Research Design

 Meaning & Definition Definition  A research design is defined as “a logical and systematic systemat ic plan prepared for directing  a research study. It specifies the objectives of the study; the methodologies and  techniques to be adopted the achieving the objective.” -

Pli li pas pas Bernad.

“Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement  and the analysis of the data.” 

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David & Nachmias. Nachmias.

“Research design is the plan, structure, strategy and means of investigation conceived conceived so so as to obtai n an swer wer s of r esear ch que qu esti ons. I t i s a plan or an over over all  al l 

scheme or a programme of research.” 

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Jogn . W. Best. Best.

Thus it is obligatory for a researcher to undertake research design. The research design is the ground plan for conducting the research investigation. It provides  guidelines to researcher r esearcher to help him to keep a track of his hi s actions and an d to know that he is moving in the right direction in collecting the data. Whatever may be the nature of  research problems, all research designs should contain answers to the following  questions: 

What the study is about?

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Why the study is undertaken?

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What are the types of data required?

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Where data can be found?

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What techniques of gathering data will be adopted?

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 In which areas, the study will be undertaken?

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Th e rese research ar ch desi desi gn must i nclude ncl ude the f oll owin g aspe aspects cts:  : 

1.  A clear statement of the research problem. 2. The purpose or objectives of the research. 3. The time period of research study. 4. The sources of collection data. 5. The procurers and techniques of collection data. 6. The universe of research design. 7. The sample size of respondents, if any. 8. The area where research to be conducted. 9. The methods or techniques of data processing. 10. The resources required to conduct the research.

What is research Design  How is the term `research design' to be used in this book? An analogy might help. When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting critical  dates for completion of project stages until we know what sort of building is being  constructed. The first decision is whether we need a high rise office building, a factory  for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential home or an apartment block. Until this is done we cannot sketch a plan, obtain permits, work out a work schedule or order materials. Similarly, social research needs a design or a structure before data collection or analysis can commence. A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan will flow from the project's research design. The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as  possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or to accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when designing research we Page 2 of 27

need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed  to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?  Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem'  (Yin, 1989: 29). Before a builder or architect can develop a work plan or order  materials they must first establish the type of building required, its uses and the needs of the occupants. The work plan flows from this. Similarly, in social research the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire, observation, and  document analysis), and design of questions are all subsidiary to the matter of `What  evidence do I need to collect?'  Too often researchers design questionnaires or begin interviewing far too early  –  before thinking through what information they require to answer their research questions. Without attending to these research design matters at the beginning, the conclusions drawn will normally be weak and unconvincing and fail to answer the research question.

 Literature Review Once a researcher has chosen a specific topic, the next step in the planning phase of a research study is reviewing the existing literature in that topic area. If you are not yet   familiar with the process of conducting a literature liter ature review, r eview, it simply means becoming   familiar with the existing literature (e.g., books, journal articles) on a particular  topic. Obviously, the amount of available literature can differ significantly depending  on the topic area being studied, and it can certainly be a time-consuming, arduous, and difficult process if there has been a great deal of research conducted in a  particular area. Ask any researcher (or research assistant) about conducting  literature reviews and you will likely encounter similar comments about the length of  time that is spent looking for literature on a particular topic.  Fortunately, the development of comprehensive electronic databases has  facilitated the process of conducting literature reviews. In the past few years, Page 3 of 27

