepted by the wider educational community and paves the way for additional research in the study topic area (Cozby, 2011).

95 Summary This chapter described the research method for this qualitative, phenomenological study to explore student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence. Information on the origins of phenomenology was discussed, along with information on the appropriateness and relevance of this method for the study. The study's use of a selfefficacy framework was reviewed. Detailed information on the study setting, program contacts, and population was provided, to include COHS demographics, attrition rate and program structure overview. The role of the COHS academic coaches in fostering a supportive, student-centered learning environment was highlighted. The study's sample was outlined, to include participant selection criteria and the purposive sampling strategy. Participant-facing documentation was described to include recruitment scripting, introduction and scheduling emails, informed consent documentation, and member check information. The development and intent of the semistructured Interview Guide was explained, including alignment with Bandura's (1977a) theorized sources of self-efficacy. Protocol transferability and dependability was reviewed to include feedback from experts in the fields of self-efficacy research, online learning, and IBLSE. Data collection, processing, and analysis were reviewed within this chapter, including a detailed overview of the steps of the modified van Kaam methodology (Moustakas, 1994). Information researcher use of bracketing and journaling to mitigate researcher bias was discussed. This chapter included information on CAQDAS software used for this study and the coding process. Study assumptions, limitations, and delimitations were included, along with a detailed overview of ethical assurances. The

96 researcher followed a meticulous study design to minimize researcher bias and prevent generation of inaccurate or misleading data (Moustakas, 1994).

97 Chapter 4: Findings The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine student experiences of online high school persistence and Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. The construct of IBLSE indicates student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or in an online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Phenomenological analysis of interview data followed a modified van Kaam methodology to generate common participant themes (Moustakas, 1994). This chapter includes study results and evaluation of findings. This chapter also includes an analysis of study findings and comparison of results based on other research in the field. Results As the researcher had no prior affiliation with Career Online High School (COHS), there was a formal process established to obtain confidential student contact information. Over the course of six months, the researcher worked closely with Teresa Salafrio, Director of Academics and Principal of Schools, who in turn worked with the COHS academic coaches to obtain student verbal agreement to participate in the study. The COHS principal was diligent in identifying participants and in following-up with the researcher on interview progress. As the researcher only received contact information for up to three students at a time, and no additional names were received until those three either completed the interview process or decided not to participate, this resulted in a significant time investment for each round of the data collection process. The researcher emailed 22

98 students in total. Seven students returned the informed consent documentation and five completed the interview process. The researcher gathered study data via telephone, using a semi-structured Interview Guide (Appendix F) designed to capture the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within on online high school. Each interview was approximately one hour in length. Participant interviews were transcribed and analyzed, resulting in 56.5 pages of transcription, with an average of 11.3 pages per participant. Unique study codes were created and ATLAS.ti software linked codes to relevant quotes. Codes not significant to the research question or phenomenon under review were eliminated. Often codes were combined and a new code name was established. During the initial review of the participant transcription data (horizonalization), an average of 59.2 codes were generated per participant transcript. A second review, relating the codes directly to the research questions (reduction and elimination), generated an average of 33.8 codes per transcription. A third review (clustering, thematizing and validating) resulted in an average of 8.2 codes per participant transcript. This final data was then used to create the individual textural descriptions for each participant. The researcher used the techniques of epoché, phenomenological reduction, and imaginative variation to develop individual textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions for each participant. The individual participant textural and structural themes were integrated to create composite textural and composite structural descriptions for all study participants as a whole. A final composite textural-structural description for the entire study was developed by integrating composite textural and

99 composite structural descriptions. This synthesis included a summary of common and unique themes that described the essence of the student experience of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools. The use of journaling helped to mitigate researcher bias and as researcher ideas and beliefs emerged, they were documented in journal format and reflected upon. If ideas were relevant, they were included in the findings and connected to the literature. The study literature served as a critical guide to analyze and interpret the study data. Two rounds of member checking ensured for interview data credibility and mitigated data misinterpretation threats (Maxwell, 2013). In the first round of member checking, all study participants received a copy of their interview transcript and were asked to recommend edits, changes or additions. In the first round, only one participant requested edits to her transcript. In the second round of member checking, all study participants received copies of their individual textural descriptions. They were asked to ensure descriptions reflected their perspective and to provide feedback. All participants were in agreement with their descriptions. Demographics. As shown in Table 2, four females and one male participated in the study; they ranged in age from 22 to 36 years old. Three of the participants were recent COHS graduates while two were current students. Despite limited study participation, study demographics represented multiple forms of school pathways, which was an unintended division identified in the data. Two participants enrolled into COHS based on a partnership with their local library, one student enrolled through a corporate partnership, one enrolled through a career college, and one enrolled independently. The four female participants cited their occupation as a stay-at-home mom and had two to

100 four children. The male participant cited his occupation as warehouse supervisor and he did not have children. Three of the participants transferred high school credit into COHS and two participants started COHS from the first semester of ninth grade. In the data and the findings, participant names were replaced with pseudonyms to ensure for anonymity. Table 1 Participant Demographic Information Participant Gender Age Enrollment Transferred Partner Status Credit Program 1 Linda Female 31 Graduate Yes Library

Children

2 David

Male

22

Graduate

Yes

0

3 Maya

Female 27

No

4 Jessa

Female 36

5 Valerie

Female 34

Current student Current student Graduate

No Yes

Present Occupation Stay-at-home mom, currently homeschooling Corporation Warehouse supervisor Library Stay-at-home mom Career Stay-at-home College mom N/A, Stay-at-home Private Pay mom

Research questions. The study problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the consequential inability of educational stakeholders to leverage data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions, was addressed through Research Question 1: What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions? A discussion of individual textural, structural, and textural-structural descriptions and composite textural, structural and

2

2 4 2

101 textural-structural descriptions are presented in alignment with Research Question 1. Data reflective of Research Question 2 is located in Chapter 5, Practical Applications. Individual textural, structural and textual-structural descriptions. To develop the individual textural descriptions, each participant transcript was analyzed to list and group every expression related to the experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school (Moustakas, 1994). Initial statements were given equal value in a process known as horizonalization (Moustakas, 1994). From this list, overlapping and repetitive statements were combined to identify the invariant elements in a process known as reduction and elimination (Moustakas, 1994). These elements were then clustered, labeled thematically and checked for validity against the complete transcript to establish core themes. The researcher used the core themes to create the individual textural descriptions (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher used imaginative variation to identify underlying themes, or units of meaning, within study data (Moustakas, 1994). The individual structural and texturalstructural descriptions were created out of this process. These descriptions provide a synopsis of the underlying themes that described the individual student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence. In essence, what are the underlying themes and qualities that support an individual’s belief in the ability to persist and succeed in an online course or an online learning activity? Participant 1-Linda’s individual textural description. Linda is a 31-year-old recent COHS graduate and a stay-at-home mom. She has two children, a daughter who is four and a son who is almost two. Linda has a strong sense of self-advocacy,

102 determination, and perseverance and these characteristics influenced her IBLSE. In describing how she learned about COHS she explained: Someone had listed a website for the library about a book sale. So, when I went on the website, I joined the mailing list and a couple weeks later this opportunity was emailed to me, saying if you know someone in need, please fill out this application. I did so and that’s how it started. Linda’s library has a partnership with COHS and the library had a rigorous scholarship application process that Linda completed including email, phone, and inperson interviews. Linda’s graduation commitment to the library was a driving force in her desire to succeed; she did not want to let the library scholarship team down. She explained: I didn’t know if I was going to pass by the skin of my teeth or get straight A’s. I did have a high self-efficacy; I knew I could do it. There was no question. I mean the gift was given to me, the scholarship, I see this as a gift. I’m not going to fail anyone. Linda is passionate about her children’s education and safety and as a result, she has opted to homeschool her children. This passion was another driving force in her decision to go back to school online and persevere to obtain her high school diploma. Although the state where Linda resides does not require homeschooling parents to have high school diplomas to deliver instruction, the majority of states in the U.S. do, and some require college credits. Linda wanted the flexibility to relocate and not worry about her own credentials as a homeschooling parent.

103 Now that Linda has her diploma, she feels the opportunities for her are endless and she has newfound self-confidence. In regards to earning her diploma, she explained: It made me feel like I could conquer anything because my high school experience was 13 years ago and I hadn’t even seen an algebraic equation in 13 years. So when I saw (the equations), it was kind of overwhelming, but the fact that I was able to do it, just kind of instilled this confidence. Linda is not sure if she wants to continue her education as she has concerns that she might struggle in college based on past schooling experiences. She also has two young children at home that need her. If required, she would consider, “some basic teaching courses, online style, or a community college, if needed for certain states to homeschool.” Linda knows that should she decide to go back to work her employment opportunities are significantly expanded. She explained: I know that there’s so many job opportunities now that I can do, because I didn’t have that high school diploma. I’m pretty well educated, even without my diploma I carry myself well and I just think that there’s so many things now that I can do. As far as if they offer training, if it’s an office job at a dentist’s, answering phones and there’s training involved, I have the confidence now to do even better in an interview because I know I have that diploma. I worked in restaurants for years as a waitress and as a bartender and I always wanted to become a restaurant manager…I’d like to get back into that field, something on

104 a management spectrum. I would probably love to go back to the restaurant and do some training, like bookkeeping, or something in the medical field. Linda’s faith in God has been inspirational for her and helped her to succeed online. She explained: I really felt that this was a gift on my faith, a gift from God, to give me this high school diploma so that I can start the process of homeschooling, which I’ve been praying on too…I definitely know that this is all God’s will, so for me, I’m going to follow through with any clear gifts I receive from God. Obtaining a high school diploma versus a GED was important for Linda and involved her faith, “I never wanted a GED, especially now with Common Core involved…I have been praying on this situation for at least ten years because it’s always bothered me.” Prior to leaving traditional high school, Linda was in the second semester of 12th grade. Once she transferred her earned credits to COHS, she only had six formal credits to complete, along with the career course prerequisites. She was able to complete the COHS program within six weeks. During that time, Linda worked persistently to complete her courses and balance her education with caring for her children. In regards to coping through this process Linda explained, “Let’s just say the kids watched a lot of PBS Kids because I plugged in for like 8 hours a day and sometimes I would stay up through the night!” Linda’s self-awareness and ability to self-advocate and self-regulate helped her to be successful in the online high school environment. When asked to select a source of self-efficacy that had the greatest impact on her belief in her ability to achieve

105 online, Linda selected performance accomplishment. To illustrate this choice she explained: I didn’t have anyone verbally, other than the high school… checking in on me, or the library checking in on me, I didn’t really have anyone rooting for me necessarily. I have a two-year-old and a four-year-old and my husband works 70 hours a week, so he wasn’t even here. Not many people know that I never finished high school. It’s kind of been like a dirty little secret. I didn’t have that. I guess I have to say that I was there once before, I can do this again… I just knew because I did 4 ½ years of high school, I was like, I should be able to finish those last six credits. In reflecting on her past schooling, Linda shared that as a child, she moved around a lot. High family mobility caused Linda to feel disconnected from school, “I attended two elementary schools, two middle schools, and two high schools, so I never really stayed long to stick with the learning curve of one school and one set of kids.” She explained that the traditional high school environment was not in alignment with her visual learning style: I also have a short attention span and I can’t really retain things well when I’m being spoken to, so I definitely have to see it with my eyes. I guess when I see things in front of me I’m able to retain them easier. On the contrary, the inherent visual-based nature of an online high school program, like COHS, supported Linda’s needs as a self-identified visual learner. While some COHS classes were particularly challenging for Linda, for the most part, she found the courses to be surprisingly easy and she enjoyed the online learning

106 experience. Her biggest challenges were with the math courses. She explained, “I’m awful at math, beyond division and long hand—I can’t do algebra. I can’t. So that was like a grueling two weeks for me. And when I got through that, it was like, ‘all right!’” Linda used help-seeking behaviors to overcome academic challenges: I got help from my husband at night; he’s a chef, so he has to be good in math. So he was able to help me some and a lot of prayer! Seriously, to get you through. I know math is what brought my GPA down because I was at a 3.0 for a long time. I got a 70%, the bare minimum to finish it and had to retake the test a lot of times. Another challenging aspect of the program was disappointment and confusion during Linda’s initial COHS registration. The confusion may have come from the newness of the library program partnership, as Linda was the first person to graduate under the new arrangement. A library staff member helped Linda sign-up and told her to “…go ahead and click on ‘security guard’ to start the program.” Selecting a different career certificate was not an option and based on her homeschooling goals, she would have preferred a certificate in Child Care and Education. Linda completed the Certified Protection Officer prerequisites on-site in the library as part of the scholarship requirement. The library wanted to ensure that she would be successful. Although Linda’s COHS academic coach was later informed of the registration error, it was too late to make the change. To Linda’s credit, she quickly completed the prerequisites, “I had to commit… they gave me maybe two weeks’ time in the library… I did it in two days.”

107 Linda also demonstrated resilience and the ability to make the best of a bad situation: The security training did give me some courses on computers and computer training and how to generally deal with subordinates. There were also some extensive chapters on dealing with management or being a manager with employees below you and that was helpful. I can’t necessarily use the certificate, but there were some things definitely in there from a management situation that I’ll be able to use or remember. Personalized support from her COHS academic coach and motivational technology within the COHS learning platform were nice to have, but Linda did not feel dependent upon these to be successful. She explained: Every time you finished a course or semester…they emailed you, like “Great job,” or, “We saw that you got an A on this.” There were these generic little sticker icons, they would see that I was working on something, or finishing something and they would email me…but even if I didn’t get that, I would still be doing it, but it was a nice little reminder that I’m almost done. Linda shares the following advice for those that might be struggling at COHS: Utilize everything that’s given to you. It’s fairly easy to get hold of your academic coach, so just reach out—do what you need to do to get that help. If it’s something that you really want, it’s not very hard to do schooling in the comfort of your own home. There is no excuse of having to go drive somewhere for different classes, different hours. You control the hours when

108 you want to do it. It works around your life, your schedule. It’s kind of a nobrainer. She also has sincere appreciation for the COHS program: I don’t even mind if my kids went to Career Online High School because I feel that if they are successful with homeschooling and I know I can’t do high school for them, I would absolutely, 110% put all of my money into this program for them because it was so amazing and it was so helpful. Now that Linda has graduated, she sees opportunities to support others that are completing their high school diploma online. She explained, “It’s funny because I just found out that I know someone through a church that I used to attend…that’s doing this…she’s on my Facebook page. I was like, does she know I did this? Does she have any questions?” Participant 1-Linda’s individual structural description. Linda’s individual structural description has nine structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: self-advocacy, selfregulated learner, support, high level of IBLSE, performance accomplishment identified as most influential self-efficacy source, diploma required for future goals/ understand the importance of education on success, perseverance and resilience, sense of responsibility to others, and belief in a higher power. Participant 1-Linda’s individual textural-structural description. Linda has a strong sense of self-advocacy. Linda took the initiative to enroll into COHS and wanted to earn her diploma and improve her homeschooling capabilities. Linda often used selfregulated learning strategies to help her overcome challenges. She used help-seeking

109 behavior by reaching out to her husband for math support and advises others who might be struggling, to ask for help. She had a self-awareness of her visual learning style and her learning challenges, such as her short attention span. Linda understood how to balance home responsibilities with her education requirements. Linda expressed that she had a high self-efficacy to succeed within the online environment and stated that performance accomplishment was the most impactful source in regards to her belief in her ability to achieve online. She absolutely knew that she would complete the program; there was no doubt in her mind. The scholarship application process that Linda completed strengthened her self-efficacy; she invested too much time and effort into the process to fail. Linda felt that because she had completed four and a half years of high school, all the way up to the second semester of her senior year, that she should be able to complete her online classes without major difficulty. Completing difficult courses, such as Algebra, strengthened Linda’s selfefficacy and self-confidence in her ability to succeed in the online environment. Linda has many future personal and family goals that were only achievable by completing her high school diploma, including being able to homeschool in the US, go to college, and rejoin the workforce in a higher capacity. In regards to homeschooling, the majority of states in the U.S. require homeschooling parents to have a high school diploma. As homeschooling works best for Linda’s family, she felt it was imperative that she obtain her diploma in order to avoid negative consequences. Some states require homeschooling parents to have college credits. Linda now feels capable, as she is eligible to enroll into college to obtain the education she needs to teach her children.

