Research Methods

Research Methods KINE 5300

Definitions of Research • The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996). • Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions (Tuckman, 1999). • Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of  generalizations, generalization s, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events (Best and Kahn, 1998). ask ing questions, a • Research is a systematic way of asking systematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

Development of Research Skills • Learning how to conduct good research:  – New skills ( that many people do not have )  – Better understanding and interpretation of the literature  – Recognize new questions that need investigation

• Objectivity is the key element of research

Search for Truth •

Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of  truth: 1. Custom an and tradition 2. Authority 3. Personal exp expe erience 4. Deductive re reasoning 5. Scientific inquiry

Deductive Reasoning •  A.k.a., Logic.  – In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general assumption to specific application  – GENERAL



SPECIFIC

 –  Aristotle and other early philosophers philosophers • Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism. •  All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore, Socrates is moral. • Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body mass. Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become big and bulky.

 – Not sufficient as a source of new truth

Inductive Reasoning • Conclusions about events (general) are based on information generated through many individual and direct observations (specific).  – SPECIFIC  GENERAL  – Researchers observe an individual or group of  individuals from a larger population  based on these observations, generalizations are made back to the larger population.

Inductive Reasoning • Two kinds of induction:  – Perfect • Conclusions based on observations made from  ALL members of a group or population population

 – Imperfect • Conclusions based on observations made from a random sample of members of a population

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning • Deductive:  – Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

• Inductive:  – Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

The Scientific Method • Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.  – Identifying the problem  – Formulating a hypothesis  – Developing the research plan  – Collecting and analyzing the data  – Interpreting results and forming conclusions

• Example…

Identifying the Problem • First, and arguably the most important, step  – Several sources • • • •

Theoretical basis Professional practice Personal experience Shear curiosity

 – Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed  – Problem statement; experimental approach to the problem; etc.

Identifying the Problem •

Three categories when selecting a research problem  –

Those who know precisely what they want to do and have a well conceived problem

 –

Those who have many interest areas and are having difficulty deciding exactly what they want to study

 –

Those who do not have any idea about a worthwhile research problem

Philosophy of Graduate Education • MENTORSHIP!  – Work with a professor/researcher that has established a research agenda

Formulating a Hypothesis • Hypothesis:  – A  –  A belief or prediction of the the eventual outcome of the research  – A  –  A concrete, specific statement statement about the relationships between phenomena  – Based on deductive reasoning  – 2 types of hypotheses: • Null hypothesis (HO)  – All  –  All is equal; no differences differences exist

•  Alternative (research ) hypothesis (H A) Usually specific and opposite to the null

Developing the Research Plan •  A strategy must be be developed for  gathering and analyzing the information that is required to test the hypotheses or  answer the research question  – Four parts: • • • •

Selection of a relevant research methodolog methodology y Identification of subjects or participants Description of the data-gathering procedures Specification of the data analysis techniques

 – Pilot studies, IRB,…all IRB,…all must be determined in advance!

Collecting and Analyzing the Data • Following all the pre-determined protocols  – Time in the lab collecting data  – Analyzing  –  Analyzing the composite composite data  – Controlling the environment

• Ea Easi sies estt par partt of of the the pr proc oces ess… s…  – However, sometime the most time-consuming part of the process…

Interpreting Results and Forming Conclusions • DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF! • Does the evidence support or refute the original hypotheses?  – Accept  –  Accept or reject the hypotheses hypotheses  – Conclusions should be drawn: • Develop new hypotheses to explain the results • Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study

New Questions Arise Question Identified

Results Interpreted

Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected

Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996)

Types of Research Questions • 3 Types  – Descriptive questions  – Difference questions  – Relationship questions

Descriptive Questions • Purpose:  – To describe phenomena or characteristics of  a particular group of subjects being studied • Survey research • Qualitative research

Determinants of college students' health-promoting lifestyles. Larouche R. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This descriptive study of 151 university students in Boston, Massachusetts, was undertaken to determine the relationships of their perceived health status, sex, grade point average, and health and nonhealth majors to their health-promoting lifestyles, using the Health Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) II, based on Pender's model. Students' perceived health status was significantly predictive of total HPLP II, exercise, stress management, and spiritual growth. College women practiced significantly better nutrition, interpersonal relationships, health responsibility, and total HPLP II than men. The whole sample scored lower in stress management than any previous group studied. Male students, those t hose reporting poor health, and all students are targeted for intervention and research in their deficient areas. Guidelines for nursing practice are derived from the HPLP II questionnaire. These clinically significant findings may guide nurse practitioners to intervene in the health awareness and practices of college c ollege students.