individual electronic databases have been developed for several specific fields of   study. For example, medical researchers can access existing medical literature through Medline; social scientists can use PsychINFO (see Rapid Reference 2.2) or   PsychLIT; and legal researchers can use Westlaw or Lexis. Access to most of these electronic database services is restricted to individuals with subscriptions or to those who are affiliated with university-based library systems. Although gaining access to these services can be expensive, the advent of these electronic databases has made the  process of conducting thorough t horough literature lit erature reviews much easier and more efficient. No longer are researchers (or their student assistants!) forced to look through shelf after   shelf of dusty scientific journals. The importance and value of a well-conducted and thorough literature review cannot be overstated in the context of planning a research study (see Christensen, 2001). The primary purpose of a literature review is to help researchers become  familiar with the work that has already been conducted in their selected topic areas.  For example, if a researcher decides to investigate the onset of diabetes among the elderly, it would be important for him or her to have an understanding of the current   state of the knowledge in that area.  Literature reviews are absolutely indispensable when planning a research  study because they can help guide the researcher in an appropriate direction by answering several questions related to the topic area. Have other researchers done any work in this topic area? What do the results of their studies suggest? Did previous researchers encounter any unforeseen methodological difficulties of which future researchers should be aware when planning or conducting studies? Does more research need to be conducted on this topic, and if so, in what specific areas? A thorough literature review should answer these and related questions, thereby helping  to set the stage for the research being planned. Often, the results of a well-conducted literature review will reveal that the  study being planned has, in fact, already been conducted. This would obviously be important to know during the planning phase of a study, and it would certainly be beneficial to be aware of this fact sooner rather than later. Other times, researchers Page 4 of 27

may change the focus or methodology of their studies based on the types of studies that have already been conducted. Literature reviews can often be intimidating for  novice researchers, but like most other things relating to research, they become easier  as you gain experience.

 Need & Importance Importance  Research design is vital to researchers, as it enables to collect the right data to achieve the research objectives. The importance of research design is stated as  follows: 1. Gui Gu i del del i n es to the th e Res Researcher:  ar cher:   Research design provides guidelines to the researcher in respect of: 

When to start and when to complete the research work?

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What data to be collected?

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 From where the data to be collected?

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 How the data be collected? Etc.

The above questions provide necessary guidelines to the researcher. Therefore, the researcher will be able to collect the right data from right sources at the right time. 2. Or gani zi n g Re Resour ces ces:   Research design facilitates organizing of resources for collecting the data. The resources include: 

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 Funds required for collecting the data. The equipments/instruments and materials required to conduct the research (especially in the case of physical sciences like physical, chemistry, etc)

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The manpower to collect the data.

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The research design enables the researcher to make proper arrangement of the resources which in turn will help the researcher to conduct the research effectively, so as to achieve the research objective. 3. D i r ections to th e Res Research Staff :  The research design provides necessary directions to the research staff. This is because; the research design provides necessary guidelines in respect of: 

Sources of data.

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Techniques for collecting data.

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 Area/place where the research is to be conducted.

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 Resources to be utilized.

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Time frame of research work.

 Due to the above factors, the researcher can ca n provide proper directions dire ctions to the research  staff, so that they collect relevant data to achieve research objectives. 4. Sel ection cti on of T echn i ques:  ques:   Research design helps to select appropriate techniques both for data collection and  data analysis. There are various methods of data collection such as: 

Survey or interview.

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Observation.

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 Experimentation.

 For instance, observation method may be used for studying buyers‟ behavior. To get   feedback from the customers, the firm may use survey or interview method. There are also various methods of data analysis such as: 

 Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)

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Time series (Simple Moving Average, Weighted Moving Average)

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Correlation techniques, etc.

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5. Coll ection of r el evant data:  data:   Research design helps to collect the relevant data and that too within a certain time  frame. For instance, the research design indicates: 

The area of research.

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Universe of research.

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Sample size, etc.

