Research Topics, Questions, Hypotheses

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Chapter Chapter 4 Research Topics, Research Questions and H ypoth ypot h eses

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Distinguish between a research topic, a research question, and an hypothesis, showing how the three items inter-relate. 2. Describe the process of research topic selection and indicate what constitutes a good research topic. 3. Explain the process of research question selection and the parameters of a good research question. 4. Explain the process of hypothesis or proposition selection and the requirements for a strong and symmetrical hypothesis. 5. Describe a range of research question selection and appraisal techniques, including brainstorming, De Bono’s Six Hat Method, and SWOT analysis. 6. Distinguish between deductive and inductive research approaches, and the effect these can have on the selection of research topics and research questions. 7. Discuss how the research question and hypothesis or proposition relate to the overall research process. 4-1

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.1 Introduction Conventional academic commentaries on the research process suggest that the selection of the research question occurs after the study of the literature and the familiarisation with the field are complete. The research  proc  proces esss is assu assume med d to be line linear ar and and sequ sequen enti tial al,, with with the the defi defini niti tion on of the the research question representing a systematic focusing of the scope of the research, a narrowing of many potential studies down to one. There is a deliberate and well-founded logic to this, based on making decisions decisions from a position of knowledge and a wide perspective. It is based on the  prem  premis isee that that if the the rese resear arch ch ques questi tion on and and the the defi defini niti tion on of the the enti entire re research project are not considered against a broad setting, the results are unlikely to be widely applicable. The act of defining the research question usually involves producing an explicit written statement about the boundaries of the research project, in terms of the scope of its coverage, and commenting on the assumptions, which are being made. The research question or its justification may also stipulate specific issues, which the research will not cover. You should  begi  begin n the the iden identi tifi fica cati tion on of your your rese resear arch ch ques questi tion on by firs firstt fina finali lisi sing ng the the research topic.

Activity

In this chapter will be involved in the process of selecting a research topic and a research question. You will require a realistic or actual issue to act as a focus for the activities. If you do not already have a specific research field in mind for your dissertation, choose one for which you have rounded background knowledge. Record it in the box below now, before starting work on the chapter. Research Field:

4.1 Research Topic Selection 4.1.1 Research field 4-2

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

When you have completed the literature review, you may find that the maturity of knowledge in the research field significantly influences the final selection of your research topic. Highly evolved research fields, such as the physical and chemical sciences, progress by building upon a vast and established body of knowledge. The research conventions and methodologies methodologies are usual usu ally ly well defined, and therefore the selection selec tion of a research topic and research question is generally a fairly straightforward exercise. In contrast, emerging research fields tend to be turbulent and are often characterised by the fluidity of their definitions and theories and rapidly changing boundaries. These research fields usually reach maturity before a significant amount of research can progress in a co-ordinated manner. In such instances, the research topics, contemporary literature, and associate associated d research methodologies tend to be exploratory in nature (such as happened recently with the fields of quality and environmentalism). Here the selection of a coherent research topic and research question, which will not date rapidly, can be more challenging. For construction, and in particular construction management, the research field appears to be approaching an intermediate phase, where an emerging consensus on some fundamental issues will start to offer a sufficient body of knowledge to explore specific research questions in a co-ordinated o-ordinated manner.

For now there are still so many issues requiring

attention that finding an issue to research is not difficult. The difficulty often lies in identifying a base for your conceptual foundations and research question. You can best accommodate the differences in maturity of the research fields and their contemporary research approaches by adopting different topic selection techniques and research methodologies. In order to do so, it is worthwhile to consider the principles of research topic selection and the definition of research questions more closely.

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4.2 Selection Process If you are approaching research in a commercial sense, the topic may be  pre-de  pre-dete term rmin ined ed..

For For acad academ emic ics, s, and and rese resear arch ch stud studen ents ts in part partic icul ular ar,,

however, it is common to have the scope to select your own research topic. In such cases, it is most important that you take a systematic approach to how you select a topic. It is possible that when you approach the research field that you will already have preconceptions of what the study should entail, also your previous experience will suggest what is a useful and practical output and what isn’t, or what the industry may or may not need. Where you have the choice over the direction of the research you should choose a topic which interests you, but it is important not to let this overshadow your objectivity in how you tackle the project. In selecting a topic based on personal preference, there are distinct advantages to having a personal interest in a subject. Personal research can be a lonely  path  path,, and and in the the peri period odss when when prog progre ress ss appe appear arss to be slow slow,, it is impo import rtan antt to have a deep commitment to the issues, which you are grappling with. Where research is conducted under commercial circumstances and the topic is dictated, di ctated, this can still work well for the individual researcher, since there will be a focus from an early stage of the project and there will usually be benefits of explicit support within the organisation in terms of resources and access to data and experience. Where there is an extensive body of existing knowledge in the research field, this can tend to predetermine the methodological conventions and scope for new research work. In the context of problem-solving research, this can give a great boost to the project, whereas in personal academic research a large body of existing research can be a barrier to identifying a short and self-contained self- contained (but pertinent) piece of research.

In the

established academic disciplines, such as the physical sciences, this can mean that a great deal of background familiarisation is needed before an apparently small step forward can be made. The contrasting situation of a research field with little or no existing published research findings can mean that the first steps in a project are very difficult, since there is a scarcity of agreed knowledge or research conventions upon which to

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

 buil  build. d. In eith either er of thes thesee circ circum umsta stanc nces es ther theree may may be unce uncert rtain aintie tiess over over how generally applicable your findings will be.

