Resumen Sistemas de Propulsión

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

]LJ_ÅH ML ]JOL_H[ A@]_JM\KKAÛ@ L`gijoh ihs rlihkaj`ls tlrejma`èeakhs ml`trj ml ih tjolrh y ml ih kèehrh ml kjeoustaû`, hså kjej ihs blrrheal`ths ehtleètakhs phrh khikuihr ijs phrèeltrjs kihvl ml su masløj. [u utaiazhkaû` pra`kaphi ls kjephrhr li kjepjrtheal`tj ml kjbltls, prlmlkar li cu`kaj`heal`tj y hdusthr li masløj h ihs `lklsamhmls. [arvl phrh kuhiqualr ejtjr qul usl ih lxph`saû` ml u` ghs phrh lxpuishr ehsh h grh` vlijkamhm. KJBL]L AMLHI [l phrtl ml u` ciudj ml ih tjolrh khsa u`amael`saj`hi, h ejmj ml saepiacakhkaû` l amlhiazhkaû`. Lstl kj`klptj ls euy ôtai phrh ejtjrls kjbltl quåeakjs y bjy l` måh sl utaiazh (kj` chktjrls ml kjrrlkkaû`)4 • •

• •

  Ijs prjmuktjs ml ihs rlhkkaj`ls quåeakhs sj` bjejgá`ljs y ghsljshs (ghs amlhi).   @j bhy trh`sclrl`kah ml khijr kj` ihs phrlmls mli kjbltl (ciudj hmahoètakj) y ijs lclktjs ml ih khph iåeatl sl mlsprlkah` (`j lxastl crakkaû`).   @j bhy j`mhs ml kbjqul j maskj`ta`uamhmls l` li ciudj ml ih tjolrh  Asl`trûpakj.   ]jmjs ijs ghsls ml ih kjeoustaû` sagul` li ldl ij`gatuma`hi mli kjbltl, y li ciudj ml prjplil`tl ls lsthkaj`hraj y kj`sth`tl (tjmhs sus ehg`atumls ciuamhs theoaá`).

^hrh qul lsths supjsakaj`ls sl kuepih`, phrh khmh tapj ml prjplil`tl sl tal`l` qul mhr u`hs kj`makaj`ls lsplkåcakhs, sjorl tjmj l` ihs ml ijs ghsls ml kjeoustaû` y prjplil`tl. Hmleès, hi tl`lr ciudj asl`trûpakj bhy qul mlsthkhr qul lsl ciudj ls tlrejma`èeakhel`tl rlvlrsaoil. Khol mlsthkhr qul, l` ihs tjolrhs suplrsû`akhs oal` masløhmhs, ih kj`vlrsaû` ml l`lrgåh táreakh l` ka`átakh sl rlhiazh sa` j`mhs ml kbjqul `a maskj`ta`uamhmls, pjr ij qul ihs pármamhs sj` eå`aehs.

CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (_lphsj (_lphsj)) Ihs lkuhkaj`ls sarvl` phrh phrh kuhiqualr phr ml pu`tjs, y ijs i js kèikuijs sl rlhiazh` h phrtar ml ihs i hs kj`makaj`ls ml lsth`kheal`tj4

^hrh ciudj suosû`akj, ih rlihkaû` ml èrlhs (ghrgh`th) pulml slr plquløh (`j sl hprlkah` vhrahkaj`ls ml λ), y phrh ciudj suplrsû`akj lsth rlihkaû` sl pulml bhklr euy grh`ml (sl ( sl lepalzh` h hprlkahr ihs vhrahkaj`ls). ^jr ij qul l` ih ghrgh`th li ciudj mlol tl`lr Ehkb 5 8.

8 

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (Slijkamhm (Slijkamhm)) ^hrh mjs pu`tjs kuhiqualrh ih vlijkamhm mli ciudj sagul ih sagual`tl rlihkaû`4

Kuh`mj li èrlh ml ih kèehrh ls eukbj eès grh`ml qul ih slkkaû` ml ih ghrgh`th, v 8 sl pulml mlsprlkahr, hmleès, ]8 `j macalrl eukbj ml ih tleplrhturh ml lsth`kheal`tj4

Ml ih h`tlrajr lkuhkaû` sl pulml vlr qul, sa huel`thejs ih tleplrhturh ml ijs ghsls, j masea`uaejs ih ehsh ejilkuihr mli prjplil`tl, eldjrhejs li kjepjrtheal`tj mli kjbltl (huel`th` Asp  j S?). Hmleès, ohdh ih rlilvh`kah ml ih rlihkaû` ml prlsaj`ls6 li vhijr eèxaej tlûrakj ml qul, ih vlijkamhm ml shiamh kj`sagul kj`sus u`hpu`tjs lxph`saû` a`ca`ath. Jovahel`tl lstj `jh jkurrl, yh l` ih rlhiamhm, ijs sl ghsls hikh`zh` ml kj`glihkaû` y `j kj`traouyl` ih lxph`saû` ml ijs ghsls. CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ ((Ciudj Ciudj ml ih tjolrh y kj`makaj`ls ml ih ghrgh`th) ghrgh`th ) Ihs tjolrhs tåpakhs sj` kj`jkamhs kjej tjolrhs ml Ml Ihvhi, sj` ihs kj`vlrgl`tls-mavlrgl`tls6 ih ghrgh`th ml ih qul sl val`l bhoih`mj ls li èrlh eå`aeh qul sl kj`sagul l` lstl tapj ml tjolrh.  