Therefore, the researcher or his staff will be able to collect relevant data from the right area, from the proper universe and from the appropriate number of respondents. 6. Obj ecti ves ves of Rese Resear ch:   Research design helps to achieve research objectives. This is because; the researcher  will collect the right data at the right time and from the right source. Also, due to the use of proper techniques of analysis the researcher will be able to analyze the data  properly, and then take appropriate measures or action, which in turn will help to attain the research objectives. 7. M onitori ng of of Expenditur Expenditur e:   Research design helps to monitor research expenditure. Research design provides  guidelines regarding the amount of resources or funds to be utilized for research activity. In the case of commercial research, the researcher would get the funds approved from the sanctioning authority. Accordingly, the researcher will utilize the  funds as per the research budget. Therefore, there will be proper control over the  funds in respect of research activity. 8. Ex ecution of r esearch Work :   Research design helps in timely execution of the research work. This is because; research design indicates the start time and the completion time research activity, if  research design does not indicate the time frame, there is every possibility of the

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research work getting delayed and the researcher may not be able to archive the objective. 9. M otivation otivation to the Staff :   A systematic research design motivates the staff to collect the right data from right   source. Also A lso due to the timely completion of research activity, the research staff may be rewarded with monetary and non-monetary incentives. For instance, research design will enable proper conduct of research activity. Proper analysis of research work enables the organization to take suitable action, which in turn would bring  higher returns. As a result of higher returns, the research staff may be adequately rewarded. 10. I mproveme mprovement nt in D ecision cision -M aki ng:  Systematic research design facilitates proper collection of data. Also, the selection of   suitable data analysis techniques facilitates proper analysis of data; therefore, the researcher can arrive at proper decision-making, especially in the case of commercial  research.

 Essentials of good Research Design The make research design more effective, the researcher must consider certain  guidelines or essentials: 1. F ocus on Obj ecti ves ves:  The research design must focus on the research objectives. The research objectives must be very clear to the researcher as well as to the research staff. The research objectives differ depending upon the type of research. For instance, the research objective of commercial research will be based on commercial angle, and that of   social research will have the objective based on social welfare.

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 Example of Commercial research Objective: „To increase market share from current  10% to 20% within a period of 5 years.‟ 

 Example of Social research Objective: „To reduce poverty of the weaker sections.‟  2. Flexibility:  The research design should not be rigid. The research design must be flexible depending upon the situation. For instance, a research design indicates a particular  time frame to complete the research work. But the research staff may not be in  position to collect the relevant data da ta within the time frame. In such situation, the time  frame can be increases. 3. Pil Pi l ot Study:  Study:   It is always advisable to conduct a pilot study for f or finalizing the research re search design. Pilot   study is a research activity undertaken on a small segment of the research universe. The pilot study is conducted to find out whether or not the researcher would be in a  position to collect the relevant data from the sources or areas so selected, and  whether or not the collected data would be relevant to solve the problem, if the pilot   study indicates a favourable response, the researcher may go ahead with the research design. Otherwise, he may make necessary changes in the research design with respect to: 

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Sources of data.  Area of data collection. Techniques of data collection, etc.

4. Acceptance:  The research design must be acceptable to the persons concerned. For instance: 

 In the case c ase of commercial research, the research design must be acceptable to the higher authorities. This is because; the higher authorities are required to approve it and accordingly sanction the resources to conduct the research activity.

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 In the case of academies research, the research design must be acceptable to the research guide, as he needs to approve the research design before the research activity starts.

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 In case of o f social research, the research design must be acceptable to the social or  other organizations that are going to finance or sponsor the research activity.

5. Suitability:  The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain factors to be considered while finalizing the research design as follows: 

The availability of funds.

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The availability of time.

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The availability of manpower.

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The methods of data collection and analysis, etc.

 Depending upon the funds and other ot her resources, the research may take suitable action.  For instance, a researcher may not plan for an exhaustive research work, if there are constraints relating to money, manpower or time. 6. Simplicity:  The research design should be simple and easy to understand. The language used in the research deign must be clear and simple. Wherever required, research design must be supported by footnotes. Technical jargons must be avoided. The use of simple language would enable the approving authorities to approve the research design and  accordingly sanction the funds, especially in the case of commercial research. Simplicity of research design would also enable the research staff to collect the relevant inform nation, and also to analyze the data properly. 7. Cost-Effective:  The research design should be cost-effective. In a commercial research, the research work based on research design must bring benefits to the organization. The research design should enable proper collection and analysis of data which in turn should  Page 10 of 27

