Retos y Demandas de La Educación Básica en México

 

 

Gn`strçn Gn `strçn ` `k k @cu cujnjiú jnjiúk k

Pkiv`rsicnc Ikt`rng`rijnkn pnrn `f C`snrrlffl _`tls y C`gnkcns @cujntivns c`f Zihfl QQI 

Dnjifitnclrn c`f jursl5 Crn. Jnrlfikn Tnrhns _`y`s Juntrig`str`5 3tl _`tls y c`gnkcns `cujntivns c`f sihfl QQI5 _`ikv`ktnkcl prîjtijns y plfçtijns `cujntivns `k `cujnjiúk oîsijn. Nfugkn5 Elankkn Cnrf`ta Lfivnr`s Guþlz

IC5 ==:?=?09

@ks`kncn, O. J n >: c` nhlstl c`f ?=?=

 

Çkcij`

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.......................... .......................... ................. .... 4 r`vnflriznjiúk c` fns `sju`fns klrgnf`s .............

_`nficnc _` nficnc c` fls clj`kt`s cl j`kt`s c` `cuj `cujnjiúk njiúk oîsijn oîsi jn `k `k Géxijl  ........... 9

]lfçtijns `cujntivns, pfnk`njiúk `cujntivn n kiv`f Gnjrl  .......... >>

Jlkjfusilk`s5

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......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... ......................... ................... ....... >0 Oiofilhrndçn ............

 

Iktrlcujjiúk5

@f loe`tivl c`f pr`s`kt` `sjritl `s jlkslficnr fls jlkljigi`ktls ncquiricls `ktlrkl n fn gnt`rin _`tls y c`gnkcns `cujntivns c`f sihfl QQI, c` fn gn`strçn `k `cujnjiúk c` fn Pkiv`rsicnc Ikt`rng`rijnkn pnrn `f C`snrrlffl (PKIC). ]nrn fl junf s` c`snrrlffn jlgl ]rly`jtl diknf `f cis`þl c`f pr`s`kt` `ksnyl, qu` pfnkt`n fn r`nficnc c` Géxijl `k plfçtijn `cujntivn, nsç jlgl fls prikjipnf`s r`tls c`sc` fn p`rsp`jtivn c` uk clj`kt` c` `cujnjiúk oîsijn. Fn `cujnjiúk an sicl t`gn c` cisjusiúk n fl fnrhl c` fls õftigls nþls, yn qu` jlk `ffn s` ncqui`r`k y trnksgit`k jlkljigi`ktls, vnflr`s, y jlstugor`s k`j`snrins pnrn c`s`kvlfv`rs` prlv`jalsng`kt` `k slji`cnc. Z` `sp`rn jlktnr jlk jiucncnkls jnpnj`s c` vivir `k c`gljrnjin, qu` ousqu`k fn g`elrn c` su pnçs, gi`ktrns r`splkc`k n sus prlpins k`j`sicnc`s ` ikt`r`s`s. Nf r`sp`jtl, ]ér`z (>99?), g`kjilkn qu` ‖fn `sju`fn an c`

pr`pnrnr n fns p`rslkns pnrn ikjlrplrnrs` n fn vicn ncuftn y põofijn, c` glcl qu` pu`cn gnkt`k`rs` fn cikîgijn y `quifioril `k fns f ns ikstitujilk`s y klrgns c` jlkviv`kjin qu` jlgplk`k `f t`eicl sljinf c` fn jlgukicnc augnkn‗ (p.>9). Fn `cujnjiúk, `s vistn jlgl ukn pi`zn dukcng`ktnf `k fn slji`cnc augnkn pnrn flhrnr ukn g`elr jnficnc c` vicn, pu`s jlk `ffn s` pr`t`kc` njnonr jlk fls prlof`gns c` c`sihunfcnc sljinf y plor`zn n fls qu` s` `kdr`ktn njtunfg`kt` ku`strl pnçs. C`flrs (>994), ndirgn qu` ‖dr`kt` n fls kug`rlsls c`sndçls c`f plrv`kir, fn `cujnjiúk jlkstituy` uk ikstrug`ktl ikcisp`ksnof` pnrn qu` fn augnkicnc pu`cn prlhr`snr anjin fls ic`nf`s c` pnz, fio`rtnc y eustijin sljinf‗ (p.9).

Nkt` `stl, plr uk fncl fls clj`kt`s `kdr`ktngls uk hrnk r`tl y jlgprlgisl jlk ku`strls nfugkls, nf s`r fls r`splksnof`s c` orikcnr

 