110 Linda’s overall understanding of the importance of education on success was a consistent theme. In regards to going back to work, Linda knows that her diploma affords her a wide range of opportunities. Once the children are grown, Linda looks forward to working in a medical office or in a management role in the restaurant business. She no longer fears the job interview process; her diploma has given her new confidence. Linda’s resilience and perseverance to overcome challenges had an impact on her ability to persist in her online classes. The scholarship application process was rigorous and even an upsetting glitch at the beginning of the program where Linda was assigned the Certified Protection Officer career elective courses versus Child Care and Education, did not dissuade her from completing the program. Linda had a positive attitude and was able to make the best of a bad situation. She found relevant aspects of the training that she would be able to use in the future. Linda found ways to manage her school workload and balance the needs of her children and she often worked on school into the night. Algebra classes were particularly challenging for Linda and she found tutoring support from her husband. She retook the final math test several times and did not give up. Linda had a strong sense of responsibility to others to obtain her high school diploma. Commitments to the library and scholarship program motivated Linda; she did not want to let anyone down. Linda felt responsibility towards her children and it was of critical importance that she earn her diploma in order to homeschool. A strong faith in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped Linda make the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. She felt that the scholarship

111 was a gift from God and God’s will so that she could stay home and provide her children with a Christian homeschooling experience. Prayer also helped her overcome challenges presented by difficult math coursework. Participant 2-David’s individual textural description. David is a 22-year-old COHS graduate. He immigrated to the United States after a major natural disaster in his home country. As a survivor, David demonstrated resilience and a fervent desire to persevere despite all obstacles and challenges. These characteristics influenced David’s IBLSE. David explained: Considering what life has presented me and where I've come from… reflecting on my accomplishments and failures as a young adult who never had a father figure to seek guidance from, I kept true to myself and maintained my desire to persevere. Being a survivor…taught me to understand that it’s not okay to abandon my dreams. Upon arrival in the US, David enrolled in a traditional high school program and received a certificate recognizing the basic credentials for completion but unfortunately, it was not inclusive of school credits from David’s home country. When David tried to use the certificate to enroll in college he learned it was not valid for college admission. He was very frustrated and explained, “I couldn’t go anywhere and the school–they didn’t want to push me in my career.” David encountered additional challenges between the time he left traditional high school and enrollment into COHS. He tried to enroll in community college but was unable to pass the entrance exam due to the language barrier. As a non-native speaker of English, he explained:

112 I was struggling in school because English was a personal challenge for me and in order for me to pass any test in English…it was really hard. My dreams of going back to school were still in the forefront of my mind and I didn't want to lose sight of this goal. However, every school I contacted provided me with the same information of the basic requirement of a high school diploma or GED needed in order to pursue my education. Not to be dismayed, David found employment with a major U.S. corporation that had an employer partnership with COHS. He explained: Entering into the COHS program was not an option I sincerely considered, but I thought to myself, “What else, besides a paycheck, can (this company) offer me to pursue my dream?” I started researching the education and career links (on the employee benefits portal). I decided to enroll in my first prerequisite course for office management with a high school diploma. David had to demonstrate to his employer that he was capable of completing the prerequisite courses. He explained: Upon completion of the course, I received an email from COHS, which offered me a scholarship that enabled me to finish my high school education and I received my diploma. Needless to say, I was elated! Right now that I have my diploma, it really helped me. Right now, I qualify for anything, in any industry. Although COHS was able to transfer David’s traditional high school credits into their program, David ended up having some course duplications. He explained: I did not have to take a lot of classes because I had certain classes from high school. I said to (the company-based program coordinators), “I have a transcript.”

113 They realized that I was already taking courses that I didn’t really need and they did the evaluation from classes I already had from the high school. David did not find the COHS course content to be particularly challenging based on his prior high school experience: There was really no challenge for me. I already completed high school, so I know about (the subjects). Certain things I’ve taken twice or probably like three times because I came from (another country) and there were certain things I knew already. Then when I went to (the U.S. high school), I took those classes again and when I signed up for the online classes, they were the same thing. There was no big challenge. Shortly after enrollment at COHS, David graduated with a career certificate in Office Management. He explained: It was supposed to take me two years to finish…but I was putting a lot into my education. I told myself I didn’t want to wait that much longer. It took me two months to do all of the program. David has a passion for education and he knew a high school diploma was required for his future goals: I had a timeline and I wanted to go back to college. I was really, really motivated to go ahead and complete those classes so I could receive my diploma on time. Now that I have my diploma, I can continue my endeavor to pursue computer programming and business management courses. My first objective is to be a tennis coach…nationwide. That’s my main goal. Secondly, I’m going to

114 (University name withheld) and (my employer) decided to assist me on that…my tuition is already paid, then my classes will start on April 6. Family is of critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to succeed online. David is dedicated and committed to caring for his mother and sister, especially in consideration of the devastation back home and other family stressors. For David, education is essential to supporting himself and his family. He explained: It was just me and my mom, in the house and my little sister and everything is falling on my back. I have to work hard. I cannot be in street. I cannot do certain things that will probably make my mom disappointed. I’m really close to my mom and everything is just me, my mom and my little sister. He elucidated: I still believe an education is one of the most prestigious rewards (that) no one can take from you. I believe education is really, really important for everybody. We need education in life. At one point, David considered joining the military after he was unable to get into college: I was deciding about going into the army and I was thinking about taking the test and passing it. When I told my mom, “Hey mom, I’m probably going to leave and go into the Army,” she cried. And I said, “Ok, I can’t do anything.” When it comes to things you need, for your career and for your life–you have people who believe in you. You can’t go ahead and just dismiss that and make people disappointed. Like I said, my mom is my everything and everything I’m doing

115 right now is just to make her happy. Then, moving forward, seeing if I can just take her where I want her to be. At times, David felt like leaving COHS but keep himself on track by using motivational techniques and finding support from others: When I went to work, I sometimes would forget about myself, or I had to deal with a situation at home. I had to deal with my own life and sometimes I felt like dropping everything and walking away. But hey, I have people on my side that tell me, “You have to do something for yourself.” So, I sped up and did what I needed to do, for myself. There’s no way out. I can just get myself out from where I stay right now. David often employed self-regulated learning strategies to help him succeed, “I have a foreign language. Some of things I would do is research certain words. Some things I don’t really know and then I have to ask somebody.” During the COHS program, David focused on his coursework: We all know what is best for ourselves…(with) certain things, you really need to just focus, focus. Break your addiction to certain things. If you know for a fact that social networking is not going to help you out then do what is best for your life. It’s time now to just focus on the future. David had a high self-efficacy to succeed online; he also had a desire to support others who may be in a similar situation: I had a high, high, high belief….everything I do; I never had support from anybody. It’s just me; I’m by myself. I never had anyone tell me, “This is exactly what you need to do for yourself.” Sometimes I would ask people for

116 advice, but you know sometimes when you ask people stuff you already know— then you know it twice! I can push myself and then I can push other people to motivate them, to do what’s best for them. David was able to draw on his experience as a tennis coach to keep him motivated during his COHS enrollment, “I’m always thinking about winning, I always go for the win. So anything I’m doing, I want to win. I hate losing. I hate…being the guy in the corner, with the blues. I never want to fail.” Although the content of the COHS classes was not particularly difficult due to David’s prior high school experience, he did find the workload and time management to be a challenge. He explained: Taking online classes was really challenging for me, at the time I was working the holiday season, the nights before Thanksgiving, Black Friday and things like that. Sometimes I would work 12-13 hours a day and then come back home. (On) Black Friday I told myself… I need to complete at least one lesson. But when I came back home I was really exhausted. But then I sat down on my computer and I prayed to God. I said, “God, help me make it through.” That was the day that made me understand that I can do anything if I put my mind to it. It was really challenging for me, but I put a lot of work into it, a lot of dedication. It helped me out. David found the support and involvement of his academic coach and his employer’s support staff to be essential to his success: The online course team and my academic coach were always there for me and provided me with follow-up calls and emails every time I completed a lesson with

117 words of motivation and appreciation. I would complete one lesson and she would email me saying, “You’re doing a great job.” That helped me understand that I have somebody who cares about what I’m doing right. Anytime I had a question; she was always available at that time. Anytime I needed her; she was just there to listen to me. Anytime I saw her email, I knew I’m never alone. She’s there for me. David is proud of his accomplishments and he has sincere appreciation for both his employer and COHS for affording him the opportunity to earn his high school diploma online: My whole online experience has been fantastic, challenging, but I succeeded and I am proud of what I accomplished! Right now I’m just happy with the fact I put my mind to Career Online High School, to not only complete those classes but to receive my diploma. That’s the first thing I want to say—thank you, thank you Career Online High School, for everything you provided to me. I never thought I could do it. I’m way appreciative of the fact that it was there for me. In regards to his employer, David explained: (The company’s) continuing education programs offered to all associates is one of the highlights….a rewarding benefit of working for the company. The (company) learning team is so amazing for offering such a great opportunity for all associates to succeed in their personal and professional life. David offers the following advice to others that may be considering going back to high school online:

118 I believe it's not important where you've come from, your background or your age. It's never too late to reinvent yourself but more importantly, you should never abandon your dreams. I did not know how beneficial and rewarding the program was until now. It’s common sense business. If I can do it, you can do it. Participant 2-David’s individual textural-structural description. David’s individual structural description has nine structural themes that underlie his belief in his ability to persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance and resilience, self-advocacy, sense of responsibility to others, self-regulated learner, high level of IBLSE, support, belief in a higher power, performance accomplishment identified as most influential self-efficacy source, and diploma required for future goals/ understand the importance of education on success. Participant 2-David’s individual textural-structural description. Family is of critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to succeed online. David is dedicated and committed to caring for his mother and younger sister, especially in consideration of the devastation back home and other family stressors. He did not want to disappoint his mother or do anything that might shame the family. A sense of responsibility to others and wanting to improve the ability to provide for family, motivated David to earn his high school diploma and enroll in college. For David, education is an essential means to improve his standing in life; he viewed education as a prestigious reward that no one could take from him. Obtaining his high school diploma was a necessary step towards realizing his dream of enrolling in college. David understands the myriad career opportunities that are available, now that he has his diploma.

119 David’s experience as a natural disaster survivor and as an immigrant in pursuit of the American Dream made him resilient and able to persevere to overcome challenges. He also has strong self-advocacy skills. David encountered many challenges while trying to further his education, including learning that his traditional high school certificate was not valid for college admission. Yet, he did not let this dismay him. He held on to his dream of college and found a way to continue his education through a COHS partnership program offered by his employer. Although COHS was able to transfer David’s traditional high school credits, David ended up having course duplications. This did not deter David from moving forward, despite some frustration. As a non-native English speaker, David experienced challenges with the language and in succeeding in school. He was unable to pass a community college entrance exam due to the language barrier, yet he persevered. Although the content of the COHS classes was not particularly difficult due to David’s prior high school experience, he did find the workload and time management to be a challenge. As a full-time employee of a large retail corporation, David found it challenging to stay focused on his coursework during the busy holiday season. Despite his exhaustion, David was able to dedicate time to schoolwork and sometimes worked through the night. David shared many examples of self-regulated learning techniques that helped him persist in the online environment, including goal setting. Although he was given 18 months to complete COHS coursework, he graduated within two months of starting school. During that time, he put a lot of energy into his studies. David found support from his colleagues and family and found his COHS academic coach to be essential to his success.

120 David explained that schoolwork required dedication and focus and he recognized that certain habits, like procrastinating online, would not help him to graduate. David is future-oriented; he does not let mistakes or situations from the past hold him back. In regards to balancing school and career, David was able to use self-motivation techniques and prayer to help him stay focused. David expressed that he had a high self-efficacy to succeed within the online environment and stated that performance accomplishment was the most impactful source in regards to his belief in his ability to achieve online. Prior to enrolling into COHS, David completed similar courses both in his native country and in a traditional U.S. high school. Thus, he was very comfortable with the COHS content and online format. David is very independent and knows how to push himself to succeed. He explained that once he put his mind on graduating, he knew that nothing would stop him. As a natural disaster survivor and tennis coach, David understood the significance of not letting go of your dreams. Participant 3-Maya’s individual textural description. Maya is a 27-year-old COHS student and a stay-at-home mom. She has two young boys, ages five and seven. Both children are autistic and have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Maya enrolled in COHS through a partnership with her local library and began COHS at the start of the ninth grade curriculum. She expected to graduate with her high school diploma and career certificate in Child Care and Education within two months of the study interview date. Maya’s children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants to be a role model for them and improve her ability to support them. Maya explained:

121 Being able to go to school online really helps me to focus on school and improving myself as a person, I suppose as a mom too, to disabled children. Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance. And to see my kids, to be a very good role model for them. To say, “Yeah, I have some obstacles, but you can do it—work as a team and we can achieve our goals, together.” Maya’s dedication to her children and their education may stem from her own experience as a special needs student with undiagnosed ADHD. In talking about her background, she explained: Even though I worked hard in school, I was at a second to third grade area in school and so I ended up dropping out because I wasn’t going to be able to do twelfth grade tests at the end…I moved a lot, so I went to a lot of different schools. I was very shy…and because I was so shy, I only had a few friends. I wasn’t the popular kid. So, I think that I tried to be perfect. I think that’s what made me realize later that I have ADHD. I did the questionnaire and I’m like, “Oh my God, I have ADHD this whole time.” I would try so hard to be perfect and do my best and I remember beating myself up if I didn’t get that A or get a good grade. And then it was a bad cycle. So, I don’t even know when I started to fall behind. I remember always being behind and trying to catch up and not catching up. So as a kid, that you know, wasn’t diagnosed with ADHD early on, I can relate. That’s why I try so hard to make sure I get all the information I can for my boys to benefit them, get all the therapies I can get for them, do all the

122 techniques they suggest, just so they can have a better future than what I had. I know the benefits of early intervention. Maya’s knows how to manage her undiagnosed learning disability and use selfregulated learning skills which has positively influenced her IBLSE. When her selfawareness was commended during the interview she explained: The reason why I have an awareness is because of my sons. When they were diagnosed with autism and ADHD, I had to learn some of the techniques to help them and then I learned that I have ADHD. I guess I was diagnosed as a child, but they never told me or my mom. It explained a lot when I was in school, having such a hard time and now it’s easier because I’m aware of it. During courses, Maya tries to pace herself and set realistic goals: I try to finish a semester a week so that I can get done faster but some lessons are longer than others. I also have ADHD and I tend to make goals that are not reasonable, so I’m learning not to make my goals too hard for me, trying to make them more realistic. I don’t want it to be set in stone because I do tend to beat myself up if I don’t make my goals. She was encouraged by seeing her progress in the COHS online course room, “seeing all the courses getting done, all the semesters and everything getting done– that’s what motivates me.” Maya uses self-regulated learning techniques to overcome learning challenges: Right now, I’m on World Literature and reading is not my strong suit. I also don’t like how they dissect poems and plays and everything. They kind of kill the feeling, the art of the writing. So I’m having difficulty with that because it makes

123 me bored. I’m like, “Yeah, ok, I get it, setting and all that,” but I’m having trouble with that because it’s so boring and tedious. World History was hard because it was a lot of information. You weren’t sure what you were going to be tested on. So I wrote tons of notes and how to dissect what I’m going to need for the test. When lessons are too long, I forget what the beginning of the semester information is, so I have to go read over that. When it’s too long and too wordy, it kind of loses its effect. And I don’t know if that’s the same for other students, but for me, it’s too much. She found other ways to stay focused on difficult coursework: I have snacks with me; sometimes I have Jolly Ranchers to suck on. In school when they would have those standardized tests they would give us a sucker and they said it would help you focus, so I’ve been using that, just to try to keep my mind from wandering off. When it gets too long, my mind starts wandering around, “Did I do this? Did I do that?” I keep telling myself I need to focus; that’s helping. Although Maya has worked at a fast food restaurant and has been a busy stay-athome mom, once she graduates, she looks forward to a career helping others. She explained: I was thinking about being a social worker or a coordinator at the Regional Center or at the Health group because I really want to help families with children that are disabled. I also want to help the parents, because I know a lot of parents that do so much for their kids and that are wore out, or when they’re at the beginning of their journey and their kid just got diagnosed with something. They

124 don’t really know where to turn, or what services, or where to go. I want to be the person that can say, “Hey, there are support groups here, services” and be a support to them. Because I know as a parent, that it really impacts a lot, not only the children but also the parent. They’re the one that has to do all the work and I want to be an inspiration to them. Or if they’re like me and didn’t graduate high school and I can say, “Hey, I didn’t graduate high school, I went back to high school and I did the therapies with my boys and I juggled everything. You can too. Yes, it’s not going to be easy, but you can do it.” Maya had a high self-efficacy to succeed online and used visualization to stay motivated: I’m definitely determined and I’m so close that I can almost taste it! I want the whole shebang; I want the graduation with the hat, the frame with my high school diploma. I can see it, I believe I can do it and I’m going to do it. I didn’t put in all this time and effort just to quit now. Maya is very proud of her accomplishments and as a result, her self-confidence has improved. When asked to identify the self-efficacy source that had the greatest impact on her IBLSE she selected verbal persuasion and was able to share numerous examples. She explained, “…my son’s therapist (said) that I was smart because I had figured out techniques that other therapists had tried to teach… so then he encouraged me to go back to school.” Maya’s tutor at the library was also supportive in helping her realize her academic potential:

125 My tutor, she’s listening to some of the lessons with me and she said, “This is like college, they’re preparing you for college,” and I was like, “Yay, I can do college!” Before I was like, “I can’t even finish high school” and now I have the hope of being able to go to college and get a degree. So, now I don’t even need tutoring anymore…My tutor (says) “You’re very smart and everything is falling into place.” As Maya had a tutor through the library, she was not reliant on her COHS academic coach. She found the COHS coursework to be self-explanatory: I’m pretty much doing it on my own. If I need help, I email her and she’s great to come back and answer any questions, but I really haven’t been needing her help. Even though the courses seem hard, I’m able to do it. I don’t know if it’s because I have more confidence, because I’m doing so well, or the fact that it’s very broken down and gives you everything that you need, right there, so you really don’t need a teacher or someone, right there. Maya’s mother also provided support: My mom helps me by watching my boys for a half-hour, whatever I need to do courses. My mom tells me she’s proud of me and she helps clean the house because obviously I’m busy. She gives me the support I need to be able to focus on school. I’m grateful that my mom is here. Obtaining her high school diploma gives Maya a sense of encouragement and hope for the future. She explained, “For the first time in my life I’m excited. My future is a lot brighter and everything, I’m very happy!” Maya shares this motivational advice for others that might be struggling in an online high school program:

126 Find something that motivates you, that one thing. For me, it’s my children. Maybe it’s the fact of having that diploma and picture yourself getting that diploma, picture yourself wearing that hat, that gown, hearing your name being called. Picture it all and keep going, you’ve got to keep that motivation going. I know it’s hard, trust me it’s hard. Some days I’m too tired, I don’t want to work on school, but I have a picture of my son, with his little hat and everything when he graduated from pre-school and I look at it and I’m like, “I want a picture with my cap and gown, like he does,” and I use that to keep myself going and focused. Don’t try to be perfect, just try to do your best, focus, take notes, use different colored pens if that helps, highlighters, whatever helps you study, use it. Use every tool you can find. Use it and win it! She clarifies for those considering enrolling: My advice is, if you want it, go after it, but if you have second thoughts and you’re not sure, don’t start it. Make sure this is what you want, not what other people want—it’s what you want for yourself. In the end, it’s going to be you who has to do it, so make sure it’s what you want. Maya has a positive outlook and appreciation for the online model: I’m so glad that there’s a program like this for all the people that had trouble in high school…being bullied can cause you to not do so well in school or problems at home and then being able to go to school online, later–when everything is settled and being able to finish, it’s so great! Participant 3-Maya’s individual structural description. Maya’s individual structural description has seven structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to