 facilitate proper decision-making. The benefits on account of sound decision-making  must be more than the cost incurred on research activity. 8. Ease Ease in I mpleme mplementation:  ntation:  The research design should facilitate proper implementation of the research activity.  As far as possible, the research design should avoid complicated procedures and  techniques which are difficult to adopt/follow. The research work should not  overburden the research staff, as the quality of research work may get adversely affected. Also sufficient time must be given to the staff for collecting and analyzing the data. 9. Tr ain i ng to the res research Staff Staff :  To conduct effective research proper training must be given to the research staff. Training helps to improve: knowledge, attitude, skill and social behavior. The research staff not only required knowledge and skills to conduct proper research but  also the right attitude towards the research work, and good social behavior when they interact with team mates and with the respondents. 10. Sel ection of Righ t T echni chn i ques ques/M ethods:  thods:  There are various methods of collecting data such as: 

Survey/interview.

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Observation.

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 Experimentation.

There are also various methods of data analysis such as: 

 Measures of Central Tendency (mean, Median, Mode)

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Time series, such as moving averages.

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Correlation techniques, etc.

 Depending upon the types of research, the researcher should select the appropriate methods for data collecting and analysis. Page 11 of 27

Scope/Areas of research Design The important areas of design making in research design are as follows: 1. Sour ce of D ata:  The researcher needs to take a proper decision on sources of data. The sources of  data can be broadly divided in two groups: 

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 Primary sources. Secondary sources.

 Normally, the researcher must consider the secondary source as it is less time consuming and less expensive. However, of the problem cannot be solved by  secondary data, then the researcher can opt for primary sources of data, at times, the researcher may use both the sources. 2. M ethods of Data Coll ection:  The researcher has to decide on the methods of data collection. There are various methods of data collection, especially in the case of primary data. Some of the important methods of primary data include: 

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 Interview/survey. Observation.  Experimentation. Simulation (creating artificial environment).  Projective techniques.

The researcher should select the right methods depending upon the type of research, the time available, the funds required, etc.

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3. M ethods of D ata Anal ysi ysi s:  One of the important decision-making areas of research design is in respect of the methods of data analysis. It required a good deal of judgment and skill on the part of  the researcher to select appropriate methods of data analysis. There are various methods of data analysis such as measures of central tendency, correlation techniques, time series etc. proper selection to analysis will enable the researcher to analyze the data properly, which in turn will help to research to make proper  recommendations to solve the research problem. 4. Ar eas of Col l ect Data:  The researcher must decide in respect of the areas from which the data to be collected. The decision on areas depends upon several factors such as: funds available, the time factor, objectives of research etc. for instance, if the researcher  has lot of funds for conducting research, he may consider a wider area to collect data  from several respondents. 5. D ecis ci si on on Physical Res Resour ces ces:  The researcher requires physical resources such as computers for data analysis. Also in the case of physical sciences, like physical, chemistry, medicine, etc., the researcher  may require certain equipments or materials to conduct experiments or some other  aspect of research work. Therefore, the researcher must decide well in advance regarding the availability of physical resources. 6. Deci Deci sion on M anpowe anpowerr :  The researcher must take a decision in respect of manpower. The number and quality of manpower depends upon the type of research. For instance, in the case of pilot   study, the manpower required would be very less. But in the case of descriptive research over larger areas, the manpower requirement would be more. Decision may also be taken in respect of training to be manpower so as to improve its quality.

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7. Deci Deci sion on f unds:  unds:  The research must decide on the funds required to undertake research activity. The availability of funds will affect the various aspects of research design such as the research area size, period of research, number of field staff, etc. 8. Ti me F r ame:  ame:  The researcher must consider the time frame required to undertake research. Time  frame depends upon certain factors such as: 

 Availability of funds.

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 Availability of manpower.

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Type of research, etc.