`sj`knrils prlpijils pnrn su npr`kcizne` y c`snrrlffl2 nt`kci`kcl c` gnk`rn p`rtik`kt` fns k`j`sicnc`s `cujntivns `xist`kt`s `k uk gukcl jncn v`z gîs hflonfizncl. Gi`ktrns qué plr ltrl, fns plfçtijns `cujntivns `k Géxijl c`o`rîk c` ousjnr igpufsnr qu` s` h`k`r`k fns jlkcijilk`s dnvlrnof`s pnrn `e`rj`r kl slfl `cujnjiúk põofijn y hrntuitn, sikl tngoiék c` jnficnc, tnf y jlgl s` `stnof`j` `k `f nrtçjufl :rl c` fn jlkstitujiúk g`xijnkn c`sc` su prlgufhnjiúk `k `f >9>8. @s nsç qu` `k fn jlkstitujiúk g`xijnkn s` ank pfnsgncl n kiv`f gnjrl fns g`tns y loe`tivls c`f `stncl `k gnt`rin `cujntivn y `s uk r`d`r`kt` aistúrijl ikcisp`ksnof` pnrn `kt`kc`r jlgl g`cinkt` fls gõftipf`s nju`rcls y r`dlrgns `cujntivns `cujntivns c`f sihfl QQ y c` prikjipils c`f sihfl QQI s` an ousjncl g`elrnr fn `cujnjiúk `k Géxijl2 y qu` an pr`vnf`jicl n p`snr c` fns cistiktns visilk`s c` fls hloi`rkls `k ju`stiúk. @stns ikt`kjilk`s s` ank vistl r`df`encns `k fns õftigns r`dlrgns `cujntivns qu` s` ank viviú `k fls õftigls nþls, pr`t`kci`kcl @cujnjiúk Oîsijn `k Géxijl, dlrg` `k sus tr`s kiv`f`s, ]r``sjlfnr, ]rignrin y Z`jukcnrin, nfugkls jnpnj`s c` r`slfv`r prlof`gns, tlgnr c`jisilk`s y `kjlktrnr nft`rkntivns2 `stucinkt`s jr`ntivls, jlgp`titivls, jlfnolrntivls, jlk s`kticl étijl y glrnf onsncl `k vnflr`s, nsç jlgl dlg`ktnr `k `ffls uk p`ksngi`ktl p`ksngi`k tl jrçtijl y nknfçtijl. @ktr` `stns plfçtijns `cujntivns igpufsncns, c`stnjnk fn _`dlrgn Ikt`hrnf c` fn @cujnjiúk Oîsijn (_I@O), qu` jlgl fn c`dik` fn Z`jr`tnrçn c` @cujnjiúk ]õofijn `k su ]fnk c` @stucils (?=>>), ‖R…W `s ukn plfçtijn põofijn

qu` igpufsn fn dlrgnjiúk ikt`hrnf c` tlcls fls nfugkls c` pr``sjlfnr, prignrin y s`jukcnrin jlk `f loe`tivl c` dnvlr`j`r `f c`snrrlffl c` jlgp`t`kjins pnrn fn vicn y `f flhrl c`f p`rdif c` `hr`sl‗ (p.>8). (p.>8 ). @stn r`dlrgn kl slfl r`jlklj` `f vnflr c` jncn kiv`f, sikl qu` r`snftn fn igplrtnkjin c` ukn jlrr`jtn nrtijufnjiúk `ktr` `ffls, `xihi`kcl n fls gn`strls pr`pnrns` c` gnk`rn p`rtik`kt` pnrn s`r jnpnj`s c` r`splkc`r n fns c`gnkcns `cujntivns

 

c`f sihfl QQI. Nsç jlgl fls nju`rcls nju`rcl 494 plr `f junf s` `stnof`j`k fns klrgns h`k`rnf`s pnrn fn `vnfunjiúk, njr`citnjiúk, prlgljiúk y j`rtidijnjiúk c` fn `cujnjiúk oîsijn y `f nju`rcl kõg`rl 09? c` fn @cujnjiúk Oîsijn qu` c`dik` y nrtijufn `f p`rdif c` @hr`sl c` fn @cujnjiúk Oîsijn.

C`snrrlffl5

Zi oi`k fls `kdlqu`s jlkstrujtivistns njtunf`s, s` onsnk `k qu` fls `stucinkt`s s` `kju`ktrnk nf j`ktrl y prltnhlkisgl c`f prlj`sl c` npr`kcizne`, `stl kl qui`r` c`jir qu` `f pnp`f clj`kt` pi`rcn anstn ji`rtl puktl prltnhlkisgl. C` a`jal, c` nfhukn gnk`rn r`vnflrn fn prld`siúk `k si gisgn, pu`s r`jlklj` qu` `s k`j`snril qu` fls clj`kt`s s` vu`fvnk kl slfl trnksgislr`s c` jlkljigi`ktls, sikl jlkstrujtlr`s c` fls ngoi`kt`s qu` p`rgit`k qu` `f npr`kcizne` s` ff`v` n jnol, gi`ktrns r`sp`tn fn nutlklgçn c`f nfugkl.  Nkcrnc` (?==1) g`kjilkn qu` `f `kdlqu` plr jlgp`t`kjins r`jlklj` qu` `f jlkljigi`ktl plr njugufnjiúk y r`p`tijiúk kl `s sihkidijntivl y prlplk` r`pfnkt`nr r`pfnkt`nr fls térgikls c` fn `ks`þnkzn `k dukjiúk c` npr`kcizne`s sihkidijntivls onsncls `k situnjilk`s c` fn vicn r`nf. Nc`gîs, s`þnfn qu` `f c`snrrlffl c` jlgp`t`kjins c`o`rî c` ff`vnrs` n jnol n pnrtir c` `kdlqu`s j`ktrncls `k fls prlj`sls c` npr`kcizne` c` fls `stucinkt`s y clkc` `stls pnrtijip`k `k fn jlkstrujjiúk c` `ffls, `kjlktrîkclf` s`kticl n fl qu` npr`kc`k. @st` prlj`sl s` plcrçn jlksic`rnr ‖s`kjiffl‗, p`rl kl any kncn gîs nf`encl c` fn r`nficnc, pu`s `xih` qu` fls clj`kt`s s`nk v`rcnc`rls prld`silknf`s prld`silkn f`s qu` utifij`k tlcns fns a`rrngi`ktns cisplkiof`s pnrn dnvlr`j`r `f npr`kcizne` c` sus nfugkls. Z` `sp`rn t`k`r clj`kt`s jnpnj`s c`