Weight management behaviors of African African American female college students. July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W. Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women women is a problem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientific research. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management; behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptive correlational study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that at least fifty percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead to obesity.

MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996 Sep 6;45(35):760-5.

Related Articles, Links

School-based HIV-prevention HIV-prevention education--United States, 1994. [No authors listed]

Many adolescents in the United States engage in behaviors that increase their r isk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Because 95% of all youth aged 5-17 years are enrolled in school, sc hool health programs can be an efficient method to help prevent these behaviors. Previous studies have examined selected characteristics of HIV education in the United States; however, none provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV education policies and programs nationwide. In 1994, CDC conducted the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), which assessed five components of the school health program: health education, physical education, health services, food service, and health policies. To To provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV-prevention education programs nationwide in 1994, CDC analyzed data dat a from the health education component of the study st udy.. This report summarizes the findings, which indicate that although HIV-prevention education has been widely implemented in U.S. schools, improvement in these programs is needed.

Difference Questions • Purpose:  – To make comparisons between or within groups.  – Is there a difference? • Experimental research  – Treatment vs. control  – Pre- vs. post-test comparisons

• Nonexperime Nonexperimental ntal research  – Compare one group to another based on existing characteristics

J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88. Sep;89(3):1179-88.

Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors. Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD. Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1. The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally tolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women) underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control period (Con) of no stretch stret ch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal voluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation int erpolation and electromyography, electromyography, and twitch characteristics were assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after PS(max) or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%) and at 5 (21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after aft er PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor unit activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) PS(max) but had recovered rec overed by 15 min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have been temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscle decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation and contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the entire period of deficit.

Relationship Questions • Purpose  – To investigate the degree to which two or  more variables covary or are associated with each other  • Rather than analyzing the differences between groups, researchers characterize the relationships among them. • Extent to which variables are related • Not to establish cause-and-effect

 Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41.

Related Articles, Links

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular disease risk factors in children and adults. Sallis JF, JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR. Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla. The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors were studied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects were families recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by a submaximal cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, interview, yielding caloric expenditure, and by a simple self-rating of act ivity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL), and body mass index. For all subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk factors.  After adjustment for body mass mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations associations were no longer significant. Sevenday caloric expenditure was significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children. The activity rating was significantly correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in female adults and male adults. The simple activity rating tended to be correlated with f itness. The pattern of association was similar for adults and children.

Theory vs. Hypothesis • Hypothesis  –  A belief or prediction prediction of the eventual outcome outcome of the research  –  A concrete, specific statement statement about the relationships between phenomena  – Based on deductive reasoning

• Theory  –  A belief or assumption assumption about how things things relate to each other   –  A theory establishes establishes a cause-and-effect relationship relationship between variables with with a purpose of explaining explaining and predicting phenomena  – Based on inductive reasoning

Hypotheses

In an ideal world…

Theories

Laws

Empiricism •  Acquiring information information and and facts through through the observation of our world  – Pragmatic observations  – Developing theory through experience and observation  – Non-scientific  – Quick and practical solution to a problem • With little interest in explaining when, how, or why

 – Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)… (abuse)…

Research Classifications • System #1:  – Basic research  – Applied  –  Applied research

• System #2:  – Quantitative research  – Qualitative research

• System #3:  – Experimental research  – Nonexperimental research

Basic vs. Applied Research • Basic  – Pure, fundamental research  – Discovery of new knowledge; theoretical in nature  – Takes many years for  the results of basic research to find some practical utility

•  Applied  – Central purpose to solve an immediate problem  – Improved products or  processes  – Infers beyond the group or situation studied  – Interpretation of  results relies upon Basic research

J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links

Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. Young WB, Behm DG. School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. [email protected]  [email protected] 

 AIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during during warm-up for jumping tests has not been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static stretching stret ching of  the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. METHODS: Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a randomised order prior  to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were cont rol, 4 min run, static stretch, str etch, run + stretch, and run + stretch + practice pr actice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop jump were performed, which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of the leg extensor  muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of for ce developed, drop jump height, contact time and height/time). RESULTS: RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and t he run or run + stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There were no significant differences (p