127 persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance and resilience, self-regulated learner, high level of IBLSE, support, sense of responsibility to others, verbal persuasion identified as most influential self-efficacy source and diploma required for future goals/ understand the importance of education on success. Participant 3-Maya’s individual textural-structural description. Maya’s children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants to be a role model for them and improve her ability to support them. In conjunction with a sense of responsibility to her family, Maya understood the importance of education on her success. It was important that her children see her as successful in a career and not reliant on public assistance. As Maya’s children have special needs, she wants to do everything she can to support them, including improving herself. Maya has been able to demonstrate to her children, her own ability to succeed despite challenges. A high school diploma is required for Maya’s future goals, which may include college plans as Maya aspires to be a social worker. She wants to be a role model for other parents with disabled children, or for those who are looking to go back to high school. Maya has a strong self-awareness as a learner and actively employs self-regulated learning strategies. As an individual with undiagnosed ADHD, she has learned techniques to stay focused on coursework and overcome learning challenges. She demonstrated both perseverance and resilience. Maya sets realistic goals and uses visualization and motivational self-talk to see herself graduating. She has let go of perfectionist tendencies that held her back in the past. She uses help-seeking strategies and finds support in her child’s therapist and from her tutor in the library. For Maya,

128 failure is not an option—graduation is so close that ‘she can taste it’; it is a visceral experience. Given Maya’s aforementioned strengths, Maya’s IBLSE is very high—there is no doubt in her mind that she will persist and succeed within the online environment. As Maya has worked her way through the COHS program, her self-confidence and selfesteem have blossomed. She has a positive outlook and knows she will graduate and perhaps go on to college. Maya identified performance accomplishment/participant modeling as having the greatest effect on her IBLSE, yet the examples she shared aligned with a preference for verbal persuasion. For example, the verbal encouragement provided by her child’s therapist was the sole reason Maya decided to go back to school. He told Maya she was smart enough to complete high school courses and could obtain her high school diploma. Maya’s library tutor was instrumental in helping Maya stay focused on her goals and in helping her see the possibilities beyond high school. Maya’s mother also played a role in verbally supporting Maya’s academic goals. Participant 4-Jessa’s individual textural description. Jessa, a current COHS student, is a 36-year-old mother of four and grandmother of two. She is a recently divorced single parent and lives with her youngest daughter who is eleven. A few months ago, Jessa became homeless and this stressful situation motivated her to return to high school in order to reclaim her independence. She explained: Last year, maybe in September, I became homeless and I was homeless all the way up until January of this year and that was a big experience for me because I’ve never had to go through the situation that I went through. I lost everything. I mean everything that I had. It was hard, tough, because me and my kids were

129 separated. And then I end up piling up on my best friend and her nine kids. So during that time I went through that, it gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and really get to where I have determined that I have to have a career established. I don’t want to get in that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all alone, no one to help me. Just to totally depend on someone– that’s not me. Coming from a person who’s been independent since fourteen…that was just a real big wake-up call for me and a learning experience. So now, every time that I’m doing my lessons, I think about where I just came from, where I’m at now and where I want to be. Jessa aspires to go into the field of radiology. In the past, she has worked in healthcare but needs her high school diploma in order to pursue her career. She explained: I hope to graduate high school and what’s crazy is that I have a few college credits. I’d like to finish high school and take up a little more learning so that I can apply to the program because I want to do radiology. I’ve always wanted to work in the medical field. I’ve been a medical assistant; I’ve done CNA (Certified Nursing Assistant) work. I’ve been a medical technician and it’s something about helping and I just want to do radiology. Initially, Jessa learned about COHS when she attempted to enroll in a medical education program: The guy who called me back was talking to me about coming to enroll in the program and then I got scared about going and I asked him what all he was going to need. And he said, “What could interfere with me coming?” And I told him,

130 “Not having a high school diploma because the other schools that I went to didn’t require a high school diploma. And I just never finished the program.” He said, “Well, that’s definitely something that you have to have for our program, but the thing about it is, we actually have a high school program.” Jessa’s journey to obtain her high school diploma has not been an easy one, but her determination to complete high school demonstrated the value she places on education and is a testament to her ability to persevere. These characteristics have positively influenced Jessa’s IBLSE. In traditional high school, Jessa was a quick learner, but she left school because she was, “just being rebellious…and in 96, I was pregnant with my second child, so it was just like, who cares? I was living on my own anyway, so it didn’t bother me.” At one point, Jessa was enrolled in another high school program that turned out to be a diploma mill. She explained: I went to another high school program before and I ended up passing and got a high school diploma to only find out that the program was not accredited… they said that the school was not really a school. It was just a place that was taking people’s money and making up a diploma. At the time of the interview, Jessa had completed nearly nine credits and opted not to enroll in a career certificate program, as a concentration in healthcare/radiology was unavailable. Due to problems obtaining her high school transcript, Jessa had to start the COHS curriculum over from the beginning of 9th grade. This particular challenge has negatively affected Jessa’s IBLSE. She explained that her current IBLSE level is,

131 “medium-high” and at times the course duplications made her feel like dropping out of the program. She explained: (My self-efficacy) was high at first because…when I first enrolled they told me that they would transfer credits from my traditional high school, so if they transferred the credits over from my traditional high school, then I probably wouldn’t have to be there so long…I did three years in high school. I started online classes January 26 and here it is March 25, I still have yet to get those credits. So I’m doing all this work over, so it did discourage me for a moment. I felt like giving up because they were saying that the semester was so long. Jessa experienced challenges with her COHS partner program, as all students were required to be on-site in the computer lab three days a week, for four hours each day. For Jessa, this was difficult as she does not live close to the partner program, parking is expensive, and she needs to be home after school for her daughter. Jessa explained: That’s what frustrates me because everything is online, but you still have to go in. You’re just in a classroom with more students and you’re still online. You know, nobody is doing the same subject or anything like that. You’re just in this classroom, logging in online for three, or four hours, but I don’t feel that has a purpose, so I really don’t like that. And if you don’t come and make that three days they call you and talk about putting you on probation. Why would you put a person on probation if they are doing their work and they’re still online? (After a recent surgery) the whole time that I was home, my work was getting done. I

132 didn’t fall behind. I was still on-pace. As long as you’re getting work done, you’re passing your grades, it shouldn’t matter if you come in or not. The COHS partner program has not integrated in-person tutors into the on-site program and Jessa did not feel supported by the staff. She explained: We have the lady that’s in charge of the high school program, but…she basically doesn’t really know anything. She assigns your classes, but as far as if you’re stuck on a problem, she tells you to Google it. Despite these challenges, Jessa has found learning online to be relatively easy due to the student-paced nature of the program. She explained: Learning online—it’s easier, as well as it is hard…it’s easier because I don’t have anyone standing over my shoulder. I’m not on a time schedule, whereas something has to be done, at a certain time. I’m not on a timeframe. But harder, because sometimes you get through problems and the way they have it set up, it’s very difficult to try to go back through some things once you are testing. Jessa is proud of her accomplishments thus far: They set it up so that you could do one semester in two weeks and within the first three days, I had already earned four credits, so that was a big accomplishment for me…starting off as a new student and in three days I had already earned four credits. I felt awesome! I think I’m doing pretty great for a person who has been out of high school almost 20 years!” The self-efficacy source with the greatest influence on Jessa’s IBLSE was vicarious experience (observing others). Jessa explained:

133 I have a best friend; we’ve been best friends for 29 years, (since) second grade. We went to the same school and we’ve always been real close and good friends. So during the six months where I was going through some very hard times and downfalls, she was there. We were just talking to each other and we realized that… she had a big secret that she didn’t want to tell anybody. I said, “Hey! That’s not bad because guess what—I don’t have my high school diploma either!” So, we both sat back and we laughed about it…I told her, “You know what? That will be something that we can do. We started school together, we might as well finish school together.” I just felt that if she can do it, I know I can do it because she has nine kids… I’m only at home with an eleven-year-old. If she can still maintain a home and go to school and get these grades and stuff…we can do this. Her brother calls us Bonnie and Clyde! As well as receiving support from her best friend, Jessa is supported by her mother and her best friend’s brother. Jessa felt supported by her COHS academic coach, “She corresponds pretty often. She lets you know that you did a good a job with the course; you completed this course in a timely manner, at your own pace and things like that.” Jessa offers the following advice for others considering enrolling into an online high school program: I feel that people who don’t do so good in an online class are people who are trying to hide things, as far as, they’re embarrassed, or they don’t know. They don’t want people to know that they’re in a high school program or they just don’t have support. So, I advise people that if you’re in the high school program and

134 you’re having trouble, find someone that you know that’s in the room with you, that you can talk to, and get close to, and ask for help. There’s nothing wrong in looking to get help. Participant 4-Jessa’s individual structural description. Jessa’s individual structural description has seven structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance and resilience, self-regulated learner, support, medium to high level of IBLSE, vicarious experience identified as most influential self-efficacy source, sense of responsibility to others, and diploma required for future goals/importance of education on success. Participant 4-Jessa’s individual textural-structural description. One of Jessa’s strengths is her ability to persevere and demonstrate resilience despite challenges. With perseverance, Jessa overcame homelessness and realized the importance of a high school diploma in improving her ability to support her family and in reclaiming her independence. This sense of responsibility to others helped Jessa persevere within the online program. Although she encountered numerous obstacles such as an inability to transfer credits, having to be on-site several days a weeks and an unsupportive partner program manager, she maintained her drive to complete coursework. A high school diploma is required for Jessa’s future career goals. She has experience in the healthcare field and her goal is to complete high school and enter a radiology training program. She is enrolled in a COHS partner program that provides a bridge to a medical training school and she already has a few college credits under her belt. As previously mentioned, Jessa’s recent experience with homelessness caused her

135 to realize that a high school diploma is critical to ensuring she does not find herself in that precarious situation again. The self-efficacy source with the greatest influence on Jessa’s IBLSE has been vicarious experience (observing others). Jessa enrolled into COHS and the partner medical school with her childhood classmate and best friend of 29 years. Jessa finds inspiration and drive in the fact that her best friend has nine children to care for while going to school and she is making it work. Jessa believes that if her friend can complete school under her circumstances, why can’t she, as she only has one child at home. As classmates, Jessa and her best friend are able to share the online high school journey together and this is another source of motivation. Jessa is supported by her mother and her best friend’s brother and feels supported by her COHS academic coach. In regards to advice for struggling students, Jessa recommended they identify a classmate that they see regularly, talk and get close to them, and ask for help. This also aligned with Jessa’s preference for vicarious experience as the primary influence on her IBLSE. Participant 5-Valerie’s individual textural description. Valerie is 34 years old; she is married and a stay-at-home mom to two children. She is also a recent COHS graduate and received a career certificate in Child Care and Education. This certificate meets the 120 hours of professional development required for her to apply for the national Child Development Associate (CDA) credential. Valerie explained how she learned about COHS: I was working at a daycare… about five years ago and some co-workers were getting their CDA…and I was inquiring about that and through my employer.

136 (My) co-worker…mentioned that is how she obtained the 120 hours she needed for her CDA. A high school diploma was required for Valerie’s future goals. She explained, “I want to go and become a teacher… I would like to pursue my bachelor's in elementary education.” She has already started the college application process. Valerie is proud to be a graduate. She explained, “It was a huge sense of relief and excitement and you know—it’s an accomplishment. It felt great… (it’s a) thing that I’ve wanted to do. I’ve wanted to obtain my high school diploma for a very long time.” Valerie attempted to earn her GED prior to enrolling into COHS, but she encountered difficulties with the schedule. The COHS online model supported Valerie’s needs for flexibility. It took Valerie 18 months to complete the COHS program and during that time she continued to demonstrate her ability to persevere and be resilient, “I started Smart Horizons before, for a few months and I quit due to just not being able to balance that and home life. Then I started back.” Over 18 months, Valerie worked with three different COHS academic coaches. She described the coach she worked with the longest as, “amazing.” Valerie explained that she had high IBLSE based on her prior experience with high school coursework. She explained, “I already had most of the knowledge that I needed to succeed.” Valerie identified verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source with the biggest impact on her belief in her ability to succeed online: I feel like the coaches are just great. I would have bad days where I just didn’t want to do anything. You know you have your home life and things going on and you feel that there’s just not enough time in the day and you go a whole two days

137 without doing any work. And then you get a call from your learning coach, saying, “You can do this, come on. You only have a few more left.” So, that was great. In traditional high school, Valerie was a fast learner and enjoyed schooling. When she became pregnant, she made the decision to withdraw and move away. In regards to completing the COHS program, Valerie found balancing family and home life with school to be the biggest challenge: You leave high school, you grow up and you have a family and you have to learn how to balance those things all over again. You have to learn how to balance, kind of like working and family. You just kind of have to learn to find a happy medium. In regards to tackling difficult academic subjects she explained, “Some of the literature was probably a little challenging. The math was challenging, in some areas. There were challenging areas just like in high school.” Valerie found that “discipline and tutoring” from family members helped her overcome challenges. Valerie also used selfregulated learning strategies to succeed, “You have the discipline and you just do it and pay attention and leave the room if there are distractions and things like that. You can get through it.” Valerie’s skills and strategies positively influenced her IBLSE. Overall, Valerie found learning online to be what she expected from a challenging online high school environment: We all have our challenges and of course, with me being out of high school for so long, you’re kind of rusty in some areas. I had some experience with K-12 (online courses). My oldest daughter, I homeschooled her with the K-12

138 curriculum a couple of years ago and it kind of reminded me of that. Some people, they hear about online school and I guess they kind of have it in their minds that you don’t really get anything out of it, or you don’t get much or it’s not the same, but really it is. I mean, I don’t think people realize that it is challenging and it pretty much is like a homeschool setting. While completing the COHS program, Valerie received support from her husband, “He was just supportive with my toddler. He picked up the slack around the house and helped me with her so that I could concentrate.” Other family members provided verbal and moral support. When asked what they did to help, Valerie explained, “Just talks about having a bad day. Telling me, ‘You know you can do it, it’s not much longer.’” Valerie’s faith in God also influenced her belief in her ability to succeed in an online high school environment. Valerie shared the following advice for students that are struggling at COHS or those that are considering enrolling: I would say to just don’t give up because the end result is great… it’s a good program and I encourage anyone that is thinking about it to go ahead enroll as fast as they can and not delay. I’m thrilled. I don’t know what I would have done without this program. Well, I know what I would have done—I would still be sitting here, wondering what I’m going to do about my future and where I’m going to go in life. And how I’m going to– because getting your GED, it’s just not the same and I’ve tried that numerous times and it never works. Honestly, I think this was the key to open another door for my future and my family as well. So, I’m very grateful for this online program.

139 Participant 5-Valeries’s individual structural description. Valerie’s individual structural description has nine structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: diploma required for future goals/importance of education on success, perseverance and resilience, selfregulated learner, support, self-advocacy, sense of responsibility to others, high level of IBLSE, belief in a higher power and verbal persuasion identified as most influential selfefficacy source. Participant 5-Valeries’s individual textural-structural description. Valerie aspires to be an elementary school teacher and a diploma is required for her future goals. Her desire to obtain her CDA was a driving force behind her decision to return to school and stay engaged. She has already started the college application process. Valerie acknowledges that furthering her education will help secure her future and allow her to improve the support she provides for her family. As someone that has previously worked in childcare, who has homeschooled a child and is going into a teaching career, Valerie places a high value on education. Valerie also demonstrated a strong sense of selfadvocacy. The journey to obtain her high school diploma has not been an easy one for Valerie. She tried in the past to obtain her GED but balancing in-person classes and family proved too challenging. When Valerie first enrolled into COHS, she again encountered challenges balancing school and home life. At one point, Valerie stopped and then restarted the COHS program. With perseverance and resilience, Valerie was able to obtain her diploma within the 18 months allotted for program completion.

140 Valerie used various self-regulated learning techniques to stay on track. She found verbal, moral and academic support from others including her family and COHS academic coaches. Valerie’s husband was able to care for her toddler and take care of the household, which allowed Valerie to concentrate on her studies. Valerie used selfdiscipline to avoid distractions and stay focused on her goals. Her faith in God also helped to support her IBLSE. Valerie had a high sense of IBLSE, as she felt confident and had experience with the high school content. Valerie had experience using a virtual program to homeschool her older child and felt comfortable with the format. The online, student-paced nature of the COHS program met Valerie’s need for schedule flexibility. Valerie identified verbal persuasion as having the greatest influence on her IBLSE and this was evident based on the examples shared during the interview. She found great support in the COHS academic coaches as their frequent calls and words of encouragement helped Valerie to persist. Valerie’s family members also provided verbal and moral support as she completed the program. Composite textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions. Integration of the individual participant textural, structural and textural-structural themes led to the creation of composite textural and composite structural descriptions, accounting for all participants as a whole. This synthesis includes a summary of common and unique themes that described the essence of the student experience of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools. Composite textural description. Eleven major composite themes were identified from the interview data and are presented with significant study participant

141 quotes that aligned with each of the themes. The themes are: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Six themes were consistent across all participants: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others and support. The remaining five themes were significant enough to warrant their own distinction. Seven minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding this phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. Table 2 indicates the composite textural themes, along with their respective definitions. Figure 2 indicates the consistent and unique composite themes among participants.