\` phrèeltrj phrh tl`lr l` kul`th ls ih rlihkaû` ml lxph`saû` mli èrlh ml ih tjolrh4  5 . 

Ih eèxaeh kh`tamhm ml ciudj pjr èrlh ih l`kj`trhejs l` ih ghrgh`th, y ls hiiå mj`ml sl pulml mhr ih prlsaû` kråtakh (prlsaû` l` ih ghrgh`th). Iilghmjs h lsl pu`tj, tl`lejs u` `ôelrj ml Ehkb aguhi h 8.

Ih phrtl mavlrgl`tl ml ih tjolrh plreatl jotl`lr u`js masea`ukaj`ls l` ih prlsaû` y u` huel`tj l` ih vlijkamhm, ohdj kj`makaj`ls suplrsû`akhs. [a kjrtèslejs ih tjolrh h ih tjolrh h ih hiturh ml ih ghrgh`th, li ciudj ml shiamh ls sû`akj y eèxaej. Ô`akhel`tl pjmlejs ghrh`tazhr hikh`zhr ciudj sû`akj y suplrsû`akj sa ih prlsaû` kråtakh l` ih ghrgh`th sl eh`tal`l4

^jr ij qul sl kj`kiuyl qul bhy trls tapjs ml tjolrh4 suosû`akh, sû`akh y suplrsû`akh. Ls lsth ôitaeh ih qul sl utaiazh phrh kjbltls, yh qul kj`valrtl ml eh`lrh lxklil`tl ih l`thipåh l` l`lrgåh ka`átakh. ? 

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

^hrh kj`slguar ciudj suosû`akj l` ih phrtl mavlrgl`tl, ih tleplrhturh hosjiuth ml ih kèehrh ml kjeoustaû` tal`l qul ohdhr eukbj6 blkbj qul jkurrl l` ihs trh`sakaj`ls ml l`kl`mamjhphghmj. Hmleès, ihs plrturohkaj`ls qul jkurrh` eès hiiè ml ih ghrgh`th h ciudj suplrsû`akj `j tal`l` a`ciul`kah sjorl liih j ih kèehrh. ^jr ij qul sl kj`kiuyl qul, `j sl pulml huel`thr ih vlijkamhm ml ih ghrgh`th j li ciudj eèsakj h el`js qul sl masea`uyh ih prlsaû` ml shiamh  ciudj ‒‒hbjghmj‑‑. Li ciudj eèsakj ls4 Q ih rlihkaû` ml vlijkamhmls phrh u` pu`tj eès hiiè ml ih ghrgh`th4 BHQ \@ LDLE^IJ ML L[]H ^H_]L

CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (Lepudl (Lepudl)) Mloamj hi ciudj suplrsû`akj prjmukamj pjr li ejtjr, ih prlsaû` h ih shiamh ml ih tjolrh pulml qul slh maclrl`tl h ih prlsaû` heoal`tl, pjr ij qul huel`th li lepudl4 [l mlmukl cèkaiel`tl qul li eèxaej lepudl sl jotal`l hi tl`lr u`h prlsaû` heoal`tl aguhi h klrj, qul sl kj`sagul l` li lsphkaj6 li lepudl vhråh. ]heoaá` ls oul`j kj`jklr qul ih kj`makaj`ls ml jplrhkaû` ûptaehs sl kj`sagul` kj` ? 5  > 4

Ih ôitaeh lkuhkaû` phrh jotl`lr ih culrzh ml lepudl, sjij sl pulml hpiakhr l` li khsj ml qul lstlejs lstumah`mj u` kjbltl ‒‒amlhi‑‑, mj`ml li lepudl ls prjpjrkaj`hi h li èrlh ml ih ghrgh`th y h ih prlsaû` ml ih kèehrh ml l`trhmh h ih tjolrh. Ihs jtrhs mjs praelrhs sj` gl`lrhils. CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (Kjlcakal`tl lepudl) (Kjlcakal`tl ml lepudl) Li kjlcakal`tl ml lepudl rlprlsl`th ih hepiacakhkaû` mli lepudl mloamj h ih lxph`saû` mli ghs, kjephrhmj kj` li qul sl jotl`mråh sa ih prlsaû` l` ih kèehrh hktuhsl sjorl li èrlh ml ih ghrgh`th ô`akhel`tl. [l lxprlsh (a`marlkthel`tl) l` cu`kaû` ml ih rlihkaû` ml èrlhs ml ih tjolrh, ml ih rlihkaû` ml prlsaj`ls h ij ihrgj ml lsth y ml ih ktl. ml khijrls lsplkåcakjs. \` hsplktj mlsthkhoil ls ih a`mlpl`ml`kah kj` ih tleplrhturh l` ih ghrgh`th4

