Cosmology as Ecological Analysis: A View from the Rain Forest Author(s): G. Reichel-Dolmatoff Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp. 307-318 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2800273 . Accessed: 16/08/2013 18:02 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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AS ECOLOGICAL COSMOLOGY A VIEW FROM THE RAIN
ANALYSIS: FOREST*
G. REICHEL-DOLMATOFF Los Angeles ofCalifornia, University capacityis Amazon,carrying AmongtheTukanoIndiansof theColombianNorthwest resources suchas game,fishandcertain ofprotein oftheconservation mainlyinterms defmed relocation of settleand to avoidfrequent an equilibrium In orderto maintain wildfruits. ruleswhichcontrol ments,theIndianshavedevelopeda setofhighlyadaptivebehavioural aggresand interpersonal of thenaturalenvironment, populationgrowth,theexploitation and,simioverhunting of gameanimalscauseillnessrestricts sion.The beliefthatthespirits and sexandfoodhabitstryto adjustthebirth-rate larly,a largebodyofbeliefsthatregulate forcein thusbecomesa powerful Shamanism behaviour. sociallydisruptive tocounterbalance visionsinducedbynative andhallucinatory resources, ofnatural thecontrolandmanagement power.In manyaspectsTukano tool of shamanistic narcoticdrugsbecomean important andtheIndians'acute forecologicaladaptation a blueprint represent ofcosmology concepts analysis. oftheneedforadaptivenormscanbe comparedwithmodernsystems awareness
I
Untilrelatively recenttimestheculturalimage of theIndiantribesof tropical Americahas been thatof a groupof ratherprimitiveand hostilepeopleswhose to humanthoughthad beennegligibleand whoselevelofsocialcomcontribution plexityhad remainedfarbelow thatofmostaboriginalsocietiesoftheOld World. of America-theancientMexicans,Mayasand In fact,onlythehighercivilisations Peruvians-wereoccasionallycreditedwithhavingcreatedfairlyelaboratesocial, butevenin theircaseseldomhas therebeenexpoliticaland religiousinstitutions, plicitdiscussionof nativephilosophicalsystems,or somethingapproachingan world-view.Sometimesone was almostled to believethatthetropical integrated forestIndianswere fossilsocieties;societieswhich,in a sense,were incomplete; whichhad notevolvedand had nothingto teachus. Theywere'out of themainstream'somepeoplesaid,and thoseof us who made thesesocietiesthesubjectof theirstudies,struggled againstthestigmaofworkingsomewhat'out of themainstream.' In themorerecentpast,however,thisimagehas undergonea notablechange. Ethnologicalresearchamong the survivingtribesof the tropicalrainforesthas of, unthought begunto reacha depthand breadthof inquirythatwereformerly new lightupon are beginningto shedan entirely and thesenewlygainedinsights theintellectual of theaboriginalpeoplesof theAmazon Basin,the achievements OrinocoPlainsand manyotherregionsoftheAmericanTropics,a vastareacoverare It seemsthattheold stereotypes ing morethansix millionsquarekilometres. witha new image:theIndian,not atlast;andinsteadwe arepresented disappearing * Huxley Memorial Lecture, 1975. Man (N.S.) xx, 307-3I8.
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and an individualwitha soundsenseof reality, onlyas a highlypragmaticthinker cosmicmodels, a builderofintricate philosopher, butalso,theIndianas an abstract anda plannerofsweepingmoraldesigns.Alsoatthesameperiod,inviewofcurrent innaturalresources, andtechnologists who haveturnedtheir interest manyscientists with to thetropicalrainforest areasoftheworld,havebecomeconcerned attention societieshavehad to themanyproblemsofecologicaladaptationwhichtraditional In thecaseoftheAmazonBasinit takesa healthyand solvein theseenvironments. energeticsocietyto cope with the rigorousclimaticconditionsand with the a societythatwould developnot of easilydepletednaturalresources, management withineffective rulesforsurvival-framed onlya setofhighlyadaptivebehavioural institutional bodies-but, more importantstill,a societywith a coherentbelief valueswhichwouldmakeendurofstrongly motivating system, witha foundation world. in an unpredictable able theproblemsof man'sexistence In thislectureitis mypurposeto describeand examinesomeaspectsofadaptive withseveral behaviouras I havebeenableto observeitin thecourseofmycontacts Indiangroupsin theColombianlowlands.I shouldadd herethatby 'adaptive' I of survivalof theindividualor the meananythingthatincreasestheprobability I refer to theTukano Indiansof theNorthfollowing shall mainly group.In the westAmazon,especiallytheDesana (EasternTukano),and mychiefconcernwill be to tracesomeconnexionsthatexistbetweenthecosmologicalconceptsof these In doingso ofadaptationto a givenphysicalenvironment. Indians,andtherealities structures, together I shalltryto demonstrate thataboriginalcosmologiesand myth in all respectsa set of with the ritualbehaviourderivedfromthem,represent and economicrules formulate a system of social and that these ecologicalprinciples endeavourto maintaina viable thathavea highlyadaptivevaluein thecontinuous and