 For instance, if the type of research is highly complicated, longer time frame may be considered for completing the research work. However, if the research work is simple in nature, shorter time frame may be considered. It is to noted that it larger amount of   funds are available for research work, then the manpower may be increase and  therefore, the time frame ban be reduced. 9. U ni ver ver se of Res Resear ch:  The researcher has to make an important decision in respect of the universe for the research activity. The universe refers to the type of population that can be used for  collecting data. For example: if the researcher is undertaking the research work  relating to trends in fashion, he may select teenagers and young adults as the universe. And if the researcher is undertaking the researcher work relating to readership habits of college students, then the universe will be college students. 10. Sampl e Size:  Size:  The researcher must also consider the sample size for collecting data. The sample size refers to the number of respondents that would be selected to conduct the research activity. The sample size depends upon number of factors such as: type of research,

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 funds available, time frame, fr ame, etc. for instance, if the research work has good amount of   funds and time available, the sample size can be large.

Steps in Research Design The main steps in research design are as follows: 1. D ef i ne the probl em:  The repeater must clearly define the problem. Clearly of the problem will help the researcher to decide on the research objectives. For instance, in the case of   Decline in Sales‟ . commercial research, the research problem may be stated as „  To increase the Sales‟ . Therefore, the objective of the research will be „ To

 In case of academic research, proper definition of the problem will enable the researcher to develop hypothesis, which needs to be tested with the help of research. 2. Sour ces ces of D ata:  The researcher must decide about the sources of data. The sources of data depend  upon the research problem. The sources of data are broadly divided into two groups: 

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 Primary sources. Secondary sources.

 Normally, the sources of data can be secondary as they are less time consuming and  less expensive. The researcher may consider primary sources, if the problem cannot  be solved with the help of secondary data. 3. Techn Techn i ques ques of data Coll ection:  ction :  The researcher must decide about the techniques of data collection. The techniques depend upon certain factors: 

 Nature of problem.

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 Resources available.

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Time frame, etc. Page 15 of 27

There are various methods of data collection such as interview method. Observation methods, etc. 4. D ecision on Un i ver ver se:  The researcher must state the universe for conducting the research work. Universe refers to the type of population from which the research information can be collected.  For example, if the research is conducted on baby foods, then the universe will be mother with little kids. 5. Sampl e Size:  Size:  The researcher must state the sample size. The sample size depends upon certain  factors such as time frame, funds availability, nature of problem, etc. for instance, if  the Government conducts a census of population, all households in the country will be covered under the sample size. But if it is an academic research, the sample size may be very small, say about 500 respondents. 6. Ar es of Data Coll ection:  The researcher must state the areas from which the data to be collected. The selection of area depends upon: 

 Location of respondents.

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 Nature of problem,

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Time factor, etc.

 For instance, a company selling only in one local market will conduct research only in that local area. But if the company sells its products throughout the country, then it  may select respondents from all over the country. 7. M ethods of D ata Anal ysi ysi s:   Depending upon the type of research, the researcher should select the most  appropriate methods for data analysis. There are various methods of data analysis  such as measures of central tendency, time series methods, etc.

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8. D ecis ci si on on r esour ces ces:  The most important decision in research design is in respect of resources required to conduct research work. Resources include: 

 Physical resources.

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 Manpower.

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 Money or funds.

The researcher should make proper arrangement of recourses so that the research is conducted effectively, which in turn will help to achieve the research objectives. 9. Per Per i od/ times ti mes f r ame of Re R esear ch:  The researcher has to make an important decision regarding the time frame of the research activity. Time frame depends upon certain factor such: availability of  manpower, type of research, etc.  For instance, in the case of highly complicated research, the resear cher may require a longer time frame to conduct the research activity, and vice versa. 10. Pre Pr eparati on of Res Research ar ch D esi gn:  The researcher must prepare the research design after following the above steps. The research design should clearly include the following aspects: 

Statement of the research problem.

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The objectives of research.