Kjej sl pulml kjeprjohr, li lepudl y su kjlcakal`tl, tal`l` u` pakj l` li pu`tj mlca`amj h`tlrajrel`tl kjej pu`tj ml jplrhkaû` ûptaeh. Lstl kjlcakal`tl kj lcakal`tl jskaih l`trl >.2 y 8.1 (amlhi). Grhkahs h ái sl pulml` vlr ijs kheoajs ml prlsaû` l` ih kèehrh h maclrl`tls hitatumls. ; 

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

(Slijkamhm khrhktlråstakh l aepuisj lsplkåcakj) CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (Slijkamhm lsplkåcakj) Ih vlijkamhm khrhktlråstakh sl l`kul`trh l` cu`kaû` ml ihs khrhktlråstakhs mli prjplil`tl, mli masløj ml ih kèehrh ml kèehrh ml kjeoustaû` y ls a`mlpl`mal`tl ml ihs khrhktlråstakhs ml ih tjolrh. [u usj pra`kaphi ls li ml kjephrhr li kjepjrtheal`tj ml ijs masta`tjs prjplil`tls y masløjs ml ih kèehrh ml kjeoustaû`. [u lkuhkaû` phsh ml slr gl`lrhi h jcrlklr`js li eèxaej4

BHQ \@ LDLE^IJ ML L[]H ^H_]L

CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (]jolrhs (]jolrhs suo/sjorl lxph`mamhs) lxph`mamhs) \`h tjolrh suolxph`mamh, mlskhrgh li ciudj h u`h prlsaû` suplrajr h ih ml heoal`tl, pjrqul li èrlh ml shiamh ls mlehsahmj plquløh phrh kj`slguar u`h rlihkaû` ml èrlhs ûptaeh6 ih lxph`saû` (a`kjepilth) mlol kj`ta`uhr culrh ml ih tjolrh. \`h tjolrh sjorllxph`mamh, hikh`zh u`h prlsaû` el`jr h ih ml heoal`tl, pjrqul li èrlh ml shiamh ls mlehsahmj grh`ml phrh hikh`zhr ih kj`cagurhkaû` ûptaeh. Li kjepjrtheal`tj `j-amlhi ml ihs tjolrhs lstè hithel`tl a`ciul`kahmj pjr ih hphrakaû` ml j`mhs ml kjeprlsaû` (huel`tj lxpj`l`kahi ml prlsaû`) y j`mhs j `mhs ml kbjqul, l` li a`tlrajr ml ih slkkaû` mavlrgl`tl ml ih tjolrh. Ihs maclrl`tls kj`makaj`ls qul sl pulml` l`kj`trhr sj`4 8.  8.  Ih prlsaû` lxtlr`h ls a`clrajr h ih prlsaû` ml shiamh ml ih tjolrh (suolxph`mamh), hmleès,   y   tal`l` vhijrls a`clrajrls h ijs ml u`h lxph`saû` ûptaeh. ?.  ?.  Ih prlsaû` lxtlr`h ls iaglrhel`tl suplrajr h ih prlsaû` ml shiamh ml ih tjolrh (iaglrhel`tl sjorllxph`mamh), tal`l iughr kuh`mj ? 5 ( >.?<  >.=) ∗ > .    y   slguarè` tl`al`mj vhijrls a`clrajrls h ijs ûptaejs, y ihs j`mh ml kbjqul slguarè` tl`al`mj iughr culrh ml ih slkkaû` ml shiamh. ;.  ;.  ^hrh prlsaj`ls eès hiths, li ciudj sl slphrhrè l` ih zj`h mavlrgl`tl, y ih zj`h mj`ml sl prjmukl mlpl`mlrè ml ih prlsaû` ijkhi y ml ih kurvh ml ih phrlm. Lstl lclktj prjmukarè u`h maskj`ta`uamhm l` lsl pu`tj (sl rlmukl lepudl), mloamj h qul li ciudj suplrsû`akj lstè rjmlhmj pjr tjmjs ihmjs ml ciudj suosû`akj. =.  Ih prlsaû` ml shiamh sl l`kul`trh u` pjkj pjr mlohdj mli vhijr ml ih prlsaû` ml l`trhmh h ih tjolrh, pjr ij qul li ciudj suosû`akj prlvhilkl murh`tl tjmh ih tjolrh  rlihkaû` ml prlsaj`ls pjr mlohdj mli pu`tj ml rlihkaû` kråtakj. Murh`tl ijs prjklsjs ml trh`sakaû`, kjej li l`kl`mamj y hphghmj, ih slphrhkaû` mli ciudj pulml qul `j slh hxai-saeátrakh, hmleès ml prjvjkhr culrzhs ihtlrhils qul prjvjkh` chiijs l` ih lstrukturh ml shiamh y l` ijs hktuhmjrls qul maragl` li ciudj. Kuh`mj sl mh lsth satuhkaû`,   sl pulml lstaehr sa sl kj`jkl makbj pu`tj ml slphrhkaû` (tjolrh lquavhil`tl). Hi slphrhrsl li ciudj l` u`h tjolrh masløhmh phrh u`h prlsaû` heoal`tl el`jr, jotl`lejs eès lepudl h `avli mli ehr qul li qul sl lsplrh (el`js qul l` kj`makaj`ls ûptaehs), plrj sl tal`l u` plsj a``lklshraj ml ih zj`h qul `j sl lstè utaiazh`mj  `j qulrlejs slphrhkaû`. Li kjbltl jplrh l` u` rh`gj ml hitatumls6 sjij l` u`h mltlrea`hmh kj`slguarlejs ih kj`makaû` ml lxph`saû` ûptaeh, pjr ij qul, ih eldjr tjolrh slrè hquliih qul ijgrh u` ehyjr rl`maeal`tj mli vulij mli vlbåkuij. = 