 

glcidijnr su prnjtijn `k dukjiúk c` fns k`j`sicnc`s c` fls `stucinkt`s, y t`rgiknr jlk `sns prnjtijns trncijilknfistns qu` lofihnonk nf `stucinkt` n nc`junrs` n fls gétlcls y téjkijns c` `ks`þnkzn c` fls clj`kt`s. ]nrn qu` uk clj`kt` s`n jnpnz c` r`nfiznr tnf njtl, `s k`j`snril qu` ju`kt` jlk ji`rtns jlgp`t`kjins, tnktl h`kérijns, jlgl prld`silknf`s. Cçnz Onrrihn y _ihl (?===) ikcijnk qu` `f jlkj`ptl c` jlgp`t`kjin anj` r`d`r`kjin n uk sno`r anj`r c` gnk`rn `diji`kt`, c`glstrnof` g`cinkt` c`s`gp`þls los`rvnof`s5 Z` trntn c` ukn jnpnjicnc pnrn r`slfv`r prlof`gns qu` s` npfijn c` gnk`rn df`xiof` y p`rtik`kt`, ncnptîkcls` nf jlkt`xtl y n fns c`gnkcns qu` pfnkt`nk situnjilk`s civ`rsns R...W fn jlgp`t`kjin jlgp`t`kj in kl s` figitn n fls nsp`jtls prlj`cig`ktnf`s prlj`cig`ktnf`s c`f jlkljigi`ktl, n fn g`rn pls`siúk c` anoificnc`s y c`str`zns, sikl qu` s` v` njlgpnþncn k`j`snring`kt` k`j`snring`k t` c` `f`g`ktls t`úrijls y njtituciknf` njtituciknf`s. s. Nf r`sp`jtl, ¼C` qué gnk`rn s` `stîk dnvlr`ji`kcl `stns jlgp`t`kjins c`sc` fn dlrgnjiúk clj`kt` `k `f jnsl c` `cujnjiúk oîsijn<

@f p`rdif c` `hr`sl c`f clj`kt` cl j`kt` c` `cujnjiúk `cujnjiúk oîsijn y fn r`vnflriznjiúk c` fns `sju`fns klrgnf`s

@f clj`kt` jlgl prld`silknf, prld`silknf, cncn fn jr`ji`kt` igplrtnkjin igplrtnkjin qu` ti`k` ti`k` `f `kdlqu` c` jlgp`t`kjins `k fn dlrgnjiúk c`f prld`slrncl, s` pnrt` `k gnylr jlksic`rnjiúk c` su trnonel jlgl ukn nplrtnjiúk qu` ti`k`k uk p`rdif prld`silknf `sp`jçdijl y cistiktl nf c` ltrls prld`silknf`s, ukn nplrtnjiúk igplrtnkt` pnrn plc`r jlkj`ptunfiznr jlkj`ptunfiznr fl qu` sihkidijn `kt`kc`r fn prîjtijn c` fn `ks`þnkzn jlgl ukn prld`siúk, c` `stn c`rivn fn igplrtnkjin pnrn fn dlrgnjiúk y prlj`c` prlj`c` c` fls `stuc `stucils ils a`jals n pnrtir c`f c`f trnonel pnrn s`r uk prld`silknff r`df`xivl. prld`silkn

 

@f p`rdif c` `hr`sl jlkstituy` `f `f`g`ktl r`d`r`kjinf y huçn pnrn fn jlkstrujjiúk c`f pfnk c` `stucils, s` `xpr`sn `k jlgp`t`kjins qu` c`sjrio`k fl qu` `f `hr`sncl s`rî jnpnz c` r`nfiznr nf térgikl c`f prlhrngn `cujntivl y s`þnfn fls jlkljigi`ktls, anoificnc` anoificnc`s, s, njtituc`s y vnflr`s ikvlfujrncls `k fls c`s`gp`þls prlpils c` su prld`siúk. Jlgpr`kc` fns jlgp`t`kjins h`kérijns y fns prld`silknf`s, nsç jlgl sus ukicnc`s l `f`g`ktls, qu` slk fls c`sjriptlr`s c` flhrl c` `stns. Fns jlgp`t`kjins h`kérijns `xpr`snk c`s`gp`þls jlguk`s qu` c`o`k c`glstrnr fls `hr`sncls c` prlhrngns c` `cujnjiúk sup`rilr, ti`k`k uk jnrîjt`r trnksv`rsnf y s` c`snrrlffnk n trnvés c` fn `xp`ri`kjin p`rslknf y fn dlrgnjiúk c` jncn sue`tl. Fns jlgp`t`kjins prld`silknf`s `xpr`snk c`s`gp`þls qu` c`o`k c`glstrnr fls duturls clj`kt`s c` `cujnjiúk oîsijn, ti`k`k uk jnrîjt`r `sp`jçdijl y s` dlrgnk nf ikt`hrnr jlkljigi`ktls, anoificnc`s,, njtituc`s y vnflr`s k`j`snrils pnrn `e`rj`r fn prld`siúk clj`kt` anoificnc`s y c`snrrlffnr prîjtijns `k `sj`knrils r`nf`s. @stns jlgp`t`kjins p`rgitirîk nf `hr`sncl nt`kc`r situnjilk`s y r`slfv`r prlof`gns c`f jlkt`xtl `sjlfnr2 jlfnolrnr njtivng`kt` `k su `ktlrkl `cujntivl y `k fn lrhnkiznjiúk c`f trnonel ikstitujilknf. Yn qu` jlgl kls g`kjilkn T`zuo (? ==0) ‖R…W fn ic`n c`f clj`kt` prld`silknf suoynj` fn c` uk ikcivicul jlgp`t`kt` pnrn r`slfv`r fls prlof`gns plr sç slfl, qu` ti`k` ikijintivn y pu`c` c`jicir –jlk ons` `k sus jlgp`t`kjins prld`silknf`s–  fls jursls c` njjiúk k`j`snril s‗ (p.9). C` gnk`rn qu` kl slfl `s k`j`snril qu` `f clj`kt` s` `kju`ktr` ikdlrgîkcls` slor` fl gîs r`ji`kt` `k gnt`rin c` `cujnjiúk, sikl qu` nc`gîs s`n jnpnz c` tlgnr `s` jlkljigi`ktl y ff`vnrfl n fn prîjtijn g`cinkt` prlj`sls nutl r`df`xivls. C` `stns jlgp`t`kjins prld`silknf`s, suoynj`k fns `xih`kjins y jlgprlgisls qu` fn prld`siúk clj`kt` c`gnkcn y jlgl `s k`j`snril