Activity

version of your research researc h topic now and record it here. It may change as you progress through the chapter. Is your research topic accessible to quantitative or qualitative analysis, or  both  both?? Why Why?? Record your thoughts here;

4.3 Inductive And Deductive Research As we saw in Chapter 1, the conventional process of research is that you commence by analysing the literature, you identify and state a single selected problem, from which you then isolate the major research question(s) for which which the existing knowled knowledge ge is inadequate. inadequa te. Based Based on this, you formulate a hypothesis (usually accompanied by a series of subhypotheses), collect the necessary data using an appropriate research methodology, and analyse your findings in terms of the existing knowledge as you found it. Note that the hypothesis may be in the form of a conceptual model. If the testing of your hypothesis illuminates new knowledge either way, that is the hypothesis is clearly proven/ unproven (unusual) or partly proven/ disproven (more normal), you may be able to answer the purpose of the research, perhaps even make a contribution to knowledge. This exercise starts with your presentation and analysis of the existing work in the field. This will probably need to cover issues such as the  prin  princi cipa pall theo theori ries es and and the the dist distin inct ctio ions ns betw betwee een n them them,, perh perhap apss maki making ng a 4-5

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

statement about the evidence to support existing data and findings, The  purp  purpos osee behi behind nd this this is to ensu ensure re that that the the rese resear arch ch topi topicc is wort worthy hy of contributing resources to its study, and also to define the foundations upon which these studies can build. The major research questions could arise from a variety of circumstances, such as the identifiable gaps between existing theories or evidence. Where there are overlaps between findings or theories, there may be contradictions, which you wish to explore. Apparently sound findings may simply be out of date and need repeating for today’s context. In some cases, the assumptions underlying previous research may render them invalid for your application. In these circumstances, your research might focus on testing others’ findings in your own context. If you were working within the scientific method paradigm (see Chapter 6), you would next go on to identify your hypothetical answers and  pref  prefer erre red d

meth method odol olog ogy y

for for

gath gather erin ing g

the the

evi evidence dence

to

test test

these these

hypotheses. By considering these issues now you can filter the research questions on the basis of availability of data or methodological expertise. The advocates of some alternative methodological paradigms dispute that this is always the most appropriate way of selecting realistic research topics and research questions. The main arguments against the scientific method hinge on the constraints which its methodological paradigms  plac  placee upon upon real realis ism. m. Unde Undert rtak akin ing g a line linear ar and and foca focall appr approa oach ch to research research tends to stifle the open-ended questioning from which new perspectives and new knowledge comes. In essence the scientific method, or deductive approach, is claimed to perpetuate the methodology and assumptions underlying existing work and therefore constrain novelty. Certainly the conventional research process presents the researcher with conventional views and methodologies, but this may be a strength rather than a weakness for the novice researcher. In the context of an industry  base  based d

upon upon engi engine neer erin ing g and and scie scient ntif ific ic expe experi rien ence ce,, rese resear arch ch find findin ings gs

 prod  produc uced ed usin using g reco recogn gnis isab able le and and trad tradit itio iona nall meth method odol olog ogie iess tend tend to be given a greater amount of credit compared with the novel, qualitative insights emerging from some of the more interventionist social science methodologies.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

 Nove  Novell meth method odol olog ogic ical al appr approa oach ches es orig origin inat atin ing g in othe otherr disc discip ipli line ness and and now emerging in construction research include grounded theory, action research, and ethnography. These approaches certainly offer new insights into existing issues, however there are recurrent disputes about the rigour and reliability of findings produced using these methods. Such concerns usually

originate

from

concerns

and

misunderstandings

about

the

unfamiliar, but are nonetheless heartfelt. These alternative techniques are inductive, inductive, that is explanations and theories

are

developed

from

observations

of

the

empirical

world

(deductive is vice versa). The argument for their adoption is that  phen  phenom omen enol olog ogic ical al expl explan anat atio ions ns whic which h are are not not base based d on a grou ground ndin ing g or observation and experience of the real world are worthless in real use. Taking this to its application to research questions, the inductivist stance is that a research question has to relate to all the complexities of the real situation if the findings are to be at all applicable to the real world. Inevitably, as soon as the researcher attempts to deal with the breadth of direct and indirect issues associated with a single research issue in its  broad  broad real-worl -world d cont contex ext, t, the the data data and and its its anal analys ysis is beco become mess horr horrib ibly ly complex. The attraction of deductivist research questions is immediately appealing, since they simplify the world with systematic assumptions to control the scenario and allow it to be simulated. In very simplistic terms, the decision rests on whether you want a simplified research question which may not be very realistic but is relatively straightforward to express and explore, or a complex research question which is problematic to explore and analyse, but of potentially greater value ultimately. This decision depends on how applicable or extendable your results will be in a simple form. In many, or most, cases the nature of the available data or resources coupled with the purposes of the research and the expected form and content of the findings will tend to dictate the approach to the problem, and therefore the type of research question. In instances of industrysponsored sponsored research, research, the pragmatic pragmatic approach approach to yield real rea l-world -world solutions solutions to real-world problems will win through. This can cause tensions for the academic requirements of research, and there is some skill required, to  balanc  balancee the the two sets sets of of exp expect ectati ations ons of resear research ch proce process. ss.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

As always, research questions and research methodologies are interlinked. An inductive, or alternative, approach to the resear ch question will attract an inductive research methodology. The inductive approach is more suited to theory building than theory testing, and is therefore better for fields where there is not a strong body of accepted theory. Examples include action research that can be used to influence and measure change from a position internal to the research problem. This is particularly useful for researchers undertaking a piece of reflective study on an issue in which they have the scope to make changes. These methodologies are outlined outlined in Chapter Chapter 6. A

deductive

methodology.

research

question

Examples

include

will

require

a

experimentation,

deductive

research

questionnaires,

and

surveys, all of which involve collecting evidence to test a hypothesis. The deductive approach is more suited to theory testing than theory building, and is therefore better for fields where there is a strong body of accepted theory.