thedemandsofsociety. oftheenvironment equilibrium betweentheresources II The TukanoIndiansoccupya largeareain thecentralportionof thenorthwest of the Rio Negro. AlAmazon,mainlyon the Vaupes River, a majoraffluent terrainof a transitional thoughmostof the countryis flatand denselyforested, whiletowardsthenorththeforestis somefringe, hillyuplandslieson thewestern timesbrokenby stretches of grassy,tree-strewn savannacountry.Althoughthis rainforestarea has oftenbeen describedas a ratherhomogeneousregion,many environmental bearingupon therange differences existwhichhave considerable and successof humanadaptiveresponses. Game animals,amphibiansand reptiles, ediblefruits, landsare not evenlydisnutsand insects,and suitablehorticultural tributedand considerableresourcefluctuation can be said to existwithinand amongsubregions. The Tukanoareboundto theirrainforest habitatby a numberofcircumstances. In thefirstplace,accordingto mythand tradition, thelandinhabitedby themat in ancient,heroictimes,andwas peopledbytheirforefathers present was originally handedon to theirdescendants in a perpetualtrust.These as a solemninvestiture tribalancestors in mythsand genealogical whosenamesand deedsareremembered to theriversand thehills,therocksand the recitalshad givenproperdesignations This,then,continuesto be their rapidsand to all othernotablenaturalfeatures.
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country, thehomelandoftheancients. It is ofinterest to observeherethat,although theTukanohabitatcan,to a largedegree,be describedas a truly'naturalenvironment',theythemselves perceiveit as a man-madeenvironment, transformed and structured in thepastnot so muchby anyexploitative activities of theirancestors, but by havingbeen imbuedby themwithsymbolicmeaning.There is, then,a time-perspective to theirunderstanding of theenvironment. In thesecondplace,Tukano territory is surrounded by landsoccupiedby other people,be theytribalIndiansor be theyColombianor Braziliansettlers, and both theseneighbouring groupsare quite unwillingto acceptimmigrants, muchless invaders.The Tukano,then,mustof necessity existwithinthelimitations of their givenenvironment and mustmakethebestof it. Theyhave to relyutterly upon theirlocalresources and upontheirown traditional skillsforexploiting them. The traditional settlement patternconsistsof widelyscattered largeand wellbuiltcommunalhouses,occupiedby extendedfamilieswhose membersderive much of theirbasic food supplyfromcultivatingmanioc gardens.However, seasonalhunting,fishingand gathering play an important partin theireconomic and sociallife.Tukanosocietyis dividedintomorethantwentynamedexogamic groups;descentis patrilineal andresidence is patrilocal, withcross-cousin marriage saidto be preferred. Marriagebetweenthesedifferent unitsimpliesa rigidlystructuredrelationship whichis expressedin manyformsof reciprocity and exchange. Most of theseactivities, both social and economic,are closelyconnectedwith ceremonies directedby theshamanwho also officiates at theritualsofthelifecycle and is activeas a healerof illness.Warfareis not institutionalised. Hereis a briefsummary ofhow theTukanoimaginetheoriginand structure of theuniverseand theelementary forcesthatanimateit. The creatorwas theSunFather,an anthropomorphic god who designeda three-layered cosmosconsisting ofa flatearth,a celestialvault,and a placeofblisssituatedundertheearth.He then peopledthelandandcreatedanimalsandplants,givingto eachspeciesa setofrules accordingto whichtheywere to live and multiply.However,the Sun-Father createdonlya limitednumberofanimalsandplants,placingbothcategories under the constantcare of specificspirit-beings who were to guardand protectthem againsteventualabuses.Whatis more,he assignedto hiscreationonlya restricted, roughlycircular, stretch ofland,limitedon all sidesby permanent landmarks. In otherwords,the creationof the Tukano universewas not conceivedas an allembracingor expandingsystem, butwas a limited,well-defined proposition with finiteand restricted resources.Nor was it accomplishedas a singleact limitedin time:it stillcontinuesuninterruptedly because,eversinceitsinitiation, the SunFatherexercises a fertilising actionuponit.It is theenergyofthesun,imaginedby theTukanoin termsof seminallightand heat,thatcausesplantsto growand fruit to ripen,thatmakesmankindand animalsreproduce,and thatis thoughtto be creativenot onlyin a germinal,biologicalsense,but also in thesenseof spiritual illumination and theattainment of esotericwisdom.The essenceof thisforceis imaginedas a masculinepowerthatfertilises a feminine elementthatis thisworld. In Tukanothought, thebiospherehasbothmaleand femaleaspects,butseenin its totality, it has primarilya femininecharacterover which the sun exerciseshis power. The seminalenergyofthesunis thoughtto constitute a hugecircuitin whichthe