 

`kjlktrnrs` kl slfl onel ukn jnpnjitnjiúk jlktikun, sikl nc`gîs s`r jnpnz c` `kjlktrnrs` `k ukn r`df`xiúk jlkstnkt` slor` su prlpin prîjtijn, y c` qué gnk`rn s`rî plsiof` qu` `f nfugkl jlkstruyn y ncqui`rn c` gnk`rn hrncunf jlgp`t`kjins qu` f` p`rgitnk c`s`gp`þnrs` prlv`jalsng`kt` `k su vicn ncuftn. @f ukidijnr jrit`rils n trnvés c` fns jlgp`t`kjins prld`silknf`s c` fns fij`kjinturns igpnrticns plr fns ikstitujilk`s tnktl põofijns jlgl privncns pri vncns c` `cujnjiúk sup`rilr, sup`rilr, p`rgit` plr fl g`kls n kiv`f jurrçjufl jugpfir c` gnk`rn jla`r`kt` jlk fl qu` s` `sp`rn c`f clj`kt` c`f sihfl QQI. C`jigls n kiv`f jurrçjufl, yn qu` `k `f jnsl c` fns ikstitujilk`s privncns, si oi`k `stîk lofihncns n r`hirs` plr `f gisgls p`rdif c` `hr`sl, `f `stncls, `k fn gnylrçn c` fls jnsls kl s` slg`tçn n fns ikstitujilk`s `cujntivns n ukn r`visiúk qu` p`rgiti`rn v`rcnc`rng`kt` jlgprlonr fn jnficnc c` fn `ks`þnkzn qu` ldr`jçnk, qu`cnkcl qu`cnkcl `k fn gnylrçn c` fls jnsls `k uk trîgit` l r`quisitl qu` kl ff`hn n s`r gîs qu` `sl, sik kikhukn igpfijnjiúk qu` r`df`e` jnficnc `cujntivn (Guþls y Zifvn ?=>:).  @st` õftigl nrhug`ktl c`o`rçn pr`ljupnrkls si tlgngls `k ju`ktn qu` kls `kjlktrngls `k ukn `tnpn `k fn qu` `stngls h`k`rnkcl prld`silkistns c` ukn gnk`rn jr`ji`kt` c`oicl n fn prlfid`rnjiúk c` fns `sju`fns privncns, sik qu` anstn fn d`jan `xistnk g`jnkisgls qu` sup`rvis`k n cijans ikstitujilk`s c` gnk`rn `d`jtivn. Jlgl jlks`ju`kjin, kls `kjlktrngls jlk ukn nftn jnkticnc c` `hr`sncls c` clj`kt`s c` `cujnjiúk oîsijn, p`rl kl k`j`snring`kt` fls g`elr`s pr`pnrncls. Nc`gîs, `s igplrtnkt` g`kjilknr qu` hrnjins n fn r`dlrgn `cujntivn c`f ?=>? igpufsncn plr `f pr`sic`kt` @kriqu` ]`þn Ki`tl, `hr`snclss c` ltrns fij`kjinturns c`f rngl `cujntivl pu`c`k nspirnr nf pu`stl `hr`sncl c` clj`kt` c` `cujnjiúk oîsijn. @f prlof`gn jlk `stl, `s qu` sus jlgp`t`kjins jlgp`t`kj ins prld`silknf`s kl prldukciznk fl sudiji`kt` `k fn `ks`þnkzn, yn

 

qu` ikjfuy`k ltrls nsp`jtls `cujntivls jlgl fl slk fn h`stiúk `sjlfnr y `f cis`þl jurrijufnr, `ktr` ltrls. Nukqu`, `s igplrtnkt` g`kjilknr qu` r`ji`kt`g`kt` `f pr`sic`kt` njtunf Nkcrés Gnku`f Fúp`z Lornclr (c`sc` `f ?=>1 n fn d`jan), r`vnflrizú `f pnp`f c` fns `sju`fns klrgnf`s y fn Pkiv`rsicnc ]`cnhúhijn Knjilknf n trnvés c` fn F`y H`k`rnf c`f Zist`gn pnrn fn Jnrr`rn c` fns gn`strns y fls gn`strls. Cnkcl prilricnc n fls prld`silknf`s `hr`sncls c` cijans cijans fns  fns

ikstitujilk`s `cujntivns, `kjnrhncns c` fn dlrgnjiúk c` fls gn`strls pnrn ljupnr fns pfnzns c` clj`kt`s cisplkiof`s qu` ld`rtn `f `stncl. Fl nkt`rilr kl sihkidijn qu` fls `hr`sncls c` ltrns fij`kjinturns c` fn rngn, jlgl ji`kjins c` fn `cujnjiúk kl plcrîk r`nfiznr `xng`k c` pfnzn l juorir `s` pu`stl, p`rl si `stnof`j` prilricnc slor` `hr`sncls c` ltrns ikstitujilk`s, prikjipnfg`kt` prikjipnfg`kt` plr `f jnrîjt`r c`f Jurrijufug qu` s` g`kjilkú nkt`rilrg`kt`. _`nficnc _` nficnc c` fls c lj`kt`s c` `cujnjiúk o oîsijn îsijn ` `k k Géxijl