Activity

Think of some research issues for which the construction industry needs answers and distinguish between those, which have to be tackled in a deductive manner and those, which could be dealt with inductively. Can any issues be addressed in both ways? Record your thoughts here;

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.4 Sources Of Research Topics In a commercial scenario, research topics, and therefore research questions, tend to lead the research process and do not have to be searched for. In academia, there is often more scope to assist and collaborate with others in a range of areas, which interest the researcher. Here it is common for there to be a choice of areas and topics for the researcher to work within. In funded research, there is clearly some preselection by the theming of the research funding initiatives, and the development of an industry/ academia collaborative bid usually involves a compromise to produce something which is practically useful and may  push  push the the gene genera rall fiel field d know knowle ledg dgee forw forwar ard. d. In such such case cases, s, the the rese resear arch ch questions tend to appear pragmatically through the discussions. In the academic context, perhaps in the particular scenario of a student seeking a dissertation, one of the most obvious sources of research topics lies within previous or ongoing work experience. Others include personal experience, publicised industry trends or issues, or a straightforward analysis of the field. A fruitful area to search lies in other contemporary research papers and academic theses, which usually complete with suggestions for further work.

Activity

What sources of information did you use to select your research question? How could you supplement these? Record your thoughts here.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.5 Research Questions Once you have confirmed the research topic, the research question usually follows closely. Good research questions should satisfy several  para  parame mete ters rs that that can can

be consi conside dere red d

unde underr

the the

broa broad d

head headin ings gs of

accessibility  accessibility  and achievability . Both are potential blockers to the project as a whole or to particular components of the research process. It is important to look systematically at the research project when defining the research question. Use the research question as a vehicle for enclosing the scope of the project to keep it controllable and manageable. Activity

What is the question your research topic most readily needs addressing, and why? Record your thoughts here.

4.5.1 Accessibility And The Research Question Question Look at accessibility from all aspects of the project and the process of doing the research. Consider personal accessibility, both physical and intellectual, literature and data accessibility, access to expertise and other resources, and finally the perspectives of sensitivity and confidentiality − essentially these represent accessibility to publication of the findings.  Literature  Literature:: Is the literature on the subject accessible, more to the point is there too much or too little, because both can be problematic for the researcher. Can you get the key documents, and in time. If, for instance, your research relates to issues that are the subject of a new code of  prac  practi tice ce,, do you you have have acce access ss to the the draf draftt code codess duri during ng the the cons consul ulta tati tion on  phase?  phase? What What will will be the the impa impact ct on your your proj projec ectt if the the publ public icat atio ion n of the the 4-10

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

code is delayed for a significant period of time? Can you afford the specialist literature if you have to purchase it? Is your key reference source an overseas one, which will attract special costs, delays in access, and/ or language problems?  Data:  Data: The issue of accessibility may extend beyond simply accessing data, since it is important that you have confidence in the reliability and  pert  pertin inen ence ce of the the data data that that beco become mess avai availa labl ble. e. For For insta instanc nce, e, it is very very difficult to get neutral interview or questionnaire data on quality assurance, partly because of the difficulties in defining it, but also  beca  becaus usee of sens sensit itiv ivit itie iess and and the the unwi unwill llin ingn gnes esss to admi admitt that that ther theree is any any shortcoming in a quality assurance system. system. Activity

For your chosen topic, list examples of data which will be readily available, and data which will be difficult to get hold of (or verify). Record your thoughts here;

The  form   form  of data is also relevant. Is your research question one which requires access to subjective or objective data? For instance, a research question concerned with exploring the differing perspectives of truth about the causes of adversarialism in the construction industry will  prob  probab ably ly invo involv lvee the the coll collec ecti tion on and and anal analys ysis is of subj subjec ecti tive ve opin opinio ion. n. This This raises several issues of accessibility. First, can you access the breadth and depth of opinion needed to make a rounded assessment of the issue? Will it be available to a sufficient depth to make a meaningful analysis? Perhaps the negotiation of access will involve signing a confidentiality agreement, which may compromise the publication of your analysis and/or findings? Once collected, these opinions are unlikely to directly 4-11

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

correspond or correlate with each other. Do you have access to the methodological and analytical skills required to rigorously collect and appraise the data? Furthermore, is a complex qualitative analysis going to suit the purposes for which the research was originally intended?

Activity

What sort sort of study approach approach do you find find most appealing, appealing, and how might might this be reflected in your research design (through the research question)?

