Research Methodology Rev 1 June10 2007

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

by

K. Narasimhan Regional Advisor (India) The Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK

Aim of the Session • To prepare participants to undertake dissertation or project • To inform them of issues involved in 4-Ds of  research projects • Define, • Design • Do • Describe

RM: Outcomes of the session On successful completion of this module participants par ticipants will be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: • the process of creating and disseminating dis seminating knowledge • how and where such knowledge is published

Defining your Research Key Challenges:  – Understanding the research process

 – Taking a systematic approach

 – Generating and clarifying ideas

 – Using the library and internet.

Assessing prior knowledge of  participants • Why Conduct Research? • What is Research? • What are the two main approaches? • Participants’ experience in writing research proposals • Are conceptual models/frameworks important?

Why Conduct Research?  – To complete an assigned task  – To improve  – understanding of the problem  – our competence in doing research  – the ability to manage research  – on others’ research

 – To increase credibility of ones work  – To discover new things/ test ideas  – To Make sense of world around us.

What is Research? (1)

Definition of Research for RAE 2008 

"...original investigation undertaken in order  to gain knowledge and understanding." 

Queen's University Belfast (2007),

What Research is Not? It is Not  – Mere information gathering  – Mere transportation of facts from one location to another   – Merely rummaging for information  – A catchword to get attention Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p.2)

A Research’s Distinct Characteristics • Research originates with a question or problem. • It is guided by the specific s pecific problem/hypothesis. • It requires clear articulation of a goal/sub-goals. • It requires a specific plan for proceeding. • It accepts certain critical assumptions. • It requires collection and interpretation of data. • It is helical.

Types of Research Basic

Commercial

Scholarly

Student

Interest-driven

Assigned

Primary

Secondary

Individual

Group

Single discipline

Interdisciplinary

Key Stakeholders • Co-researchers (if applicable) • Supervisors • Examiners • Sponsors (if applicable) • Others (?)

Research Methodology Hierarchy Approach Philosophy Perspective Methodology Design Methods Tools and Techniques Data Collection Data Analysis Adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 155

Research Approaches Ontology

Epistemology Positivism

Objectivist

Derived from philosophy of science.

Realism Critical realism Interpretivism

Subjectivist

Constructionism Subjectivism

Derived from philosophy of social science.

Comparison of Two Broad Approaches Characteristics

Quantitative

Philosophy

Science

Perspective

Positivism

Underlying assumptions

World is real & knowable

Social science

…

We can be objective Phenomena can be reduced to numbers Objectives

Qualitative

Subjectivism

..

World is complex Knowable only through interaction with the social system that it contains

To explain and predict

To describe and explain

To confirm and validate

To explore and interpret

To find patterns to test theory

To understand meaning to generate theory

Comparison of Two Broad Approaches Characteristics Nature of the research process

Quantitative

Qualitative

Focussed

Holistic

Known variables

Unknown variables

Established guidelines

Flexible guidelines

Pre-determined methods Emergent methods Somewhat context-free

Context-bound

Detached view Questions

What and how

Personal view Why, how

Starting point

Theory-led

Data-led

Data analysis

Through rules

Through intuition

Quality issue

Validity, reliability…

Neutrality and transparency

The SA Research Process      e      n       i       f      e       D

Identify Conceptual Framework

     n      g       i      s      e       D

Project report

     o       D

Revise Framework

Topic Questions

Data collection & analysis & report Pilot study Finalise Data collection and analysis

Collect data Analyse data

     e       b       i      r      c      s      e       D

Literature Review

Interpret results

Report findings

A Qualitative Research Process      e      n       i       f      e       D

     n      g       i      s      e       D

Identify Conceptual Framework (CF)

Topic Questions

Literature Review

Collect data Literature Review

Analyse data

Revise CF

     o       D

Interpret data Questions answered or out of time

Interim findings

Design Report Slides 15 and 16 adopted from Maylor and Blackmon (2005), p. 149

     e       b       i      r      c      s      e       D

Managing the Research Process Choose a topic: unanswered question & plan.

Get work published. 6

Form arguments, identify limitations and ideas for further  research. Write up the dissertation.

1

5

2

4 Gather evidence, analyse, interpret findings, and draw inferences.

Write a critical literature review

3 Develop concepts, framework and theories, form research hypotheses, & design studies

Structure of a Research proposal • Statement of problem • Research questions  – Sub-objectives

• Research approach • Methodology  – Measures  – Data analysis approach  – Samples

• Schedule and budget

Statement of Problem • Choose or identify Problem • State the problem & Divide it into sub-problems • State the hypotheses and limitations of the research • State assumptions & why the study is important. impor tant. • Define key terms and jargons

Benefits of Writing Literature Review •

Answers if the field is worth studying.