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Sources of data.

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Time frame of research activity.

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Universe of research.

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Same size of respondents.

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 Areas of data collection.

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 Resources required.

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Techniques to collect and analyze data.

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11. Appr oval oval of Res Research ar ch D esi gn:  The researcher may get the research design approved from concerned authorities. For  instance: 

 In the case of commercial research, the research design may be approved by the top management.

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 In case of academic research, the research design would be approved by the research guide.

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 For social research, the approved of research design may be required from the  sponsoring agency.

 After approval, the researcher may make modifications in the research design, if so required.

Types of Research Design The types of research design can be broadly divided into two groups:

TYPES TYPES OF RESEA RESEA CH DE SI GN 

 Exploratory Research

 Description Research

Conclusive Research

Diagnostic research

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I . E xpl oratory or atory Res Research  ar ch   It is conducted to explore information about ab out the nature or causes of research problem.  It is conducted when the causes of the research problem are not known to the researcher. For instance, management may conduct exploratory research to find out  the causes of declining sales in the past few months. The sales may have declined due to number of factors such as: 

 Problem in quality of the product.

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 Increase in competition.

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 Ineffective promotion-mix.

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 Poor management of channels of distribution.

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 Incompetence of the sales farce, etc.

There may be a possibility of some cause of the problem and the exact cause is not  known to the researcher, then in such a situation an exploratory research may be conducted to find out the most likely cause(s) that lead to reduction in sales.  Exploratory research can be conducted for the following purposes: 

To define the problem more clearly.

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To develop hypothesis.

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To identify alternate courses of action.

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To isolate key variables and to develop relationships among the variable for   further examination.

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To establish priorities for further research.

F eatur es of Ex plor atory Res Research:  arch :  1. Unstructured:  Generally, exploratory research does not have a formalized set of objective, sample  plan or questionnaire. It is conducted when a researcher dies not know much about  the problem and needs additional information. The researcher may collect the data  from any sources –  sources – primary primary or secondary sources. Page 19 of 27

2. Flexible:   Exploratory research is systematic but it is very flexible. It allows researcher to investigate the problem from whatever sources he/she desired. The extent of  information also depends upon the researcher. 3. Informal:  Often exploratory research conducted at the outset of a research project. Exploratory research aimed at gaining additional information about a topic and generating   possible hypotheses. Therefore, it is described as informal. U ses of E xpl orator or ator y Res Resear ch:  1. Background Background I nf ormation:  ormation:  When title information known from the existing data, the researcher may conduct  research to gain background information. For instance, a doctor may obtain background information about the patient before treatment. In the case of commercial  research, the researcher may obtain background information of the past performance of the firm, the competitors, the practices of the firm, and so on. This will help the research to probe the problem properly. 2. D evel vel opment opment of H ypothesi ypothesi s:   Exploratory research may be required to develop suitable hypotheses relating to the research problem. A hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to test to determine its validity. 3. Res Research ar ch Pr i ori ti es:   Exploratory research may be conducted to establish priorities for research work. For  example an exploratory review of customer complaints may indicate the product(s) that required urgent attention on the part of management to take appropriate action. M ethods of Ex plor atory Res Research:  arch : 

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1. Secondar y Data Anal An alys ysii s:  The researcher may analyze the relevant secondary data for gaining information to  solve a particular problem. 2. E xperi ence Sur Sur veys veys:  :  The survey may be conducted to get responses from those experienced problems or  difficulties. For instance, experience surveys may be conducted on the students who have faced difficulties or problems during the examination. 3. Case Case An alys al ysii s:  The researcher may analyze former situations similar to the present one, so as to arrive at suitable solution to solve the present problem. 4. F ocus Groups Gr oups:  :  Small groups of people discuss a problem –  problem – its its causes and its effects. The focus group discussion is monitored by a moderator. 5. Pr oje oj ective cti ve Techni Techn i ques:  ques:  The projective techniques help to gain insights into problems or situations. The researcher may explore information from group of participants. They may be given incomplete sentences to complete, which may help to gain insight into the problem.  For instance, the sentence may be: Mr. A does not attend the lectures because ………..