Expertise  :  Consider

who

the

‘gatekeepers’

are

for

your

data

requirements. In an emergent field, the sole data source may be expert opinion, which in turn may be difficult to elicit, and be geographically dispersed. This will have an impact on its physical collection and also what you actually expect to be able to collect. Also, do you have the influence to gain and maintain access to the expertise personally or via a third party? If not, you will not be able to answer your own research question (note that this is distinct from it being unanswerable).

Activity

Who are the gatekeepers for your data? Record your answer here.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

In addition to the problems of physical remoteness of data, issues of  poli  politi tica cal, l, prof profes essi sion onal al or comm commer erci cial al sens sensit itiv ivit ity y may may bloc block k any any or cert certai ain n data being collected. Alternatively, they may restrict its depth and therefore pertinence to the project. Highly variable data depth or quality can make comparative analysis very difficult, and if you are looking for a replication of phenomena in different circumstances as the test of your research issue, it i t may be difficult to make a very meaningful appraisal a ppraisal. There is always the potential of a completely unforeseeable event occurring which seriously affects the data or your access to it. Take timing and external unpredictable events for instance. In the mid-1980s I was conducting research into life safety in building fires and collecting interview data via a Delphi group which had Fire Service personnel as one of the sources of expert opinion on building performance in fires. In the middle of the data collection, a major fire led to an urgent review of fire safety at all sports grounds, which meant that my access to certain fire service personnel vanished almost overnight.

Activity

Consider your research question. What are the accessibility issues surrounding it and how can they be resolved? Use the sample accessibility

issues outlined outlined above above as a starting starting point. point. Are there any any

other accessibility issues particular to your research topic? Record your thoughts here;

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.5.2 Achievability Achievability And And The Research Question This relates to the resources available to you to undertake and complete the entire research project, also to the ultimate value of the research once it

is

completed.

As

you

design

your

research

question,

consider

objectively whether the research as proposed is really worth doing. Will it add to the existing field knowledge in a meaningful manner, or will the limited scale, excessive and unrealistic assumptions or limited data access mean that it is only an addendum to the existing material? Can you achieve the necessary rigour, in the methodology, in the data, and within the time available to you? Research often takes longer than you anticipate and a small but ‘rounded’  piec  piecee of work work will will usua usuall lly y be more more valu valuab able le than than an ambi ambiti tiou ouss unde underrachievement. The deeper the study becomes, the more likely it is that issues emerge which appear to be central to the research question, and may divert your efforts away from the initial goal and objectives of the  proj  projec ect. t. Defi Defini ning ng the the rese resear arch ch ques questi tion on and and its its atte attend ndan antt assu assump mpti tion onss and and limitations tightly at the start will allow you to systematically retain your focus on the original goal. Consider also the following issues related to achieving the goals of the research. Are the data that you require straightforward and economical to collect? Are your capabilities in accordance with the type of data analysis that will be involved in answering the research question which you are  posi  posing ng?? Thes Thesee issu issues es can can be addr addres esse sed d by work workin ing g in coll collab abor orat atio ion n with with someone else with a specialism and/or geographical location and access to data that complements yours. Achievability is also relevant where your methodology or data are ‘hostages to fortune’. What will be the effect on the achievability of your research of a sudden event, and could you still learn something if the hypothesis is unproven or the data analysis is inconclusive? For instance, if you are studying an issue based on the assumption of a recessionary market

when

a

sustained

upturn

appears,

this

will

invalidate

the

assumptions upon which your data collection or analysis are based, and may be fatal for the results. Here it is worth considering the  symme  symmetry try of your hypothesis, the subject of the next section.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Activity

Consider your research question again. What are the achievability issues surrounding it, and how can they be resolved? Use the sample achievability issues outlined above as a starting point. Are there any other achievability issues particular to your research topic? After considering the issues of research question selection outlined in this chapter, you may feel that you need to re-define your research question from that which you recorded at the start of the chapter. If your research question has changed, record the new version here and compare it with the old version. Why have you changed it and in what ways is it a better research question now? Record the current version of your research question here;

Transfer the starting version of your research question to here: Why have you changed the research question and in what ways is it a  bett  better er res resea earc rch h quest questio ion n now now?? Rec Recor ord d you yourr ans answe werr her here. e.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.5.3 4.5. 3 The Research Hypothesis The research question and the hypothesis are of course intimately related, one being the expected answer to the other. The hypothesis should as a minimum be logical and testable. To help protect the research project against

the

risks

of

loss

of

data

availability,

inconsistency

or

inconclusiveness, it is also worthwhile designing  symmet  symmetry ry   into the hypothesis where possible. This is sometimes referred to as a refutable hypothesis. Note that the qualitative research approach usually refers to  prop  propos osit itio ions ns rath rather er than than hypo hypoth thes eses es,, sinc sincee the the hypo hypoth thes esis is impl implie iess a greater degree of fixity and more of a testing approach, whereas the  prop  propos osit itio ion n is more more tent tentat ativ ivee and and liab liable le to chan change ge duri during ng the the rese resear arch ch  proc  proces ess. s. This This will will be disc discus usse sed d furt furthe herr in a late laterr chap chapte ter. r. Symm Symmet etry ry is used rather imprecisely here, but is akin to vulnerability or brittleness. A ‘symmetrical hypothesis’ is one which illuminates or adds to knowledge whether the evidence proves or disproves it. Symmetrical hypotheses are supple, and are characterised by open-ended research questions. The best hypotheses yield insights even if the data analysis is only partly conclusive.