142 Table 2 Composite Textural Themes and Definitions Textural theme

Definition

1. Perseverance and resilience

Demonstrating a drive to overcome challenges and recover from adversity

2. Diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success

Understanding the necessity of a high school diploma in obtaining future goals (i.e., enroll in college), and having an awareness of the importance of education on success (i.e., to improve the ability to support family and enhance financial circumstances)

3. High level of IBLSE

Demonstrating strong belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity

4. Self-regulated learner

Demonstrating practices and beliefs to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness such as goal setting, study skills, self-motivation techniques and seeking assistance from others

5. Sense of responsibility to others

Drive to obtain a diploma is based on feelings of responsibility to others, such as wanting to improve family financial circumstances, not let someone down, or make someone proud

6. Support

Having a connection with caring adults that provide academic and moral support

7. Self-advocacy

Demonstrating the ability to speak or act for oneself, make choices and decisions that impact one’s life

8. Belief in a higher power

Believing in a higher power, having faith in something bigger than oneself, belief in the power of prayer

9. Performance accomplishment identified as most influential self-efficacy source

Identifying performance accomplishment (an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal) as the most influential self-efficacy source

10. Verbal persuasion identified as most influential self-efficacy

Identifying verbal persuasion (attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion) as the most influential self-efficacy source

143 source 11. Vicarious experience identified as most influential selfefficacy source

Identifying vicarious experience (personal witness of task attainment by others) as the most influential selfefficacy source

Figure 2. Composite Themes by Participant Perseverance and resilience. All study participants demonstrated perseverance and resilience in regards to IBLSE and persisting within an online high school. These two themes are presented together as they have similar characteristics, yet they are distinctive. Perseverance reflects an individual’s drive to overcome challenges and improve personal circumstances while resilience is an individual’s capacity to recover from adversity (Hynes, 2014). Linda, a COHS graduate who learned about COHS through a local library partnership, experienced a rigorous scholarship application process. Program enrollment

144 challenges did not impact her belief in her ability to complete the program and neither did difficult math content. The following quote from Linda demonstrates this theme, “I got a 70%, the bare minimum to finish and had to retake the test a lot of times.” David is a COHS graduate from a corporate partnership program. His experience as a natural disaster survivor and immigrant made him resilient and able to persevere to overcome challenges. When David learned that his traditional high school certificate was not valid for college admission and he had to retake high school courses due to credit transfer issues, this did not deter him from moving forward. The following quote from David illustrated this theme: Considering what life has presented me and where I've come from… reflecting on my accomplishments and failures as a young adult who never had a father figure to seek guidance from, I kept true to myself and maintained my desire to persevere. Being a survivor…taught me to understand that it’s not okay to abandon my dreams. Maya is a current COHS student who enrolled through her local library. As an individual with undiagnosed attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Maya used techniques, such as visualization and motivational self-talk, to help her persevere when coursework became challenging. As a mother of two young boys with autism and ADHD, Maya wants her children to see her as someone who knows how to overcome challenges. Failure is not an option and graduation is so close that “she can taste it.” Maya tells her children, “Yeah, I have some obstacles, but you can do it—work as a team and we can achieve our goals, together.”

145 Jessa is a current COHS student who enrolled through a career college partnership. Demonstrating resilience, Jessa overcame homelessness and many educational disappointments prior to enrolling into COHS. Within the online program, Jessa demonstrated perseverance as she encountered obstacles such as an inability to transfer credits, having to be physically on-site at the career college several days a week and lack of support from her partner program. The following quote from Jessa illustrated this theme: During that time I went through, it gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and really get to where I have determined that I have to have a career established. I don’t want to get in that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all alone, no one to help me. Just to totally depend on someone–that’s not me. Coming from a person who’s been independent since fourteen. That was just a real big wake-up call for me and a learning experience. So now, every time that I’m doing my lessons, I think about where I just came from, where I’m at now and where I want to be. The journey to obtain a high school diploma was not easy for COHS graduate, Valerie. Valerie tried obtaining her GED, but balancing in-person classes and family proved too challenging and she left the GED program. When Valerie first enrolled into COHS, she again encountered challenges balancing school and home life. At one point Valerie stopped and then restarted the COHS program. She worked with three different academic coaches over the span of 18 months. With perseverance and resilience, Valerie was able to obtain her diploma. The following quote illustrated this theme:

146 …getting your GED, it’s just not the same and I’ve tried that numerous times and it never works. I started Smart Horizons before, for a few months and I quit due to just not being able to balance that and home life. Then I started back. Diploma required for future goals/understanding the importance of education on success. All study participants expressed needing a diploma in order to achieve future goals and emphasized the importance of education to their success. These themes combined reflect the idea that a high school diploma is a necessary ‘ticket’ to new opportunities; attaining this education level is critical to overall personal, family and financial success. This theme reflects a goal-orientated mindset. All study participants were mature adults who experienced a disruption in their traditional high school education and their subsequent experiences, as parents and caregivers, fostered a depth of insight into the importance of education on success. Two of the female participants, Linda and Valerie, were experienced homeschoolers. They both demonstrated a heightened awareness of learning success factors, for both themselves and for their children. Another participant, Maya, was actively involved in supporting her special needs children. The topic of children and education was a passion that Linda, Maya and Valerie shared. Linda has many future personal and family goals that were only achievable with the completion of her high school diploma, including homeschooling, enrolling in college and going back to work in a higher capacity. As a homeschooling parent, Linda understands the importance of a quality education. The following quote from Linda illustrated this theme:

147 Some states require you to have college credits, but now I can do that with a high school diploma! I know that there’s so many job opportunities now that I can do, because I didn’t have that high school diploma. As far as if they offer training, if it’s an office job at a dentist’s, answering phones and there’s training involved, I have the confidence now to do even better in an interview because I know I have that diploma. For David, education is important and essential to improving his standing in life. Earning his high school diploma was a necessary step towards realizing his dream of enrolling in college. David understands the myriad career opportunities that are now available to him with this degree. The following quote from David illustrated this theme: My dreams of going back to school were still in the forefront of my mind and didn't want to lose sight of this goal. Now that I have my diploma, I qualify for anything, in any industry. I had a timeline and I wanted to go back to college. I was really, really motivated to go ahead and complete those classes so I could receive my diploma on time. Now that I have my diploma, I can continue my endeavor to pursue computer programming and business management courses. I still believe an education is one of the most prestigious rewards (that) no one can take from you. I believe education is really, really important for everybody. We need education in life. For Maya, being a role model for her children and improving her ability to provide for them is her motivation to graduate. She knows a diploma is required to secure her family’s future. She aspires to go to college and wants to become a social worker. The following quote from Maya illustrated this theme:

148 Being able to go to school online really helps me to focus on school and improving myself as a person, I suppose as a mom too, to disabled children. Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance. I was thinking about being a social worker or a coordinator at the Regional Center or at the Health group because I really want to help families with children that are disabled. Jessa’s experience with homelessness helped her realize the importance of a high school diploma in improving her ability to support herself and her family and in reclaiming her independence. She worked in healthcare in the past but needs her diploma to pursue her career. The following quote from Jessa illustrated this theme, “I’d like to finish high school and take up a little more learning so that I can apply to the (radiology) program. I’ve always wanted to work in the medical field.” Valerie aspires to be an elementary school teacher and a diploma is required for her future goals. She has already started the college application process. Valerie felt that furthering her education would secure her future and allow her to improve the support she provides for her family. Valerie places a high value on education; she has worked in childcare, she has homeschooled a child, and is going into a teaching career. The following quote from Valerie illustrated this theme: I don’t know what I would have done without this program. Well, I know what I would have done—I would still be sitting here, wondering what I’m going to do about my future and where I’m going to go in life. Honestly, I think this was the key to open another door for my future and my family as well.

149 High level of IBLSE. Study participants demonstrated this theme by expressing a high level of belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity. Four student participants indicated a high level of belief, while one participant, Jessa, described her IBLSE as “medium-high.” For example, Linda “absolutely knew” she would complete the program. The rigorous scholarship application process strengthened her self-efficacy, as she felt she invested too much time and effort to fail. As Linda had prior experience with seniorlevel coursework, she felt confident in mastering the COHS curriculum. The following quote from Linda exemplifies this theme: I did have a high self-efficacy; I knew I could do it. There was no question. (Completing my high school diploma) made me feel like I could conquer anything because my high school experience was 13 years ago….but the fact that I was able to do it, just kind of instilled this confidence. David had extensive experience with senior-level coursework and as a result, his IBLSE was very high. David’s experience as a tennis coach helped him maintain a high level of self-efficacy to succeed online. The following quote from David illustrated this theme: I had a high, high, high belief (to succeed) in everything I do. I’m always thinking about winning; I always go for the win. So anything I’m doing, I want to win. I hate losing. I hate…being the guy in the corner, with the blues. I never want to fail. I already completed high school so I know about (the subjects). Certain things I’ve taken twice, or probably like three times because I came from (another country) and there were certain things I knew already.

150 Maya had a high self-efficacy to succeed online and used visualization techniques to stay motivated. The following quote exemplifies this theme: I’m definitely determined and I’m so close that I can almost taste it! I want the whole shebang; I want the graduation with the hat, the frame with my high school diploma. I can see it, I believe I can do it and I’m going to do it. I didn’t put in all this time and effort just to quit now. Jessa explained that her IBLSE level was “medium-high” as she had experience with high school coursework, but her self-efficacy was influenced by challenges with transfer credits and on-site partnership program requirements. The following quote from Jessa illustrated this theme: (My self-efficacy) was high at first because…when I first enrolled they told me that they would transfer credits from my traditional high school, so if they transferred the credits over from my traditional high school, then I probably wouldn’t have to be there so long…I did three years in high school. I started online classes January 26 and here it is March 25; I still have yet to get those credits. So I’m doing all this work over, so it did discourage me for a moment. Valerie also had experience with traditional high school coursework and in using an online school program to homeschool her older child, which helped her to feel comfortable with the online program format. The following quote illustrated this theme, “I already had most of the knowledge that I needed to succeed.” Self-regulated learner. All study participants demonstrated the use of SelfRegulated Learning (SRL) practices and beliefs such as setting goals, using study and self-motivation techniques and seeking assistance from others.

151 Linda found ways to balance caring for her children with completing coursework. She knows her learning style and uses her preference for visual learning to help her retain information. She sought out academic tutoring support from her husband. The following quote illustrated this theme, “Let’s just say the kids watched a lot of PBS Kids because I plugged in for like 8 hours a day! And sometimes I would stay up through the night.” David used many SRL techniques, including goal setting. David’s goals of graduating from high school and enrolling in college kept him motivated. When necessary, David sought support from his academic coach and members of the corporate partnership/education team. As a non-native speaker of English, David developed strategies to help him learn the local language. He understood that schoolwork required dedication and focus and he recognized that certain habits, like procrastinating online, would not help him graduate any sooner. David used his experience as a tennis coach to motivate himself and focus on success. The following quote illustrated this theme: “Break your addiction to certain things. If you know for a fact that social networking is not going to help you out—then do what is best for your life.” Maya used SRL skills to manage coursework and to manage her undiagnosed ADHD. As her own children have ADHD, Maya has learned to apply to herself, the same techniques she uses to support her children. Maya uses goal setting, visualization, and study skills to stay focused. The following quote illustrated this theme: I try to finish a semester a week so that I can get done faster, but some lessons are longer than others. I also have ADHD and I tend to make goals that are not reasonable, so I’m learning not to make my goals too hard for me. (I’m) trying to make them more realistic. World History was hard because it was a lot of

152 information. You weren’t sure what you were going to be tested on, so I wrote tons of notes and how to dissect what I’m going to need for the test. When lessons are too long, I forget what the beginning of the semester information is, so I have to go read over that. The following quote illustrated Maya’s ability to use visualization and SRL techniques: …picture yourself getting that diploma, picture yourself wearing that hat, that gown, hearing your name being called. Picture it all and keep going, you’ve got to keep that motivation going. I know it’s hard, trust me it’s hard. Some days I’m too tired, I don’t want to work on school, but I have a picture of my son, with his little hat and everything when he graduated from pre-school and I look at it and I’m like, “I want a picture with my cap and gown, like he does,” and I use that to keep myself going and focused. And don’t try to be perfect, just try to do your best, focus, take notes, use different colored pens if that helps, highlighters, whatever helps you study, use it. Use every tool you can find. Jessa also used SRL techniques to stay focused on success. She enrolled into COHS with her best friend who helped her remain motivated. Jessa knows how to pace herself to independently complete coursework. The following quote illustrated this theme, “(After my surgery) the whole time that I was home, my work was getting done. I didn’t fall behind. I was still on-pace.” Valerie found balancing family and home life with school to be the biggest challenge, yet she was able to use SRL techniques to stay focused. She sought out tutoring support when necessary. The following quote illustrated this theme, “You have

153 the discipline and you just do it and pay attention and leave the room if there are distractions and things like that. You can get through it.” Sense of responsibility to others. This theme was developed based on study participants’ drive to graduate based on a sense of responsibility to others, such as wanting to improve family financial circumstances, not let someone down, or make someone proud. This theme was consistent across all study participants. Linda felt it was of critical importance to earn her diploma in order to legally homeschool her children. In addition, Linda’s graduation commitment to the library partnership team was a driving force in her desire to succeed. The following quote illustrated this theme, “… the gift was given to me, the scholarship, I see this as a gift. I’m not going to fail anyone.” Family is of critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to earn his high school diploma and enroll in college. David is committed to caring for his mother and sister, especially in consideration of natural disaster devastation back home. For David, education is essential to supporting himself and his family. The following quote illustrated this theme: It was just me and my mom in the house and my little sister and everything is falling on my back. I have to work hard. I cannot be in street. I cannot do certain things that will probably make my mom disappointed. When it comes to things you need, for your career and for your life–you have people who believe in you. You can’t go ahead and just dismiss that and make people disappointed. Like I said, my mom is my everything and everything I’m doing right now is just to make her happy.

154 With Maya, her children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants to improve her ability to support them. Maya explained: Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance. (In traditional high school) I remember always being behind and trying to catch up and not catching up. So as a kid, that you know, wasn’t diagnosed with ADHD early on, I can relate. That’s why I try so hard to make sure I get all the information I can for my boys to benefit them, get all the therapies I can get for them, do all the techniques they suggest, just so they can have a better future than what I had. I know the benefits of early intervention. Due to her recent experience with homelessness, Jessa feels a strong sense of responsibility to her family and wants to improve her ability to support them. When she became homeless, she “lost everything” and she was separated from her children. Reflecting on this experience keeps Jessa motivated to graduate. The following quote exemplifies this theme: (Being homeless) gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and really get to where I have determined that I have to have a career established. I don’t want to get in that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all alone, no one to help me. Valerie understood that a high school diploma was necessary to secure her future and improve the support she provides to her family. The following quote illustrated this theme, “(Earning my diploma) was the key to open another door for my future and my family as well.”

155 Support. The theme of support involved study participants connecting with caring adults that provided academic and moral support. This theme was consistent across all participants. Linda found support from her husband, especially when she needed tutoring assistance with challenging math content. While Linda found the support of her academic coach nice to have, she did not feel it was essential to her success. The following quote illustrated this theme: I got help from my husband at night. He’s a chef, so he has to be good in math. So he was able to help me some. (In regards to my academic coach), every time you finished a course, or courses within credits or semesters they emailed you, like, “Great job,” or, “We saw that you got an A on this.” They would see that I was working on something or finishing something and they would email me. But even if I didn’t get that, I would still be doing it, but it was a nice little reminder that I’m almost done. On the other hand, David found the support and involvement of his academic coach, as well as the COHS corporate partner support staff, to be essential to his success. Knowing he had support made him feel he was not alone in his education journey. David found support from his mother who encouraged him to complete school and pursue his dreams. The following quote illustrated this theme: Ms. (name withheld), she was my academic coach. I would complete one lesson and she would email me saying, “You’re doing a great job, keep up with the good job,” and that makes me understand that I have somebody who cares about what I’m doing right. Anytime I had a question; she was always available at that time.

156 She’d call me on the weekdays. She’d say, “How are you doing? Are there any courses you are having a problem with?” Anytime I needed her, she was just there to listen to me. Also with email, anytime I see her email, I know I’m never alone. She’s there for me. Maya made the decision to go back to school when her child’s therapist told her that she was capable of returning. The library partnership program identified a local tutor to provide Maya with academic support. Her mother provided support by caring for her children and doing housework, allowing Maya to focus on school. The following quote illustrated this theme: If it weren’t for (my child’s therapist) pointing out that I can do it and my tutor saying that, “You’re very smart and everything is falling into place,” and plus seeing all the courses getting done, all the semesters and everything getting done– that’s what motivates me. Jessa and her best friend enrolled into COHS together and made a commitment to support each other. Jessa also found support from her best friend’s brother, as well as her academic coach. The following quote illustrated this theme, “(My academic coach) corresponds pretty often. She lets you know that you did a good a job with the course; you completed this course in a timely manner, at your own pace and things like that.” Over 18 months, Valerie worked with three different COHS academic coaches. She described the coach she worked with the longest as, “amazing”. Valerie also found support from her husband and other family members. The following quote illustrated this theme, “(My husband) was just supportive with my toddler. He picked up the slack around the house and helped me with her so that I could concentrate.”

