Research Methodology
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Research Methodology...
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CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Copyright All rights reserved. No unauthorised reproduction of this manual or part thereof in any form is allowed.
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CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
About this STUDY MANUAL CMS 203, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, has been produced by KCA University. All Modules produced by are structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this STUDY MANUAL is structured The course overview The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the course overview will help you determine: If the course is suitable for you. What you will already need to know. What you can expect from the course. How much time you will need to invest to complete the course. The overview also provides guidance on: Study skills. Where to get help. Course assignments and assessments. Activity icons. CHAPTERs. We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study. The course content The course is broken down into CHAPTERs. Each CHAPTER comprises:
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An introduction to the CHAPTER content. CHAPTER outcomes. New terminology. Core content of the CHAPTER with a variety of learning activities. A CHAPTER summary. Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable. Resources For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this STUDY MANUAL; these may be books, articles or web sites. Your comments After completing CMS 203, we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on: Course content and structure. Course reading materials and resources. Course assignments. Course assessments. Course duration. Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course
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CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MODULE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction Research Methodology is a comprehensive introductory course on the research process from a manager’s perspective, with particular emphasis on the sequence, skills, competences, techniques and knowledge needed to successfully manage a research process. This unit examines the logical flow of the academic research work from the beginning to the end. It also outlines the ethical issues involved in the research process. The whole course unit is composed of 15 lectures which are sub-divided into units to support the student to demonstrate and show understanding and appreciation of the management. The assessment is as follows: 2 Assignments of 10 marks each --------------------------------Total = 20 Marks 2 Self-administered Tests of 5 marks each---------------------Total = 10 Marks 1 Examination------------------------------------------------------Total = 70 Marks Grand Total--------------------------------------------------------------=100 Marks Course Description The purpose of this course is to give students a firm grounding in the fundamentals of social science research, and to familiarize students with a range of typical research designs in the field of management and organization. The first half of the course introduces the basics of social science research, such as philosophy of science, theory development and testing, sampling, measurement, internal validity and external validity. We then, in the second half, apply these general principles to specific methodological options, including experiment, DID research design, and various quantitative/qualitative research methods. We conclude this course with a “getting your research into journals” workshop based on a real paper at different stages of the review process. Course Objectives By the end of this course, the students should be able to:
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understand some basic concepts of research and its methodologies
identify appropriate research topics
select and define appropriate research problem and parameters
prepare a project proposal (to undertake a project)
organize and conduct research (basic project) in a more appropriate manner
write a research proposal
write a research dissertation
Expected Outcomes Students completing this course are expected: 1. To understand the logic underlying social science research 2. To become a critical consumer of social science research 3. To be confident in applying appropriate research methods to answer their own research questions Table of Contents LECTURE 1: MEANING AND SOME DEFINITIONS 1 Session objectives 1.1 Meaning of Research 1.1.1 Some Definitions 1.1.2 The Need for Research 1.1.2.1 What is an Objectives? 1.1.2.2 Examples of Objectives 1.2 Importance of Research 1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management 1.2.2 Importance of Business Research in Management Functions: 1.2.2.1 Testing New Products 1.2.2.2 Ensuring Adequate Distribution 1.2.2.3 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness 1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition 1.2.3 Motivation in Research 1.2.3.1 Importance of Research to Individuals 1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations 1.3 Session Review 1.4 Session further reading
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LECTURE 2: CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH 2 Session Objectives 2.1 What does classification of research mean? 2.1.1 Why Do We Need Classify? 2.1.2 Classification on Based on Purpose 2.1.3 Classification Based on Purpose Method 2.2 Types of Research 2.2.1
Historical Research
2.2.2. Descriptive Research 2.2.3
Correlational Studies
2.2.4
Ex-Post Facto Studies
2.2.5
Experimental Research
2.2.6
Applied Vs. Basic Research
2.2.7
Other Types of Research
2.3 Factors that Determine the Type of Research to be Undertaken 2.3.1
Time constraints
2.3.2
Availability of Data
2.3.3
Nature of the Decision
2.3.4
Benefits versus Costs
2.3.5
Session Review
2.3.6
Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 3: CONDUCTING ACTUAL RESEARCH 3.1 Session Objectives 3.2 What is Business Research? 3.3 Scientific Method of Research 3.4 Characteristics of Scientific Research Method 3.5 The Steps in the Scientific Research Method 3.5.1 Define the Research Problem 3.5.1.1 Selecting and Defining a Problem 3.5.1.2 What are the Functions of a hypothesis? 6
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3.5.1.3 Describing Methodology of Research 3.6 Example of decision making that could necessitate research 3.7 Example of problem solving that could necessitate research 3.8 Formulate Objectives and Questions/Hypotheses 3.9 Review the literature 3.9.1 What is literature review? 3.9.2 Why do Researchers need to do Literature Review? 3.9.3 When to review the literature 3.9.4 How to Carry out a Literature Review?
3.9.4.1 Ways of finding relevant material 3.10
Session Review
3.11
Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 4: LITERATURE REVIEW 4.1 Session Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.2.1 What then is literature review? 4.2.2 Why do Researchers need to do Literature Review? 4.2.3 When to Review the Literature
4.2.4 How Do Researchers Carry out a Literature Review? 4.3 Ways of Finding Relevant Material 4.4 Qualities of an Effective Literature Review 4.5 Challenges Faced when Formulating Literature Review 4.6 Session Summary 4.7 Further Reading LECTURE 5: RESEARCH DESIGN 5 Session Objectives 5.1 Developing Research Design 5.1.1 Research Design 5.1.2 Classification of Research Types
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5.1.2.1 Descriptive Design 5.1.2.2 Experimental Design 5.1.2.3 Case Study Design 5.1.2.4 Cross-Sectional Design 5.1.2.5 Hybrid/Combined Research Design 5.1.3
Why does a Researcher Need a Research Design? 5.1.3 1 Categorization of Research Purposes 5.1.3.2 Considerations for the Preparation of Research Design
5.2
Session Review
5.3
Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 6: SAMPLING DESIGN 6 Session Objectives 6.1 Why do researchers use samples? 6.2 Determining Sample Design 6.3 Types of Samples Designs 6.3.1 Probability Samples or Non-Probability Samples 6.3.1.1 Deliberate Sampling 6.3.1.2 Simple Random Sampling 6.3.1.3 Systematic Sampling 6.3.1.4 Stratified Sampling 6.3.1.5 Quota Sampling 6.3.1.6 Cluster Sampling 6.3.1.7 Area sampling 6.3.1.8 Multi-stage Sampling 6.3.1.9 Sequential Sampling 6.4 6.5
Session Review Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 7: DATA COLLECTION 7 Session Objectives 7.1 What is Data? 7.1.1 Types of Data to be Collected 7.2 Secondary Data 7. 2.1 Types of Secondary Data
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7.2.2 Sources of External data 7.2.3 Verification of Secondary Data 7.3 Primary Data 7.3.1 Data Primary Collecting 7.3.2 Research Methods/Instruments 7.3.2.1 Collecting Data by Observation 7.3.2.2 Collecting Data through Personal Interview 7.3.2.3 Collecting Data through Telephone Interviews 7.3.2.4 Data Collection Using Mail Questionnaires 7.3.2.5 Data Collection through Interview Schedules 7.3.3 Considerations for a Researcher Make before Using Interviews to Collect Data 7.4
Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
7.5
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
7.6 Challenges Researchers Face in Data Collection 7.7 Session Review 7.8 Further Reading materials for the Session LECTURE 8: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA 8 Session Objectives 8.1 What should a researcher do to data before analysing it? 8.2 Meaning of Analysing and Interpreting Data 8.3 Importance and Challenges of Data Analysis 8.4 Qualitative or Quantitative Data Analysis? 8.4.1 What does the researcher do with the collected data? 8.4.1.1 How Researcher organize Data into Purposeful Categories 8.4.1.2 What does the researcher look for in the process of analysis? 8.4.2 Hypothesis-Testing 8.4.3 Generalizations and Interpretation 8.4.3.1
Interpretation
of
conclusions 8.4.3.2 Drawing Conclusions 8.5 Session Review
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Research
Findings
and
Drawing
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8.5 Further Reading materials for the Session LECTURE 9: 8.3.5
Session Review
8.3.6
Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 10: 9.3.5
Session Review
9.3.6
Further Reading materials for the Session
LECTURE 10:
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10.3.5
Session Review
10.3.6
Further Reading materials for the Session
CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
LECTURE ONE: MEANING AND SOME DEFINITIONS
1 Lecture objectives: By the end of this session; - the learner should be able to define in different ways the meaning of research and the meaning of other research terminologies -the learner should also be able to explain the importance of research to individuals, organizations and to countries -the learner should be able to use relevant examples in the definitions and explanations
1.1 Meaning of Research Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as, “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”.