4.5.4 4.5. 4 The Symmetrical Hypothesis Consider for instance the hypothesis that the creation and implementation of the new Quality Assurance System within a department will change the way in which people view their role at work. This is related to a research question about the creation and implementation of QA systems and their their

effectiveness in a tightly defined boundary of a single

department. The question and hypothesis could be tightened further using a time boundary, either now or during the progress of the research. The testing of this hypothesis will probably yield useful knowledge about whether the QA system is adjudged to have made an influence or not, or indeed if it is shown to be only partly influential. Even if people in the department are not very familiar with the QA system when questioned, this is a finding in relation to the influence it has on them. The unfamiliarity can be explored further for its causes −  for instance does 4-16

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

the unfamiliarity originate in the creation or implementation of the QA system, or both? Were changes made which improved the situation, and how and why did people change their views of their role? The hypothesis is supple and can adapt to changes, even extreme circumstances such as a redesign of the QA system, or its complete withdrawal from the department. Perhaps the impact of removing a QA system would be as illuminating as its installation. It would certainly be novel research and its analysis appears to have the potential to make a meaningful contribution to the research field and practice. By deliberately including the dual issues of creation and implementation, extra scope is given for exploring the nature of quality assurance in operation and managing the change process. If the study produces too much data, you can focus on that which emerges as the more relevant as the

research

progresses

−  is

it

predominantly

a

creation

or

implementation phenomenon, or the interface/ continuity between both? If the access to data proves to be shallower than anticipated, perhaps expanding the boundary to include two departments would be valuable. It is an extreme case where the research question produces no findings of value. Importantly, the research question and hypothesis are supple and therefore controllable.

4.5.5 4.5. 5 The Asymmetrical Hypothesis In contrast, the hypothesis hypothesis that all all surveyors are negligent ne gligent at some time in their

professional professional activities

is asymmetrical or brittle. The research will

yield little knowledge if all the surveyors who are approached refuse to comment on negligence, or respond by denying that they are ever negligent or have ever found incidents of third party negligence. Incredible data or no data at all leaves the researcher with an unanswered hypothesis

and

very

little

obvious

scope

to

adapt

the

research.

Furthermore, continued access to the data sample may have been  jeop  jeopar ardi dise sed. d. The The rese resear arch ch is fors forsee eeab ably ly unac unachi hiev evab able le,, and and in its its curr curren entt form the project will probably be valueless.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

The research question could be adapted so that it is concerned with the  broa  broade derr and and more more symm symmet etri rica call issu issuee of prof profes essi sion onal al perf perfor orma manc ncee and and the the definition of and consistency of quality standards in the surveying  prof  profes essi sion on.. An alte altern rnat ativ ivee supp supple le hypo hypoth thes esis is abou aboutt what what prof profes essi sion onal alss  beli  believ evee cons consti titu tute tess the the mini minima ma of prof profes essi sion onal al prac practi tice ce,, perh perhap apss anal analys ysed ed against the researcher’s hypothetical model of minimum standards standards

or

 perf  perfor orma manc ncee para parame mete ters rs woul would d have have allo allowe wed d the the grey grey area areass over over  prof  profes essi sion onal al comp compet eten ence ce and and negl neglig igen ence ce to be illu illumi mina nate ted d or expl explor ored ed in a more subtle manner. The hypothetical model of professional standards could be derived from the literature and/or experience of the researcher, and would form the terms of reference for the collection and analysis of the data.

If the model turns turns out to be inadequate, it can be altered

according to the evidence of the data. Furthermore, if there really does turn out to be little or no evidence of negligence, the research would still  prod  produc ucee a valu valuab able le outp output ut by

defi defini ning ng more more clea clearl rly y wher wheree prof profes essi sion onal alss

consider the boundaries of professional competence lie. Symmetry and flexibility replace rigidity and asymmetry. Similarly, the hypothesis that Partnering will cease to be an issue if an upturn in the construction industry occurs is risky since it is a hostage to the general fortunes of the industry. Interviewees may be reluctant to admit that their company is not in upturn, also the hypothesis hypothesis is timetime  boun  bound. d. At the the time time of writ writin ing g (199 (1997) 7),, part partne neri ring ng cont contin inue uess to be a high highly ly  popu  popula larr clai claim m by most most cons constr truc ucti tion on comp compan anie ies, s, yet yet its its defi defini niti tion on and and evaluation is still the subject of uncertainty.

Research conducted now

would require you to include defining the term or making an assumption. However, the researcher reading this workbook in the year 2000 may be immediately aware that the partnering phenomenon evolved into another concept and would be therefore be unresearchable for a variety of currently unforeseen reasons. A

less

vulnerable

formalised

hypothesis

relationships

influenced by professional

would

between

be

that

contractors

attitudes

and

their

expectations and beliefs about

to

creating

clients

are

a range of

issues including the economic fortunes of the UK construction industry generally −  this is answerable in a recession or boom, is not company specific, and could yield insights irrespective of the contemporary fortunes of the industry. If an upturn arrive s fortuitously for the 4-18

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

researcher then this can be explored through the data collection by searching for trends in changing attitudes. Overall, it is a more openended research question and hypothesis.

Activity

Create a series of symmetrical and asymmetrical hypotheses for your current research question using the guidelines in the above section. Indicate which you think are strong, or weak. Which is the best one and why?