157 Self-advocacy. The study’s definition of self-advocacy is participant demonstration of the ability to speak or act for oneself, to make choices and decisions that impact one’s life (Ryan & Griffiths, 2015). Although all participants were selfadvocates, data from three participants identified this theme. For example, Linda contacted the local library herself to learn more about the COHS scholarship opportunity. She displayed a strong sense of independence and selfdetermination and was driven to obtain her degree to solidify her ability to homeschool. The following quote from Linda illustrated this theme: I didn’t have anyone verbally, other than the high school… checking in on me or the library checking in on me, I didn’t really have anyone rooting for me necessarily. I have a two-year-old and a four-year-old and my husband works 70 hours a week, so he wasn’t even here. Not many people know that I never finished high school. It’s kind of been like a dirty little secret. I didn’t have that. David expressed a strong sense of self-advocacy and independence. As a natural disaster survivor and immigrant, David has learned to depend only himself. He researched the COHS program offered by his employer and made the decision to enroll. The following quote from David illustrated this theme: Because everything I do, I never had support from anybody. It’s just me. I’m by myself. I never had anyone tell me, “This is exactly what you need to do for yourself.” Sometimes I would ask people for advice, but you know sometimes when you ask people stuff you already know—then you know it twice! Everything I do is just on my own. I can push myself and then I can push other people to motivate them, to do what’s best for them.

158 Valerie demonstrated self-advocacy characteristics by researching COHS and the affiliated career certificate in Child Care and Education to meet requirements for her Child Development Associate (CDA) application. She did not enroll through a partnership program; she paid for school herself. The following quote from Valerie illustrated this theme: I was working at a daycare in (state), about five years ago and some co-workers were getting their CDA… and I was inquiring about that and through my employer. And the co-worker I was working with mentioned that is how she obtained the 120 hours she needed for her CDA, through this program. Belief in a higher power. This theme involved participant belief in a higher power, having faith in something bigger than oneself, and belief in the power of prayer. This theme was identified from the transcripts of three participants, Linda, David, and Valerie. A strong belief in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped Linda make the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. Prayer helped her overcome challenges presented by difficult math coursework. The following quote illustrated this theme: I really felt that this was a gift on my faith, a gift from God, to give me this high school diploma so that I can start the process of homeschooling, which I’ve been praying on too…I definitely know that this is all God’s will, so for me, I’m going to follow through with any clear gifts I receive from God. I never wanted a GED, especially now with Common Core involved…I have been praying on this situation for at least ten years because it’s always bothered me.

159 For David, prayer helped him to overcome challenges associated with going to school and working long hours during the busy holiday season. The following quote illustrated this theme: I remember it was Black Friday, I was working like 12 hours a day and then I went back home at like 11 at night. I told myself I know that day, I need to complete at least one lesson. But when I came back home I was really exhausted. I wanted to go to bed. But then I sat down on my computer and I prayed to God. I said, “God, help me make it through.” That was the day that made me understand that I can do anything if I put my mind to it. Valerie mentioned during the interview that her faith in God was an important influence on her belief in her ability to succeed. She explained, “We have to believe in somebody else other than us.” Performance accomplishment identified as most influential IBLSE source. Two study participants, Linda and David, self-identified performance accomplishment as having the most influence on their IBLSE. Performance accomplishment is an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal (Bandura, 1977a). The following quote from Linda illustrated this theme, “I was there once before, I can do this again. I just knew because I did 4 ½ years of high school, I was like, I should be able to finish those last six credits.” Prior to enrolling into COHS, David completed similar courses both in his native country and in a traditional U.S. high school. Thus, he was very comfortable with the COHS content and online format. The following quote illustrated this theme:

160 There was really no challenge for me…I already completed high school, so I know about (the subjects). Certain things I’ve taken twice or probably like three times because I came from (country name withheld) and there were certain things I knew already. Then when I went to (high school name withheld), I took those classes again and when I signed up for the online classes, they were the same thing. Verbal persuasion identified as most influential IBLSE source. Two study participants, Maya and Valerie, identified verbal persuasion, as the most influential selfefficacy source. Verbal persuasion occurs when others attempt to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a). Maya’s son’s therapist was instrumental in helping her decide to go back to school and her mother provided verbal support. Maya’s tutor at the library was supportive in helping her realize her academic potential. The following quote illustrated this theme: My tutor, she’s listening to some of the lessons with me and she said, “This is like college, they’re preparing you for college,” and I was like, “Yay, I can do college!” Before I was like, “I can’t even finish high school” and now I have the hope of being able to go to college and get a degree. So, now I don’t even need tutoring anymore. My tutor (says), “You’re very smart and everything is falling into place.” Valerie also selected verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source that had the greatest impact on her IBLSE. She acknowledged the verbal support provided by her husband, family members, and academic coaches. The following quote illustrated this theme:

161 I feel like the coaches are just great. I would have bad days where I just didn’t want to do anything. You know you have your home life and things going on and you feel that there’s just not enough time in the day and you go a whole two days without doing any work. And then you get a call from your coach saying, “You can do this, come on. You only have a few more left.” So, that was great. Vicarious experience identified as most influential IBLSE Source. One study participant, Jessa, self-identified vicarious experience as the most influential self-efficacy source. Vicarious experience is personal witness of task attainment by others (Bandura, 1977a). Jessa enrolled into COHS with her childhood classmate and best friend of 29 years, which is motivating for her. The following quote illustrated this theme: I told (my best friend), “You know what? That will be something that we can do. We started school together, we might as well finish school together.” I just felt that if she can do it, I know I can do it because she has nine kids. I’m only at home with an eleven-year-old. If she can still maintain a home and go to school and get these grades and stuff, we can do this! Minor composite themes. Seven minor composite themes were noted in the findings and were relevant to understanding the overall student experience of IBLSE and persistence within an online high school. These include a positive student outlook and participant desire to support other online high school students and/or potential students. Participants expressed satisfaction with the COHS learning experience and the selfpaced, independent nature of the program, as well as gratitude for the opportunity to earn their degree online through either a scholarship or corporate partnership program. All

162 participants felt proud of their accomplishments at COHS and earning a diploma gave them a renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. Composite structural description. Eleven composite themes were identified: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Composite textural-structural description. The eleven themes that emerged from the data clearly illustrated the student experience of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools. Six themes were consistent across all study participants: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others and support. An additional five themes were unique but warranted greater attention: self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience. Seven minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding this phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. In discussing challenges in the online high school program environment, participants reflected on past challenges as their motivation to succeed. All participants

163 experienced a major life challenge, including surviving a natural disaster, overcoming homeless and high family mobility, the experience of teen pregnancy and single parenthood, raising disabled children and living with an undiagnosed learning disability. Participants demonstrated their ability to persevere and show resilience when they encountered challenges in the online environment. All participants were goal-oriented and recognized that a high school diploma was required for attainment of life goals. They strongly expressed the importance of education on their success; a diploma was either necessary for admission into a college or medical program or to the pursuit of a career goal. Study participants recognized the increased opportunities affiliated with having a high school diploma, such as the improved ability to support family with new job opportunities and the ability to earn a living wage. For participants that were parents, there was an additional emphasis on education as a critical factor for success. Several participants demonstrated strong selfadvocacy behaviors that helped them achieve their educational goals. Having a high level of IBLSE was a consistent theme across all participants. For many, there was no doubt that they would graduate from COHS. They absolutely knew they would earn their high school diplomas. Participants often felt that past high school experiences gave them the foundation and confidence needed to finish school online. Other participants had prior experience with online learning, either as a homeschooling parent or with online college courses, and felt comfortable with the online program format. Support from others also led to a high level of IBLSE. All participants expressed a clear understanding of their academic strengths and weaknesses and understood how to use a variety of SRL techniques to overcome

164 challenges and maintain progress. For example, participants used goal setting, visualization, time management, and study techniques. They asked for and received tutoring and moral support from academic coaches, family, and friends. Several participants had an understanding of their learning style and used this information to comprehend new content. Others had a strong sense of self-advocacy. Participants wanted to obtain a high school diploma out of a sense of responsibility to others, either to: (a) improve their ability to provide for family; (b) not let someone down; or (c) make someone proud. Several participants were solely responsible for caring for other family members and expressed an urgency to obtain a high school diploma in order to improve family circumstances. One participant felt responsible to her local library scholarship committee. Not graduating would have meant throwing away a valuable gift and letting others down. Other participants wanted to make their families proud by graduating; they wanted to be viewed as a success or as a role model for others. The theme of support was consistent across all study participants. Participants found a great deal of value and support in their relationships with the COHS academic coaches. Encouraging words, emails, and notifications from coaches helped participants stay motivated. They felt their academic coaches were true partners in their success. Others received support from family members in the form of tutoring, child care, and moral support. Some participants relied on support from library tutors or corporate partner program staff. One participant found support from her child’s therapist who convinced her that she was capable of earning a high school diploma. The theme, belief

165 in a higher power, also served as student support as individuals felt strengthened by their faith. When asked to identify the self-efficacy source with the greatest impact on their IBLSE, participants provided a variety of responses. Two participants identified performance accomplishment, two identified verbal persuasion, and one identified vicarious experience. Participants that identified performance accomplishment felt that prior traditional high school courses provided the foundational experience needed to be successful. There was a strong belief that, “I’ve done this before, I can do it again.” As challenging COHS courses were completed, this compounded participant belief in success. Two individuals identified verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source with the greatest impact, as they felt influenced by the verbal support of others. One participant was strongly influenced by the positive encouragement she received from her son’s therapist, her library tutor, and her mother. Another participant found the verbal support provided by her academic coach and family members to be critical to her success as they listened when she was having a difficult day, encouraged her to press on, and reminded her of how far she had already come. One participant identified vicarious experience as the self-efficacy source with the greatest impact. This individual enrolled into COHS with her best friend and was motivated by knowing that her friend was successful despite having nine children. She felt that if her friend could succeed under challenging circumstances, she could too. There were several minor composite themes identified from the data. The majority of study participants exhibited a positive outlook on life; they were ready to

166 move on from the limitations of the past towards a brighter future. Many participants talked about a desire to support struggling online high school students and/or motivate non-graduates to return to school online. All of the students expressed satisfaction with the COHS online learning experience and appreciated the self-paced, independent nature of the program. All participants had busy lives and were challenged to balance work, school, and family. Some participants tried to go back to school through an on-site adult education program, but were unsuccessful due to challenges managing school and family. For these busy individuals the online format was the only manageable option. Students affiliated with a library or corporate partnership program expressed gratitude for the ability to earn a degree through a scholarship or as an employment benefit. All students expressed being proud of their COHS accomplishments. Some were proud to have completed difficult classes after being out of school for a significant amount of time or in earning their high school diploma and reaching the finish line. These accomplishments resulted in a renewed sense of hope and increased selfconfidence to succeed in the future. Evaluation of findings This phenomenological study involved the exploration of lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools, through the use of a selfefficacy framework. IBLSE is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). In their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and Pajares (2008) cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological approach, including an

167 interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other researchers successfully used a phenomenological approach to capture the lived experiences of non-graduates (Hynes, 2014). This study added credibility to the use of a phenomenological methodology to explore the experiences of non-graduate populations in online learning environments. This research approach allowed the phenomenon to be understood from the experience of study participants and generated rich, detailed participant descriptions (Maxwell, 2013; Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows the voices of marginalized groups, like high school non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994). The study problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the inability for educational stakeholders to leverage this data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions, was addressed through Research Question 1: What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? The following evaluation of findings indicated the researcher’s interpretation and alignment of study themes to the knowledge base. Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions? Data addressing practical application recommendations is located in Chapter 5. Study findings aligned with Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s competence to perform tasks and attain goals (Bandura, 1977a). Individuals have differentiated self-efficacy beliefs as they relate to specific functional

168 domains, meaning that an individual’s expectations about performing a task is relative to a particular situation (Bandura, 2006). To align with self-efficacy and functional domain parameters, the study focus was the student experience of IBLSE within an online high school environment. Student self-efficacy in this domain is indicative of student motivation to enroll into an online course, student persistence, achievement of student goals, and student satisfaction with online coursework (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011). To meet study criteria, all participants needed to be COHS graduates or had to have completed at least three COHS courses. Thus, all participants had experience with academic success in an online learning environment. During interviews, all participants indicated that they had a high self-efficacy to succeed in an online course or online learning activity and all cited examples of how their self-efficacy directly influenced their ability to persist. Students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage, as student over-estimation of self-efficacy can result in higher student motivation, higher achievement levels, and improved student self-confidence, in comparison to students with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006). The researcher aligned participant self-efficacy examples with Bandura’s (1977a) four hypothesized sources of personal self-efficacy expectations: performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological and emotional states. Performance accomplishment, or personal mastery, refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of task or goals (Bandura, 1977a). This selfefficacy source is known to have the greatest effect on personal self-efficacy as repeated

169 successes or failures can raise and lower personal efficacy expectations (Bandura, 1977a, 1986). Researchers supported personal mastery by providing individuals with tangible evidence of their success (Maddux, 2012). Participants shared information on the influence of personal mastery experiences on their IBLSE. Participants felt that prior experiences with high-school-level course work, or with online courses, gave them the confidence and motivation needed to believe they could succeed. This finding aligned with research on students’ prior knowledge of course material as a motivational factor (Hartnett et al., 2011). For some students, seeing courses marked as complete in the course room heightened their sense of personal mastery. The second self-efficacy source, vicarious experience, refers to the personal witness of task attainment by others (Bandura, 1977a). Individuals that view their peers as accomplishing, or not accomplishing tasks or goals are more likely to believe that they too, can succeed or fail based upon what they have witnessed (Schunk & Meece, 2006). A commonplace use of this source to influence individual self-efficacy is in mainstream media, where often advertisers will feature testimonials for products such as weight loss and smoking cessation (Maddux, 2012). The testimonial message is that real people have accomplished similar, often challenging goals, and “so can you” (Maddux, 2012). Support groups, where individuals share personal experiences, can also enhance selfefficacy (Maddux, 2012). Within the research study, one study participant’s IBLSE was influenced by vicarious experience as she was motivated by seeing her best friend succeed online, despite challenges. Going to school with her friend helped the participant remain

170 motivated and engaged. The participant’s self-efficacy was influenced by observation of her friend’s behavior (a single mother raising nine children) and the related consequences of her behavior (succeeding in school) (Bandura 1977b; Maddux, 2012). Another identified student strategy related to both performance accomplishment and vicarious experience is visualization. Visualization involves imagining oneself or others in hypothetical situations and these imaginary beliefs can build self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977a; Maddux 2012). According to Bandura (1994), visualization is not a self-efficacy source but a, “cognitive, psychological process through which self-efficacy beliefs impact human functioning” (p. 80). In the research study, one participant demonstrated a strong preference for visualization to help her attain her goals. The participant imagined herself in a photograph, wearing her graduation cap and gown and visualized her high school diploma in a frame. This example reflects performance accomplishment as the participant was “seeing herself” graduate. The participant also had a picture of her son in a graduation cap and gown and she used this image as motivation to stay focused on graduation. This example reflects vicarious experience, where seeing someone else (her son) achieving a goal (graduating), influenced the participant’s self-efficacy. The third self-efficacy source, verbal persuasion, refers to attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a). Researchers successfully applied this self-efficacy source by helping people believe they can cope with situations that have overwhelmed them in the past (Bandura, 1977a). The effectiveness of verbal persuasion in influencing others’ self-efficacy depends upon

171 several factors including the expertise level and perceived trustworthiness of the person providing feedback (Maddux, 2012). Two study participants felt that verbal persuasion was the most influential selfefficacy source on their belief in their ability to persist and succeed in online. For one participant, her child’s therapist was her inspiration to return to school because he convinced her that she could succeed. Her library tutor was instrumental in helping her realize her academic potential beyond high school. Another participant found the support of her COHS academic coach to be essential to her success, especially during challenging times. The theme of support was consistent across all study participants and aligned with both vicarious and verbal persuasion self-efficacy sources. Participants found value and support in their relationships with COHS academic coaches as their encouraging words, emails, and notifications helped participants stay motivated. Other participants received support from family members and friends in the form of tutoring, childcare, and moral support. Some participants relied on support from library tutors or corporate partner program staff. Research showed that individuals who leave high school often need assistance to become re-engaged; this can occur through authentic connections with adults and peers that care about, support and guide them (Hynes, 2014). Reengagement is fostered when students feel part of a caring community that values them as individuals and as learners (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). As learning within the online model is autonomous, on-going access to academic, technical and moral support is vital to student success (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). The COHS model aligned with this research as the learning experience is

172 individualized; students are assigned academic coaches who understand their learning goals and help foster a sense of belonging to the wider education community (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Support provided by corporate, library, or career college partnerships, in the form of tutors and on-site computer labs, also influenced student success and aligned with the aforementioned research. Bandura’s (1977a) fourth hypothesized self-efficacy source is physiological and emotional states which indicates an individual’s mood, attitude, emotional and physiological response in consideration of a goal or task. Self-efficacy is influenced when individuals learn to associate poor performance or perceived failure with a negative physiological response, and associate success, or perceived success with a positive physiological response (Bandura, 1977a; Maddux, 2012). Thus, when individuals are aware of having a negative physiological response in consideration of a goal, they will be more likely to doubt their ability to achieve the goal and vice versa, a more positive physiological response will generate feelings of confidence in consideration of the goal (Bandura, 1977a; Maddux, 2012). Perceived self-efficacy beliefs can fluctuate due to changes in personal conditions, such as an individual’s motivation level or state of mind (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Although this self-efficacy source was not self-identified by study participants as having a strong influence on their IBLSE, interview data revealed significant evidence of behavioral alignment to physiological and emotional states. For example, participants discussed their emotional responses to challenging high school content and one participant exclaimed, “I’m awful at math, beyond division and long hand—I can’t do algebra. I can’t.” The participant’s physiological and emotional states (anxiety, distress)