Gîs nffî c` fls prlof`gns tçpijls `sjlfnr`s jlgl fl slk fn pfnk`njiúk c` su jfns`, fls clj`kt`s s` `kju`ktrnk `kju`ktr nk nkt` `f r`tl c` flhrnr t`k`r ukn ou`kn prnjtijn jlk tlcls sus `stucinkt`s, `k hrupls qu` r`hufnrg`kt` kl slfl sup`rnk su jnpnjicnc nf nonrrltnr fns nufns, sikl qu` nc`gîs c`o` `kdr`ktnrs` `kdr`ktnr s` n tlcn jfns` c` situnjilk`s sljinf`s `k sus civ`rsls jlkt`xtls y jlgukicnc`s.

C`enkcl nf clj`kt` `f pnqu`t` c` `kdr`ktnr slfls `k fn gnylrçn c` fls jnsls cijans situnjilk`s jlgl slk prlof`gns psijlfúhijls l c` vilf`kjin l

 

plor`zn vivicns plr pnrt` c` sus nfugkls. Ltrl prlof`gn `s hnrnktiznr fn jnficnc `cujntivn, pu`s n p`snr c` qu` n kiv`f jlkstitujilknf `f hloi`rkl g`xijnkl prlgufhl `k su nrtçjufl :rl fn `cujnjiúk c` jnficnc pnrn tlcls, pnr`j` qu` an sicl nfhl qu` an qu`cncl gîs `k pnp`f qu` `k a`jal. @stl plrqu` cijal ntrioutl slfl s` an j`ktrncl `k su gnylrçn `k fn r`splksnoificnc r`splksno ificnc c`f clj`kt`, `xjfuy`kcl fls prlof`gns sljinf`s qu` `xist`k y qu` nd`jtnk `f c`s`gp`þl c` fls nfugkls `k fns pru`ons iikt`rknjilk kt`rknjilknf`s. nf`s. Nukqu` `s igplrtnkt` c`stnjnr qu` `k pnfnorns c` fn PK@ZJL (?=>8) Zik ou`kls clj`kt`s y cir`jtivls cidçjifg`kt` uk pnçs pu`c` nvnkznr `k fls loe`tivls c` fn `cujnjiúk qu` igpufsn fn PK@ZJL n kiv`f gukcinf y qu` ikjfuy`k Dlrgnjiúk jiucncnkn, `cujnjiúk pnrn fn pnz, `cujnjiúk pnrn `f c`snrrlffl slst`kiof` y `cujnjiúk pnrn fn jlgpr`ksiúk ikt`rknjilknf, c`sc` `stn p`rsp`jtivn, t`kcrçnk qu` `stnr pr`s`kt`s c` gnk`rn nrgúkijn `k fns prilricnc`s c`f pnçs c`sc` fn gisgn Jlkstitujiúk ]lfçtijn. Zik `gonrhl kl s` c`svnflrizn ki quitn igplrtnkjin n fn r`splksnoificnc c`f `stncl hnrnktiznr qu` s` pu`cn njj`c`r n ukn `cujnjiúk cihkn y prlv`jalsn, ikc`p`kci`kt`g`kt` c`f kiv`f sljil`jlkúgijl nf qu` p`rt`k`j`k fls `stucinkt`s y f`s p`rgitn jlktikunr pr`pnrîkcls` y r`p`rjutir `k fn jlktikuicnc,, c`snrrlffl `jlkúgijl y sljinf c` fn plofnjiúk g`xijnkn. jlktikuicnc ]lr `ffl, fn c`sihunfcnc sljinf `s ukl c` fls r`tls gîs du`rt`s pnrn fls clj`kt`s, pu`s ikjfusiv` any kiþls qu` s` pr`s`ktnk n fn `sju`fn sik jlksugir nfig`ktls, cidijuftnkcl su jlkj`ktrnjiúk y c`s`ls c` pnrtijipnjiúk. Snf jlgl g`kjilkn Ionrrlfn (?=>?) `k su `stucil c` prlof`gîtijns `cujntivns c` Géxijl5 Kl pu`c` anj`rs` r`jn`r `k fls gn`strls c` fns `sju`fns c`f pnçs fn r`splksnoificnc pf`kn plr `f c`snrrlffl `jlkúgijl, sljinf y jufturnf c` sus jlkt`xtls ikg`cintls. Fn plfçtijn `cujntivn `s jlkcijiúk k`j`snrin p`rl kl jnusn õkijn c`f c`snrrlffl c` fns jlgukicnc`s y fns plofnjilk`s. Fns

 

plfçtijns c` jr`jigi`ktl `cujntivl c`o`k njlgpnþnrs` c` plfçtijns sljinf`s y `jlkúgijns jlncyuvnkt`s ` igpnjtnr nsç c` gnk`rn plsitivn fn vicn jlticinkn c` fns `sju`fns (p.8)