Record your answer here;

4.5.6 4.5. 6 Generating Research Questions There are several useful techniques for generating research questions and selecting the most practical. Bear in mind that the research question is a tool for deliberately focusing the research from a range of potential issues 4-19

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

which are directly or indirectly relevant to a single research problem which is directly relevant. The section below features four questioning techniques to generate and/or evaluate research questions:  Brainsto  Brainstormin rming  g ,  De Bono’s Bono’s Six Hat  Method   Method , the Who, Why, What, Where, When and How Technique , and SWOT Analysis. Analysis. The brainstorming exercise requires a group to be really effective, the others can be done individually but are better done in pairs with a colleague prompting you.

Use all  all  the  the techniques, in the order in which they appear  to: appear  to: a) systematically systematically open up your research topic and research question issues (Brainstorming and De Bono’s Six Hat Method)  b) defi define ne the the spec specif ific ic obje object ctiv ives es and and cont contro roll llin ing g para parame mete ters rs for for the the enti entire re context of the research project (Who, ...) c) refine the design des ign of the research topic and research question back down to a focused, informed and rounded decision made on the basis of coincident strength and opportunity (SWOT Analysis). Used properly, these exercises will show you how to make a robust research topic and research question selection. Expect this exercise to take a little while if done properly, and reflect on the decision before moving on to the next part of the research process.

4.5.7 Brainstorming Brainstorming can be a useful starting point if you have a group available to you. The process operates by the generation of unevaluated lists (the  brai  brains nsto torm rmin ing) g),, foll follow owed ed by thei theirr anal analys ysis is and and clar clarif ific icat atio ion n to prod produc ucee a collection of ideas for rejection or uptake. The key rules of brainstorming are that, during the generation phase, any  pers  perspe pect ctiv ivee or issu issuee rela relate ted d to the the rese resear arch ch prob proble lem m can can be raise raised, d, all all of 4-20

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

which are recorded by the person who takes the facilitating or chairing role. This person also ensures that everyone has the chance to participate and that no issues are pursued during the brainstorming session. Immediately after this all the emergent points are discussed by the group in rotation to allow their categorisation, and to look for cross-overs and opportunities for solving the research problem, and eventually to make a selection of options by rejection or uptake. This technique was originated  by Edwa Edward rd de Bono Bono..

Activity

If you can arrange a group meeting about your research with colleagues at work or other IGDS students, organise a Brainstorming session on your resea re search rch question. question. Review the Brainstorming session to systematically open up your research topic and research question issues.

4.5.8 De Bono’s Six Hat Method This technique appears appears to be used primarily primarily as a business problemsolving device, but I have applied it successfully in groups and individually for the design and critique of research questions. De Bono outlines it in the context of an application in his essay on improving democracy Thinking Hats on, Please in Please in the Independent (1994). The technique revolves around the problem being viewed, in turn, from six different perspectives. Each perspective is considered in isolation from the others, and is denoted by metaphorically (or physically) wearing a different coloured hat. Hence: The white  white   hat corresponds to information availability and requirements. This could relate to information source issues, literature appraisal and the identification of gaps in the information. It could also be extended to explore data availability and requirement issues. 4-21

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

The black   black   hat represents caution and the assessment of risks. This is useful for taking a realistic view of the problems in achieving the research goals, or accessing the literature, other information or data. It could also be used to critically explore issues such as the risks to methodological success or to proving/ disproving the hypothesis. Whilst wearing the  yellow  yellow  hat the researcher considers the benefits, values and feasibility of the research question. In commercially driven, or  prob  proble lem m-solv solvin ing g rese resear arch ch,, this this may may be a usef useful ul hat hat to to com comme menc ncee wit with. h. The  green  green  hat signifies creativity and energy, so could be used to explore the originality of the research, also novel ways of approaching the research question, the collection of data, and/ or the application of methodologies and/ or findings. It is concerned with new possibilities. The blue  blue  hat corresponds to the organisation of the thinking process, so is  best  best used used for for look lookin ing g at the the oper operat atio iona nall and and stra strate tegi gicc desi design gn of the the research process. The red   hat addresses feelings, such as intuitive feelings about the research, its probable findings, needs, and the researchers likes and dislikes about the content and process as proposed. Clearly, the hats need to be interpreted loosely for maximum benefit; the value lies in addressing the research question from several perspectives in isolation. There is no particular order for considering the different  pers  perspe pect ctiv ives es,, and and they they can can be revi revisi site ted d if you you like like.. Once Once all all six six  pers  perspe pect ctiv ives es have have been been cons consid ider ered ed the the resu result ltss are are comp compar ared ed and and crosscrosscorrelated to identify the opportunities and threats for each possible research question. Activity

Use De Bono’s Six Hat Method to systematically open up your research topic and research question issues. Record your comments in the boxes on the following pages. The technique depends on rigorously thinking about a single perspective at a time. You may take the hats in any order,  but  but once once you you have have sele select cted ed a part partic icul ular ar hat hat you you shou should ld not not chan change ge to another hat until you have completed your written comments on that  page  page:: 4-22

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Wear the yellow hat and consider the benefits, values and feasibility of the research topic and the research question. Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

Wear the green hat and consider the creativity, energy, and originality which your research will bring to the research topic and the research question. What creativity can you build into your research question, your hypothesis, and the methodology of collecting your data? Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