1.1.1 Some Definitions Redman and Mory (2009) define research as a,” Systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. According to Redman and Mory (2009) some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. Research comprises of definition and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. Research is a process of determining, acquiring, analyzing, synthesizing, and disseminating relevant business data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate business actions that, in turn, maximize business performance.
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Having understood what research is, let us now consider why research is important. The discussion below includes the need for and objectives of research, as well as examples of objectives. 1.1.2 The Need for Research One of the characteristics of scientific research is that it must have an aim or purpose. In order to understand the aim of research, we need to understand objectives of research. Below we discuss the characteristics of research objectives followed by examples of objectives that researchers would aim to achieve. 1.1.2.1 What is an Objective? An objective is the aim or goal someone wants to achieve. Objectives must be SMART, that is, they must be;
Specific meaning they must have a focused aim to fulfil,
Measurable, that is, they must be stated in terms that allow them to be verified,
Achievable meaning they must be the kind of objectives that a researcher is capable of attaining,
Realistic in that they must be based on facts and situations as they really are
Timely so that they may help solve the problem or make informed decisions for which they are generated.
1.1.2.2 Examples of Objectives Different researchers have different goals to achieve when they set out on research. Below we discuss four main ones. A researcher can carry out a research to; 1. Gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. This can be done using exploratory or formulate research studies. 2. Describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group which is also known as descriptive research. 3. Determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else research. This kind of is also known as diagnostic research. 4. Test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. These kinds of studies are known as hypothesis testing research.
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Now, after the definition, research objectives and examples of research objectives, let us now consider types of research in the next section. 1.2 Importance of Research Research is a critical component of any business organization and to individuals. In the following sub-section we discuss some of the reasons why organizations carry out research as well as to individuals. We begin by discussing the role of research in business and management, the importance of research in business and management functions then move to the importance of research to individuals and finally to organizations. 1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management The main aim of research in business and management is to solve business and management problems: 1.2.1.1 Business problems: drop in sales, drop in customer base, consumer complaints, high product rejection, negative word of mouth (WOM), class between customers and sales people, high interest rates, poor ROI, poor turn-over/revenue (profits), etc 1.2.1.2 Management problems: high employee turn-over/complaints/grievances, class between customers and sales people, run down institutions, promotion/demotion of employees, transfers, management employee relations, etc. It is good to take note that the prime managerial value of business research is to reduce uncertainty by providing information that improves the decision making process. Decision making process involves following interrelated stages. – Identifying problems and opportunities – Diagnosis and assessment – Selecting and implementing a course of action – Evaluating the course of action: includes Evaluation research and Performance monitoring research -Evaluation Research: is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives.
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-Performance-monitoring Research: Research that regularly provides feedback for evaluation and control; Indicates things are or are not going as planned; Research may be required to explain why something “went wrong”. 1.2.2 Importance of Business Research in Management Functions: Below is a brief discussion of the importance of research in business management functions; 1.2.2.1 Testing New Products Business research tests the potential success of new products. It is vital to know what types of products and services customers want before they market them. For example, a restaurant chain may initially interview focus groups to test half dozen types of fish meals. The focus groups will likely consist of small groups of customers. The objective of the focus group may be to determine which fish meal customers like the best. The company may even use customer input in naming the entree and ask how much consumers would spend for the meal. Eventually, the company may test the fish meal through surveys with larger groups of people. 1.2.2.2 Ensuring Adequate Distribution Business research ensures adequate distribution of their products/services. For example, a telephone directory publisher may conduct a distribution follow-up study to make sure phone directories have been delivered to all residential customers. Publishers of telephone directories base their advertising rates on distribution. Therefore, ensuring that all residences receive phone books is crucial to the success of the publisher's business clients. Similarly, a consumer products company may want to talk to retailers about all the different brands they sell. The results of the business research will help marketing managers determine where they need to increase their product distribution. 1.2.2.3 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness Business research helps determine the success of their advertising. For example, a milk manufacturer may want to know what percentage of the population saw its most recent television commercial. The firm can create awareness through television ad runs. The milk company may need to run its television advertisements at different times if few
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people have seen the commercials. Companies also use business research to see if consumers recall the message or slogan of their commercials. 1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition Companies often use business research to study key competitors in their markets. Companies will often start with secondary research information or information that is already available. There are many reasons why a business should study the competitor, for example to be able to counter the competitor moves, to be able to develop superior strategies than those of the competitor so as to to achieve competitive advantage, etc.
1.2.3 Motivation in Research Research can be done by individuals or by organizations. Below we discuss reasons as to why each carry out research. We start with why individuals carry out research then move to why organizations do research.
1.2.3.1 Importance of Research to Individuals What makes people to undertake research? Why do organizations carry out research? Let us consider a few factors that prompt people to do research. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits; 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work and contribute to problem solving; 4. Desire to be of service to society by providing solutions to social problems; 5. Desire to get respectability. There are many other reasons that cause or motivate people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
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awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations. 1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations If you are asked the following questions, what would be your responses? i. Why do organizations carry out research? ii. What is the importance of research to organizations? Let us now consider more answers to the above two questions. Research helps organizations to understand; 1. Why consumers may prefer products from certain firms. This means finding out what the consumers/customers feel is appealing about your firm can help you find others just like them. 2. What the same consumers/customers are trying to avoid from certain firms. This is also important in helping shape business practices and strategy. 3. . Who are your real competitors- why must an organization learn about its competitor? There are various reasons. Let us consider a few of them; -To understand what strategies competitors is adopting in order that that firm counters them -In order to borrow selectively those that would benefit that firm -To understand how one’s own firm is performing compared to their competitor in order that they device strategies to attain competitive advantage -Etc 4. How prospective consumers/customers see their greatest challenges. -This would help firms understand what is on prospective clients' minds and how they are likely to describe and talk about those issues. 5. What the real benefit a firm provides for its consumers/customers Organizations must attempt to learn the true benefit of their service in order to enhance it or even develop new services with other true benefits.
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6. What are the emerging trends and challenges This helps the firm to understand; -Where the is market headed, -Whether the market will grow or contract -What services might be needed in the future Understanding such emerging trends can help organizations conserve 7. How strong the firm’s brand is. This entails a firm knowing; -What their firm is known for; how strong their reputation is, how visible they are in the marketplace, etc A firm’s knowledge of their position in the market place can guide its overall strategy and also have a profound impact on its marketing budget. A firm’s knowledge of their brand's strengths and weaknesses can help them understand why they are getting traction in one segment and not another. 8. What is the best way to market to you prime target clients. It pays for a firm to understand how their main consumers/customers want to be marketed to. 9. How a firm should price their services. Pricing plays a critical role in buying decisions. It is the easiest reason for a buyer to share when providing feedback. Therefore research is very important for it helps firms to understand how their customers view their prices vis-à-vis that of the competitor 10.
Generally how a firm’s current clients really feel about them.
Image is everything. Therefore through feedback from research firms can strategize to improve their image
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1.4 lecture Review: 1. Define the term research. Illustrate your answer. 2. Briefly discuss the five elements inherent in the process of research 3. Briefly discuss the functions of research to organizations and countries 4. Explain how research benefits individuals 5. What are the main characteristics of research objectives? 6. List five examples of objectives
1.5 Lecture Reading Materials;
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1.
Redman, L. V & Mory, A. V. H. (2009). The Romance of Research. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co.
2.
Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction
3.
Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003.
4.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
5.
Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
CMS 203: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
LECTURE TWO- CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
2 Lecture Objectives By the end of this session the learner should be able to; 1. Group research into related categories/types 2. Be able to identify the two main bases of research classification 3. Give examples of research work in each category 4. Explain why the categories are needed 5. Identify the type of research 6. Discuss the factors that determine the type of research to be undertaken
2.1 What does classification of research mean? Classification of research simply means grouping the types of research together and it can be done in various ways. We discuss some of these ways below but before that let us understand why we need to classify research. 2 Lecture Objectives 2.1 What does classification of research mean? 2.1.1 Why Do We Need Classify? • Reviewing related past research studies is an important step in the process of carrying out research as it helps in problem formulation, hypothesis construction and selection of appropriate research designs. • It is beneficial if you can classify a research study under a specific category because each category or type of research uses a specific set of procedures. Research can be basically classified into 2 types; 2.1.2 Classification on Based on Purpose • There are two ways of classifying research.