]lr fl nkt`rilr, s` pu`c` nhr`hnr qu` `s k`j`snril qu` fls hloi`rkls nsugnk qu` fn `sju`fn kl pu`c` r`pnrnr tlcls fls prlof`gns qu` suoynj`k c` fn slji`cnc, pu`s jncn r`nficnc y jlkt`xtl `cujntivl `s cid`r`kt`. Fls clj`kt`s kl pu`c`k s`r fls õkijls `kjnrhncls c` noslro`r cijans r`splksnoificnc`s, `s k`j`snrils qu` nc`gîs c` dlrtnf`j`r fls prlhrngns sljinf`s, `f hloi`rkl orikc` nplyl prld`silknf n fns `sju`fns c`sc` `f îgoitl p`cnhúhijl, anstn `f c` h`stiúk `sjlfnr. Nf r`sp`jtl ¼^ué tnktls nvnkj`s a`gls t`kicl `k plfçtijns `cujntivns `k fls õftigls ?= nþls< ]lfçtijns ]lfç tijns `cujntivns, pfnk`njiúk `cuj `cujntivn ntivn n kiv`f Gnjrl

@k `f jnsl c` Géxijl, sus plfçtijns `cujntivns ank tlgncl hrnk igplrtnkjin `k fls õftigls ?= nþls, pu`s n trnvés c` sus r`dlrgns `k gnt`rin `cujntivn c`enk v`r sus prilricnc`s jlgl knjiúk, fls r`jursls qu` s` ikv`rtirîk `k `ffn y sus c`stikntnrils. c`stikntnrils. ]lr tnktl r`suftn r`suftn p`rtik`kt` jlksic`rnr c`ktrl c` fn pfnk`njiúk `cujntivn n kiv`f gnjrl, tlcns fns jnrnjt`rçstijns c` sus cistiktls jlkt`xtls, sus k`j`sicnc`s `sp`jçdijns `sp`jçdijns y fn gnk`rn gîs `dijnz c` nt`kc`rfns. Jlklji`kcl y jlksic`rnkcl tlcls `sls nsp`jtls, `s plsiof` cis`þnr njjilk`s qu` n duturl p`rgitnk jugpfir jlk fls r`tls `cujntivls njtunf`s. Pkl c` fls prikjipnf`s prlof`gns c`f sist`gn `cujntivl g`xijnkl, `s qu` sus plfçtijns `cujntivns `stîk sue`tns n jngoil jncn s`x`kil, fl qu` kl p`rgit` qu` fns ikijintivns gncur`k, npr`jinkcl fls v`rcnc`rls jngoils qu` puci`rlk ano`r surhicl c` `ffns. ¼C`o`rçnk fns `sju`fns l fn Z@] s`r jnpnj`s c` jlktnr jlk gnylr nutlklgçn, s`hõk fl r`qui`rnk sus jlkt`xtls `k fn tlgn c` c`jisilk`s<

 

 ]nrn qu` pu`cn `xistir uk v`rcnc`rl jngoil `k jnficnc `cujntivn `k Géxijl anj` dnftn gîs qu` ukn r`dlrgn plfçtijn. Fn `cujnjiúk `s uk jlkeuktl c` dnjtlr`s sljinf`s, plfçtijls, jufturnf`s y `jlkúgijls qu` c`o`k s`r `stucincls y jlksic`rncls. ]nrt` c`f prlof`gn `s qu`, jlk jncn jngoil c` ncgikistrnjiúk, anj`k r`strujturnjilk`s r`strujturnjilk`s qu` gijans v`j`s kl p`rgit`k v`r `f nfjnkj` c` fns njjilk`s tlgncns `k s`x`kils nkt`rilr`s. ]lr `ffl `s k`j`snril qu` `xistn ukn ukidijnjiúk c` jrit`rils y g`tns qu` kl s`nk p`rs`huicns cir`jtng`kt` plr dik`s l jlkv`ki`kjins plfçtijns, n trnvés c` nfhõk ikstitutl nutúklgl y `sp`jinfizncl `k `f t`gn.

 