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

CI\DJ A[L@]_Û^AKJ H ]_HSÁ[ ML ]JOL_H[ (A`ciul`kah ghrgh`th) (A`ciul`kah ml ih gljeltråh ml ih ghrgh`th) [a ih kèehrh pjsll u`h slkkaû` trh`svlrshi, li kuèmrupil ml grh`ml qul li èrlh ml ih ghrgh`th, ih vlijkamhm ml ih kèehrh 8  pulml slr mlsprlkahmh. Hu`qul, mloamj h iaeathkaj`ls ml lsphkaj j ml plsj, li èrlh ml ih kèehrh tl`mråh qul slr eès plquløh y pjr ij th`tj 8  `j sl mlsprlkahrè. Li prjklsj ml hklilrhkaû` ml ijs ghsls l` ih kèehrh ls hmahoètakj (`j bhy trh`sclrl`kah ml khijr), plrj `j ls asl`trûpakj. L` li khsj ml qul tuvaáslejs u` ejtjr kjbltl sa` ghrgh`th, tl`mråhejs ih ehyjr pármamh l` lstl tapj ml kj`cagurhkaû` (sjij sl usû l` easails). Hi tl`lr u`h rlihkaû` ml èrlhs l`trl ih ml ih kèehrh y ih ml ih ghrgh`th aguhi h u`j, ih prlsaû` h ih l`trhmh ml ih tjolrh ls el`jr, y sl prjmukl` pármamhs ml lepudl l aepuisj lsplkåcakj.

KJ@CAG\_HKAJ@L[ ML IH ]JOL_H (A`trjmukkaû` (A`trjmukkaû`)) @jrehiel`tl, ihs tjolrhs lstè` kjepulsths ml trls phrtls oal` maclrl`kahmhs4 •

•

•

  [lkkaû` kj`vlrgl`tl   zj`h l`trl ih kèehrh y ih ghrgh`th. [aleprl hikh`zh oul` rl`maeal`tj, pjr ij qul mh aguhi ih gljeltråh ml lsth, qul li ciudj suosû`akj sl hmhpthrè.   Ghrgh`th  ml aguhi ejmj qul l` ih h`tlrajr slkkaû`, `j aepjrth ih gljeltråh, yh qul `j sl hikh`zhrè` ml `a`gô` ejmj ihs kj`makaj`ls kj `makaj`ls kråtakhs. Li ciudj sl eh`tal`l hmblramj l` heohs mloamj hi grhmal`tl ml prlsaû` th` hitj qul tal`l`.   [lkkaû` mavlrgl`tl  `j sl kjepjrth kjej ihs mjs h`tlrajrls, l` lsth phrtl, ih tjolrh mlol tl`lr u`h kurvhturh suhvl y u` hkhohmj oraiih`tl phrh ea`aeazhr ih crakkaû` y li a`tlrkheoaj ml khijr mli ciudj kj` ihs phrlmls ml ih tjolrh (rugjsamhm hclkth).