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• One way is to classify research on the basis of its purpose i.e. the degree to which the research findings are applicable to an educational setting and the degree to which they are generalizable. • The other way is to classify research on the basis of the method employed in research. • Taking purpose as the basis of classification, research is considered to be two typesBasic and Applied (including Developmental research). 2.1.3 Classification Based on Purpose Method • The other basis for classifying research is by the method it employs. • Research method is characterized by the techniques employed in collecting and analyzing data. • On the basis of method, research can be classified as historical, descriptive, correlational, ex-post facto and experimental. 2.2 Types of Research Let us now discuss the various types of research. In social Sciences, there are many research types. There are eleven types of research depending on whether it is primarily “fundamental” or “applied” in nature. They are as follows: 2.2.1 Historical Research What is historical research and what are its characteristics? This is a research about past event and • The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrences. • This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future events. • The data are not gathered by administering instruments to individuals, but • Rather, they are collected from original documents (secondary data) or by interviewing the eye-witnesses (primary source of information). • In case primary sources are not available, data are collected from those other than eyewitnesses (secondary sources). • The data thus collected are subjected to scientific analysis to assess its authenticity and accuracy.
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• Nancy Burton and Lyle Jones (1982) examined trends in achievement levels of African American versus White children. • They examined high school graduation rates between these 2 ethnic groups who were born before 1913, between 1913 and 1922, between 1923 and 1932, etc. • They also examined a variety of historical indicators in more recent groups of African American and White children. • One of their conclusions is that differences in achievements between these groups are decreasing. 2.2.2. Descriptive Research Let us understand what a descriptive research is; • Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. • It deals with the question “WHAT IS” of a situation. • It concerns with determining the current practices, status or features of situations. • Another aspect of descriptive research is that data collection is either done through asking questions from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how. Here the researcher attempts to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present Below is an example of Descriptive Research • Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen (1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68 to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect emotional abuse among the elderly. • As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse, including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.
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• What kind of descriptive research is this? • Descriptive and historical research provides a picture of events that are currently happening or have occurred in the past. • Researchers often want to go beyond mere description and begin discussing the relationship that certain events might have to one another. • The most likely type of research to answer the relationship among variables or events is called core-relational research. 2.2.3 Correlational Studies Class what do you think is referred to as correlational research? Correlational research are studies that are often conducted to test the reliability and predictive validity of instruments used for division making concerning selection of individuals for the likely success in a course of study or a specific job. • A correlation study aims at determining the degree of relationship between two or more quantifiable variables. • Secondly, the relationship thus determined could be used for making predictions. • A high value of relationship, however, does not signify a cause and effect relationship which must be verified through and experimental study. • Some authors consider this research as a type of descriptive research, since it describes the current conditions in a situation. • However, the difference lies in the nature of conditions studies. • A correlational study describes in quantitative terms the degree to which the variables are related. Let us consider the following example of Correlational research • In a study (by Vaughn et al., 1989) of the relationship between temperament and attachment behaviour in infants, the correlation among different types of attachment behaviours, how securely attached the infants were to their mothers, and the infant’s general temperament were examined. • The researchers found that an infant’s temperament does not predict how securely attached the child is to his or her mother.
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2.2.4 Ex-Post Facto Studies What do you think is an ex-post facto research? • There is some research where both the effect and the alleged cause have already occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect. • Such research is referred to as EX-POST FACTO (after the fact). • Ex-post Facto research can be defined as “Systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable”. • Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal-comparative research the researcher has no control on the variables or he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables) which cause a certain effect (dependent variables) being measured. • Since this type of a study lacks manipulation of variables, the cause-effect relationship measured are only tentative. • Some authors categorize Ex-post facto studies into the category of descriptive research. • Though it too describes conditions that exist in a situation, it attempts to determine reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomena under study. • The procedures involved in this study are quite different than those in descriptive research. 2.2.5 Experimental Research Next we discuss about an experimental research or study; • We already know that core-relational research can help establish the presence of a relationship among variables but not give us any reason to believe that variables are causally related to one another. • How does one find out if the characteristics or behaviours or events are related in such a way that the relationship is a causal one?
• Two types of research can answer this: (1) quasi-experimental research and (2) experimental research. • Experimental research is where participants are assigned to groups based on some selected criterion often called treatment variable. • Quasi-experimental research is where participants are pre-assigned to groups based on some characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, race, age, neighborhood, etc.
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• These group assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins, and the researcher has no control as to what the people will belong to each group. • The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one variables and control over the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on one or more dependent variables. • The variables (s) which is manipulated is also called independent variables, a treatment, an experimental variables or the cause. • Some of the examples of independent variables could be: temperature, pressure, chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity. Consider the following example of Experimental Research • Experimental research will always have two or more groups for comparison on the dependent variables. • It is the only type of research which can establish truly the cause and effect relations. • Let us consider the following Example; – A researcher in technician education is interested in studying the effects of two methods of instruction structured lecture method and programmed instruction on the achievement of students in a course of one semester in Applied Mechanics. – Sixty students in the class are divided randomly into two groups of thirty each. – The groups receive the specified treatment for an equal amount of time during the semester. – The participants are measured for their performance on the achievement test before and after the program so as to measure the gain. – In this experiment, the experimental or independent variables is the method of instruction and the dependent variable, is the achievement of students. – The difference in the gain on achievement between the two groups will show the effect of the methods of instruction. 2.2.6 Applied Vs. Basic Research • The most basic distinction between the two research is that basic research is research that has no immediate application, whereas applied research is research that does.
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• However, such distinctions are somewhat ambiguous as almost all basic research eventually results in some worthwhile application in the long range. Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid to the solution of some given problem or set of problems. Fundamental research- frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to existing problems. 2.2.7 Other Types of Research There are other types of research which may not fall in the above types. These include but not limited to; 1. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future conditions. It includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the implementation of policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and actions. 2. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a certain phenomenon to occur. 3. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will occur. This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation. This research calls for a high order of inference making. In business research, prediction is found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or to forecast current and future values. 4. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
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5. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. 6. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. This research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association test, sentence completion test, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. 7. Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. 8. Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a give hypothesis. 2.3 Factors that Determine the Type of Research to be Undertaken Below is a brief description of the factors that would determine the type of research to be undertaken; 2.3.1 Time constraints Some researches may take a short period of time ranging from a few day to a few months, although other may stretch to years. Therefore, depending on the urgency and quantity of the data required, a research should determine the length of his/her research
2.3.2 Availability of Data Availability of secondary data will determine how much primary data will be required for the research at hand.
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2.3.3 Nature of the Decision The use for which the data to be collected should determine what type of data to be collected. For example health issues would more often than not require experimental type of research. 2.3.4 Benefits versus Costs Ideally the benefits received from the research should be much more than the expenditure incurred during the research 2.3.5Lecture Review 1. Describe the two main categories of researches 2. Using valid illustrations discuss any six types of researches 3. Describe any six reasons why individuals carry out researches 4. Explain how governments can benefit from researches
2.3.6 Further Reading materials for the Lecture 1.
Redman, L. V & Mory, A. V. H. (2009). The Romance of Research. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co.
2. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 3.
Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A. ( 2003). Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education.
4.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
5.
Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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LECTURE THREE: CONDUCTING ACTUAL RESEARCH
3 Lecture Objectives By the end of this session the learner should be able to; 1. Define what business research is; 2. Describe the scientific research methods and discuss the characteristics of scientific research; 3. Discuss each of the types of research; 4. Describe the functions of research objectives, research questions and research hypotheses 5. To illustrate each of the descriptions and discussions mentioned above.
3 Introduction In this session we are interested in discovering the how of the research process. Before looking at the research process, let us remind ourselves of the meaning of research from a business perspective. 3.1 What is Business Research? Business research can be defined as the systematic and objective process of generating information for aid in making business decisions. This definition suggests that: – Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered. – Business research must be objective meaning it must be detached personal opinion and (it should be impersonal and unbiased) – It facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business. It is a process of determining, acquiring, analysing, synthesizing, and disseminating relevant business data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate business actions that, in turn, maximize business performance.
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This means that worthwhile and/or meaningful research must be scientific and that conclusions must be arrived at in a scientific manner. Let us now discuss what a scientific method of inquiry is like; 3.2 Scientific Method of Research Let us try to understand what a scientific method of research is. The scientific method is the result of recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence our perceptions and interpretations of natural phenomena. Through the use of standard procedures and criteria, it is possible to minimize those influences when developing a theory. The term scientific method implies the principles that guide scientific research and experimentation, and the philosophical bases of those principles. •
Scientific methods involve techniques and procedures used to analyze empirical evidence (facts from observation or experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior conceptions.