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This circuitis imaginedas havinga limitedquantityof entirecosmosparticipates. betweenman and animal,between energythatflowscontinuously procreative isrestricted, manmayremovewhat of Since the and nature. energy quantity society he needsonly undercertainconditionsand mustconverthis quantumof 'borinto the circuit.For rowed' energyinto an essencethancan be reincorporated theenergyof the example,whenan animalis killedor whena crop is harvested however,as soon as thegameor localfaunaand floraarethoughtto be diminished; now on thelevelof theenergyis conserved, fruitareconvertedintonourishment, life of thefoodhave now acquireda reproductive society,becausetheconsumers to an animal or forcethatpreviously plant. belonged III to resemblance The striking pointabouttheseideasis thatthisbearsa remarkable modernsystems analysis.In termsof ecologicaltheory,theTukano thusconceive relatedto theworldas a systemin whichtheamountof energyoutputis directly to the the receives. Tukano, system of the According amount the input system in the handlestheseinputsin two ways: sexualenergywhichhas been repressed of in total which the biotic comto the returns energy capital directly individual, from conmere health and of the resulting well-being, system participates; ponents comalso the abiotic an which energises trolledfoodconsumption, represent input of thestarsor meteorological forexample,themovements ponentsof thesystem, in thisgeneralequia The individual should never cause disturbance phenomena. use as soonas possible. he should never without it that restoring energy librium, is, The entiresystemis largelyderivedfromthe model of sexualphysiology.The Tukano conceptof solar energyincludesa large numberof thingsto whicha becauseof theircolour,shape,textureor other seminalsymbolismis attributed whilea numberof otherthingsare associatedwitha femaleconcharacteristics; and gestation.The associationsof imagesand symbolsare incept of fecundity and eventually dissociate terpreted by theTukano on variouslevelsof abstraction andfarther fromnaturalandphysiological farther factsuntil,at a higher themselves a systems theoryofbalanced,finiteenergy cognitivelevel,theycometo constitute flow. inthe rebalancing whichconstantly requires Thiscosmologicalmodelofa system a religiousproconstitutes formofinputsof energyretrieved by individualeffort, connectedwiththesocialand economicorganisation positionwhichis intimately of thegroup.In thisway,thegeneralbalanceof energyflowbecomesa religious role. objectivein whichnativeecologicalconceptsplaya dominantorganisational a becomestherefore To understand thestructure oftheecosystem and functioning vitaltaskto theTukano.It followsthattheIndian'sethnobiological knowledgeof thenaturalenvironment through he assimilates is notcasualand is not something and repeatedsenseexperience;it is a structured, familiarity graduallyincreasing of enquiryand which knowledgewhichis basedupona long tradition disciplined equipmentforbiologicaland culis acquiredofnecessity as partofhisintellectual turalsurvival. innewknowledgethatmightbe AmongtheIndiansthereis usuallylittleinterest and thereis littleconcernfor usedforexploitingtheenvironment moreeffectively
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thanare short-term gainsor forobtainingmorefoodor raw-materials maximising more of interest in accumulating But there is always a great deal needed. actually factualknowledgeaboutbiologicalrealityand,above all,aboutwhatthephysical world requiresfromman. This knowledge,the Indiansbelieve,is essentialfor with natureif he survivalbecause man must bringhimselfinto conformity wantsto existas partof nature'sunity,and mustfithisdemandsto nature'savailabilities. to theIndiansbecauseitoftenconstitutes interest Animalbehaviouris ofgreatest adaptation.On theone hand,the in termsofsuccessful a modelforwhatispossible andmicrodisIndianshavea detailedknowledgeofsuchaspectsasseasonalvariation oftheanimalandplantspeciesoftheirhabitat.They have a good undertributions of the behaviourof social insects,of bird standingof ecologicalcommunities, offishruns,and otherformsof offishschools,thepatterns flocks,theorganisation and commensalism symbiosis, collectivebehaviour.Suchphenomenaas parasitism, specieshavebeenwell observedby them betweenco-occurring otherrelationships andarepointedoutas possiblemodelsofadaptation.On theotherhand,mythsand talesabound withaccountsof visitsto theanimalworld,of people turninginto animalsin orderto learnmoreabouttheirhabits,or ofanimalsteachingmenhow wisdomoftencontainsdetaileddeto makeuse of certainresources.Shamanistic of suchcontactsand exchanges,and manyshamansclaim to have acscriptions knowledgefromanimalswhichrevealedto themsome quiredpartoftheirspecific foodresource,a cureforan illness,or a practicalprocedurein solving unexpected esotericand someeveryday problem.Some ofthiswisdommaythenbe considered ofa shaman,butoftenenoughthisspecialised remaining theprivateproperty secret, knowledgeof animalbehaviourbecomespartof prescribedpatternsof human becauseofitsobviousadaptivevalue.Moreover,mythology actionandinteraction tellsof