[l kj`samlrh u`h oul`h tjolrh, kuh`mj jotl`lejs u`   ij eès hitj pjsaoil y ea`aeazhejs li thehøj ml lsth6 rlmukal`mj hså ih ehsh a`lrtl y ih lstrukturh mli vlbåkuij. ]jolrhs kj` cjreh ml kj`j) kj`j) KJ@CAG\_HKAJ@L[ ML IH ]JOL_H ((]jolrhs Ls ih eès h`taguh y saepil ml tjmhs6 pjr ih chkaiamhm ml su kj`strukkaû`. [l utaiazh u` chktjr ml kjrrlkkaû` tlûrakj ζ, phrh rlihkaj`hr li ejel`tj khushmj pjr ih tjolrh amlhi (ghsls ô`akhel`tl l` marlkkaû` hxahi) y li ejel`tj rlhi qul sl jotal`l h ih shiamh ml lsth. Li è`guij ml mavlrgl`kah ml ih tjolrh ls ? , y lstl chktjr ml kjrrlkkaû`, `js ora`mh hmleès ih vlijkamhm ml lskhpl ml lsth. \`h tjolrh kj` u` è`guij ml mavlrgl`kah plquløj `js mh u` ejel`tj hxahi y u`   hitj, plrj hi tl`lr u`h ij`gatum ehyjr, li masløj ls eès kjepildj (plsj). Q u`h tjolrh kj` è`guij ml mavlrgl`kah hitj, tal`l u` rl`maeal`tj ohdj, hu`qul u` masløj saepil mloamj h ih rlmukkaû` mli plsj. Khol mlsthkhr qul ih kj`cagurhkaû` ûptaeh ml lsth tjolrh ih l`kj`trhejs kuh`mj li è`guij ml mavlrgl`kah sl satôh l`trl ?= y ;3. ]jolrhs kj` cjreh ml kheph`h) kheph`h) KJ@CAG\_HKAJ@L[ ML IH ]JOL_H ((]jolrhs Bjy l` måh ls ih eès utaiazhmh, tal`l u` è`guij euy gr grh`ml h`ml l` ih zj`h a`elmahthel`tl pjstlrajr h ih ghrgh`th (grhmal`tl ml prlsaû` hitj y lxph`saû` rèpamh), hu`qul mlspuás sl suhvazh. Ih lxph`saû` suplrsû`akh l` lstl tapj ml tjolrhs ls ihs eès lcakal`tl, mloamj h qul ih kurvhturh k urvhturh ml ih tjolrh lstè masløhmh phrh ea`aeazhr pármamhs. Kuh`mj li ghs sl lxph`ml h trhvás ml ih zj`h mavlrgl`tl, prlvaj phsj pjr ih ghrgh`th, sl prjmukl` u`hs j`mhs ml lxph`saû` (sa` pármamh ml l`lrgåh), qul pulml` kheoahr ih marlkkaû` mli ciudj suplrsû`akj. L` lshs zj`hs, ih prlsaû` y tleplrhturh masea`uyl. ´, plrj _hj hprjxaeû ih kurvhturh ml lstl tapj ml tjolrh h ih kurvh ml u`h phrèojih. Lsth hprjxaehkaû`, `js ora`mhrè ml `ulvj, chktjrls ml kjrrlkkaû` qul sl hpiakhrè` mli easej ejmj qul li ml ihs tjolrhs kû`akhs. [l kj`kiuyl ml lsth rlihkaû` l`trl ih tjolrh kû`akh y ih ml cjreh ml kheph`h, qul lsth ôitaeh ls aguhi j eès lcakal`tl qul ih praelrh, hmleès ml plshr y elmar el`js6 saleprl qul `js satulejs l` pjrkl`thdls l`trl li 7   8>

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

KJE^J_]HEAL@]J ML S\LIJ Mlskrapkaû`)) L[^HKAJ ML S\LIJ IAO_L ML _L[A[]L@KAH Q G_HSLMHM ((Mlskrapkaû` Lstl h`èiasas mli vulij ml u` kjbltl sl hpiakh l` u` l`tjr`j oèsakhel`tl lsphkahi, mj`ml ih marlkkaû` mli lepudl ls ih easeh qul ih ml vulij y sl lxprlsh l` u` sastleh u`amael`saj`hi. L[^HKAJ ML S\LIJ IAO_L ML _L[A[]L@KAH Q G_HSLMHM (Ehsh vlbåkuij) (Ehsh mli vlbåkuij) [l hsuel qul li ciudj ml prjplil`tl ls kj`sth`tl4

Ih ehsh a`akahi hi mlsplgul ls aguhi h ih sueh ml ih ehsh ml prjplil`tl y ih ehsh ca`hi mli vlbåkuij. Ih ehsh ca`hi j ml vhkåj mli vlbåkuij lquavhil h ih sueh ml ihs ehsh a`lrtls ml tjmjs ijs kjepj`l`tls mli sastleh ejtjr, lilktrû`akh, khrgh ml phgj y sastlehs ml kj`trji y hktuhkaû` ml lstl.

(Lkuhkaû` mli kjbltl) L[^HKAJ ML S\LIJ IAO_L ML _L[A[]L@KAH Q G_HSLMHM (Lkuhkaû` kjbltl) Hi ejmacakhr ih slgu`mh lkuhkaû` ml @lwtj`, y tl`al`mj l` kul`th qul li prjplil`tl ls ca`atj y sl suea`astrh ml cjreh kj`ta`uh4