•
Both pure and applied research employs scientific method to answer questions. Use of SM in applied research assures objectivity in research.
•
The difference in techniques of basic and applied research is largely a matter of degree rather than substance.
3.3 Characteristics of Scientific Research Method What are these characteristics of scientific method of inquiry? It is characterized by the following convictions: a) Scientific research must have an aim. The aims include; problem solving, decision making, provide knowledge, etc) b) Scientific research is rigour which means that; i. the process must be logical and objective to reduce bias in methods and interpretation of results ii. that the process should be systematic in that it ought to involve certain standard procedures 29
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iii.
Enquiry should be conducted through a process of systematic observation that can be verified by experience (empiricism).
iv. There should be careful recording, documenting, archival and sharing of all data and methodology (full disclosure) to make it available for scrutiny by other researchers, thereby allowing them to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. c) Scientific research is subject to generalizability (for the sample to be representative of the population). It aims at generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. This calls for careful sampling procedures to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger group. d) Scientific research Testability- (as proof of the conclusions reached) e) Scientific research must be subjected to replicability in order to guard against mistake or confusion in any research f) Scientific research must be subjected to pprecision and confidence/pparsimonythis means that researchers must take extreme care in use of resources and efforts g) Scientific research must be subjected to objectivity in order to reduce biased interpretations of results
3.4 The Steps in the Scientific Research Method Figure 1.2 below is a diagrammatic representation of the scientific research method and thereafter the discussion on the same.
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Assess relevant existing knowledge
Formulate concepts & Propositions
Acquire empirical data
Statement of Hypotheses
Analyze & evaluate data
Provide explanation state new problem
Fig. 1:1- Summary of the Scientific Process of Research 3.4.1 Define the Research Problem A research problem is the reason for which the research is to be carried out. What and why does the research want to carry out a research? It could be for decision-making or for problem solving. Examples of research problems or need for decision-making through research: i)
In Human Resource area: High rate of employee turnover (Why would employee leave an organization in large numbers- whether sacked or voluntarily?; Why would employees remain agitated, always engaging in strikes, conflict with management over and again?; etc)
ii)
In the area of marketing: Drop in sales which may mean consumers are reducing consumption of that organization’s goods and/or services: What is the reason behind this drop in sales? Or it could be that a product/service is receiving minimal attention from the target consumers meaning it has been rejected. A researcher would want to establish the reasons for the low level acceptability of a new product by the target market.
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3.4.1.1 Selecting and Defining a Problem These mark the beginning of a research study and is the most difficult and important step. There could be many problems, some minor and others major therefore there is need to prioritize which one to tackle first. This involves: (i) Identifying and stating the problem in specific terms; e.g. what exactly is ailing the organization? What does the organization need to pay attention to urgently? (ii) Identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them adequately; Variables are simply the factors that may be affecting each other that in the long run call for an organization’s attention. E.g. in the Examples of research problems or need for decision-making through research discussed in section 3.4.1 above, high employees turnover (can be a variable) may affect the organization’s performance (can be another variable) (iii) Generating tentative guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables or in other words the solution of the problem, or writing explicitly the research questions) for which answers are sought, e.g. still from the above mentioned scenario, the guess may be that employee turnover is likely to cause low level productivity; Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned with the relationships between variables. For example, I may guess that employee turnover results in low organizational productivity and it will be my desire to try and prove this guess.
3.4.1.2 What are the Functions of a hypothesis? Do you know how one goes about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following approach: (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution; (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues; (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem. 32
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And lastly (iv) Evaluating the problem for its research ability To achieve this, you review the literature related to the problem to know what other researchers have done and discovered and to identify the possible methodology for conducting the research. We shall look at literature review in a more detailed manner in Session 4 Once the problem is selected and defined, the researcher then moves to describe the methodology of research as is discussed below; 3.4.1.3 Describing Methodology of Research Defining research methodology is critical in that it serves as a path finder for the researcher. The researcher needs to state the purpose of the study and to define the problem clearly. This guides you in deciding the methodology of research which involves: a) Identifying the method of research that is what is the research design for the study? What is the roadmap for the current research? b) Specifying the subjects of study (e.g. heat flow problem, etc.); c) selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects; d) selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for measuring the variables in the problem; e) Selecting a research design and describing the procedure to be employed for conducting the research study. 3.5 Example of decision making that could necessitate research include; i. When a firm wants to expand to new markets research would help then understand the needs, wants, tastes and preferences of the new target market ii. When a firm wants to increase its product scope a research would be necessary to gauge the level of acceptability for the proposed new products range
3.6 Example of problem solving that could necessitate research includes; i. Drop in sales (drop in customer base, consumer complaints)
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ii. High employee turn-over/complaint, iii. High product rejection, (negative word of mouth-WOM-) iv. Clash between customers and sales people? 3.7 Formulate Objectives and Questions/Hypotheses Objectives must be SMART (Refer back to section 1.2) Identifying a research problem is often triggered by a question, curiosity, uncertainty, in the mind of the researcher regarding some aspect of the business environment, for example, why a particular industry is growing, declining, stagnating, etc. This is followed by exploration of relevant published sources on the subject.
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LECTURE FOUR: LITERATURE REVIEW 4.O Lecture Objective By the end of this session the learner should be able to; 1. Define literature review; 2. Explain why researcher’s need literature review (functions of literature review); 3. Discuss the sources of literature review; 4. Establish the qualities of an effective literature review; 5. Outline the guideline of formulating an effective literature review
4.1 Introduction This is done to establish the existing information related to the problem at hand. Review involves thoroughly discussing the concepts and theories. The researcher here reviews previous research findings. An analytical review of existing literature should help the research to define the overall research objective or research question or research purpose. In one sentence the researcher should be able to say what is to be achieved by conducting the study.
4.1.1 What then is literature review? A literature review is a text written by someone to consider the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. Also, a literature review can be interpreted as a review of an abstract accomplishment. Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as a thesis or peer-reviewed article, a literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section.
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4.1.2 Why do Researchers need to do Literature Review? There are many benefits of having a literature review before embarking on a current research and researchers need to understand the importance of literature review in research; i. The main goal of literature review is to situate the current study within the body of literature and to provide context for a particular reader. ii. Literature reviews are a staple for research in nearly every academic field. It helps the researcher to succinctly develop the research gap and therefore, avoid duplication of research. iii. Literature review sharpens and deepens the theoretical underpinnings of a research by enabling the researcher to study different theories that are related to the specified topic. Understanding the theories helps the researchers to gain clarity and grasp the theoretical foundations related to the current research. iv. Researchers have to understand the previous works I order that they develop a significant problem of statement that will further knowledge in a field of study and thereby avoid duplication of research (ensuring what has been done is not repeated) but call for replication (applying already done researches in other environments or periods of time). v. A good literature review enables the researcher to read widely exposing them to vital research issues including well designed methodology. vi. It also helps the researcher to develop a sound base for analysing and interpreting the collected data.
4.1.3 When to Review the Literature Let us now look at when literature review in needed. With small-scale writing projects, the literature review is likely to be done just once; probably before the writing begins. With longer projects such as a dissertation for a Masters degree, and certainly with a PhD, the literature review process will be more extended. There are three stages at which a review of the literature is needed: 36
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an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and to confirm your choice of research focus/question;
as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with current, relevant research in your field, which is published during the period of your research;
As you prepare your final report or thesis, you need to relate your findings to the findings of others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research. This can involve further review with perhaps a slightly different focus from that of your initial review.
This applies especially to people doing PhDs on a part-time basis, where their research might extend over six or more years. You need to be able to demonstrate that you are aware of current issues and research, and to show how your research is relevant within a changing context. 4.1.4 How Do Researchers carry out a Literature Review? Carrying out literature review is very important to the researcher and also to the reader of the thesis developed thereafter. Here are some of the benefits of a literature review. A literature review goes beyond the information search. It helps you identify and articulate the relationships between the literature and your field of research. The following are the basic purposes for a literature review:
It provides a context for the research,
It justifies the research,
It ensures the research has not been done before (or that it is not just a "replication study") or there are gaps in previous researches,
It shows where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge,
It enables the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject,
It illustrates how the subject has been studied previously,
It highlights flaws in previous research,
It outlines gaps in previous research,
It shows that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field, and
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It assists on refining, refocusing or even changing the topic.