Jlkjfusilk`s5 Fn `cujnjiúk oîsijn `k Géxijl `s uk t`gn jlgpf`el y qu` r`qui`r` c` jlksic`rnjilk`s qu` vnk c`sc` fn civ`rsicnc c` jlkt`xtls, sus jngoils jlkstnkt`s c` fns plfçtijns, `f c`s`gp`þl c`f hloi`rkl y su hlo`rknkzn, fn prld`siúk y prld`silknfiznjiúk clj`kt` y plr supu`stl fn jnficnc `cujntivn. C`sc` gi p`rsp`jtivn, jncn ukl c` `sls nsp`jtls dlrgn pi`zn jfnv` pnrn flhnr jugpfir jlk fls loe`tivls `cujntivls y sljinf`s c` fn `cujnjiúk oîsijn y `s igplrtnkt` qu` s` nolrc`k c` gnk`rn jlkeuktn pnrn su g`elrn. Zik `gonrhl, los`rvngls qu` `k `f jnsl c` Géxijl `stl kl suj`c`, y fns ikijintivns igpufsncns r`splkc`k fn gnylrçn c` fns v`j`s n dik`s plfçtijls, `k `f ndîk c` `kjnrhnr fn ic`lflhçn c`f hlo`rknkt` `k turkl `k fn `cujnjiúk, sik tlgnr `k ju`ktn k`j`snring`kt` fns v`rcnc`rns k`j`sicnc`s c`f pnçs. Nsç gisgl, s` pu`c` c`jir qu` `k Géxijl `xist` ukn urh`kjin c` jngoinr fn dlrgn c` lrhnkiznjiúk y trnonel c`f sist`gn huo`rkng`ktnf pnrn cnrf` slfic`z y `stnoificnc nf sist`gn `cujntivl2 pnrn `ffl `s k`j`snril r`nfiznr plfçtijns qu` `stnoifij`k fn prnjtijn `cujntivn, qu` kl s`nk jngoincns jncn s`x`kil, sikl qu` fls plfçtijls s` jlgprlg`tnk `k nplynr y c`snrrlffnr uk glc`fl `cujntivl `fnolrncl plr fls `xp`rtls, kl ikt`rknjilknf`s sikl plr nqu`ffls qu` `stîk `s su pnçs y jlklj`k fn r`nficnc `cujntivn y sljinf qu` viv` jncn `stncl, pu`s `ffls slk fns p`rslkns gîs jnpnjitncns pnrn r`nfiznr uk glc`fl njlrc` n fns k`j`sicnc`s c`f pnçs y fns c`gnkcns hflonf`s. N p`snr c` qu` s` `sté usnkcl fls glc`fls `cujntivls c` vnkhunrcin, `s k`j`snril r`tlgnr fns r`nficnc`s y jlkt`xtls pnrn qu` s`nk fn ons` c` fn prîjtijn `cujntivn y p`rgitn tlgnr g`elr`s c`jisilk`s. Géxijl `s uk pnçs qu` ju`ktn jlk fls r`jursls y ti`k`k fns a`rrngi`ktns pnrn g`elrnr su `cujnjiúk p`rl s` k`j`sitn r`ndirgnr fn pnrtijipnjiúk y `f jlgprlgisl c` tlcn fn slji`cnc, qu` jncn gi`gorl jugpfn jlk su dukjiúk dlrgnclrn c`sc`

 

clkc` `stî, qu` `f clj`kt` pr`st` su s`rvijils jlk fn g`elr njtituc, p`rl slor` tlcl qu` s` jlgprlg`tn jlk `stnr njtunfizncl ` ikdlrgncl pnrn njlgpnþnr n fls `stucinkt`s `k su prlj`sl c` `ks`þnkzn2 qu` fls pncr`s c` dngifin s`nk fls prikjipnf`s gltivnclr`s pnrn sus aiels, jr`y`kcl `k ukn `cujnjiúk qu` orikcn lplrtukicnc`s c` c`snrrlffl y kl s`n vistn jlgl `k g`cil clkc` clkc` s`rîs `sjfnvizncl jlgl `gp `gpf`ncl f`ncl p`rp`tul p`rp`tul y diknfg`kt` qu` fls plfçtijls y fls ncgikistrnclr`s c` fns ikstitujilk`s s` jlgprlg`tnk `k jugpfir jlk su dukjiúk c` vihifnr plr `f oi`k jlgõk c` su slji`cnc. ]u`s, n p`snr c` qu` s` `sték usnkcl fls glc`fls `cujntivls c` vnkhunrcin, `s k`j`snril r`tlgnr fns r`nficnc`s y jlkt`xtls pnrn qu` s`nk fn ons` c` fn prîjtijn `cujntivn y p`rgitn tlgnr g`elr`s c`jisilk`s. Géxijl `s uk pnçs qu` ju`ktn jlk fls r`jursls y ti`k`k fns a`rrngi`ktns pnrn g`elrnr su `cujnjiúk, p`rl s` k`j`sitn r`ndirgnr fn pnrtijipnjiúk y `f jlgprlgisl c` tlcn fn slji`cnc. ^u` jncn gi`gorl jugpfn jlk su dukjiúk dlrgnclrn c`sc` clkc` `stî, qu` `f clj`kt` pr`st` su s`rvijils jlk j lk fn g`elr njtituc, p`rl slor` tlcl qu` s` jlgprlg`tn jlk `stnr njtunfizncl ` ikdlrgncl pnrn njlgpnþnr n fls `stucinkt`ss `k su prlj`sl c` `ks`þnkzn2 qu` fls pncr`s c` dngifin `stucinkt` d ngifin s`nk fls prikjipnf`s gltivnclr`s pnrn sus aiels, jr`y`kcl `k ukn `cujnjiúk qu` orikcn lplrtukicnc`s lplrtukicnc`s c` c`snrrlffl y kl s`n vistn jlgl `k g`cil clkc` s`rîs `sjfnvizncl jlgl jlgl `gpf`ncl p`rp`tul p`rp`tul y diknfg`kt` qu` fls plfçtijls y fls ncgikistrnclr`s c` fns ikstitujilk`s s` jlgprlg`tnk `k jugpfir jlk su dukjiúk c` vihifnr plr `f oi`k jlgõk c` su slji`cnc.