Hi a`tlgrhr ih h`tlrajr lxprlsaû` `js iilvh h mlmukar eèxaej a`krlel`tj ml ih vlijkamhm mli prjplil`tl mlspuás ml su hgjtheal`tj. Khol mlsthkhr qul ls li eèxaej a`krlel`tj ml vlijkamhm qul sl pulml kj`slguar kj` grhvlmhm a`lxastl`tl y ciudj kj`sth`tl ml prjplil`tl. Lstl kj`klptj sl sulil utaiazhr phrh l`tl`mlr ih a`ciul`kah ml ijs phrèeltrjs oèsakjs6 sal`mj ih a`ciul`kah ml ih crhkkaû` ml ehsh ml prjplil`tl ijghråteakh4

Hmleès, lstl a`krlel`tj ml ih vlijkamhm ml vulij ls prjpjrkaj`hi ls ih vlijkamhm lclktavh ml shiamh ‒‒k‑‑ y pjr ij th`tj hi aepuisj lsplkåcakj. ^jr ij qul kuhiqualr a`krlel`tj l` lstl ôitaej, sl rlcildh l` u` rl`maeal`tj eldjr mli vlbåkuij, hu`qul a`krlel`th`mj ih ehsh a`lrtl mli vlbåkuij l` grh` elmamh. 88   88

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

A`trjmukkaû`)) L]H^H[ ML IJ[ SLBÅK\IJ[ KJBL]L ((A`trjmukkaû` Hu`qul ih ehyjråh ml ijs vlbåkuijs kjbltl qul sl chorakh`, sj` sjij ml u`h sjih lthph y u` sjij usj, lsths mlkasaj`ls `js iaeath` ih khrgh ml phgj qul pulml` iilvhr6 yh qul bhy qul tl`lr l` kul`th tjmhs ihs eh`ajorhs ml ih trhylktjrah y ihs rlsastl`kahs qul sl ldlrkl`. ^jr ij qul l` easaj`ls eès ‒‒heoakajshs‑‑, sl lepilh` mjs j eès lthphs. L]H^H[ ML IJ[ SLBÅK\IJ[ KJBL]L (Slbåkuijs euitalthph) (Slbåkuijs kjbltl euitalthph) Li usj ml lstl tapj ml vlbåkuijs `js plreatl rlhiazhr easaj`ls eès kjepildhs y qul rlqualrl` ehyjr khrgh6 yh qul `js iaolrhejs ml ih ehsh a`lrtl u`h vlz sl bh hgjthmj li prjplil`tl qul bhkåh qul cu`kaj`hsl y `js prjpjrkaj`hsl lepudl. [l sulil` utaiazhr ml ? h 3 lthphs. Ih khrgh ml phgj ls marlkthel`tl prjpjrkaj`hi h ih ehsh hi mlsplgul, ij qul bhkl qul phrh ehshs plquløhs ih mli euitalthph `j sl masth`kal eukbj ml ih ml phgj, plrj sa lepalzh h slr eukbh ehsh, ihs kacrhs sl vulivl` kj`samlrhoils. Ml hquå theoaá` sl mlmukl qul ijs a`krlel`tjs ml vlijkamhm ml u` vlbåkuij euitalthph sl pulml` hgruphr l` u` suehraj qul iijs js l`gijoh4 Hmleès, sa rlhiazhejs ih saepiacakhkaû` l` ohsl h u` l`tjr`j iaorl ml grhvlmhm, sl pulml lxprlshr kjej4 Jovahel`tl, sa quasaáslejs jotl`lr u`js vhijrls rlhils ml ijs a`krlel`tjs ml vlijkamhm, tl`mråhejs qul a`tlgrhrihs tl`al`mj l` kul`th ihs rlsastl`kahs, ltkátlrh6 sl rlqulraråh` sjiukaj`ls `ueárakhs. Ih lthph qul kj`tal`l li ejtjr kjbltl kj` u`   eès hitj, sl utaiazh hi ca`hi ml ihs easaj`ls, yh qul h elmamh qul sl a`krlel`th ih hitatum h ih qul sl l`kul`trh li vlbåkuij, `js ora`mh u` rl`maeal`tj eukbj eldjr. ^jr ij qul hquliijs ejtjrls kj` u` lepudl eès pjtl`tl sl utaiazhrè` l` ihs praelrhs lthphs. BHQ \@ LDLE^IJ ML L[]H ^H_]L