Besides these basic points, a literature review can also help the researcher to;
identify the research trend in this area,
determine the definitions of the main terms appeared in previous researches
establish the knowledge base on the subject
adjust the scope of the research
4.2 Ways of Finding Relevant Material It is good to note that not all information sources may be relevant or suitable for your work. Below we discuss how you can find relevant material for literature review and these include electronic sources, references of references and journals
Electronic sources- Searching electronic databases is probably the quickest way to access a lot of material. Guidance will be available via your own department or school and via the relevant Information Librarian. There may also be key sources of publications for your subject that are accessible electronically, such as collections of policy documents, standards, archive material, videos, and audio-recordings. References for references This means using other researchers references to find your own reading list for sources of information. If you can find a few really useful sources, it can be a good idea to check through their reference lists to see the range of sources that they referred to. This can be particularly useful if you find a review article that evaluates other literature in the field. This will then provide you with a long reference list, and some evaluation of the references it contains. Hand searching of journals- No electronic literature search can be 100% comprehensive, as the match between search terms and the content of articles will never be perfect. An electronic search may throw up a huge number of hits, but there are still likely to be other relevant articles that it has not detected. So, despite having access to electronic databases and to electronic searching techniques, it can be surprisingly useful
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to have a pile of journals actually on your desk, and to look through the contents pages, and the individual articles. Often hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus, research questions, methods, techniques, or interpretations that had not occurred to you. Sometimes even a key idea can be discovered in this way. It is therefore probably worth allocating some time to sitting in the library, with issues from the last year or two of the most relevant journals for your research topic, and reviewing them for anything of relevance.
4.3 Qualities of an Effective Literature Review Does a researcher need to bother about the type of literature review s/he uses? Of course yes otherwise, the research outcome may not be able to serve the purpose for which it may have been put into existence. And below we discuss the qualities of an effective literature review; i. One of the main issues that a research should concern himself with is the identification of key issues to be addresses by the literature review. These include; the research topic, the title, the objectives of the research and the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. The specific problem that the literature review is meant to address should guide the researcher on what information to collect. ii. Next the researcher should formulate a preliminary statement of the problem to enable him to focus on the materials to be selected. This will in turn help the researcher to identify the relevant sources of information. iii. These
sources
of
information
include;
books,
journals;
internal
documents/publications of the organizations under study, the internet, the government,
Newspapers,
magazines,
conference
proceedings,
theses
and
dissertations, etc. iv. The next step for the researcher is to consider how he is going to critically analyze the identified sources of data. Such issues as the how clearly the book or article author has identified the statement problem, its significance, relevance, clear objective for research, etc v. The code for the book or article should be well classified, creating an outline for the review and synthesizing the gathered information
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These are some of the things to consider if and when a researcher is preparing his literature review. Besides these considerations, what do you think are some of the challenges a researcher is likely to encounter when formulating the literature review? Below we discuss a few of them; 4.4 Challenges Faced when Formulating Literature Review i. The problem of failing to match the current research to the selected review materials. This would be the case in a situation where the selected review materials are mere listings instead of them being comprehensive research materials. ii. The second challenge is the poor presentation of the review materials. Example of poor presentation include too many short paragraphs (including a one sentence onethree) making the work to be quite disjointed. The result may be that the researcher will not adequately understand that kind of review material. Other examples include starting each paragraph with the author’s name instead of varying it with quoting directly the author’s opinion. Not all studies to be used for review are the same and therefore, the researcher should give stress and emphasis on those that are more important and relevant iii. Some researchers have the habit of reading and reviewing too much material for their topic. Literature review should only be a survey of the published works related to a researcher’s work iv. Other challenges include lack of documentation, lack of critique and failure to review current studies.
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4.5 Lecture Summary 1. What is literature review? 2. Explain any three functions of literature review? 3. What are the ways of finding relevant research materials? 4. What are the qualities of an effective literature review? 5. Describe the guidelines in formulating an effective literature review. 6. What are the challenges in formulating literature review?
4.6 suggestion for Further Reading 1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003. 2. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003. 3. Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
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LECTURE FIVE: RESEARCH DESIGN
5 Session Objectives By the end of the session the learner should be able to; vi. Define what a research design is; vii. Classify the various research designs viii.
Give reasons for the kind of classification used
5 Introductions In the previous session we looked at how to identify relevant sources of information, let us now consider how to use a section of the population to collect data that can be generalized to the population parameters. This entails developing the research developing a research design and identifying the appropriate sampling procedure. We shall also discuss about what sampling procedure is appropriate in which situation later in this session. 5.1 Research Design What is a research design? Some researchers have thought of a research design as the structure of the research as it links all the elements of a research together. It is the blueprint or outline for fulfilling objectives and answering questions. It involves asking questions such as: What type of research will it be? –Will it be quantitative? Will it be qualitative? Will it be a survey? Will it be a case Study? Will it be exploratory? Will it be descriptive? Or will it consist a multiple of these? What techniques or methods will be used? 5.1.1 Functions of a Research Design What would be the main purpose of a research design? A well formulated research design would ensure that the information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and that the data are collected by accurate
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procedures. Since, research designs germinate from the objectives, the accuracy and adequacy of a research design depends on the unambiguous framing of the objectives. Research design helps the research on his research journey. It enables him to choose the right population that will provide the information needed to enhance the attainment of the research objectives. It will also influence the choice of research site and also the instrument for data collecting. A research design is formulated after the research problem has been generated in clear cut terms. The researcher will have to state the theoretical, conceptual and contextual structures within which the research would be conducted. 5.1.2 Classification of Research Types Let us now look at the types of research designs a researcher could adopt for his work. Researches can be categorized partly in terms of purpose, manner or the period considered while carrying out the research. Below we discuss each of them in turn; 5.1.2.1 Descriptive Design A researcher using a descriptive design is simply interested in describing the state of affairs as they exist and may also help to formulate useful principles of knowledge and finding solutions to significant problems. There are different types of descriptive designs, for example a descriptive survey gathers information through interviews or through use of a questionnaire. The design can be used to collect qualitative data such as people’s attitude, perceptions, opinions and other feelings. A good example of a descriptive research design is establishing the importance of education to families. A researcher would identify a certain group of families just to establish their views on the importance of education to their lives. 5.1.2.2 Experimental Design What do you understand by the term experimental research? This design takes into account collecting data by subjecting a certain group of elements (which may include people) to certain treatment while at the same time refraining from doing the same to
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another group. The second group is referred to as the control group. These groups must have certain characteristics in common and therefore the researcher will want to compare the outcome between them. In business circles, a researcher would want to find out how consumers respond to changes in price. He will choose two stores and have one maintain their prices while another would have prices being adjusted frequently. The responses of consumers on these two stores would then be recorded signalling the changes in the sales volume. The results may show causal relationship between the dependent and independent variables. In order to use this design successfully, the researcher must be able to identify which is the dependent variable and which is the independent variable. For example, in the above illustration the dependent variable is the sales volume which the dependent variable is the pricing. 5.1.2.3 Case Study Design For a researcher who wants to describe a unit of analysis in detail, s/he will use a case study. The detail must be justified before the researcher decides to use this design. A good example of a case study design is “The impact of increase of prices of basic commodities: A case study of residents in Kibera, Kenya”. Studying the impact of increase of prices of basic commodities in Kibera will allow the researcher to gain a better understanding of the problems faced by consumers. Here the research must justify why s/he has chosen Kibera to be a case study. 5.1.2.4 Cross-Sectional Design This type of a design considers issues across different perspectives in terms of geographical location (e.g. across different regions within a country or different institutions that enjoy some commonalities, etc), time frame (using a period before the implementation of a strategy, e.g. before the new constitution and after the new constitution in Kenya) or even across different cultures. Therefore, it is quite frequent to hear of longitudinal time series design. This means that a researcher would consider research in different geographical locations and equally
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different times. Cross section means considering responses of one’s respondents found in different places and equally at different periods of time, e.g. over a period of 5-10 years. 5.1.2.5 Hybrid/Combined Research Design A hybrid or combined research design is found in a situation where a researcher has used more than one type of research design. This is a common practice since it is not easy to distinctively decide which design is the most suitable to use or one cannot successfully separate a design from another. A good example would be to carry out a survey design over a period of say, 2-3 years. This becomes a time series survey or cross sectional survey design. 5.1.3 Why does a Researcher Need a Research Design? A design is a blueprint or a road map. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. 5.1.3.1 Categorization of Research Purposes For every research to take place there is a reason for it. Below we discuss some of the groups of purposes for which research is put into existence. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (ii)
Exploration,
(iii)
Description,
(iv)
Diagnosis, and
(v)
Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
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There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as beforeand-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project. 5.1.3.2 Considerations for the Preparation of Research Design The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following: (i) The means of obtaining the information; (ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); (iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) The time available for research; and (v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
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5.2 Lecture Review 1. Define what a research design is. 2. Discuss the importance of developing a research design 3. Explain how a researcher can combined research designs 4. What factors do researchers need to consider when developing a research design 5. What are the main purposes of research design?