cr i pti ve r esear ch:  I I . D escri  It is conducted to obtain descriptive information about certain aspects of a problem.  For instance, a researcher may like to know detailed information about students appearing for M.com Part  II of University of Mumbai in respect of age, income, gender, occupation, etc. A descriptive research may be undertaken for commercial purpose. A marketer may try to find answers for questions like: Page 21 of 27

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Who the customers are? (Firm‟s/Competitors)

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What they buy? (Quantity, Quality, size)

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Where they buy? (Place –  (Place – departmental departmental stores, malls, etc)

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When they buy? (Time/season)

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 How they buy? (Cash/credit/installments)

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 How they use the product?

Through descriptive research, it would be difficult to answer the question “Why”. To answer the question “Why” – people – people buy certain items –  items – causal causal research in required. T ypes ypes of D ecepti cepti ve r esear ch:  1. Cr oss oss-Secti -Sectional onal Studi tu die es:   Measure population aspects at only one point of time. For example –  example – sample sample survey by a magazine publisher of magazine readers. 2. L ongitudi nal Studies:  tudies:   Measure repeatedly the same population over a period of time. For example, a marketer may undertake panel surveys. I I I . Causal (D i agnostic) Rese Research  ar ch  Causal Research investigates cause/effect relationship between two or more variables.  For instance, a research may be conducted to find out the relationship between advertising and sales. For example, a marketer sold the product in two periods sat   Period 1 (January to March) and Period 2 (April to June). The sales in Period 2 have increased. In Period 2, the marketer had also increased advertising. Therefore, the manufacturer (through causal research) may like to know whether advertising had  caused the increased sales in Period 2.

Obj ective cti ves s of Causal Re R esear ch:  1. To understand the cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

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2. To focus on those variables or elements having greater positive effect. 3. To eliminate certain variables or elements having negative effect. 4. To develop action plans.

Summary of Research Design This chapter has outlined the purpose of research design in both descriptive and  explanatory research. In explanatory research the purpose is to develop and evaluate causal theories. The probabilistic nature of causation in social sciences, as opposed to deterministic causation, was discussed. Research design is not related to any  particular method of collecting data or any particular type of data. Any research design can, in principle, use any type of data collection method and can use either  quantitative or qualitative data. Research design refers to the structure of an enquiry: it is a logical matter rather than a logistical one. It has been argued that the central  role of research design is to minimize the chance of drawing incorrect causal  inferences from data. Design is a logical task undertaken to ensure that the evidence collected enables us to answer questions or to test theories as unambiguously as  possible. When designing des igning research it is essential that we identify identi fy the th e type of evidence evi dence required to answer the research question in a convincing way. This means that we must not simply collect evidence that is consistent with a particular theory or  explanation. Research needs to be structured in such a way that the evidence also bears on alternative rival explanations and enables us to identify which of the competing explanations is most compelling empirically. It also means that we must  not simply look for evidence that supports our favourite theory: we should also look   for evidence that has the potential to disprove our preferred explanation s.  Many rich descriptions of processes and phenomena in education are accomplished best with qualitative approaches to research. Common qualitative designs include case study, phenomenological, ethnographic, narrative, and mixed  methods designs. Many qualitatively oriented research questions (“How?” and  Page 23 of 27