animalspecieswhichhave become extinctor whichwere emphatically rulesof adaptivesignifipunishedor degradedfornotobeyingcertainprescribed and all formsof overindulaggressiveness improvidence, cance. Thus, gluttony, genceare punishedby the superiorforces,to serveas examplesnot only to the for animalcommunity, but also to humansociety.Animals,then,are metaphors animalbehaviourtheIndianstryto discoveran orderin the survival.By analysing can thenbe adjusted. to whichhumanactivities physicalworld,a world-order personis consciousthathe formspartofa comIn Tukanoculture, theindividual whichincludenot only societybut the entireuniplex networkof interactions of all things,a personhas interrelatedness verse.Withinthiscontextofan essential thatgo farbeyondhisor hersocialrolesandthatareextrato fulfil manyfunctions of a setof adaptivenorms.Theserulesor norms,then,guidea societalextensions kinor ally-but notonlywithotherpeople-past or present, person'srelationships also withanimals,plants,as a matterof factwithall bioticand non-bioticcomabove all, The rulestheindividualhasto followrefer, ponentsoftheenvironment. of ecologicalbalanceas the to cooperativebehaviouraimed at the conservation betweenman and hisenvironultimately desirablequality.Thus therelationship not only on a cognitivelevel,but clearlyit also conmentis beingformulated in whichindividualanimalsandplantsare personalrelationship stitutes an affective treatedwithrespectand caution. a stablebalance The Tukanoarequiteawareofthefactthat,in orderto maintain
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ofinputand output,a numberofregulatory mechanisms haveto be instituted and, whatis more,haveto be fullyrespected byall membersofthesociety.Thesesocial controlsof necessity possessmarkedadaptiveimplications and mustbe enforced primarily in thoseaspectsofexistence which,to a largedegree,determine survival. I shallmentionhere:populationgrowth,theexploitation of thephysicalenvironment,and aggression in interpersonal relations. It is quiteclearto theTukanothat, in orderto ensureindividualand collectivesurvivaland well-being, adaptiverules have to be established to adjustthe birth-rate, the harvest-rate, and to counterbalanceall sociallydisruptive behaviour.
IV I shallfirstturnto the problemof populationgrowthand regulations. Two mechanisms are used by theIndiansto controlthebirth-rate: oral contraceptives and sexualcontinence. Tukano womenuse herbalconcoctionswhich,in varying concentrations, causetemporary sterility, and by thismeanstheymanageto space theiroffspring overseveralyearsin sucha way thatwhena womanhashersecond childthefirst is alreadysufficiently independent notto be a bother.The numberof childrenis keptlow and coupleswithmanychildrenarecriticised quiteopenlyas sociallyirresponsible. It maybe addedherethattheold and infirm, as soon as they ceaseto collaboratein thefood questof theirhouseholdgroup,are eliminated by beingabandonedin theforest or on an islandin theriver. The secondmechanism is abstention. Sexualabstinence and sexualrepression are practisedon manyoccasionsand are amongthe mostimportant prerequisites to manyritualactivities. It is important to pointout herethat,in Tukano thought, food and sex are closelyrelatedand are symbolically equivalent.This idea of relationshipbetweencaloricand sexualappetiteis expressedin manyways; on a levelsexualintercourse metaphorical andeatingareequated,andin ritualexchange certainfoodstuffs cometo represent theexchangeofwomen.Sincestrict exogamic rulesconstitute themainorganising principlein Tukano society,theconsumption or avoidanceof certainfoodsaregearedto theconceptofexogamyin sucha way thatdietaryrestrictions come to standforsexualrestrictions. The selectiveuse of certainfoodsmaythusbe saidto be subjectto thelaws of exophagy, whichdetermine the permissibility of certainfoodsunderdiversecircumstances. There are 'male' and 'female'foodsand foodpreparations, and theserulesrefernot onlyto animal-derived foods,butalso to vegetablefoods. Theseaspectsarebestillustrated ofthehunter. bytheideasthatguidetheactivities All game animalsare subjectto theMasterof Animals,a dwarf-like spirit-being withmarkedphallicattributes. This supernatural gamekeeper jealouslyguardshis of deer,tapir,peccary,agouti,paca,monkeysand all otheranimal flockconsisting speciesthatare a commonfoodresourceof theIndians.The Masterof Animalsis theirprotector and procreator and theyall live insidesteeprockyhillsor directly in deep pools in the river,both dwelling-places beingimaginedas largestoreMaster's housesteemingwithgame and fish.In orderto obtainthesupernatural huntermustundergoa rigorous to killa gameanimal,theprospective permission and purification foodrestrictions, preparation whichconsistsof sexualcontinence, ritesensuringcleansingthe body by bathingand emetics.For some daysbefore