5.3 Further Readings 1.
Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003.
2.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
3. 4.
Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction
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LECTURE SIX: SAMPLING DESIGN
Session Objectives By the end of the session the learner should be able to; i. Define the term sampling design ii. Explain reasons why researchers use samples as opposed to population iii. Explain factors that determine sampling and sample designs to be used
6.0 Introduction To sample is to measure a small portion of something and then making a general statement about the whole thing. It is a process of selecting a number of units for a study in such a way that the units represent the larger group from which they are selected. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors. Before we go into the details of sampling design, let us consider from where the sample is generated. A sample is a small portion of a whole and this whole is referred to as population let us now understand how to use a part of a population instead of a whole. This is what we are calling sampling. But before that let us understand why researchers work predominantly with samples other than the entire population. 6.1 Why do Researchers Use Samples? When conducting research, one must often use a sample of the population as opposed to using the entire population. Before we go further into the reasons why, let us first discuss what differentiates between a population and a sample. A population can be defined as any set of persons/subjects having a common observable characteristic. For example, all individuals who reside in the United States make up a population. Also, all pregnant women make up a population. The characteristics of a population are called a parameter. A statistic can be defined as any subset of the population. The characteristics of a sample are called a statistic.
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Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous (different characteristics) population. - The universe or population to be studied maybe too large or unlimited that it is almost impossible to reach all of them. Sampling makes possible this kind of study because in sampling only a small portion of the population maybe involved in the study, enabling the researcher to reach all through this small portion of the population. Sampling may be applied for economy, that is, to save time- Research without sampling may be too costly. Sampling reduces the study population to a reasonable size that expenses are greatly reduced. Sampling is for speed. - Research without sampling might consume too much time. Sampling may also be applied for accuracy- If it takes too long a time to cover the whole study population, there may be inaccuracy. The research must be finished within a reasonable period of time so that the data are still true, valid and reasonable. Sampling saves the sources of data from being entirely consumed- The act of gathering data may consume all the sources of information without sampling. In such a case, there is no more data to apply the conclusion to. A sample is a part of the target population, carefully selected to represent that population. Thus the population must be identified before thinking about sampling. Such questions as these ones below need to answered fully when developing a sample design; Who will be interviewed/ complete the questionnaire? How many people/ institutions will be will be involved? If using published information, how many records will be inspected? For what time involved? If using published information, how many records will be inspected? In what time duration? 6.2 Determining Sample Design All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not
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be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases. There is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. In addition, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Next let us discuss the two main sample designs which are probability samples or nonprobability samples. We shall start with probability followed by non-probability. 6.3 Types of Samples Designs Let us now consider the various sample types in business research. Each sample is used in relation to the researcher’s objectives in terms of the data required and the situation at hand. 6.3.1 Probability Samples or Non-Probability Samples Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief discussion of the important sample designs is as follows:
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6.3.1.1 Deliberate Sampling Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. Deliberate sampling can be of two types and below we state when each is used; First, when population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous. The second type is judgment sampling in which the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgment sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations. 6.3.1.2 Simple Random Sampling This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. Let us describe this in detail below; If a researcher wants to select a sample of 300 items from a population of 15,000 items, he need to put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. He might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. 51
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When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another. 6.3.1.3 Systematic Sampling This is an extremely careful way of arriving at the sample. It is done by selecting every 15th name on a list or every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start, e.g the 15th and 10th mentioned above. When is this procedure useful? It becomes useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured. 6.3.1.4 Stratified Sampling There are times when a researcher is interested in collecting information from a population that involves different levels, meaning that the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group. The best sampling method here is stratified sampling technique which is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is referred to as stratified random sampling.
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6.3.1.5 Quota Sampling In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgment samples rather than random samples. 6.3.1.6 Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling involves grouping the population into some related categories or clusters and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal interviews. 6.3.1.7 Area sampling This is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at each location. 6.3.1.8 Multi-stage Sampling This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units
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such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling. 6.3.1.9 Sequential Sampling This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control. In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs.
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6.4 Session Review i. What is sampling and why do researchers use samples ii. Discuss the various sample designs in business research iii. How is each design developed ? iv. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each design? 6.5 Further Readings 1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003. 3. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003. 4. Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
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LECTURE SEVEN: DATA COLLECTION
7.0 Lecture Objectives By the end of the session the learner should be able to; i. Define the term data; ii. Describe the types of secondary data that can be collected iii. Explain how secondary data can be verified iv. Explain the purpose of collecting primary data v. Describe the ways of collecting primary data vi. Explain how to measure the reliability and validity of the research instruments.
7.1 What is Data? Data represent the facts collected by the researcher from the study environment. In collecting data, the researcher must understand the following: i. That data may be abstract – e.g., “Our staff productivity is higher than industry average because our employees are highly motivated. In this case, the researcher has a responsibility to “uncover” the abstractness in the terms “productivity” and “highly motivated”. What do they mean? How are they different from what is done by other companies? ii. When research questions consistently produce similar results, data can be considered to be trustworthy because they can be verified (are reliable). The role of the researcher is make it easy to verify data. iii. Data capturing is elusive, because of the speed with which events occur and the fact that opinions, preferences and attitudes vary with the passage of time. The role of the researcher is to minimize the impact of these changes by conducting research over a limited time, and also incorporating foreseeable changes into the research. iv. Data collected reflect their perspective of the facts by closeness to the events/ occurrence being studied. If possible, research should draw from recent occurrences,
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because compromising on the reliability of the data, owing to inability to recall information, is minimized. 7.1.1 Types of Data to be collected How many basic types of data does a researcher have to collect? There are two main types of data that a researcher will need while conducting research; either secondary data and/or primary data. In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand which is the secondary data (discussed in detail below) are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate which is called primary data. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in terms of financial costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Let us discuss secondary data before moving on to discuss primary data. Ideally a research considers secondary data before primary data. What reason can we give for this? This is because secondary data is readily available and therefore cheaper than primary data. It is the adequacy or inadequacy of secondary data that would determine the extent of primary data to be collected. 7.2 Secondary Data This is the starting point for research such that if the data collected from these does not fulfil the characteristics of good sources of data, then the researcher will move on to collect primary data. This is data collected for other use other than the current research need. It is already documented research and therefore, generated from written sources 7. 2.1 Types of Secondary Data Let us now consider the two types of secondary data. First there are data that are originated from within the company are called as internal data. If they are collected for some other purpose, they are internal secondary data. This poses significant advantage as they are readily available in the company at low cost. The most convenient example of internal secondary data is figures relating sales of the company, the number of customers, the profit and or revenue attained at any one given time, etc.
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Important internal source of secondary data is database marketing which involves the use of computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase details. The information about customer profile would serve as the foundation for marketing programmes or as an internal source of information related to preference of customer’s preference of a particular product. Published external secondary data refers to the data available without the company. There is such a pool of published data available in the market that it is sometimes easy to underestimate what is available and thereby bypass relevant information. 7.2.2 Sources of External data They are: a) General Business Data -These can be guides or small booklets containing information about a particular trade or business. Directories are helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data. -Indexes used to locate information on a particular topic in several different publications by using an index. -Non-governmental statistical data refers to published statistical data of great interest to researchers. Graphic and statistical analyses can be performed on these data to draw meaning inference. b) Government Sources Census data is a report published by the Government containing information about the population of the country. Other Government publications may be pertaining to availability of train tickets just before it leaves. c) Computerized Databases Online databases are databases consisting of data pertaining to a particular sector (e.g., banks) that is accessed with a computer through a telecommunication network. -Internet databases are available in internet portals that can be accessed, searched, and analyzed on the internet. -Offline databases are databases available in the form of diskettes and CD-ROM disks.