173 most likely had an impact on her IBLSE and her belief in her ability to pass the math course. Overall, the majority of participants expressed a positive emotional response in regards to their IBLSE and positive outlook was identified as a minor theme. A student’s emotional state can influence how they interpret experiences (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Students can misinterpret a pessimistic outlook as a sign of inability, which can in turn diminish self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Conversely, a positive student outlook can raise self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement, resulting in enhanced wellbeing (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Other minor themes that may be categorized under physiological and emotional states include participant gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments and feeling a renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. The theme, sense of responsibility to others, can also be categorized under the self-efficacy source of physiological and emotional states. Study participants expressed a strong desire to succeed online in order to improve their ability to provide for their families, make others proud, or not let others down. This emotional reaction in consideration of a goal (graduation) positively influenced participant self-efficacy and motivation to succeed (Bandura, 1977a). This finding aligned with data on extrinsically motivated students who may participate in learning activities out of a desire to meet others’ expectations (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter et al., 2010). Several participants were solely responsible for caring for other family members. These individuals expressed an urgency to obtain a high school diploma in order to elevate family circumstances. One participant felt responsible to her local library

174 scholarship committee. Not graduating would mean throwing away a valuable gift and letting others down. Other participants wanted to make their families proud by graduating and wanted to be viewed as a success or as a role model by others. A minor composite theme that emerged from the findings was study participant desire to give back and support other online high school students and/or encourage potential students. While this theme may have emerged as a result of the purposive sampling method, it also may indicate a sense of fellowship or responsibility to others experiencing a similar life path (Hynes, 2014). These study findings aligned with qualitative, phenomenological data from The Center for Promise (Hynes, 2014), where non-graduates cited a desire to return to school in order to: (a) support their families; (b) be seen as role models for their children; and (c) have the ability to give back to the community. The theme, belief in a higher power, emerged from the transcripts of three participants who explained the impact of their faith on their self-efficacy. This theme is related to an individual’s physiological and emotional states as belief in God and the use of prayer influenced participant mood and fostered participant motivation to succeed. For one participant, a strong belief in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped her make the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. Other participants used prayer as a coping mechanism to overcome challenges with difficult coursework and to help manage work and school responsibilities. There is little research on students’ belief in a higher power and academic selfefficacy, but there is data correlating belief in a higher power and use of prayer with health-related self-efficacy (Molter & Abrahamson, 2015; Oman & Bormann, 2015; Pérez & Smith, 2015). Researchers found that among those with cancer and sickle cell

175 disease, scripture reading and prayer improved patient confidence in managing disease symptoms (Molter & Abrahamson, 2015; Pérez & Smith, 2015). Among military veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) patient use of mantras, (short, sacred phrases based on spiritual traditions) fostered self-efficacy to manage PTSD symptoms (Oman & Bormann, 2015). Among women who experienced abuse by a significant other, spiritual coping processes promoted self-efficacy for resilience and healing (Drumm et al., 2014). Several minor study theme findings aligned with the category of influencing physiological and emotional states, these include: positive student outlook, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence, and gratitude for scholarship opportunities. These themes involved student mood and attitude in consideration of a task and aligned with positive psychology research findings on psychological health and happiness (Maddux, 2012). Findings also aligned with research on resilience among high school non-graduates as these individuals are known to demonstrate personal agency, courage, and optimism about the future (Hynes, 2014). Study findings aligned with social cognitive theory and the concept of selfregulation, which is the self-influence process of self-monitoring one’s behavior (Bandura, 1977a, 1986). Self-regulation correlates with positive self-efficacy beliefs and is a self-influence process consisting of: (a) self-monitoring of one’s behavior to include causes and effects; (b) self-judgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of personal morals, standards and circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior to include self rewards and self-punishments (Bandura, 1986; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Zimmerman 2008). In essence, individuals identify goals, regulate behavior in pursuit of

176 goals, and use past knowledge and experience to inform self-regulating behaviors (Maddux, 2012). In the field of education, SRL refers to the metacognitive, self-directed practices and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). Students that can self-regulate in an autonomous online environment are at an advantage as SRL includes utilization of learning strategies such as goal setting, content review, rehearsal and memorization, forming mental images, self-recording, and seeking assistance from others (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Paechter et al., 2010; Schunk, 2008; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Characteristics of proactive, self-regulated learners include self-confidence, high self-efficacy, initiative and perseverance (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Self-regulated learners also take responsibility for learning outcomes, have awareness of academic shortcomings and utilize adaptive strategies to mitigate deficiencies (Artino et al., 2011; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). In the research study, all participants expressed an understanding of their academic strengths and weaknesses and understood how to use SRL techniques to overcome challenges and maintain progress. For example, participants applied goal setting techniques, visualization, time management, and study techniques. They also asked for and received tutoring and moral support from academic coaches, family, and friends. Several participants understood their learning style and used this information to comprehend new content. The use of SRL techniques influenced student IBLSE and persistence as students understood how to obtain needed academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness.

177 The study theme, perseverance and resilience, closely aligned with the theme of self-regulation. Perseverance is an individual’s drive to overcome challenges and improve personal circumstances while resilience is an individual’s capacity to recover from adversity (Hynes, 2014). Research on high school non-graduates demonstrated that individuals who leave school often show great resilience and the ability to recover from difficult situations (Hynes, 2014). Resilience is a human norm, yet individuals who leave high school are often recovering from traumatic and toxic situations that are not typical of the wider U.S. population such as physical and mental abuse, being a witness to violence, teen pregnancy and early financial responsibilities (Hynes, 2014). These individuals need authentic connections with adults and peers that understand, care for, and support them, and guide them to educational programs and social services (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Drysdale et al., 2015; Hynes, 2014). An individual’s personal resilience, in conjunction with social and institutional supports, enhances the academic reentry path (Hynes, 2014). During research interviews, study participants discussed the challenges of the online high school environment and reflected on past difficult life experiences as motivation to succeed. All participants experienced major life challenges, such as surviving a natural disaster, overcoming homeless and high family mobility, teen pregnancy, and single parenthood, raising disabled children and living with an undiagnosed learning disability. In several instances, participants found strength in knowing they overcome obstacles and were able to apply this knowledge to overcome difficulties online.

178 Other study themes overlapped with the theme of self-regulated learner. These included: diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, support, self-advocacy and positive student outlook. The aforementioned student characteristics aligned with data on effective self-regulated learning behaviors and beliefs (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 2008). Study data aligned with research correlating high student IBLSE and student achievement, motivation and self-regulation in online learning settings (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011). The study theme, diploma required for future goals/understand importance of education on success, aligned with research on expectancy theory and aspects of extrinsically motivated learners (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter et al., 2010; Vroom, 2006). Expectancy theory indicated that individuals are motivated to behave in certain ways based on perceived results of behavior, with correlations between perceived desirability of an outcome and an individual’s motivation level (Lunenburg, 2011; Vroom, 1964). In education, expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that coursework will lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills or abilities, and to specific outcomes, such as respect from peers, increases in pay and improved job performance (Mathieu et al., 1992). Expectancy is influenced by valence, which is a motivational variable used to indicate an individual’s perception of the importance of the expected outcome (Vroom, 1964). For example, the importance of an expected outcome, such as graduating from high school, is directly affected by how important obtaining this outcome is to the individual (Vroom, 1964). An individual that cares about an outcome is more likely to be

179 highly motivated and confident that he or she can exert the required effort and will be more likely to believe that the outcome is attainable (Vroom, 1964). Thus, self-efficacy and expectancy are interconnected; the more confident an individual feels about the importance of a task, the more likely he or she will exert effort to obtain a positive outcome (Vroom 1964). Student motivation is a necessary component for student success within an online learning environment; when students believe content is relevant, motivation to learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). All study participants were goal oriented and recognized that a high school diploma was required to attain life goals. They understood the importance of education on their success. These drivers influenced student IBLSE and course persistence. For participants, a diploma was either necessary for admission into a college or medical program, or in the pursuit of a career goal. Study participants recognized the increased opportunities affiliated with having a high school diploma, such as the improved ability to support family through new job opportunities and the ability to earn a living wage. For participants that were parents, there was an additional emphasis on education as a critical factor for success. For example, one participant wanted her children to view her as a role model while another needed her high school diploma in order to homeschool her children. Findings aligned with adult learning theory core principles, including the learner's need to know, self-concept of the learner, prior experience of the learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn (Knowles et al., 2014). All participants were mature adults who were motivated to graduate based on their desire to improve their lives. They connected with the “why” of learning and clearly understood,

180 “what’s in it for me.” Findings aligned with research on the topic of online learning and students with disabilities as motivation increases and learning occurs when students make real connections with learning content and understand why they are learning it (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). When students believe that content is relevant, student motivation to learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Study participants demonstrated self-concept as they completed work online in an autonomous and selfdirecting fashion. They were able to use their prior experiences in school and in overcoming challenges to help them persist. Participant motivation to learn had intrinsic and extrinsic value. Study findings aligned with research on student IBLSE and the achievement of student goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning environment, as well as findings on student motivation to enroll into and complete an online course and exert effort in an online learning activity (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011). All study participants expressed having a high IBLSE level due to prior experience with high school coursework and based on commitments made to family, friends and tutors. IBLSE was also influenced by effective participant use of support, self-motivation and self-regulated learning techniques. Study data aligned with findings on CSE, which indicates an individual’s general beliefs about his or her computer skills (Tsai et al., 2011). Research showed that individuals are more likely to adopt new computer technologies if they perceive that the technologies will be beneficial, if the technologies are easy to use, and if individuals believe they will be successful in their use (Cheng et al., 2012). Ease of technology use

181 aligned with self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, improved student confidence and intention to use technology, and positive user attitudes (Cheng et al., 2012). All study participants expressed satisfaction with the COHS online learning experience and appreciated the self-paced, independent nature of the program. Participants found value in the support provided by COHS academic coaches. These findings aligned with research on online high school components and best practices such as student-paced programming, flexible schedules, and individualized curricula (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010). Another benefit of the online model, as mentioned by a study participant, was elimination of student bullying and stigma, and an opportunity for a fresh start (Collins & Halverson, 2009). Online high schools are advantageous for individuals who are significantly over-age and far from meeting high school completion requirements as stigmas are lessened (Balfanz et al., 2009). For these individuals, reentry options like COHS that incorporate career training are more feasible, as students can earn their diplomas while gaining important career and workplace skills (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). The COHS model includes partnerships with corporations, libraries and career colleges. Partnerships are a best practice as they improve student enrollment and graduation rates (Wilkins, 2011). Study participants discussed challenges encountered online and findings aligned with research on student attrition from online learning programs. Student perception of course difficulty may result in decreased student motivation and increased student anxiety (Kim & Frick, 2011). Participants discussed addressing and overcoming known

182 issues such as time constraints, course difficulties, and competing priorities, like family and career demands (Kim & Frick, 2011). Study findings aligned with research on the importance of stakeholder support of student self-efficacy as this can influence student academic achievement, improve student performance, and facilitate student goal attainment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The COHS model utilizes academic coaches who provide individualized and timely support for all COHS students. Based on positive study participant reaction and academic results, the utilization of academic coaches is clearly a best practice. It is important that stakeholders continue to understand student self-efficacy in online environments as this construct influences the choices students make, the amount of effort and persistence they exhibit on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort they feel when approaching learning tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Summary This chapter included results and evaluation of findings of a qualitative phenomenological study examining the student experiences of online high school persistence and IBLSE. Meticulous phenomenological analysis of interview data, following a modified van Kaam methodology, generated common participant themes. Indepth analysis of themes revealed individual thoughts and perspectives of the phenomenon. This chapter also included an analysis of study findings and comparison of results based on other studies in the field. An overview of the study’s research design was presented, including study demographics and research questions. Use of a modified van Kaam methodology generated individual textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions (Moustakas,

183 1994). The researcher created descriptions by analyzing each transcript and listing and grouping all expressions related to IBLSE and persistence in an online high school. The researcher used imaginative variation to identify underlying themes within study data (Moustakas, 1994). The individual structural and textural-structural descriptions provided a synopsis of the underlying themes that described the individual student experience of IBLSE and online high school persistence. Integration of individual textural and structural descriptions led to the creation of composite textural and composite structural descriptions. The final composite textural-structural description for the entire study involved the integration of these descriptions. This synthesis was presented within this chapter and included a summary of common and unique themes that described the essence of the phenomenon. Eleven major composite themes were identified from the interview data and were presented with significant study participant quotes aligned to each of the themes. Major themes included: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, selfregulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Several minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding the phenomenon: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence.

184 Tables and figures within this chapter provided detailed information on participant demographics, composite textural themes, and consistent and unique composite themes among participants. Evaluation of findings demonstrated alignment with the use of a qualitative phenomenology methodology to explore the experiences of non-graduate populations in online learning environments. Alignment to the study’s problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the inability for educational stakeholders to leverage this data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions, was presented. Data indicated the researcher’s interpretation and alignment of study themes within the knowledge base. Data reflecting Research Question 2 addressing the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions?, is located in Chapter 5. Evaluation of findings demonstrated alignment with the four hypothesized sources of self-efficacy as defined within Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy model. Findings aligned with research on SRL, expectancy theory and adult learning theory. Study findings aligned with research on student IBLSE and the achievement of student goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning environment, as well as findings on student motivation to enroll into and complete an online course and exert effort in an online learning activity, as well as research on CSE. Findings aligned with research on online high school best practices such as student-paced programming, flexible schedules, individualized curricula, and careerfocused coursework. Findings aligned with research on typical student challenges with

185 online learning environments including issues around student motivation such as competing priorities, course difficulties and family and career demands. The importance of stakeholder support of student self-efficacy was highlighted in the study and aligned with similar research findings in this topic area. The study demonstrated the importance of stakeholder understanding of how student self-efficacy in the online environment.

186 Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions This chapter begins with a review of the study’s problem statement, purpose, method, limitations and ethical dimensions. A discussion of study implications based on the lived student experiences of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) and persistence in an online high school, follows. Recommendations for practical study application and for future research are included, along with concluding researcher thoughts. Student enrollment into online high schools has increased exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Students with previous negative school experiences often struggle in these programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). This study addressed the problem of a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the resulting inability of educational stakeholders to leverage this data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to examine student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in order to provide stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. Research on this phenomenon is beneficial as support of student self-efficacy can influence student academic achievement, improve student performance, and facilitate student goal attainment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).

187 This study utilized a phenomenological research method and analysis of interview data followed a modified van Kaam methodology to generate common participant themes (Moustakas, 1994). This method involved the processes of phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and synthesis (Moustakas, 1994). Central limitations of the study include the qualitative approach, the use of a single study site, the limited number of participants involved, and the limited participant demographic. The study demographics represented multiple forms of reentry pathways, (i.e., students self-enrolled or enrolled through library/corporate/career college partnerships), which was an unintended demographic division identified in the data. To meet study criteria, all participants were required to complete at least three online courses or be recent Career Online High School (COHS) graduates. This delimitation ensured that all participants experienced success in achieving an online learning goal or completing an online learning task. These criteria were also a limitation as participants were primarily program advocates and this did not provide a balanced student-experience perspective. As the study sample was purposive and only involved students that attended COHS, findings are not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. A qualitative phenomenological approach was identified as the best method to explore the phenomenon of IBLSE and student persistence in an online high school environment. One methodological assumption was that qualitative interviews, with limited numbers of participants, could generate meaningful, rich data (Maxwell, 2013). Although the researcher’s use of bracketing supported study result credibility, transferability and dependability, the researcher’s biases, beliefs, and personal

188 experiences were potential limitations to interview and data analysis processes (Moustakas, 1994). As differing researcher ideas and beliefs emerged, they were documented in journal format and reflected upon. Study literature served as a critical guide to analyzing and interpreting the study data. Other limitations included the newness of the interview protocol, the phone-based nature of the interview, the inability to read participant body language, and lack of opportunity to build a trust-based relationship with participants. Without this established relationship, participants may have held back in revealing personal life experiences. The study aligned with the Belmont Report and basic ethical principles for behavioral research with human subjects including: (a) respect for persons (acknowledge autonomy, protect those with diminished autonomy, ensure subjects participate willingly and with adequate information); (b) beneficence (maximize benefits, minimize possible harm); and (c) justice (ensure for equal distribution of study burdens and benefits on study subjects) (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). The researcher established trust with participants by being clear about the researcher role, the study processes, and study objectives. Signed informed consent was received from all study participants prior to interviews and verbal permission was received to audio record the interview sessions. In the data and the findings, participant names were replaced with pseudonyms to ensure for anonymity. As high school non-graduates are considered a vulnerable population, care was taken not to place undue burden on these individuals (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). Study

189 participants have previously experienced school failure and care was taken to ensure that sensitive topics that arose during the interview, such as such as teen pregnancy, homelessness and family concerns, were handled with dignity. During the data collection process, the researcher worked to ensure all participants had a positive reaction to the study’s purpose and felt empowered as a result of study participation. The researcher reassured study participants that all data was private and confidential. Two rounds of member checking, first with transcripts, and again with individual-textural descriptions, ensured participants were in agreement and comfortable with the presentation and publication of their information. This chapter includes study implications aligned to the research questions. Discussion includes logical conclusions and information on the potential impact of limitations on the interpretation of results. The results are placed into context to describe how they aligned to the study problem, fit with the study purpose, demonstrate significance, and contribute to the existing literature. Recommendations for practical applications of the study are presented, to include recommendations for future research, followed by researcher conclusions. Implications This study provided a glimpse into the personal, lived experiences of former nongraduate students, in an online high school environment. The resulting data aligned to the study’s problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools, and the consequent inability of educational stakeholders to leverage this data to inform programming decisions and reduce student attrition. Study findings aligned to the study significance and have implications for

190 invested stakeholders, self-efficacy and online education researchers, and online students themselves. As the student dropout rate from online high school programs is high, especially in non-graduate populations (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006), and the impact of high school dropout is significant (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011), the study data provided valuable insight into understanding student motivation and persistence within these programs. This understanding can lead to the development of impactful strategies, practical applications, and future research. The central, guiding research question in this study was: What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? The second research question: How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE to reduce student attrition and inform online high school reentry programming decisions? is addressed and discussed within the Recommendations section that follows. Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and lens to evaluate findings on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school. The researcher looked for data patterns that supported other theoretical perspectives (e.g., Self-Regulated Learning, expectancy, adult learning), and that offered additional insights into relationships between the non-graduate experience, IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments. Participant data analyzed through Moustakas’ (1994) modified van Kaam method resulted in the identification of eleven major composite themes and seven minor composite themes that described the shared essences of the phenomenon under review. Six major composite themes were consistent across all participants: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education