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themanshouldrefrain fromall sexualrelations and, goingon a huntingexcursion, whatis more,heshouldnothavehadanydreamswithan eroticcontent. Moreover, thatnoneof thewomenwho live in hishouseholdis menstruating. it is necessary overhunting is this:Accordingto cosmological thatrestricts Anothermechanism as definedby the certain constellations, with are associated animals mythsall game hasrisenover its constellation after only be hunted can a species Tukano.However, when theyrealise thehorizon,anditis saidthattheanimalscryandweep withfear hunt itselfis that the here also It maybe mentioned thattheirtimeis approaching. the prey in which a courtship as it is imagined quest in that morethana merefood hunter. hasto be seducedto submitto the Whenevergame is scarce,the shamanmustvisitthe Masterof Animalsin a narcotictranceand tryto obtainfromhimthereleaseof some of hischarges.He season forherdsor fora good hunting willnotaskforindividualanimalsbutrather he promisesto sendto theMaster'sabodethesoulsofpersonswho,at andin return theenergyof those to replenish theirdeath,mustreturnto thisgreatstore-house The Masterof Animals givesto thehunters. gamekeeper animalsthesupernatural of usufruct are thusconceivedas administrators and hisnumerouspersonifications rightsto theiruse areinstituted arelimited,restrictive rights;sincegameresources and itfallsto theshamanto becomethemediator. by thesespirit-beings, FromtheexamplesI have mentionedit is obviousthatthecombinationof all initselfa bodyofhighlyadaptiveruleswhichnotably theseprerequisites represents A personcannotgo huntingor of anybunteror fisherman. theactivities restrict fishing simplyanytimehe needsfood,butonlyafterhavingundergonea moreor thepurposeof whichis to avoid overperiodofpreparation, lessanxiety-charged to neglectof in huntingarealmostalwaysattributed Illnessor misfortune hunting. anyof thenumerousrulesa hunterhasto observe. are not onlyobservedin connexionwitheconomicactivities, Food restrictions but are a standardpracticeon mostritualoccasionsand in manyothereveryday For example,a man whose wifeis expectinga child shouldeat circumstances. thegood health neithertapir,peccarynormonkeymeatbecausethismightaffect of his yet unbornoffspring. A man whose huntingor fishinggear has become pollutedfrombeingcasuallytouchedby a woman,mustobservea liquiddietfor of theriver severaldays.When fishrunto spawn,thosepresentin one's stretch shouldnotbe eaten,norarebirds'eggsevercollectedforfood,andthefleshofsome areverbalreptilesis avoidedduringtheirbreedingseason.All theseinterdictions ised by theIndiansin termsof dangersto theconsumer'shealth.Especiallystrict of keeppeoplefromeatingnormallywhileengagedin theacquisition prohibitions all ritualsof the individuallifecycleinvolve esotericknowledgeand, similarly, and In summary,duringpregnancy,childbirth temporarydietaryrestrictions. medicinalherbs;durduringmourningperiods,or whilegathering menstruation; orlove ofpoisons,narcotics ingthecouvadeorwhileengageduponthepreparation controltheirfood intakeand, as a generalrule,refrain potions,people carefully fromeatingthemeatof gameanimals. andnuts,ofhoneyandof ofwildfruits Similarprohibitions restrict thegathering manuof raw-materials used in technological edibleinsects.Even the extraction of thatchfora roof,of The gathering factures is controlledby ritualrestrictions. clayforpotterymaking,or of scarcewoods or fibresfora numberof specificend
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aresubjectto permitswhichhaveto be obtainedfromthespirit-owners products, of therespective resources. Thiscomplexofdietaryandsexualrestrictions is closelyrelatedto thecontrolof aggressiveattitudes.The principalmechanismwhich checkssociallydisruptive behaviouris theorganisation intoexogamicgroupswhichare linkedby alliances and standin a relationship of reciprocalexchange.Besidesexchangingwomen, or manufacthesecomplementary unitswill giveand receivefoods,raw-materials turedgoods,and on theseperiodicoccasionswhichconstitute highlyformalised rituals,thedances,songsand ceremonialdialoguesemphasiseoverand overagain thepairedlinkagesthatuniteTukano society. of what constitutes It appearsfromthe foregoingthatthe Tukano definition foodresources carrying capacity,refers mainlyto a certainbalanceofprotein-rich notin suchas game,fishand wild fruits. is interpreted Environmental degradation but in termsof the eventualdepletionof game and of termsof soil exhaustion, increasedwalkingtime.Because of the relativescarcityof proteinresourcesrein orderto avoidfrequent relocastrictive rightsto theirusehaveto be established forhorticultural areperhapsnot tionofsettlements. activities Propitiousconditions butlandforproductivegardenplotsis available.However,thenutrient plentiful, all vegetablefoodsoftherainforest is verylow andcarrying contentofpractically ofproteinresources, and populadetermined capacityis therefore by theexistence tionsizeand densityarefunctions thereof. The threeaspectsI havementioned-population ofthe growth,theexploitation and thecontrolofaggression-canbe reducedto one single physicalenvironment ofa