Ih kh`tamhm ml eldjrh mli rl`maeal`tj ml pjtl`kah masea`uyl hi høhmar lthphs h `ulstrj vlbåkuij, hmleès ml kjepiakhkaj`ls6 pjr lsj sl ouskh` li eå`aej ml lthphs qul kuepil` ijs rlquasatjs (khrgh ml phgj l a`krlel`tj ml vlijkamhm). Hmleès, theoaá` kheoahrè` ih ruth mli vulij l` cu`kaû` mli `ôelrj ml lthphs y sus phrèeltrjs. Ls mlkar, saleprl sl ouskhrè u` `ôelrj ûptaej ml lthphs, du`tj kj` u`h mastraoukaû` ûptaeh ml ih ehsh y u`h ruth ûptaeh6 phrh qul ijs phrèeltrjs kihvls slh` eèxaejs. L]H^H[ Û^]AEH[ ^H_H SLBÅK\IJ[ KJBL]L ]hi kjej sl bh vastj h`tlrajrel`tl, ih vlijkamhm ca`hi ml u`h lthph ls ih easeh qul ih vlijkamhm a`akahi ml ih sagual`tl. Hsuearlejs ml `ulvj, qul `j lxastl culrzh ml grhvlmhm. Khol mlsthkhr qul ‒‒@‑‑, ls li `ôelrj ml lthphs. Li prjoileh kj`sastarè l` ea`aeazhr ih rlihkaû` ml ehshs, mj`ml li `uelrhmjr ls ih ehsh ml ih lthph hi mlsplgul, y li ml`jea`hmjr ls ih ehsh tjthi ca`hi ml ih khrgh ml phgj. Kjej li mhtj mhmj ls li a`krlel`tj ml vlijkamhm, y qulrlejs jotl`lr ih crhkkaû` ml ehshs eès jptaeh, tl`mrlejs qul lxprlshrih l` cu`kaû` ml ih crhkkaû` ml ehshs ml ihs jtrh lthphs. 8?   8?

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

Hmleès, hi slr ih ehsh a`akahi ml ih sagual`tl lthph, ih rlsth l`trl ih ehsh a`akahi ml ih qul il prlklml y ih ehsh mli prjplil`tl utaiazhmj y ih ehsh a`lrtl qul sl bh mlsprl`mamj4

Lsth ôitaeh aguhimhm, sl pulml lxprlshr l` cu`kaû` ml masta`ths vhrahoils, tl`al`mj l` kul`th qul sl lxprlshr ih rlihkaû` ml ehshs tjthi l` tárea`js ml ihs rlihkaj`ls ml ehsh ml ihs masta`ths lthphs y u` `ulvj chktjr lstrukturhi4

[a qulrlejs kj`slguar li eå`aej ml ih rlihkaû` ml èrlhs, kj`slguaejs h su vlz li eå`aej mli ijghratej qul ijs kj`tal`l. Hu` hså, `j lstè lxprlshmh ih aguhimhm l` cu`kaû` mli a`krlel`tj ml ih vlijkamhm, pjr liij, bhklejs usj mli eátjmj euitapiakhmjr ml Ihgrh`gl4

Li prjoileh `js prjpjrkaj`hrè li a`krlel`tj ml vlijkamhm, li chktjr lstrukturhi y ih vlijkamhm ml shiamh, phrh qul `jsjtrjs hvlragùlejs ih rlihkaû` ml ehshs ml khmh lthph (bhoal`mj lvhiuhmj ih kj`sth`tl ζ). BHQ ]_L[ LDLE^IJ[ ML L[]H ^H_]L

S\LIJ H]EJ[CÁ_AKJ (Culrzhs (Culrzhs hktuh`mj l` u` vlbåkuij kj` ejtjr kjbltl) kjbltl) [l l`kul`trh li lepudl (marlkkaû` mli ldl ml ih tjolrh), ihs htrhkkaj`ls grhvathkaj`hils (vhråh` slgô` ih masth`kah h ih talrrh y ih pjsakaû` rlsplktj ml liih) y ihs culrzhs hlrjma`èeakhs. Lsths ôitaehs, sl mavaml` l` rlsastl`kah y sustl`thkaû`6 khol mlsthkhr qul, l` lstl tapj ml vlbåkuij, li è`guij ml hthqul slrè euy plquløj, y qul ijs ghsls ml ih kjeoustaû` hclkth` h su vhijr.

_lihkaj`ls oèsakhs mli ejvaeal`tj) ejvaeal`tj) S\LIJ H]EJ[CÁ_AKJ ((_lihkaj`ls [l hsuel qul li vlbåkuij sl eulvl l` iå`lh rlkth Kj` tjmhs ihs culrzhs qul hktôh` sjorl ái sal`mj klrj, ih trhylktjrah ls oamael`saj`hi y qul ih marlkkaû` ml vulij `j kja`kaml kj` ih marlkkaû` mli lepudl. 8;   8;

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

Kjej blejs makbj h`tls ih sueh ml ihs culrzhs mlol slr klrj4

_lsuith jovaj mlmukar qul `j lxastl sjiukaû` gl`lrhi phrh lsths lkuhkaj`ls, yh qul khmh u`j ml lstjs phrèeltrjs mlpl`ml` mli talepj, ih hitatum y li tapj ml easaû`. Lsths satuhkaj`ls sl pulml` saepiacakhr slgô` li tapj ml hpiakhkaû`, plrj phrh jotl`lr rlsuithmjs sucakal`tlel`tl prlkasjs6 phrh h`èiasas ml trhylktjrahs, sl mlolrè` tl`lr l` kul`th eès phrèeltrjs hô`. Hu` hså, sa li sastleh ml joslrvhkaû` ls oul`j, sl pulml mltlrea`hr li lepudl pjr aepuisj lsplkåcakj hktuhi ml vlbåkuijs l` vulij. [a `js l`kj`trhejs h`tl u` vlbåkuij kj` ejtjr kjbltl tapj, sl pulml` saepiacakhr lsths lkuhkaj`ls, hsueal`mj qul `j lxastl` culrzhs mlravhmhs mli val`tj y quá ih marlkkaû` ml vulij ls ih easeh qul ih mli lepudl4 [a qulrlejs jotl`lr ih lxprlsaû` h`tlrajr hpiakhmh h u` vulij tjthiel`tl vlrtakhi, mlolejs lepilhr u` è`guij ml vulij aguhi h 1> grhmjs, hmleès ml a`tlgrhr ih lxprlsaû` tl`al`mj l` kul`th qul `ulstrj vlbåkuij phshrè ih ehyjråh ml su vulij l` ih hteûsclrh tlrrlstrl4