•

Can offer new ideas, etc and provides prov ides useful contacts.

•

Shows how others have handled similar issues and dealt with potential difficulties.

•

Can reveal sources of data, and tools effectively used.

•

Helps link our findings to those of previous studies’.

Conducting a Literature Search • Write clearly the problem and sub-problems • Identify key terms from them • Specify topics that need to be studied further  furt her  • Identify articles, books, websites, etc for reading • Keep track and record of searches undertaken and all basic/important information

Ex1: Evaluating Research Articles • Was the article published in a refereed journal? • Are the objectives clearly stated? • Is it primary research or secondary research? • Is its structure logical? • Is the problem chosen based on previous work? • Can the method used be repeated by others? • Is the method of data collection coll ection sound? • Do you agree with the inferences drawn? • What are its strength & weaknesses?

Writing a Critical Review (1) Read

Interactively and for depth

Rely on paraphrasing

Write

Digest Summarise the article

Look for arguments & counter arguments

Evaluate

Establish linkages

Understand

Adapted from Pechenik, Jan. (1993).Cited in Hillsborough Community College (no date),

Writing a Critical Review (2) • Provide an overview of the chosen literature l iterature • Use a “funnel” approach:  – Start with broad scope of the field and present an argument for narrowing the field to specific topic

• Identify the gaps in existing research and explain e xplain how the research to be undertaken will fill the void. • Provide a critical account: emphasise relatedness; don’t just reproduce

Writing a Critical Review (3) • Cite the major experts in the filed • Cite the most recent and important literature • Cite works that take a different viewpoint v iewpoint • Give credit where it is due (do not plagiarise) • Evaluate other’s work objectively • Explain and justify the use of the chosen theories, concepts, frameworks, techniques, etc. • Include a conceptual model showing all relevant variables/constructs and their relationships

Guidelines for Reviewing an Article • Identify the main points and ‘inference indicators’ • Assess the context of the argument • Identify the premises for conclusions • Check if the premises are supported by sound evidence (reliable citations) • Are the conclusions strong and logically based? • Could counter conclusions be drawn? Adapted from Fisher (2004, p. 77)

General Guidelines for Writing Reviews • Be clear about the goal • Draw a plan: moving from general to specific • Emphasise relatedness • Summarise what does it all mean • Remember first draft is not the final draft • Critically read your draft after a few days • Seek advise and feedback Adapted from Leedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 79-80)

Conceptual Frameworks (1) • Concepts are key terms used in the the research.

• Frameworks illustrate the connections and relationships amongst the concepts.

• CFs provide a ‘map’ for the filed of study

• CFs Provide structure and coherence

Conceptual Frameworks (2) Types of Relationships • Cause and effect (Expectancy Model) • Cyclical or stages in a process (Kolb’s) • Hierarchical (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) • Matrices (BCG Matrix) • Pairs of opposites (Force-Field Analysis) • Exchange and equilibrium (Balanced Scorecard) • Similarity (McKinsey’s ‘7 S’ Model)

Quantitative Research Designs • Descriptive Research  – Observation studies  – Correlational research  – Developmental designs  – Survey research  – Interviews: face-to-face, telephone, voicemail

• Experimental and Ex post-facto designs

Observation Studies Purpose

: Quantify behaviour in an objective way.

Focus

: A particular aspect of behaviour.

Data used: Recorded observations by researchers. Methods of  Analysis : Statistical analysis

Correlational Studies Purpose

: Assess relationship between variables

Focus

: Ratings assigned or frequencies of  behaviour 

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements of characteristics being studied.

Methods of  Analysis : Regression analysis

Developmental Designs Purpose

: Assess how variables change over time

Focus

: Ratings assigned or frequencies of  behaviour 

Data used : Numbers reflecting specific measurements of characteristics being studied.

Methods of  Analysis

: Cross-sectional or Longitudinal study

Survey Research Purpose

: To learn about a large population by acquiring information of its sample.

Focus

: Ratings assigned or frequencies of  behaviour, opinions, attitudes, experiences

Data used : Self-report data of specific measurements of characteristics being studied, using interviews and/or questionnaires.