balancedecosystem. problem,thatis,themaintenance The Indiansknowthat theirdailyexistencedependsupon theproperfunctioning of theseadaptiveinteractions.The questionarises,how cana peoplebe madeto followtheseprescriptions whichimposesuchsevererestrictions and regulations upon theirsocialbehaviour and theirbiologicalneeds? V mechanisms in the The nativegroupsI am concernedwithhere,enforce which, related to theaboriginaltheoryof disease.To beginwith,the therulesareclosely or specificbodily mentalconditionswhich,accordingto theTukano,constitute illnessand whichmanifest themselves througha largenumberof signsand symptoms,arealwaysthoughtto be causedby an agentexternalto thebody.The possiblepathogenic agenciesfallintothreecategories (i) therevengeofgameanimals; ofsupernatural (2) theill-willof otherpeople,and (3) themalevolence beingssuch as theMasterof Animalsor otherspirit-beings. This malevolenceof people and animalsis not an arbitrary forcethatblindly strikesitsunsuspecting victim.On thecontrary, as a illnessis alwaysinterpreted quitenaturalconsequenceof a person'sbreachor neglectof culturalnorms.Apart fromitsbeingsociallyand emotionally illnessis,in theTukanoview, disturbing, nothingbut a reactionto theecologicallyinadequatebehaviourof thepatient,to his maladaptiveperformance. It is thepatientwho causesthe disease,by making himselfvulnerableto it. The diagnosistheshamanestablishes two has,therefore, to thesymptoms different to thepatient'scomplaints, he hasdeaspects:One refers to thequestionwhythepersonbecamea victimof veloped;theotheraspectrefers
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aspectof theshaman's thedisease.And herewe can recogniseanotherimportant an aspectthatis closelyrelatedto theproblemofecologicaladaptation. function, practiceillnessis takento be theconsequenceof a person'supIn shamanistic is a commoncause a certainaspectof theecologicalbalance.Overhunting setting scarcenaturalresourcehas in whichsomerelatively activities and so areharvesting bebeen wasted.The delicatebalanceexistingwithinthe naturalenvironment, in a seriesofsystems constitutes tweennatureand society,andwithinsocietyitself, thewhole.For example, howeverslight,is boundto affect whichanydisturbance, meddlingwithcertainwomenwho shouldbe avoidedis thesamekindof affront as eatingcertainfishthatshouldnotbe eaten;whilekillingtoo manyanimalsofa the consequenceof certainspeciesmustalwaysbe avoided. These are offences process,whichisoftenaccompanied whichislikelyto be an illness.In thediagnostic in thepatient'sillnessnotso much theshamanis interested practices, by divinatory ofbiology,butratheras a symptomofa disorderin theenergyflow. as a function betweensocietyand thesupernatural His mainconcernis about therelationship and on whom dependsuccessin harvesting Mastersof game,fishand wild fruits, of the who commandmany pathogenicagents.To the shamanit is therefore theexactquality thecausesof theillness,to identify essenceto diagnosecorrectly or any otherover(be it adultery,overhunting, of the inadequaterelationship withthe indulgenceor waste),and thento redressthebalanceby communicating contactswiththegameanimals.To menreconciliatory and by establishing spirits A manwho haskilledtoo tionjust one exampleofhow a diagnosisis established: manyanimalsof a certainspecies,will appearin the shaman'sdreamor trance statesin theshapeof thatanimaland theimagewill be accompaniedby a certain in high thatdifferences a certaindegreeoflight.It is quiteremarkable luminosity, in the flowof solar are recognisedto be veryimportant or low lightintensity bytheTukano,andthatshamanswillmentionin theirspells as understood energy, up to sevenshadesof 'yellowlight'thatenergisethebiosphere. and incantations thattheshamanas a healerofillIn summarising thisaspectI wantto emphasise on theindividuallevel,butoperateson thelevelof nessdoesnotso muchinterfere thathave been disturbedby the person.To be structures thosesupra-individual It partof theecosystem. to thedisturbed he has to applyhis treatment effective, his patients; individual have not mightbe said thenthata Tukano shamandoes The diseasedorganismof the patientis taskis to cure a social malfunctioning. secondaryin importanceand will be treatedeventually,both empiricallyand of therulesthatwill avoid butwhatreallycountsis there-establishment ritually, and uncheckedpopulation the depletionof certainplantresources, overhunting, forcein the controland powerful increase.The shamanbecomesthusa truly of resources. management and gathering withhunting,fishing, quitedirectly The shamantheninterferes the control shaman will personally Forexample,a activities. mostotherharvesting he stretch of river; a certain on to be used offish-poison andconcentration quantity reis a of herd when peccary thenumberof animalsto be killed will determine ofwild forthegathering strategy ported,andhe willdecideon a suitableharvesting water aftera back into the be thrown to whichfishhave fruits. He will determine killing the prohibit completely might even he haulhasbeenmade,andoccasionally He willalsocontrolsuchtechnoareaoftheforest. ofcertainanimalsin a restricted