Li tárea`j ml ih hklilrhkaû` grhvathkaj`hi ls saleprl `lghtavj, plrj su ehg`atum ls plquløh så li talepj ml ih kjeoustaû` ls plquløj j li vulij sl rlhiasth l` ûroaths hiths j l` li lsphkaj mj`ml ih a`tl`samhm grhvathtjrah ls å`caeh.

LCLK]J MLI [A[]LEH ^_J^\I[J_ L@ LI _L@MAEAL@]J MLI SLBÅK\IJ ((Kj`sldjs Kj`sldjs)) 8.  8.  Li a`krlel`tj ca`hi ml vlijkamhm sl pulml huel`thr kj`sagual`mj u` aepuisj lsplkåcakj ehyjr, j ij qul ls ij easej, u`h vlijkamhm lclktavh ml shiamh ehyjr. [l kj`sagul kj` u` prjplil`tl eès pjtl`tl j kj` u`h prlsaû` l` ih kèehrh ehyjr. ?.  ?.  Hi tl`lr ih rlihkaû` ml ehshs u` lclktj ijghråteakj ij ghråteakj l` ihs lkuhkaj`ls sl pulml eldjrhr ml mavlrsjs ejmjs4   [l rlmukl li ml`jea`hmjr, ls mlkar, ih ehsh ca`hi, kj`struyl`mj u` kjbltl ml •

eh`lrh qul ih ehsh a`lrtl sl vhyh rlmukal`mj y sus sastlehs slh` eès lcakal`tls. 8=   8=

 

Grhm hmj4 j4A` A`g. g.H Hlr lrjls jlsph phka kahi hil l` `vl vlbå båku kuij ijs shl hlrj rjls lsph phka kahi hils ls   Gr

     Dhva D hvalr lr_ _jo joils ils[ [lv lvai aiih ih`j `j

 Hsag`hturh4[astlehsmlprjpu  Hsag`hturh4 [astlehsmlprjpuisaû` isaû`

  [l a`krlel`th li ml`jea`hmjr, ls mlkar, ih ehsh a`akahi, huel`th`mj li lepudl j høhmal`mj eès prjplil`tl. ;.  ;.  Hi rlmukar li talepj ml kjeoustaû` sl rlmukl ih pármamh grhvathkaj`hi, hu`qul prjmukarè qul ih rlihkaû` ml ehshs slh el`js chvjrhoil6 mloamj hi huel`tj ml hklilrhkaû` rlqulramh. =.  =.  Ih rlsastl`kah sl pulml rlmukar ml = ejmjs masta`tjs4   Bhkal`mj u`h `hraz mli kjbltl eès lsolith y kj` cjreh ml pu`th. Hmleès ml •

•

u`h kurvhturh suhvl y u` oul` hkhohmj ml ih suplrcakal.   Kj`sagual`mj u`h slkkaû` ml èrlh trh`svlrshi el`jr6 huel`th`mj ih ml`samhm mli prjplil`tl, pjr ldlepij. Hvlraguh`mj ih ij`gatum y kurvhturh ûptaeh ml ih tjolrh, qul `j saleprl sj` ijs vhijrls eå`aejs. [l pulml huel`thr ih vlijkamhm ca`hi sa sl huel`th ih vlijkamhm a`akahi, ih`zh`mj li kjbltl mlsml u` vlbåkuij ih`zhmjr j ih`zh`mj li kjbltl l` marlkkaû` lstl mloamj h qul sl il høhml ih vlijkamhm ml rjthkaû` ml ih talrrh. Bhkal`mj usj ml ihs plquløhs hihs qul pjsll `ulstrj vlbåkuij, pjmlejs kj`trhrrlsthr ihs pármamhs grhvathkaj`hils kj` ih sustl`thkaû`6 hmleès eldjrhr ih eh`ajorhoaiamhm. [a ih vlijkamhm ml vulij sl hklrkh l` grh` elmamh h ih vlijkamhm ml lskhpl, ih lcakal`kah prjpuisavh vh huel`th`mj, phrh tlrea`hr kj`sagual`mj u`h eldjr kj`vlrsaû` ih l`lrgåh ml lskhpl l`lrgåh ml vulij. •