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Bibliographic databases comprises of citations in articles published in journals, magazines, newspapers etc. d) Numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information. For example, time series data about stock markets. e) Directory databases provide information on individuals, organizations and service. E.g. Getit f) Yellow pages are special-purpose databases are databases developed online for a special purpose. g) External Data-syndicated were generated in response to the growing need for data pertaining to markets, consumer etc., companies have started collecting and selling standardized data designed to serve the information needs of the shared by a number of organizations. Syndicated data sources can be further classified as; (a) Consumer data (b) Retail data (c) Wholesale data (d) Industrial data (e) Advertising evaluation data and (f) Media and audience data 7.2.3 Verification of Secondary Data How does a researcher know that the primary data collected is fit to use to achieve his research objectives? Primary data is tested for validity and reliability and before using secondary data it is always necessary to scrutinize it properly in regard to its accuracy and reliability. It may perhaps happen that the authorities collecting a particular type of data may unknowingly carry out investigations using procedures wrongly. Hence it is always necessary to carry out the verification of the secondary data in the following ways: (i) Whether the organization that has collected the data is reliable.
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(ii) Whether the appropriate statistical methods were used by the primary data enumerators and investigators. (iii) Whether the data was collected at the proper time. The researcher also must ascertain the data has the following characteristics in order that satisfies the purpose for which it needed; i.
Current and timely (especially in terms of statistics)
ii.
Adequate
iii.
Accurate
iv.
Authentic
7.3 Primary Data This is data that is collected specifically for the purpose of the current research and which data cannot be possibly found in secondary data. A researcher’s starting point is secondary data such that if it is sufficient to fulfill the information required to making decision(s) or solve a problem, then there will be no need for primary data. Therefore, primary data is collected only to fill in the gap occasioned by inadequate secondary data for decision-making or for problem-solving. 7.3.1 Data Primary Collecting What is the purpose of collecting primary data? There are various reasons why primary data is collected some of which are discussed in section 6.1.1 above. Primary data is collected to be used for the first time and is meant specifically for the research at hand (for the current use or problem a researcher wishes to solve). It involves conducting the study according to the designed procedure (manipulating the experimental variables in the case of an experimental method), administering instruments for measuring variables and/or gathering information through observation. It also involves tabulating the data collected for the purpose of analysis to achieve the research objectives and answer the research questions (or test the research hypotheses) generated by the same researcher at a present time.
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7.3.2 Research Methods/Instruments Let us consider how primary data is collected. How do researchers collect primary data? There are various instruments used, some of which we discuss below. Research instruments are the tools and/or techniques that would be used to collect the desired data. This data is raw from the field. It is the one referred to as primary data. Data can be collected through various methods which include: Interview Surveys- questionnaire, telephone interviews, internet interviews, focus group interviews, etc). Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
7.3.2.1 Collecting Data by Observation This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. What is the main disadvantage for this method? This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned. 7.3.2.2 Collecting Data through Personal Interview The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent. One main disadvantage of this method is that it is too taxing therefore time consuming. Sometimes the interviewees would demand for compensation before any responses are given.
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7.3.2.3 Collecting Data through Telephone Interviews This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time. 7.3.2.4 Data Collection Using Mail Questionnaires The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced. The aim is to reveal the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. The researcher must prepare questionnaire carefully in order that it collects the data it is expected to collect in an effective and efficient manner in collecting the relevant information. 7.3.2.5 Data Collection through Interview Schedules Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work. 7.3.3 Considerations for a Researcher Make before Using Interviews to Collect Data A researcher must consider the desired degree of accuracy, availability of time for the research, the objective and extent of the research and the financial implications of the research before choosing the “right” methods of collecting the data taking.
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The above discussion has focus much on primary data collection. Please take note that primary data is collected only if the secondary data is not available or is insufficient to solve the current problem or to make decisions on the issue at hand. Below we discuss secondary data, with emphasis laid on the types of and the relevance sources of the secondary data. 7.4 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments What should a researcher do in order to refine the measuring instrument? A researcher should conduct pilot testing to detect weaknesses in design and instrumentation and to provide proxy data for selection of an appropriate sampling design. And how can this be done? It should be done by drawing subjects from the target population and simulate procedures and protocols that have been designed for data collection. Where the target population is small, pretesting may be conducting using colleagues or surrogate respondents to help refine the measuring instrument. 7.5
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Why would a researcher be bothered about ethics in research? The main reason for this is that a research may at times be required to work with people and/or animals in the course of carrying out their research. For example, it may involve changing the behaviour of people which may cause pain or distress to them. Reasons why researchers need to consider ethics in research include the following; i. Cost-benefit analysis; it would be useless to carry out a research whose cost is far much above the benefits sought therefore, before conducting a research, it is prudent to establish the cost versus the benefits. ii. All researchers need to obtain consent before they start to collect any data from the filed and they should know that any participation should be voluntary. iii. Confidentiality is vital for a researcher to maintain. All information given by respondents should be held in confidence, including the respondents’ identity. iv. Researchers should be responsible for their work and must be held accountable for it at all times.
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v. Researchers need to be honest and open, to disclose all necessary information about the intended research to the respondent’s before-hand. This would include the purpose for which the research is being done. vi. All respondents must be protected by the researcher, who should take a deliberate effort to do so to prevent any harm on them. 7.6 Challenges Researchers Face in Data Collection It is not smooth throughout the data collection session for the researcher. So, what challenges do they face? Below is a discussion of some of these challenges; i. Failure by the researcher to carry out a pilot study whose aim is to map out the way for him. Pre-test, for example would enable the researcher to capture the short comings of a research instrument. ii. Failure to follow-up on non-respondents which may result in poor response rate iii. Failure by the researcher to put adequate quality control measures in place. Control can be done through use of observation, sample interviews and questionnaire checking by the researcher to help detect errors. iv. Poor targeting can also be a challenge. This has to do with poor defining and selecting of the sample to be used in the study. v. Last but not least is poor implementation of the collection process may result in certain errors such as question errors, interview errors, recording errors and coding errors.
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7.7 Lecture Review i. Define the term data; ii. Describe the types of secondary data that can be collected iii. How can secondary data be verified? iv. Explain the purpose of collecting primary data v. Describe the various ways through which primary data can be collected. vi. Explain how to measure the reliability and validity of the research instruments. vii. What are some of the challenges that a research is likely to face?
7.8 Further Readings 1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003. 3. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003. 4. Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
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LECTURE EIGHT: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA
8
Lecture Objectives
By the end of this session, the learner should be able to; i. Explain how data is organized from raw information to knowledge and how it is stored ii. Factors to consider when choosing statistical software package for analysis iii. Explain how data analysis in qualitative research is done iv. Explain how data analysis in quantitative research is done v. Describe the statistical techniques of data presentation
8.1 Introduction In the previous session we discussed a great deal on the research methodology in terms of collecting primary and secondary data. We agreed that secondary data is given first priority in order to be sure how much primary data will be required for a current research. In this session we discuss in detail what it entails to analyse the data, whether primary or secondary. We begin by understanding what a researcher should do to the data before beginning to analyse it.
So what should a researcher do to data before analysing it? Before data is analysed it is cleaned to eliminate unnecessary elements of that data and then it is coded into language that is understood by the computer in order that it enables the research to use computer based methods of analysis. A researcher has to do certain things once data has been collected in order to organize the data for ease of analysis. Here we discuss this process; 8.1.1 Process of Data Organization How can a researcher organize data? There are four steps in this process;
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i.
Pre-processing stage where problems encountered during collections are identified in the raw data. Such problems include the differences between the results obtained by multiples interviewers At this stage unusable data is eliminated, ambiguous answers are interpreted and contradictory data from related questions is verified.
ii.
The second step is to develop a coding system or scheme that will enable the researcher to capture all the relevant information from the data. A coding scheme is an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible responses can be represented and what numerical codes to be assigned. For examples dichotomous responses of ‘Yes” and “No” could be assigned figures “1” and “2” respectively while “male” and “female” could be assigned “1” and “2” as well.
iii.
Then next step is deciding on the short time data storage to enable ease of analysis. This could be done on paper which is easy to retrieve but bulky. There is also electronic storage which is extensive but fragile.
iv.
Statistical software package to use to analyse data must then be chosen carefully depending on the characteristics of the data to be analysed, the analyses to be performed and the technical and financial constraints. Among the packages are word processor, spread sheet, data bases and statistical systems 8.2 Meaning of Analysing and Interpreting Data Analysing and interpreting results indicate that the research results of the study are being generated. • The data are summarized, in other words analysed to provide information for testing the hypotheses or answering the research questions. How then does the researcher analyse the data? A researcher can perform the analysis manually, by using a hand calculator or a computer as per the demands of the problem, and the available facilities. • After completing the analysis results are tied together or summarized. • The results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses and/or the research problem.