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logicalactivities as theconstruction ofa communal house,themanufacture ofa ofa trail.Alltheseactivities canoe,ortheopening obviously affect thenatural environment sincetreeshaveto be felledandmanyplantshaveto be destroyed or usedin theprocess, andtheshaman's roleas a protector of gameandplant-life andplants Allthis, explains whyanimals figure soprominently ashisspirit-helpers. I shouldliketopointouthere,isnotspeculation; theIndians arequiteexplicit in thesematters andexplain thatthespirit-owners ofnature mustnotbe angered and thatitis theshaman's tasktoreconcile them. Theverylargedenotative vocabulary ofa shaman expresses hisgreatconcern In orderto be ableto withestablishing thecomplete oftheecosystem. inventory allitsconhehastoknow,nameandcategorise thisgreatstore-house, administer himwiththecriteria forecological tents.Thisknowledge eventually provides andthis, ofcourse, isproblem-solving Thefactthatmany planning byanticipation. suchashunting, ofa newfieldorthe dailyactivities fishing, gathering, theclearing in orderto locatethemost to divinatory curingofa diseasearesubject practices incopingwiththis propitious spotortime,ortofindthemosteffective procedure to protect or thatpredicament, wild-life givestheshaman ampleopportunity by ofhunting hethinks thata certain excursions whenever random scheduling species indirections ortochannel hebelieves isendangered, anyother exploitative activity movecaseswhereshamans initiated limited tobebest.I knowofseveral migratory homesinordertoavoidanapproaching ments byasking peopleto abandontheir ofevilspirits, indivinatory bothcalamities orthepresence epidemic beingrevealed of seemsto havebeentheadvanced The truereason, trance. however, depletion ofrelated Inviewoftheobservation ofa number protein resources. cases,itseems in notunlikely thatshamanistic divinatory practices operate withmodelsandthat, thismanner, arebeingintroduced manyadaptive changes byshamans. ofhisroleas an One mightaskhere:how faris a shamanactually conscious broker? Doeshealwaysactquiterationally andwithanadequate ecological underofecological standing principles? Someshamans, Thereexist,ofcourse, differences. notably theyounger andless in quitesimplistic theirconceptions terms experienced ones,tendto verbalise by andoverharvesting areboundtoannoyboththespirits thatoverhunting and saying andthatillness willbe thepunishment. thegameanimals, Theywillreadily point in preyabundance andwillattribute thebioticimpoverishment outchanges of willnotmake areastotheaction ofvengeful Others however certain restricted spirits. butwillblamegreedandignorance forthe useofthesemystical interpretations of proteinresources. some(ifnotall) diseasesto depletion Theywillattribute andwillstatequiteplainly resources arescarce nutritional deficiencies thatprotein andhaveto be protected. To be sure,thefactthatmosteconomicactivities areaccompanied by rituals forabundance, doesnotmeanthattheshaman asksthesupernatural forces simply canproduce, forplenty, fora maximum amountofwhattheenvironment but costsand rather thatoccasions arebeingprovided forstock-taking, forweighing andfortheeventual At thesemoments the re-distribution ofresources. benefits, In pointof shaman's andoutputs. book-keeping showsthegeneral system inputs theperiodic suchas curingrituals, fact,mostshamanistic activities rain-making, reaffirmation ofalliances or foodexchange betweenexogamicgroupsmightbe
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viewedas rituals concerned withresource management and ecologicalbalance. Thisfacthassometimes beenobscured bya tendency todescribe nativeshamans in terms ofmerewitchdoctors orreligious fanatics. VI TheTukanoandmanyotherColombian tribes believethattheentire universe is steadily deteriorating. Thusit is thought thatformerly peoplewerehealthier, stronger andmoreintelligent thantheyareatpresent; thatanimals andfruits were largerandthattheyweremoreabundant thannow.The Indianswillpointout stretches offorest, rivers or lagoonssayingthatin former timesanimallifewas plentiful there. It is truethat,atpresent, thisfeeling ofimpending doomispartly inmanypartstheworldoftherainforest justified; Indians isonthewane.Butthe Indian'ssenseof entropy, of thetendency towarddisorder andchaos,doesnot seemto be a consequence ofhispresent plight, butrather represents an existential anxiety thatforms partofnative cosmology andphilosophy, andthatisbasedupon thecloseanddailyobservation ofthebiological cyclesofgrowth anddecline. The important pointis thatthisideaofincreasing disorder is alwaysfollowed bythe institutionalised resolution to recreate theworldandto re-establish itsorderand purpose asstated incosmological tradition. Thiscontinuous cycleofritual creation, destruction andis andre-creation canbe foundin manytropical societies forest indeedanimportant mechanism ofcultural