Wear the red hat and consider your feelings about the research. Include your intuitive feelings about the needs for the work, and your likes and dislikes about the field, the existing works, and your proposed research question. Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

Wear the white hat and consider the balance between the availability and requirements

of data. What What data is available to you, you, and in what what form form

does it appear? Is it qualitative or quantitative? Are there access issues? Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Wear the black hat and consider the risks and requirements for caution in undertaking the research. Looking at the research project realistically, what are the potential blockers to answering the research question, for testing the hypothesis, for accessing and interpreting the data? Is your research question or hypothesis weak in any way which could be resolved? Consider any identified risks which you are unwilling to continue with. Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

Wear the blue hat and consider the thinking process which is required to design and conduct the research. What is required to answer the research question, to test the hypothesis, to collect the data? What steps do you have to take in order to process the research? If you can encapsulate your conceptual thoughts about the topic, do so here as well. Do not change to another hat until you have completed your comments on this page.

Start this page only when you have ‘worn’ all six hats.

If you have any other thoughts about any of the hats you may go back to the pages and include them now.  Now  Now gath gather er toge togeth ther er your your summ summar aris ised ed thou though ghts ts to syst system emat atic ical ally ly open open up your research topic and research question issues. Consider: does your research topic need altering? does your research question need altering? is your hypothesis strong?

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

is the process clear and of an acceptable level of risk? How do you plan to move forward from here? Produce a set of recommendations recommendations for progressing the research.

4.5.9 4.5. 9 Who, Why, What, What, Where, When And How? This technique is similar to the De Bono’s Six Hat Method, and can be used as a check on the proposed research question(s) before finalising their selection and design. Used carefully, it can be extended to assist with focusing the entire research design. It operates by splitting the research problem down into a series of justifications, such as those detailed below. In addition to defining the research question, with some imagination this technique can be applied to selecting information sources,

defining the

research methodology, even for identifying the terms of reference for the design of the methodology or analysis of the research data. The use of the technique can generate the basis of a written research proposal, a document which combines the justification of what research is to be done with a pragmatic review of how it will be achieved. Example questions to ask might include: Who are the immediate and ultimate customers for the research, who will  bene  benefi fit? t? is funding the research (and what are their priorities and terms)? are the other stakeholders (and what are their obligations and  prio  priori riti ties es)? )? will do the research (who else will assist, manage, or facilitate)? else could be doing similar research (collaborators or competitors)? will be required to contribute to the research (will they, and how)? could deliberately or unwittingly block the research (the gatekeepers)? gatekee pers)? may be sensitive sensitive to to the output? output? 4-25

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Why does it matter whether the research research is done at all? will this research provide knowledge that is not already available? should you do the research instead of some other research? should you do the research instead of some other researcher doing it? will the research benefit the customers or industry? should the research be done this way? What are you trying to achieve? information is needed to commence and complete the research? resources are required to conduct the research? is the research question? question? are the major external and internal sensitivities raised by doing the research? data is available (what is the critical data)? assumptions do you have to make in order to start? risks are there to the data availability external risks are there to the research project? is the hypothesis or proposition? knowledge will this research provide that is not already available? are the major benefits of doing the research? are the success criteria for the research? research? are the major risks to the research? research? Where are the gaps in the literature and field knowledge? should the boundaries of the research lie? will the expertise come from? does the the critical information reside? do the major foreseeable problems lie? will the findings be published (what market)? When will the research need to be completed by? will the relevance of the research cease? should the research start?

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

will the critical knowledge become available, or cease to be available/ available/ relevant? relevant? will the data commence availability, cease availability, or cease to  be rele releva vant nt?? How could the design be improved? can

the

vulnerability

to

external

knowledge

availability

be

minimised can the vulnerability vulnerability to data availability be minimised? minimised? will the assumptions affect the value/ applicability of the results? could the research project be made smaller without compromising its value? will you know when the research is complete (seriously)? will the output and process be evaluated? will the results be disseminated (and to whom)? much work has already been done in this area?

Activity

Use the Who, Why, What, Where, When, and How? technique to review your

research

topic

and

research

question.

Gather

together

your

summarised thoughts to define the specific objectives and controlling  param  paramet eters ers for for the the entir entiree con contex textt of of the the resear research ch proj project ect.. Record your comments in the boxes on the following pages; Who are the immediate and ultimate customers for the research, who will  bene  benefi fit? t? is funding the research (and what are their priorities and terms)? are the other stakeholders (and what are their obligations and  prio  priori riti ties es)? )? will do the research (who else will assist, manage, or facilitate)? else

could

be

doing

similar

competitors)?

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research

(collaborators

or

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

will be required to contribute to the research (will they, and how)? could

deliberately

or

unwittingly

block

the

research

(the

gatekeepers)? may be sensitive to the output? Any Other Who Questions?

Why does it matter whether the research research is done at all? will this research provide knowledge that is not already available? should you do the research instead of some other research? should you do the research instead of some other researcher doing it? will the research benefit the customers or industry? should the research be done this way? Any Other Why Questions?

What are you trying to achieve? information is needed to commence and complete the research? resources are required to conduct the research? is the research question? question?

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

are the major external and internal sensitivities raised by doing the research? data is available (what is the critical data)? assumptions do you have to make in order to start? risks are there to the data availability external risks are there to the research project? is the hypothesis or proposition? knowledge will this research provide that is not already available? are the major benefits of doing the research? are the success criteria for the research? are the major risks to the research? research? Any Other What Questions?