191 on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others and support. The remaining five major composite themes were unique, but significant enough to warrant their own distinction: self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Minor composite themes noted as relevant to understanding this phenomenon included: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. Individuals that leave high school are known to demonstrate resilience (Hynes, 2014). All study participants experienced overcoming major life challenges such as natural disasters, homelessness, high family mobility, teen pregnancy, and single parenthood. Reflection on challenges spurred student motivation to persist, and resilience helped individuals overcome challenges within the online high school environment. All participants were goal-oriented and recognized that a high school diploma was required for education and career advancement and was critical to improving family support. Participants expressed the desire to obtain their high school diploma out of a sense of responsibility to others, either to improve their ability to provide for family, not let someone down, or make someone proud. These findings have implications as stakeholders can leverage student characteristics and goals to help students persist. A high level of IBLSE was a consistent theme across all participants. This data has implications for stakeholders as high levels of student self-efficacy correlate with

192 student persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011). All participants understood how to use a variety of SelfRegulated Learning (SRL) techniques to overcome challenges including visualization, time management, and study techniques. They also demonstrated self-advocacy behaviors. The theme of support was consistent across all study participants. Students asked for and received support from academic coaches, family, and friends. The theme, belief in a higher power, may also be categorized as a form of support as individuals felt supported and strengthened by their beliefs. There are implications for this data as stakeholders can remind students of their academic accomplishments, promote the use of SRL strategies and encourage students to seek out support. When asked to identify which of the four self-efficacy sources had the strongest impact on their belief in their ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity, participants identified performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion, and vicarious experience. This information has implications for stakeholders, as each student is unique and requires differentiated motivation and self-efficacy support. Minor study theme data, (positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence), also has implications for stakeholders as student attitude and satisfaction with the online environment can impact student success. Contribution to existing literature. The findings of this study contributed to existing literature by addressing the need to understand student experiences of online

193 high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The problem of high school dropout has significant repercussions for individuals, communities and the U.S. economy as approximately 3.1 million students leave school each year (Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010). Although study findings are limited and not generalizable, data provided insight into the experiences of high school non-graduates who returned to school online and the utilization of this modality for high school reentry purposes. As such, educational stakeholders may use data to mitigate the problem of high school dropout. Despite stakeholder investment into online high schools and ever-increasing student enrollment, there is little high-quality research on learning effectiveness in this environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen & Lewis, 2011). Researchers also do not fully understand how high school students acquire the necessary skills, attitudes and habits to learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Molnar et al., 2014). Research on the use of these programs by non-graduates is even more limited as university-level students have typically been the subject of student attrition from online education programs (Tsai et al., 2011). To address these gaps, study data provided information on the overarching themes and characteristics of successful former non-graduates within an online high school environment. Student dropout from online high school programs is a known problem with student dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). For former non-graduates, the risk of dropping out is even greater, as students with previous negative school experiences often struggle in online education programs and fear of failure can cause students to leave school again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins &

194 Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). The study’s non-graduate perspective provided information on typical challenges this population may expect to encounter, along with information on how students remain motivated and navigate challenges. This data is necessary for the development of instructional and motivational strategies to improve student persistence and enhance student academic performance in online learning environments (Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014). This study demonstrated support for Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory and data aligned with the hypothesized four sources of self-efficacy. This study extended the literature on student IBLSE in online high school environments. Study participants selfidentified different self-efficacy sources that had the strongest impact on their IBLSE. This information demonstrated that non-graduate students have unique learning and motivational needs and supported recommendations to provide students with personalized support to foster a self-efficacy mindset (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). In both traditional and online learning environments, student self-efficacy is known to influence the choices students make, the amount of effort exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage as overestimation can result in higher student motivation, higher achievement levels and improved student self-confidence, in comparison to students with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Study data provided new information on student self-efficacy

195 in online high school environments. Educational stakeholders can use findings to develop and improve student self-efficacy support and to mitigate the problem of student attrition from these environments. Findings demonstrated support for SRL theory as study participants used a variety of SRL strategies to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). Findings aligned with expectancy theory as study participants were motivated to behave in certain ways, based on perceived results of behavior (Vroom, 1964). For example, participants put effort into coursework, as they were motivated to earn a high school diploma and enroll in college. Findings also supported adult learning theory principles, as participants were motivated to graduate based on their real-world desire to improve their lives (Knowles et al., 2014). They connected with the “why” of learning and clearly understood, “what’s in it for me.” Study participants also completed online assignments in an autonomous and selfdirecting fashion and used their prior schooling and life experiences to help them overcome challenges. Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows the voices of marginalized groups, like high school non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994). There is a need to incorporate student ideas into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a venue for students to express themselves and to share their experiences of learning online. Stakeholders can use this data to develop researched-based strategies and inform programming decisions. As a result, more students can receive the support they need to

196 earn high school diplomas, improve earning power, and obtain an overall higher quality of life. Recommendations According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2012), approximately 3.1 million students drop out of school each year, reflecting a serious national concern (Amos, 2008; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). Online high schools provide an alternative means to re-engage non-graduates, yet student dropout from these programs is a known problem, with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). The proposed benefit of this research on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools was to provide educational stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition from online high schools and inform programming decisions. This study includes recommendations for those invested, or looking to invest, in online high schools and in the use of these schools by non-graduates. Interested stakeholders may include online high school superintendents and principals, K-12 and adult educational stakeholders, online high school program managers and investors, and online high school partners such as public libraries, career colleges, correctional centers, corporations and workforce boards. These recommendations are also relevant for mentors and volunteers who work directly with non-graduates and other stakeholders invested in impacting the problem of high school dropout. Scholars within the fields of education technology, online learning, adult education, and self-efficacy in the online environment, may be interested in this research. Potential and current students may also have a personal interest as application

197 recommendations can improve self-efficacy and foster program success. Private-pay students have an additional financial interest as leaving school may cost them tuition. Practical applications. Several practical applications are suggested for improving student persistence in online high schools. In applying recommendations, stakeholders are advised to use professional judgment as the targeted non-graduate population is considered vulnerable and includes a disproportionate number of minorities and the economically disadvantaged (Hynes, 2014). Practical application recommendations include information on the following: development of student selfefficacy assessment and support instruments, recommendations for academic coaches and student support staff, and recommendations on program management, student communications, online platform features and content development. For non-graduates with busy lives, the thought of completing high school online can feel like an unattainable goal. Independent coursework can seem overwhelming, the journey to obtain a diploma can appear tedious and challenging, and non-graduates may also be dealing with educational trauma. Individuals with family commitments, those with English as a second language, or those who have been out of high school for a significant length of time, may feel reluctant to return to school due to these added challenges. Helping potential students understand their personal self-efficacy drivers can influence student beliefs on returning to school and can help students prepare to manage course and school challenges. To achieve this goal, the development of a student selfefficacy instrument, to include self-efficacy preferences, readiness factors, and motivational drivers, is necessary. The development of a personal student self-efficacy

198 support plan, or graduation contract, is also necessary. This plan would guide students to reflect on the complexities of going back to school online (e.g., independent and challenging coursework, assignment pacing, time commitments, childcare concerns), and help them proactively identify and document the people and support they will need to stay on track. Ensuring students fully understand program expectations can ease the transition into a formal, structured education program. The aforementioned instruments would help lay the foundation for a student self-efficacy mindset and empower students to use self-efficacy and self-motivation techniques when confronted with challenging tasks or goals. For programs that utilize a scholarship and/or partnership program process, the student application is ideal for screening student candidates for program readiness and academic self-efficacy. Study results showed that students who underwent an application and/or pre-requisite process felt invested in their success as they devoted significant personal time and energy to the application process. Once students are enrolled, academic coaches, tutors, and mentors can support student self-efficacy through targeted student conversations and communications. Self-efficacy assessment data and follow-up conversations can help stakeholders understand student motivation to graduate. This information can be used to provide students with individualized support, especially when students are faced with personal or academic challenges. Stakeholders are encouraged to use good judgment when seeking information on motivational drivers as students may not want to share confidential information. Stakeholders are also advised to use good judgment in using these drivers, as students should not be made to feel guilty if they are struggling with coursework.

199 Even highly motivated students will need encouragement and support. During study data collection, all participants emphasized the value of support in helping them to be successful. Educational stakeholders should help students foster and nurture relationships with adults that care about them and in whom they can trust (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Drysdale et al., 2014; Hynes, 2014). These individuals can be family members, friends, program staff, tutors, mentors, clergy members, or other online high school students. Within the COHS model, academic coaches provide a single point of contact for students to receive one-on-one, personalized support. The continued use of academic coaches or the development and adoption of an academic coach model is strongly recommended. Academic coaches play a critical role in establishing a trust-based relationship with students, in tracking student progress, in communicating with students on a regular basis and in maintaining student motivation. COHS academic coaches spend the majority of their time engaged in student follow-up as their primary responsibility is student motivation and ensuring students are on-pace to graduate within 18 months of program commencement. When identifying academic coaching staff, program managers can look to employ individuals with a passion for adult education and in assisting others to graduate. Often these individuals will be mission-driven, with personal experience in overcoming challenging circumstances and who can relate to the life experiences of potential and current students. In these cases, the academic coach can influence students through both vicarious experience (e.g., “I’ve accomplished this goal, you can do it too”) and verbal persuasion (e.g., “You are almost there, you can do this”).

200 Individuals in an academic coach or student support role should receive proper training in understanding the non-graduate perspective, in using active listening to help students open up, in building trusting relationships and the effective use of empathy. Training should include information on motivating students and overcoming barriers to student motivation. These individuals should have experience and/or training in counseling students who may have experienced educational trauma and working knowledge on rebuilding student academic self-confidence and self-efficacy. Staff members should be proficient in conveying enthusiasm and support in both verbal and email communications. As the online high school population may include students with learning disabilities or with English as a Second Language (ESL), certified instructors should be prepared to assist students with special needs. Academic coaches should have a working knowledge of ESL best practices and information on common learning disabilities and disorders such as dyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Relevant training should include understanding the nature of disabilities and impacts on individual learning needs, as well as the use of strategies to support student-learning processes (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). In the research study, two out of five participants self-identified as having special needs, thus this type of staff training may be necessary to personalize student support. Although not always feasible, when possible online high schools should have mechanisms in place to connect students to wrap-around support services, such as local social service agencies. There is little data on the dropout rate from online high schools and there is no established forum or requirement for providers to share data and best practices. For-

201 profit online schools can be competitive, yet it is recommended that schools establish transparency with dropout rates, share retention strategies and hold partners accountable for retention. Especially in cases where public taxpayer money is funding scholarships, for example in partnerships with libraries and correctional facilities, it is important to take a critical look at the success rate of students and ensure for a return on investment. Program managers may consider incentivizing academic coaches that have high student retention and graduation rates. As part of effective program management, retention should be a visible metric, with reduction as the target. Schools that can cite low dropout rates and high graduation rates may be able to leverage this data as a selling point for students and investors. It is recommended that stakeholders conduct exit interviews with students that drop out of online high schools. This data could reveal gaps in program management. Knowing the tremendous impact that not graduating has on individuals and on our society as a whole, it is worth the added investment to be proactive, to understand what the online student data is telling us, and to have meaningful conversations with students to truly understand why they might be at-risk of dropping out. Program stakeholders can develop and leverage peer support networks to promote student persistence. Programs with synchronous student-learning opportunities, such as on-site computer labs and tutoring facilities, can pair students as learning partners. Ideally, learning partners would be at similar locations in the high school program curriculum, with in-person opportunities for partners to share program challenges and provide each other with encouragement and support. Online high schools with cohortpaced courses can provide opportunities for students to connect and receive peer support.

202 For one study participant, her best friend served as her learning partner and this vicarious experience promoted her self-efficacy. Learning partnerships can be fostered online in a formal fashion, where stakeholders can pair online students together, or students can be encouraged to connect with peers in a more organic nature, such as through school websites and student portals, or social media platforms such as Facebook. Participants in this study were eager to share their stories of success and recent graduates expressed wanting to help other students become enrolled and persist as they personally experienced life-changing program impacts. Educational stakeholders should consider harnessing this enthusiasm by creating student advocate groups to connect advocates with individuals that are considering going back to school, that are new to online learning, or that might be struggling. Ideally, advocates would share similar demographics as the students they partner with, such as gender, age, geographic location and parental status. Peer support groups can be developed around student demographics and interests such as gender, parental status, stay-at-home parenting/homeschooling, parents of children with special needs, or religious affiliations. Messaging around membership in student support groups should be inclusive rather than exclusive. Academic coaches and student support staff may consider a faith-based approach to personalize student support if this is something the student initiates or requests and/or if there is a willing academic coach. For example, a staff member may offer to pray with a student or may send the student motivational scriptures or words of wisdom. In the research study, three out of the five participants expressed that their belief in a higher power and use of prayer strengthened their self-efficacy. Thus, this recommendation may be deemed relevant.

203 Students should find the school technology platform, enrollment, and onboarding processes to be intuitive and easy to follow. As these students have previously experienced high school failure, they may be dealing with educational trauma and the fewer barriers there are to enrollment, on-boarding and course completion, the better. Three out of the five study participants interviewed experienced enrollment challenges that could have negatively influenced their self-efficacy to succeed online. In one instance, a student was not provided the opportunity to select a career certificate focus (the partner program manager selected it) and the student was automatically registered for courses she was not interested in. By the time the error was realized, it was too late to change the career track. In two other cases, duplication of coursework due to student transcripts issues resulted in student program frustrations. The fact that these students persevered despite these challenges is a testimony to their resilience. To this end, it is recommended that online high school providers ensure that partner program managers clearly understand all aspects of the online program and enrollment process. Partners should be required to participate in partner program training and to demonstrate competence in program management in order to avoid errors that could negatively impact student persistence and student self-esteem. Online high school partner programs that require students to attend on-site sessions should ensure the on-site location is welcoming and resourced with appropriate technology, support staff, and tutors. One study participant had a negative experience with the on-site requirement as she found little support from the on-site program manager and she was not provided with on-site tutoring or peer mentoring opportunities. Partner programs may want to rethink program policies that are detrimental to student

204 persistence, as motivated adult students can be trusted to complete independent coursework online. Requiring significant time on-site can negate the benefits that a student-paced online learning environment has to offer and this seems counterintuitive to busy adult learners’ needs for program flexibility. Instead, stakeholders may consider monitoring student progress and requiring only off-pace students to attend on-site. In this example, attendance on-site would not be considered a punishment, but a safety net that exemplifies a supportive program model. It is recommended that partner programs assist students to obtain transcripts and have these documents in hand before allowing students to formally enroll and begin online classes. The time involved in obtaining transcripts can be significantly longer for older students or those from foreign countries. Waiting for transcripts is preferable to having students enroll and potentially complete unnecessary and duplicative coursework, which can decrease student self-efficacy and generate student frustration and dissatisfaction with the online program. Corporate partners should be commended for their support in educating employees through online high school opportunities. Forward-thinking companies realize that an educated workforce is critical to their on-going success. Scholarship matching programs, such as the Clinton Global Initiative, are also commended as corporate partners can support education through philanthropic contributions. Stakeholders should continually assess their learning environments to ensure for effective and innovative learning experiences. New student onboarding should include a tour of the online classroom and safe opportunities to practice with new software and course tools. Stakeholders should ensure that students understand all of the learning

205 resources that are available for them including information on contacting their academic coach, certified content-area teachers, or specialized tutors. Students should be able to easily view and track curriculum progress as seeing courses completed can enhance an individual’s sense of personal mastery. The aforementioned strategies can help increase student self-efficacy to persist and succeed within an online learning environment. Students should be provided with supplemental course resources that address all learning styles, such as printable exam study guides, downloadable podcasts, and online skill practice opportunities. Many of the participants in this study self-identified as visual learners. Course developers can review course materials to ensure content is accessible for learners with a visual preference and ensure for compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). For example, if there are audio content components, there should be an accompanying transcript and when possible, well-designed graphics should illustrate important learning concepts. During the study, participants shared examples of difficulties encountered during end-of-course testing, as they were unable to go back into learning modules to refresh their understanding of course concepts. While this form of testing may indicate that students have internalized material, ideally all course tests should be developed with an “open book” approach. Students should be expected to use all course resources, notes, and materials to complete course exams. To this end, course exams should not be a regurgitation of rote facts, but a synthesis of content, allowing students to draw upon prior knowledge to create new understanding. It is recommended that course developers use Bloom’s (1984) seminal work on educational objective taxonomy to generate a higher level of student thinking which can improve retention of course information.

206 Higher-level student thinking goes beyond basic student knowledge and comprehension and involves student application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation of learning content (Bloom, 1984). Students can be provided with tip sheets and supplemental learning opportunities on topics that may improve student self-efficacy and foster self-regulated learning skills such as motivation and time management techniques, study skills, stress and anxiety reduction techniques, strategies for parenting while enrolled in school, dealing with procrastination, reducing distractions and overcoming challenges. School-wide student communications should be relevant, timely and inspiring. The COHS model uses a student-alumni newsletter to share motivational messages from the principal, inspirational student-graduate stories and photos, and educational tips on topics such as staying motivated, setting goals and charting goal progress. A monthly contest motivates students to stay on-pace to graduate. The aforementioned strategies may positively impact a student’s self-efficacy by influencing his or her physiological and emotional states. Recommendations for future research. This qualitative phenomenological study explored the lived experiences of five online high school students and included rich data on student IBLSE and persistence within this environment. During the course of the study, opportunities for future research were identified. The following information includes research recommendations as they relate to study site and demographics, study method and design, and the field of IBLSE research. These recommendations are relevant for interested scholars, stakeholders, and practitioners.