Methods of  Analysis : Statistical analysis

Experimental and Ex Post-facto Designs Purpose

: To identify possible cause and effect relationships /eliminate some alternative explanations explanations for an observed change

Focus

: Independent, dependent, and extraneous variables

Data used : Measurements of characteristics being studied,

Methods of  Analysis : Statistical analysis

Qualitative Research Designs To get a complete understanding of the problem under study methods employed are:  – Case study  – Ethnography  – Phenomenological study  – Grounded theory study  – Content analysis  – Historical research

Case Study Purpose

: To gain an in-depth understanding of a person/situation (dept, organisation)

Focus

: Case(s) in the natural setting.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews, written documents, audio visual material

Methods of  Analysis

: Clustering into meaningful groups and interpreting based on themes; overall synthesis and generalisation generalisation

Ethnography Purpose

: To understanding how behaviours behaviours reflect group cultural norms, beliefs, etc

Focus

: A site with a common culture.

Data used : Participant observations, interviews, written documents

Methods of  Analysis : Organising in a chronological order  Clustering into meaningful groups Focussing on critical events Inferring general nature of culture

Phenomenological Phenomenological study Purpose

: Understand people’s perceptions, perspectives and understandings

Focus

: A particular phenomena

Data used : Lengthy unstructured interviews with selected participants Cues from participants’ expressions, etc.

Methods of  Analysis

: Identifying common themes; Grouping them into meaningful experiences

Grounded Theory Study Purpose

: To derive a theory from data collected in in a

Focus

: A Process of actions and interactions

natural setting

related to a topic: people based

Data used : Observations, interviews, written documents, audio visual material

Methods of  Analysis : Systematically coding data into

categories and identifying relationships relationships

Continual interweaving interweaving of data collection and data analysis Constructing theory from categories & interrelationships

Content analysis Purpose

: To identify patterns, themes, or biases

Focus

: Any form of communication com munication (verbal, visual visual or  behavioural)

Data used : material from books, newspapers, films, videotapes of human interactions, etc.

Methods of  Analysis

: Tabulation of frequency of each characteristic Statistical analysis to answer questions

EX2: Group Exercise – Part 1 Objective: To study the teaching style of  academics 3. Find Find a partn artner er.. Decid ecide e who will ill be the the Researcher. 4. The The rese resear arch cher er now now has has 10 10 minu minute tes s to to find find out and record information about the interviewee’s teaching style whilst at the institution 5. Swap ro roles an and rep repeat ste step 2.

Group Exercise – Part 2 • Merge with at least 2 other groups (you will need at least 3 sets of data per group) • Reduce your data (What categories have you formed and why? How have you organised your data chunks and why?) • Analyse your data (e.g. What patterns have been identified? What issues have been identified?) • Identify key discussion themes.

The Sampling Process • Define the target population. • Choose the sampling frame. • Select the sampling method. • Determine the ample size. • Implement the sampling plan. Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007, p. 171),

Sampling Designs • Theoretical sampling: • Discriminant sampling: • Probability sampling:

Data sources for developing a theory

Data sources useful for validating theory Choosing a sample in such a way that each member has an equal chance of  being selected

• Non-Probability sampling: No way of forecasting or guaranteeing

that each element of the population will be represented in the sample

Probability Sampling • Simple random selection • Simple Stratified random sampling • Proportional Stratified random sampling • Cluster sampling • Systematic sampling (e.g. Picking every 10 th customer)

Non-Probability Sampling • Conv Conven enie ienc nce e samp sampliling ng:: Sample based on what/ who is available

• Quota sampling: Sample based on what/who is available available but maintaining population’s proportions

• Purposive sampling: Sample chosen for the research purpose

• Snow Snowba ballll samp sampliling ng:: Initial respondents are used to help identify other respondents NOTE: Always explain why a certain sampling method was chosen.

Bias in Research Bias is anything that distorts data, and thus attacks attac ks the integrity of facts. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005) Sources of Bias:  – Sponsoring organisation  – Researcher   – Sampling  – Non-respondents to a survey  – Surveyor or interviewer   – Gathering of data  – Analysis and presentation of data

Researchers’ Ethical Obligations • Maintain scientific rigour  • Keep findings confidential (if required) • Do not ‘massage’ findings • Present findings clearly • Admit limitations

Questionnaire Design: points to watch • Attractive design • Keep it short and simple (KISS) • Logical and sequential: easy questions first • Clear instructions and questions • Watch out for implicit assumptions • Avoid leading questions • Decide how to code responses for analysis • Ask personal questions at the end

Questionnaire Design: • Closed-ended questions  – Dichotomous  – Multiple choice/Check lists  – Ranking questions  – Rating scales: verbal, numerical and (Behaviourally (Behaviourally anchored)  – Likert scale (measures the amount of agreement)  – Semantic differential scales

• Open-ended questions  – Unstructured  – Word association  – Sentence completion

Rating Scales Exercise Give a numerical value between 1 and 10 (where 10 = greatest frequency) to indicate indic ate the frequency suggested by the following words .  – Almost always

- Quite often

 – Always

- Rarely

 – Frequently

- Seldom

 – Most of the time

- Sometimes

 – Never

- Often

 – Occasionally

- Usually

Adapted from Fisher (1999, p. 164)

Maximising Returns of Mailed Questionnaires • Timing of the mail-shot • Ensure good first impression. • Say why the survey should interest the respondent. • Include self-addressed & stamped envelop. • Offer the results/summary of the study. • Send follow up reminders.