“Why?” ) generate hypotheses or raise new questions with the goal go al of understanding a  socially constructed reality. Data collection and analysis are inseparable, and  common sources of data include interviews, observations, and documents. Text data are analyzed in a manner described as creative, iterative, and nonlinear. When cracked open, the meaning that emerges is often conveyed by metaphor. Qualitative inquiry favors field work and natural environments. Data analysis is often accomplished by coding, category formation, and theme extraction using techniques  such as pattern matching (linking observations and theory). Analysis continues until   saturation (diminishing returns). The goal is insight, and discoveries are often  presented with visual heuristics such as hierarchies, typologies, networks, and cross tabulations. Qualitative researchers frequently employ triangulation, a type of crossvalidation (corroboration) or data cross-checking procedure in which multiple data  sources or data collection procedures are expected to agree (converge). The process p rocess is akin to a rigorous art, with the researcher functioning as the instrument and  analyzer, and the result is often powerful narrative in story form. One influential  model of making sense of qualitative data is grounded theory, which emphasizes the emergence of meaning concealed in data. Credibility or trustworthiness, established  with compelling evidence, is enhanced by emergent methodology, or the continual  interplay between data and developing interpretation known as constant comparison. Qualitative data analysis is facilitated by software programs that are valuable for   functions such as coding, codi ng, retrieval, sorting, and a nd other types of pattern seeking. Mixed  methods research integrates qualitative and quantitative data, the advantages of both offsetting the weaknesses of both, and attempts to arrive at a more complete answer to a research question.

 Data Analysis The procedures for the analysis of data collected through qualitative and quantitative techniques are quite different.

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1. Quanti Quan ti tative tati ve data  ti cal data anal ysi ysi s   It will be analyzed with a stati stical . This involves three major steps: 

 Data preparation: pr eparation: logging the data, checking checkin g the data for accuracy, developing a database structure, entering the data into the computer, data transformations.

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 Descriptive statistics: the t he basic features of the data (distribution, central tendency, dispersion or variability, correlations).

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Statistical analysis of the research design: here the hypotheses are tested.

2. Qual i tative tati ve data  content data analysi analysi s   It will be analyzed with a content . This involves: 

 Data preparation: data-entry (transcripts)

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Set up some type of classification scheme (codes)

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Classification of data by different researchers in order to establish the reliability of the classification scheme. The transcripts are cut and then sorted. Each segment   gets a code.

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Conclusions made on basis of this classification or further analysis in which relations are examined between different codes.

Conclusion  Design is a complex activity, involving artifacts, people, tools, processes, organizations and the environment in which this takes place. Design research aims at  increasing our understanding of the phenomena of design in all its complexity and at  the development and validation of knowledge, methods and tools to improve the observed situation in design. Design research can be considered to have passed  through three overlapping phases: Experiential, Intellectual, and Experimental, but in all phases, a theoretical framework has been largely missing. This fact, together with a fast growing number of researchers, has led to increasing concerns about the Page 25 of 27

efficiency of design research and the effectiveness of its outcome. No overview of  research results exists, most results never find their way into practice, either directly or indirectly, and research is often lacking the required rigour. One of the main focus  points in the near future has to be the improvement of our research, for which an established methodology is one of the main requirements. A methodology that covers both the study of the phenomenon of design as well as the development of design  support. Only then, we might enter the t he next phase in design research: the theoretical   phase.

 Key Points 1.  Research design defines the study type, research question, hypotheses, variables, and data and data collection methods. Some examples of research designs include descriptive, correlation, and experimental. Another distinction can be made between quantitative and qualitative and qualitative methods. 2. Sociological research can be conducted via quantitative or qualitative methods. Quantitative are useful when a researcher seeks to study large-scale l arge-scale patterns of  behavior, while qualitative methods are more effective when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail. 3. Quantitative methods include experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis, among  content. others. Qualitative methods include participant observation, interviews, and content

4.  An interpretive framework is one that seeks to understand the social world from the  perspective of participants. 5.  Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a complementary combination of design types and research methods in their research.  Even in the same study a researcher may employ multiple methods.

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 Bibliography 1.  M.com part  – 2  – 2 (Semester  – 3)  – 3) Manan Prakashan book. 2. http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/43144_12.pdf. 3. http://www.ctu.edu.vn/guidelines/scientific/thesis/part1/1.6%20design%20and%20ana lysis.htm.

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