207 The study’s limited demographic provided impetus for the first set of recommendations. As the study only included one site and had a limited number of participants, the recommendation is to expand the study to include additional online high schools and to ensure for a diverse participant demographic. The study’s methodology also was a limitation. Future quantitative research and other qualitative and quantitative methodologies may reveal new information on student IBLSE and persistence within online high schools. Study replication and refinement of the interview protocol may help confirm and build upon study results. A random sampling approach would improve study transferability and dependability. This study included students that enrolled through corporate, library and career college partnerships, as well as students that self-enrolled. Future research may opt to focus on a single enrollment pathway or a specific, geographic location. The school site studied has a strong focus on career education. Future research may hone in on this aspect of the learning environment and study the impact of career-based learning on student motivation, self-efficacy and persistence. The COHS population is 71% female and four out of the five study participants interviewed were stay-at-home moms. Additional research from a feminist perspective may shed light on the lived experience on topics such as online learning and teen pregnancy, parenting, single parenting, and managing school and family. Additional research is also needed on the male perspective of the phenomenon under review. Gender-focused research may reveal themes and data on promoting student enrollment and persistence within these populations.

208 This study focused on students that had a successful online high school experience and expressed a high self-efficacy. Data gathered from students who left the online program and/or did not have a positive experience would provide a balanced perspective. This type of research data could reveal gaps in program management and provide additional information on the relationship between self-efficacy and student persistence. Future research on the student experience of self-efficacy within a specific course module (a more granular approach) is also recommended as the study was expansive and included the student experience of the online program as a whole. Research on the use of online high schools for non-graduates in correctional facilities and as an alternative high school program for at-risk students is recommended. Research that explores the experiences of adult learners with special needs may provide insight on program modifications. Research that compares the online student experience within the partnership model versus the self-enroll model may also yield relevant findings. In particular, research on the role of financial investment as a student motivator is of interest. Research that focuses on the role of the academic coach and impacts on student self-efficacy is also recommended. Academic coaches and support staff have firsthand experience in helping students through challenging online and personal experiences and their experiences may reveal student support best practices. Research exploring the impact of social media on supporting student self-efficacy in online environments is also warranted. Research is recommended on student readiness factors to go back to school online. This type of research can generate practical information to help potential students

209 self-assess self-efficacy, consider potential challenges and formulate support plans. Research on student-use of self-efficacy strategies, fostering a self-efficacy mindset and the resulting effects on student persistence, is of interest. Exploration of student selfefficacy to graduate from an online high school program is warranted, along with research exploring the relationship between IBLSE and success in online high school environments. Further research on alignment to Bandura’s (1977a) hypothesized sources of self-efficacy is warranted. Research that identifies the characteristics of successful online high school students and identifies strategies to heal educational trauma, may also prove beneficial. Conclusions This chapter contained a brief review of the research study problem, purpose, method, limitations, and ethical dimensions. A discussion of study implications and recommendations, aligned to the research questions, was also presented. Implications included a discussion of study themes and potential impacts on educational stakeholders. Results were placed into context to describe how they aligned to the study problem, fit with the study purpose, demonstrated significance, and contributed to the existing literature. Recommendations included practical applications and recommendations for future research. The results of this study fulfilled the purpose of the research, which was to examine the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in order to provide stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. Study results contributed to understanding the factors that promote student IBLSE and persistence in an online high school environment.

210 Although online high school programs provide viable alternatives for nongraduate populations, student attrition from these programs remains a constant and known problem (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Without a high school diploma, individuals are sorely limited in their ability to continue their education or find employment that adequately provides for themselves and their family members (Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Hynes, 2014; Wilkins 2011). Knowing the tremendous impact that not graduating has on individuals, and on society at large, it is worth educational stakeholder investment to proactively address research suggestions and engage in meaningful conversations with students to truly understand what motivates them. While other strategies may be effective, supporting student’s self-efficacy is a known strategy to promote student persistence in online learning environments. Research on self-efficacy is important as student self-beliefs can influence academic achievement, student performance, goal attainment and academic persistence (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Self-efficacy influences the choices students make, the amount of effort exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage as self-efficacy over-estimation can result in higher student motivation, achievement and improved student self-confidence, in comparison to those with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006).

211 Study findings included eleven major composite themes, identified from interview data, that described the shared essences of the phenomenon under review: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Several minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding this phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence. Findings demonstrated alignment with the hypothesized sources of self-efficacy and to concepts of self-regulated learning, expectancy, and adult learning theories. Findings also aligned with research on IBLSE and the achievement of student goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning environment. Study findings aligned with research on online high school best practices, as well as research on common student challenges in online learning environments. As the study sample was not random and only involved students that attended online courses at COHS, findings are not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. Despite experiencing significant life trauma and challenges, all study participants were personally motivated to earn their high school diplomas. Study participants expressed unique self-efficacy and motivational drivers and they utilized different

212 strategies to help them overcome obstacles in the online environment. Continued educational stakeholder efforts towards assessing student readiness and personalizing student motivation is recommended as a student’s personal beliefs, perceptions, and commitment level can influence outcomes experienced (Lefcourt, 2014). Stakeholders can help students “connect to the why” of learning and in turn inspire excitement and hope for the future. Students should be empowered to understand their own self-efficacy drivers and to adopt self-regulated learning behaviors to help them attain success. Another significant study finding was the role of supportive, caring adults on student self-efficacy. It is recommended that educational stakeholders continue to take a compassionate approach to helping non-graduates heal educational trauma and to return and remain in school. The online high school model is advantageous for non-graduates as it provides a confidential learning environment where stigmas around grade level, age, and academic ability are lessened (Balfanz et al., 2013). These schools also provide a convenient way for students to re-engage in a supportive environment that meets busy lifestyle needs (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2009; Oliver et al., 2009). It is important to see beyond high school dropout statistics and realize that the data consists of unique individuals with hopes, dreams and stories that deserve to be honored (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a venue for students to express themselves and share their experiences of learning online. This study allowed the voices of students to be heard and to have their ideas incorporated into student support strategies. Study findings allowed educational stakeholders to gain a deeper understanding of student IBLSE and persistence in the online high school environment and to obtain information on application recommendations.

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223 Appendixes Appendix A: Permission to Conduct Study and Publish Program Names

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Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email/Script

Dear (email),_______________, or Hello (telephone) _________________, (Current student) You have made great progress at Career Online High School (COHS). (Graduate) Congratulations on your recent graduation from COHS. COHS is participating in a research study, which is Suzanne Darrow-Magras’ dissertation for her Ph.D. studies at Northcentral University. Suzanne is interviewing students to find out what it’s like to be an online learner and how self-beliefs influence online success. Are you interested in being interviewed for this study? If so, please let me know! Your feedback is important and will help improve our program and help us support struggling COHS students. The study has no bearing on your course grades, course scheduling or relationships with academic coaches or staff at COHS. If you are interested, I will share your email address with Suzanne. She will contact you with more information and schedule a telephone interview. The interview is confidential and will take about an hour. Suzanne may need to schedule a second interview if she has more questions, but that interview would take less time. Please let me know! Thank you.

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Appendix C: Participant Introductory Email Dear _______________, My name is Suzanne Darrow-Magras. I’m a graduate student at Northcentral University. Your COHS academic coach let me know I could interview you for a research study. Thank you for volunteering! I will be asking about your experiences as an online learner and about your beliefs in succeeding in an online course. Your feedback will help improve the COHS program and will be used to support struggling COHS students. I will need your signed permission in order to interview you. I’ve attached an Informed Consent Form. Can you please sign and return this form? This document includes study information, and confidentiality and anonymity procedures. Can you please suggest a date and time for our interview? Our interview will take about an hour. I’m available most days, as well as evenings and weekends. If you have questions, please contact me at 340-690-8741 or by email at [email protected] . I’m looking forward to speaking with you! Sincerely, Suzanne Darrow-Magras

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Appendix D: Participant Informed Consent Form Returning to High School Online; a Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence What is the study about? You are invited to participate in a research study as part of a dissertation at Northcentral University in Prescott, Arizona. The study is interested in your experiences as a student at Career Online High School (COHS) and your belief in your ability to succeed in an online course. You were chosen because you are either a current COHS student and you have completed at least three classes, or you graduated from COHS within the past year. There is no deception in this study. This means that you will not be tricked or misled in this study. What will be asked of me? You will be asked to volunteer and participate in an interview with the researcher. You will be asked about what it’s like to learn online, your belief in your ability to achieve your online learning goals, the people that support your academic goals and overcoming online challenges. The interview will take place over the telephone and will be recorded. The first interview will take about one hour. A second interview may be needed if the researcher has more questions. The second interview will take no more than 30 minutes. You will decide on the date and time of the interviews. The interviews will be transcribed. You will have a chance to review all transcripts and make sure that they are a true account of what you said and that they are your point of view. You may ask the researcher to make any changes to your transcript, or to remove information that you feel could identify you. Who is involved? The following people are involved in this research project and can be contacted at any time: Suzanne Darrow-Magras, Researcher, 340-690-8741, [email protected]; Dr. Gregory Hickman, Dissertation Chair, 480-513-2917, [email protected] Are there any risks? There are no known risks in this study, but the interview questions are personal and ask about your educational successes and challenges. These topics may be sensitive for some people. You may choose not to answer any questions that you feel uncomfortable answering and you may stop the study at any time. What are some benefits? There are no direct benefits to you for participating in this research. No payments are offered. The results will have scientific interest for those wanting to improve support for students that have left traditional high school and have decided to go back to school online. Is the study anonymous and confidential? All study information is confidential. Your signed informed consent form will not be attached to your interview transcript. All names or personal information that could identify you will be removed. Only the researchers named in this study will see the source information. A pseudonym will be used to hide your identity in the written dissertation. All electronic research data will be

227 stored on a computer that is password and security protected. Electronic data will be backed up to an external storage drive each night. Hard copy files will be stored in a locked filing cabinet in a locked room. Data and research materials will only be accessible to the researcher and the dissertation chair. All research materials will be destroyed after five years. All hard copies will be shredded and all electronic files will be permanently deleted. Can I stop participating in the study? You have the right to stop participating in the study at any time. You can also skip any questions during the interview if you do not want to answer them. Please contact the Researcher to withdraw: Suzanne DarrowMagras, 340-690-8741, [email protected] What if I have questions about my rights as a research participant or if I have complaints? If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, any complaints about your participation in the research study, or any problems that occurred in the study, please contact the researchers identified in this consent form. If you prefer to talk to someone outside the study team, you can contact Northcentral University’s Institutional Review Board at [email protected] or 1-888-327-2877 ex. 8014. We would be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. Please contact Suzanne Darrow-Magras, Researcher, 340-690-8741, [email protected]; Dr. Gregory Hickman, Dissertation Chair, 480-513-2917, [email protected] Signatures I have read the above description for the study: Returning to High School Online; a Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence. I understand what the study is about and what is being asked of me. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in the study. Participant's Name: ________________________________ Participant's Signature: _____________________________ Date: ___________________________________________ Researcher's Name: __Suzanne Darrow-Magras_________ Researcher's Signature: ____________________________ Date: __________________________________________

228 Appendix E: Interview Scheduling Email Self-efficacy content based on the handout: National Association of School Psychologists. November 2010. Self-Efficacy: Helping children believe they can succeed. Communiqué Handout. Bethesda, MD. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/cq/pdf/V39N3_FT_SelfEfficacy.pdf

Dear ______________, Thank you for sending me your informed consent documentation. I’m looking forward to speaking with you on (date) . Before we talk, I wanted to give you more information about the study so that the interview questions make sense. As you know, the purpose of the study is to understand what it’s like to be an online learner and the role of self-beliefs in a student’s ability to succeed online. Have you ever heard someone say that if you set your mind on achieving a goal, then you are more likely to achieve it? This self-belief in the ability to achieve a goal is called self-efficacy. According to the research, your self-efficacy is influenced by several things: 1) Mastery experiences: This is when you have already experienced accomplishing a goal. “I’ve done it before, I can do it again.” 2) Observing others: Seeing someone else achieve a goal helps you believe that you can achieve it too. “If he or she can do it, I can do it too.” 3) Verbal persuasion by others: This is when others try to influence you by telling you that you have the skills and capabilities to achieve a goal. “You are good at solving problems. You will find a creative solution like you always do.” 4) Your mood: Your emotions and expectations help you feel like you can cope with challenges. “I feel really good about this test, I know I can pass this.” I’m looking forward to speaking with you and learning more about your self-efficacy! Again, please let me know a good date and time for our interview. Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras

229 Appendix F: Interview Guide The following semi-structured Interview Guide is based upon the four sources of self-efficacy developed by Bandura (1977a): (a) performance accomplishment, which refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal; (b) vicarious experience, which refers to personal witness of task attainment by others; (c) verbal persuasion, which refers to attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion; and (d) physiological and emotional states, which refers to the physiological arousal an individual exhibits in consideration of a particular task or goal. Within the guide, the applicable self-efficacy sources are next to the respective questions and serve as a guide for the researcher. Self-efficacy terminology is modified to improve participant understanding. Performance accomplishment has been replaced with ‘mastery experiences,’ vicarious experience has been replaced with ‘observing others’, verbal persuasion has been replaced with ‘verbal persuasion by others’ and physiological and emotional states has been replaced with ‘mood’ (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010). Additional follow-up questions may be utilized to solicit detailed responses, e.g., “Tell me more,” “What made you feel that way?” or, “What was that like for you?” Other follow-up questions may be worded more specifically, depending upon participant responses. Script: Before we begin today, I would like to review the purpose of the study and your rights as a participant. Once I have received your consent, I will turn on the digital recorder and we can get started. Is that all right with you? [Recap the Informed Consent Form, which includes the purpose of the study.] Do you consent to participate in the study and to have this interview audio recorded? [If yes, proceed with the interview. If no, thank the person for his or her time and end the conversation.] You don’t have to respond to a question if you don’t want to and you can choose to stop the interview at any time. Let’s get started. Interview questions Self-efficacy source 1) Tell me about yourself. N/A, Background information 2) How did you learn about Career Online N/A, Background information High School (COHS)? 3) Tell me about your experiences learning Performance accomplishment online, what has that been like for you? How are you doing in the program, academically? Script: I sent you some information about self-efficacy in my email. [Recap the following points: self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to achieve a goal, selfefficacy is influenced by four sources: (a) mastery experiences, “I’ve done it before, I can do it again,”; (b) observing others, “If he or she can do it, I can do it too”; (c) verbal persuasion by others, “You are good at solving problems, you will find a creative solution like you always do”; and (d) your mood, “I feel great, I know I can do this!”] [Clarify understanding] Do you have any questions about self-efficacy or the selfefficacy sources? 4) Which of these four sources has the Performance accomplishment, vicarious

230 strongest impact on your belief in your ability to succeed in an online course? Why do you feel this way? 5) Would you say that you have a high, medium, or low belief in your ability to succeed within an online course? Why do you feel this way? 6) Tell me about the people in your life who support you and your academic goals. What do they do or say to support you? How does this make you feel? 7) Do you know anyone else that is going to high school online or taking online classes? What do they tell you about their experiences? How does that make you feel? 8) Self-efficacy is one theory on how people’s beliefs help them to achieve their goals. Is there anything else that positively influences your belief in your ability to succeed online? What else makes you successful? (e.g., personality traits, outside circumstances, a higher power)? 9) Tell me about a time you accomplished a goal in the online program. How did you feel about that experience? 10) Have you encountered any challenges in the online program? How did you handle those challenges? How did you feel about those challenging experiences? 11) Tell me about your past schooling experiences, what were you like as a learner? 12) Tell me about your future career, school, and life goals. 13) What advice do you have for students that might be struggling at COHS? 14) What advice or suggestions would you give to others that want to enroll into COHS?

experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states Performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states Verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states

Vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states

Performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states

Performance accomplishment, physiological and emotional states Performance accomplishment, physiological and emotional states

Background information

N/A, Aspirations N/A, Advice for struggling students N/A, Advice for potential students

Script: Thank you for participating in the interview. I will let you know if I have any additional questions and if we need to schedule another interview. Is that ok with you? I am going to type up the transcript from our conversation and send it to you. You will be able to review the transcript and ask me to make any changes before I include it in the study. Do you have any questions for me? Thank you again!

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Appendix G: Follow-Up Interview Email and Guide Email: Dear ___________, It was great speaking to you on (date). I really enjoyed hearing about your experiences and I’d like to learn more. Can you please let me know when you might have 30 minutes to talk and I will give you a call? Thank you! Suzanne Darrow-Magras

Interview Guide: [Thank the participant for the follow-up interview. Recap informed consent documentation, study purpose and recording procedures, obtain verbal permission to record before proceeding.] Follow-up questions will be added here:

Script: Thank you again for your time!

232 Appendix H: Member Check Email, Transcript Dear ________________, I hope you are well. Thank you again for taking the time to speak with me about your experiences as an online student. Please find the transcript of the interview attached. Please read the transcript and let me know if you would like me to make any changes or edits, or if I should remove anything that you believe might identify you. If I don’t hear back from you by the end of the week, (by date), I will assume you are in agreement with the transcript content. Thank you again for sharing your experiences! Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras

233 Appendix I: Member Check Email, Individual Textural Description Dear ________________, I hope you are well. I’ve attached a draft of your individual description based on our interview. Can you please read the document attached and let me know if this accurately reflects your experiences? I changed your name to ‘________’, for confidentiality reasons. Again, please let me know if there is anything that you would like for me to change, remove or add. If I don’t hear back from you by the end of the week (by date), then I will assume that you are in agreement with the description. I look forward to your feedback. Thank you again! Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras

234 Appendix J: Copyright Information

© Suzanne Darrow-Magras, 2015

Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence by Suzanne Darrow-Magras is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialShareAlike 4.0 International License.