Pilot Survey Purposes • Testing questionnaire • wording • sequencing • layout

• Testing • sensitivity of respondents • fieldwork arrangements • analysis procedures

• Estimating • response rates • completion times

• Training and testing field workers

Assessing Practicability of Projects (1) • In what area is the problem? • Are data easily accessible? • What expertise does the researcher have? • How will data be collected? • Are special equipments or conditions required for gathering and analysing data? • What is the estimated time and cost? • Will the data collected be valid and reliable?

Assessing Practicability of Projects (2) • Have the following criteria been built into the project ?  – Universality  – Repeatability  – Measurement  – Control or isolating

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (1) Not able to demonstrate the ability to:  – Think clearly and logically  – To express concisely and cogently  – To discriminate between the significant and inconsequential  – To display technical ability  – To handle abstract thought  – To analyse data objectively and accurately  – To interpret results confidently and conservatively Leedy and Ormrod (2005, pp. 126-7)

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (2) • Related to Research Problem  – Unclear, unfocussed, unsound,  – more complex, limited relevance, unimportant

• Research Design and Methodology  – Vague and unfocussed,  – inappropriate data, equipments, methods/ controls,  – unlikely to yield accurate results. Leedy and Ormrod (2005, p. 127)

Common Weaknesses in Proposals (3) • Related to the Researcher   – Insufficient training/experience, training/experience,  – Unfamiliar with the relevant literature  – Insufficient time to devote to the research

• Related to Resources  – Unfavourable Unfavourable institutional institutional setting  – Insufficient equipment and support staff 

Evaluating a Research Proposal • Is the research project worth it?  – Does it contribute to knowledge?  – Has an expert’s view been obtained?  – What is good about it?  – What are the drawbacks?

• What procedure will be adopted for:  – Literature review, data collection and analysis, and interpretation

• Are the necessary research tools available? • What do peers think about the proposal? propos al?

Conclusions

I would much appreciate it, if one of you or  some of you combined would summarise what has been learnt in this session.

Thank you all for giving me this opportunity to present my thoughts. If you want further  information do get in touch with me.

References/Bibliography Cambridge Theological Federation , AG430022 (A422) - Postgraduate Research Methods (MA) http://www.theofed.cam.ac.uk/ma_modules/AG430022.html Fisher, C. (2004), Researching and Writing Dissertation for Business Students, Students , Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall Hair, Jr., J. F., et al. (2007), Research Methods for Business, Business, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley Hammersley, M. and Gomm, R.(1997) 'Bias in Social Research‘, S ociological Research Online, vol. 2, no. 1, accessed on 04/05/07 Leedy, P. D., and Ormrod, J. E. (2005), Practical Research Planning and Design, 8 th Ed., New Jersey: Pearson Merril Prentice Hall Lesser, L. I., et al. (2007) Relationship between Funding Source and Conclusion among NutritionRelated Scientific Articles, Veterinary Medical Library News, Vol. 4 Issue 1, PLoS Medicine, found at http://www. http://www.vetmed.lib.umn.edu/ne vetmed.lib.umn.edu/news/funding/bias ws/funding/bias,, accessed on 19/05/07 Maylor, H., and Blackmon, K. (2005), Researching Business and Management, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan McQueen, R. A., and Knussen, C. (1999), Research Methods in Psychology: A practical Introduction, Introduction , Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall Europe Pechenik, Jan. (1993). A (1993). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology, 2nd ed. New York: Harper Collins cited in Hillsborough Community College (no date), How to Write a Critical Review, found at http://www.hccfl.edu/adjunct/darren_smith/bbs-gwcr.ht http://www.hccfl.edu/adjunct/darren_smith/bbs-gwcr.htm m accessed on 5/05/07 Queens university Belfast (2007), Definition of Research for RAE 2008, found at http://www.qub.ac.uk/home/Research/ResearchPolicyOffi http://www .qub.ac.uk/home/Research/ResearchPolicyOffice/RAE2008/PUBLIC/External ce/RAE2008/PUBLIC/ExternalRAEdocu RAEdocu accessed on 04/05/07