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• These are then discussed in relation to: the existing body of knowledge, consistencies and inconsistencies with the results of other research studies, and then the conclusions are drawn. • This is followed by writing the research report. 8.3 Importance and Challenges of Data Analysis Did you know that analysed data is one of the most important elements of a research? Raw data does not mean anything to a researcher nor does it mean anything to the users of the research work. Below we expound on this importance; i. When data is analysed, it clearly shows the findings or results arrived at by the researcher ii. It also enables the researcher to identify areas or gaps for further research iii. Equally important is the fact that it helps the researcher to know the results without wasting time on primary and secondary data iv. It can also enable the researcher to know the statistical methods used for analysing data in a previous study 8.3.1 Data analysis and interpretation equally have their disadvantages. Let us briefly look at some of these disadvantages; i. It is important to know that some sources of data may be bias and therefore these condition may affect the external validity of the statistical results ii. Secondly, there are likely to be some errors in the methodology used hence lead to the following; iii. Wrong interpretation of results or wrong application of statistical packages These are some of the advantages and disadvantages of data analysis in the area of business research. 8.4 Qualitative or Quantitative Data Analysis? Can data be analysed qualitatively and quantitatively? Yes, we need to realise that data can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively or both. Qualitative analysis is done on data that is collected qualitatively and the opposite is true.
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What determines whether data is analysed qualitatively or quantitatively? This depends on the type of data collected: qualitative or quantitative. Data analysis involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries and applying statistical techniques. Discussions involve: i. answering the questions formulated for the study; ii. explaining any variations in the findings; iii. Comparing research findings to previous studies. 8.3.1 What does the researcher do with the collected data? After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The extensively collected data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. This means, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. 8.3.1.1 How Researcher organize Data into Purposeful Categories The researcher uses coding, editing and tabulation. Coding operation is usually done at the stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously. Is tabulation the final stage in data analysis? No. There is the analysis work after tabulation. Analysis is generally based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.
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8.3.1.2 What does the researcher look for in the process of analysis? In the process of analysis, the researcher is interested in the relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses. These are subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). What example can we give here? Take for instance, if there are two samples of monthly sales, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests a researcher can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the researcher will infer that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the researcher can conclude that the two samples belong to the same universe. Apart from analysing the relationships, what else can a researcher look for from the results of (analysed) data? A researcher can also use the technique of analysis of variance (ANOVA) to help him to analyze whether three or more varieties of brands sold in certain markets yield significantly different sales (and or profits) or not. There are other statistical measures the researcher can analyse from the collected data, like homoscadasticity, etc. 8.3.2 Hypothesis-Testing The above steps in data analysis are likely to help the researcher to test the hypotheses, if he had formulated them earlier. His aim at this point would be to answer the following question; Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. There are various tests developed by statisticians for this purpose; i. Chi square test, ii. t-test, iii. F-test
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The choice of the test will depend on the nature and object of research inquiry. The main goal of hypothesis-testing is to either accept the hypothesis or reject it. What if the researcher had no hypothesis to start with? If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come. 8.3.3 Generalizations and Interpretation Generalizations are only arrived at if a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times (meaning similar results are found). This is the same as building a theory. 8.3.3.1 Interpretation of Research Findings and Drawing conclusions Why is it necessary for one to interpret the research findings? Interpretation of research findings is necessary since without this, it would not be possible to use the results of the research for problem solving or decision making. It is done in order to suit the objectives for which the research was planned. So how are Interpretation of Research Findings and Drawing conclusions done? If there appears to be patterns and trends in the findings, then generalisations can be made, which is the value of research. For example if there is generally an increase in sale (and/or in profits and revenue) after a certain period of time and expenditure in advertising then conclusions and interpretations can be done in relation to the two variables, that is increase in expenditure on advertisement and increase in sales/profit/revenue. The researcher may seek to explain the findings on the basis of some theory. This is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation often triggers off new questions which lead to further research. 8.3.3.2 Drawing Conclusions In order for us to understand why and how conclusions are done, we need to understand what research is. So “What is Research?”
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• Research follows a scientific method and the following are results of research; • This means that it makes an integrated use of inductive (concluding from the general/unknown to the specific/known) and deductive (concluding from the specific/known to the general/unknown) reasoning. • This makes it very useful for explaining and/or predicting phenomena. • The basic assumption of the scientific method is that every effect has a cause. • It starts with the construction of hypotheses from casual observations and background knowledge (inductive reasoning) to reasoning out consequences or implications of hypotheses (deductive reasoning) followed by testing of the implications and confirmation or rejection of the hypotheses. • Integrated use of inductive and deductive reasoning is the essence of scientific method. 8.3.3.3 What is the Importance of Generalizations in Research? In essence, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations about the sample used and the results produced. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some earlier theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
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8.4 Lecture Review i. Explain how data is organized from raw information to knowledge and how it is stored ii. Factors to consider when choosing statistical software package for analysis iii. Explain how data analysis in qualitative research is done iv. Explain how data analysis in quantitative research is done v. Describe the statistical techniques of data presentation
8.5 Further Readings 1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003. 3. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003. 4. Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
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LECTURE NINE: PREPARATION OF REPORT & INFORMATION DISSEMINATION
9
Lecture Objectives
By the end of this session the learner should be able to; i. Explain what the researcher should do with the research findings ii. Outline the process of report preparation and information dissemination iii. Describe other considerations when writing a research report iv. Discuss the characteristics of a good research
9.1 Introduction Did you know that it would not make sense if the research findings were not shared with readers and other users? In this session we want to look at how a researcher would make sensible use of what he has researched on by posing the following question; What should the researcher do with the research findings after data analysis, generalizations and/or interpretations? The data collected and analysed would be useless if it is not reported and disseminated. The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in respect to the following: The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) An abstract (iii) Details of the research (iv) the main text, and (v) the end matter/ Appendices. Below is a short description of each of these. 9.2 Reporting the findings- At a minimum the research report should contain the following: 9.2.1 Preliminary Pages These include the title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
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9.2.2 An abstract This consists of a synopsis of the problem, findings and conclusions all in a single paragraph.
9.2.3 Main Report This consists of the details of the research which should include the background to the research problem, literature review, methods and procedures and conclusions. The main report should have the following parts: 9.2.3.1 Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. 9.2.3.2 Summary of Findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned in the research findings and the various constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated. 9.2.3.3 Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like. 9.2.3.4 Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. This is the final summing up. 9.3 Other Considerations when Writing the Research Report At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
9.3.1 Bibliography or references- This is a list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
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9.3.2 Appendices – include research instrument(s), permission to undertake the research, raw data, etc.). These should also included charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly. 9.4 Criteria of Good Research What are the characteristics of a good research? There are common grounds of scientific method that needs to be employed by all researches to make them to be good. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria: 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used. 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings. 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. 9.4.1 So what are the four main qualities that a good research should possess? Therefore good researches should possess the following four main characteristics: i. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
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ii. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. v. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. vi. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. 9.5 Problems Encountered by Researchers Researchers carrying out empirical research face several problems. They include the following; 1. Lack of and/or inadequate scientific training in research methodology The research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well systematically equipped with all the methodological aspects. How can we solve such a problem? Efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement. 2. Insufficient
interaction/collaboration
between
the
university
research
departments on one side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remains untouched/untreated by the researchers due to lack of proper contacts. How can researchers solve such a problem? -Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches.
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-There
is
need
to
develop
some
mechanisms
of
a
university—industry
interaction/collaboration program so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics. 3. Lack of confidence by most business enterprises in the material supplied by them to researchers (that the materials will be used and are therefore often reluctant to supply the needed information to researchers). The concept of secrecy seems not to be convincing to business organizations that it proves an impediment to researchers. What is the way forward for the researcher? There is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused. 4. Overlap of research studies, one over another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information which results in duplication and fritters away resources. How can researchers overcome the problem of duplication of research and wastage of resources? This problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to the industries. 5. Lack of a proper code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries The remedy to this problem is to develop a code of conduct for all researchers which should be adhered to sincerely. 6. Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial assistance is made available to
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researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty. 7. Unsatisfactory library management and functioning at many places and much of the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them 8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries. 9. Difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies charged with this responsibility. Researcher also faces the problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies. 10. Problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data collection and related things.
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9.6 Lecture Review v.
Explain what the researcher should do with the research findings
vi.
Outline the process of report preparation and information dissemination
vii.
Describe other considerations when writing a research report
viii.
Discuss the characteristics of a good research
9.7 Further Readings 1. Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing: An Introduction 2. Saonders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A,; Research Methods for Business Students – 3rd edition – Delhi Pearson Education, 2003. 3. Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods – 8th edition – New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003. 4. Collis, Jice: Business Research – 2nd ed. – London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
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