 

Oiofilhrndçn C`flrs, E. (>994). Fn `cujnjiúk `kji`rrn uk t`slrl. _`jup`rncl c`5 attp5//www.uk`sjl.lrh/`cujn attp5//www.uk` sjl.lrh/`cujntilk/pcd/C@FL_Z\ tilk/pcd/C@FL_Z\Z.]CD Z.]CD ]ér`z, N. (>99?). Fns dukjilk`s sljinf`s c` fn `sju`fn5 c` fn r`prlcujjiúk n fn jlkstrujjiúk jrçtijn c`f jlkljigi`ktl y fn `xp`ri`kjin. _`jup`rncl c`5 attp5//oiofilt`jn.jfnjsl.`cu .nr/Nrh`ktikn/fpp/?=>==:? /?=>==:?3=??9=1/9 3=??9=1/9.pcd  .pcd   attp5//oiofilt`jn.jfnjsl.`cu.nr/Nrh`ktikn/fpp Z@] (?=>>). ]fnk c` `stucils ?=>>. @cujnjiúk oîsijn. _`jup`rncl c`5 attps5//www.hl attps5//www.hlo.gx/jgs/upfln o.gx/jgs/upflncs/nttnjag`k cs/nttnjag`kt/dif`/?=>88 t/dif`/?=>88/]fnk\c`\@stuc /]fnk\c`\@stucils\? ils\? =>>\d.pcd   Z@]. (?=>>). NJP@_CL KÕG@_L 09? ]L_ @F ^P@ Z@ @ZSNOF@J@ FN N_SIJPFNJIÚK C@ FN @CPJNJIÚK OÎZIJN. _`jup`rncl c`5 attps5//criv`.hllhf`.jlg/dif`/c/=Oyswi_?i-10K>9DUgbxoQDO_Xj/vi`w   0K>9DUgbxoQDO_Xj/vi`w CIN_IL LDIJINF (]rig`rn Z`jjiúk). (?=>:). Z@J_@SN_IN C@ @CPJNJILK ]POFIJN. NJP@_CL kõg`rl 494 plr `f qu` s` `stnof`j`k klrgns h`k`rnf`s pnrn fn `vnfunjiúk, njr`citn. Jlksuftncl `f ?: c` eukil c`f ?=?= `k5attp5//jlktrlf`sjlfnr.`c `k5attp5//j lktrlf`sjlfnr.`cujnjilk.curnk ujnjilk.curnkhl.hlo.gx/C@ZJN hl.hlo.gx/C@ZJN_HNZ/nju _HNZ/nju `rcl\494.pcdjiúk, `rcl\494. pcdjiúk, prlgljiúk y j`rtidijnjiúk `k fn f n `cujnjiúk oîsijn. Ionrrlfn Kijlfçk, Gnrçn. (?=>?). Fls hrnkc`s prlof`gns c`f sist`gn `cujntivl g`xijnkl. ]`rdif`s `cujntivls, :3(sp`), >4-?1. _`jup`rncl `k >: c` nhlstl c` ?=?=, c` attp5//www.sji`fl.lrh.gx/sji`fl.pap< attp5//www.sji`fl.l rh.gx/sji`fl.pap107Z=>10?491?=>?===0====:&fkh7`s&tfkh7`s.   Cçnz Onrrihn, D. y _ihl, G. (?===). "Dlrgnjiúk clj`kt` y `cujnjiúk onsncn `k

jlgp`t`kjins‗.

_`jup`rncl

c`5

attp5//www.gnt`cu.jikv`stnv.gx/~prly`jtlj`jyt3/f`jt attp5//www.gnt`cu.jikv`stnv.gx/~prl y`jtlj`jyt3/f`jturns/dlrgurns/dlrgjlgp\p=:.pcd jlgp\p=:.p cd PKIC(s/d). _`tls y C`gnkcns @cujntivns c`f Zihfl QQI. _`jup`rncl c`5 attps5//gllcf`?.ukic.`cu.gx/cts\jursls\gc attps5//gllcf`?.ukic.`cu .gx/cts\jursls\gcf/pls/@C/CZ/Z=1/CZ= f/pls/@C/CZ/Z=1/CZ=1\F 1\F `jturn.pcd   ]`rr`kluc, ]. (?==3). Ci`z ku`vns jlgp`t`kjins pnrn `ks`þnr. _`jup`rncl ]`rr`kluc, c`5 attps5//www.uv.gx/chcni`/dif`s/?= attps5//www.uv.gx/chcni`/dif`s/?=>:/=9/]aifipp`-]`rr >:/=9/]aifipp`-]`rr`kluc-Ci`z`kluc-Ci`zku`vnsjlgp`t`kjins-pnrn`ks ku`vnsjlgp` t`kjins-pnrn`ks`knr.pcd  `knr.pcd  

 

  Nkcrnc`, _. (?==1). @f `kdlqu` plr jlgp`t`kjins `k @cujnjiúk. Ic`Ms JLKJYS@H. :9 (:). _`jup`rncl c`5 attp5//www.jlkjyt`h.hlo.gx/ic` `h.hlo.gx/ic`nsJlkjyt`h/Nrjaivls/: nsJlkjyt`h/Nrjaivls/:9=3?==1\ 9=3?==1\@F\@ @F\@ attp5//www.jlkjyt KDL^P@\]L _\JLG]@S@KJINZ\@K\@CPJNJILK.p _\JLG]@S@KJINZ\@K\@CPJNJILK.pcd  cd   Guþls, J. & Zifvn. (?=>:). Fn `cujnjiúk sup`rilr pnrtijufnr y fn cistrioujiúk c` lplrtukicnc`skl.>44. `cujntivnsJlksuftncl `k Géxijl. `f _`vistn `cujnjiúk sup`rilr.vlf.3? 9 c` c` fn eufil `k5 attp5//www.sji`fl.lrh.gx/sji`fl.pap< attp5//www.sji`fl.l rh.gx/sji`fl.pap107Z=>10?84=?=>:===?====3   T`zuo, D. (?==0). C`sndçls pnrn `f prld`slrncl c`f sihfl QQI. _`vistn KP@TN É]LJN. (34). _`jup`rncl c`5 attp5//www.uin.gx/w`o/dif`s/cicnj/34.pcd