andbiological survival. In thecourseoftheseceremonial occasions, whentheuniverse andallitscomarebeingrenewed, ponents onegoalbecomes ofcentral thereaffirmaimportance: tionoflinkswithpastandfuture ofcongenerations, together withtheexpression cernaboutthefuture well-being of society. The emphasis of theritualis upon unifying thesocialgroup,uponcontinuity, upontheclosebondsofidentity that unitesociety withthepastandmakeitthefoundation ofthefuture. Itseemsthat thissenseof unionprovides deeplymotivating valuesandstrong incentives fora ecological responsibility. Thelengthy genealogical andtheritual recitals dialogues havea powerful cohesive function, andinmanyoftheserituals animalandplantarethought spirits toparticipate, interrelatedness expressing bytheir presence their andinterdependency. ofthe It mustbe pointed outherethattheritual re-creation universe isgenerally ofplantorigin. accompanied bythecollective useofnarcotics Duringthesedrug-induced trance states, orotherforms of dissociate phenomena, theparticipants withthemythical establish contact past,infact, theyseethemselves return to thetimeofdivineCreation andthustakepartinit.It is clearthat,here ofthevisions shaman canadaptively again,theofficiating orient theinterpretations oftheirhallucinations. peopleproject uponthevividbackground whichcanbe saidto be essentially concerned Duringmostorall oftheserituals withecological ofmyths andgenealogies isofgreatimportance. therecital balance, Thesemyths andinfancy andtraceman'sdestiny frombirth explainman'snature to declineanddeath;fromthesinofincestto chaosandnearthrough maturity andhenceto a neworderandtheestablishment destruction, oflaw.Thesemyths andtales,I shouldliketo emphasise here,arenotmere'literature'; theyrepresent a trulyremarkable a cognitive effort at intellectual at providing interpretation, matrix rulesofconduct, forlife.Theyarea guideforsurvival because theyestablish
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notonlyforritualoccasions butforeveryday life;a factwhichsometimes goes unnoticed as longas onehasnotdiscovered themetaphorical codein whichthe aretransmitted. myths Thecosmological myths whichexpress theTukanoworld-view do notdescribe Man'sPlacein Naturein termsofdominion, ofmastery overa subordinate ennordo theyinanywayexpress thenotionofwhatsomeofus might vironment, intheir calla senseof'harmony withnature.' Nature, view,isnota physical entity manand,therefore, hecannot apartfrom confront itoropposeitorharmonise with mancanunbalance itbyhispersonal itasa separate entity. Occasionally malfunctioningasa component, butheneverstands it.Manistakentobea partofa apartfrom which-betheybiological or cultural-transcend setofsupra-individual systems livesandwithinwhichsurvival andthemaintenance ofa certain ourindividual too areallowedto evolve qualityoflifearepossibleonlyifall otherlifeforms incosmological andtraditions. totheirspecific according needs,as stated myths I shouldliketonotethefollowing. Untilquiterecently In closing, ethnologists haveattempted to explaincultural evolution and changein and archaeologists modelsand thisapproachis stillusedby most termsof linearcause-and-effect in thesefields. Batesonwasthefirst to sensethe specialists Gregory ethnographer modelto account forhisethnographical needfora systems theory data,although hisnowclassicmonograph on New Guineawaswritten longbeforetheformal ofsystems hadbeendeveloped. aspects theory on cause-and-effect Archaeologists havebeenparticularly proneto dependence andmodelsconstructed ontheprinciples oflinearcausality, andthese explanations in theintellectual havebeenemphasised movement called'New Archaetrends hasnotedthattwoverydifferent thatFlannery kindsof ology'.Itisonlyrecently modelsareusedbythe'New Archaeology.' One oftheseschoolsis explanatory initsadherence tolinear hasappliedtheterm'law-andexplicit causality. Flannery order'archaeology tothisschool.Theother lesspopular trend hasbeenanapplicaforcultural tionofsystems to account itsdynamics to theory change, attributing ina partofthesystem whichoriginate andthendevelopinto veryslowdeviations isfarmorelikelytoproducesigIt seemsthatthisapproach majormodifications. nificant modelsthanis 'law-and-order' archaeology. It is striking thenthatin thelastdecadeethnographers andarchaeologists are modelwhichcanbe usedto comingto acceptas theonlykindof explanatory handleecologicalrelationships the kindof overallsystems modelwhichwas a verylongtimeago. adoptedby 'primitive' Indians NOTES
I am deeplyconsciousof thegreathonourof havingbeenaskedto givethe1975 Huxley MemorialLecture.I ammostgrateful totheBritish Councilandto theRoyal Anthropological Institute, especially theEsperanza Fund,fortheirgenerous assistance. I alsowishto express my sincerepersonalgratitude to DonaldLathrap,MartinMoynihan,Olga Linaresde Moynihan andJ.Wilbert,forhavingbeenkindenoughto reada draftof thislecture;theirsuggestions haveprovedto be verystimulating andhelpful.
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