Where are the gaps in the literature and field knowledge? should the boundaries of the research lie? will the expertise come from? does the critical information reside? do the major foreseeable problems lie? will the findings be published (what market)? Any Other Where Questions?

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

When will the research need to be completed by? will the relevance of the research cease? should the research start? will the critical knowledge become available, or cease to be available/ available/ relevant? will the data commence availability, cease availability, or cease to  be rele releva vant nt?? Any Other When Questions?

How could the design be improved? improved? can

the

vulnerability

to

external

knowledge

availability

be

minimised can the vulnerability to data availability be minimised? will the assumptions affect the value/ applicability of the results? could the research project be made smaller without compromising its value? will you know when the research is complete (seriously)? will the output and process be evaluated? evaluated? will the results be disseminated (and to whom)? much work has already been done in this area? Any Other How Questions?

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Start this page only when you have completed all all the sections on Who, Why, What, Where, When, and How.  Now  Now gath gather er toge togeth ther er your your summ summar aris ised ed thou though ghts ts to defi define ne the the spec specif ific ic objectives and controlling parameters for the entire context of the research project. Consider, does your research topic need altering? Does your research question need adjusting again? Is your hypothesis strong? Is the process clear and of an acceptable level of risk? How do you plan to move forward from here?

4.6 SWOT Analysis Another potentially useful evaluative technique is SWOT analysis. This can be done individually but is better done in pairs or even groups with one person acting as a facilitator. The group or individual looks at the research issue from one of four perspectives in rotation: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and and Threats. The more appropriate research opportunities or research questions lie at the coincidence of strengths and opportunities, and should be selected in  prefer  preferenc encee to others others.. Resear Research ch questi question onss charac character terise ised d by weakne weaknesse ssess or threats should be avoided.

Activity

Use the SWOT Analysis Technique to refine the design of the research topic and research question back down to a focused, informed and rounded

decision

made

on

the

basis

of

coincident

strength

and

opportunity Record your comments in the boxes on the following pages. The technique depends on rigorously thinking about a single perspective at a time. You should not change to another perspective until you have 4-31

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

completed your written comments on the first. If you have completed the  prev  previo ious us exer exerci cises, ses, you you shou should ld find find that that this this is esse essent ntia iall lly y a

syst system emat atic ic

refinement and re-presentation of the issues you have raised earlier into a structured format. Summarise the Strengths of your Research Topic, Research Question, and Hypothesis, ranking them where you can:

Summarise the Weaknesses of your Research Topic, Research Question, and Hypothesis, ranking them where you can:

Summarise

the

Opportunities

for

your

Research

Topic,

Research

Question, and Hypothesis, ranking them where you can:

Summarise the Threats to your Research Topic, Research Question, and Hypothesis, ranking them where you can:

 Now  Now revi review ew the the summ summar aris ised ed Stre Streng ngth thss and and Oppo Opport rtun unit itie iess toge togeth ther er,, and and consider whether your research as intended lies within their coincidence. 4-32

 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

Similarly, combine the summaries of identified Weakness and Threats, and consider whether your research as intended lies outwith these issues. Do you need to make any further adjustments? Record any other comments here, together with your refined research topic, research question, and hypothesis. Use a mind map if this is helpful.

4.7 Summary You should now be familiar with the roles and format of a research topic, a research question, and an hypothesis. You should also understand the  proces  processs of resear research ch topic topic select selection ion and and how how to dist distin ingu guis ish h betw betwee een n stro strong ng and weak research questions questions and hypotheses.

Having been been introduced introduced to

a range of techniques for deriving research questions, you should be able to apply creativity to the design and evaluation of the remainder of the research process as you undertake it. The next stage of the research process involves creating a written research proposal which will encapsulate your research topic; the conceptual thoughts you have on it after reading around the subject; the research question; the hypotheses or propositions which you are starting with; and the outline design for the remainder of the research process. This will include methodological issues and the terms of reference for the collection and analysis of the data to support your studies. This exercise represents a design freeze for the research, and is dealt with in Chapter 5.

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 Masters Level Module – Research Methods

4.7.1 4.7. 1 Personal Feedback Questions PF 4.1

What distinguishes distinguishes inductive and deductive approaches to research?

PF 4.2

Discuss Discuss

the

issues issues

of

accessibility acces sibility and acheiveability

which can surround research questions.

PF 4.3

What is a symmetrical hypothesis and why is it valuable?

4.7.2 Recommended Reading Buzan, T., 1989. Use Your Head,  Head,   BBC Publications. ISBN 0-563-208112. Excellent on Mind Maps. De Bono, E., 1992. Teach your Child How to Think . Think . Pengui Penguin n ISBN ISB N 0-14012680-5. Written for the adult, this book gives a thorough contextual explanation of the concepts of the six hat method (pp 74-100), and many other approaches to creative thinking. Don’t be put off by the title. De Bono, E., 1994 Thinking Hats on, Please, Please, The Independent, May 2nd 1994. (p15) A brief overview of the Six Hat Method. De Bono, E. 1990  Lateral  Lateral Thinking Thinking..   Penguin. ISBN 0-14-013779-3. This  book  book offe offers rs many many diff differ eren entt appr approa oach ches es to prob problem lem def definit initio ion n and and pro problem blem solving which can be applied to research or everyday business issues.

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