Redoks Dan Elektrokimia

 

VC 7 Hmimb (HA 0.0) Ibtfrm : Wfbhsm rfadhs abk _dtfksmbl Flfhtrdab Qbcuk _flbjbrbk : 7?23 ‐ 7?2= Hflbs / sit : SMM SMM /2  _ftukjuh sdbl sdbl : Jbwbglb Jbwbglbc c sdbl gfrmhu gfrmhutt mkm afkebk tf tfpbt, pbt, smkehbt, jf jflbs lbs abk gfkbr !

HA 0.0 2. _bab rfbhsm : 0Kb@lD (bq) ↗ 7Kb@l (bq) + Kb@lD0 (bq)

gmlbkebk dhsmabsm hldr gfrugbc abrm : b. ‐2 ifk ifkjjbam bam + +2 2 ab abk ? a. ‐ ‐7 7 ifk ifkjb jba am ? abk abk +2 +2 g. +2 ifkj ifkjba bamm ‐ ‐2 2 abk abk +6 f. ? ifk ifkjb jbam am ‐2 abk abk +2 +2 `. ? ifkjbam ‐2 abk -7 7.  _frcbhbk pfrsbibbk rfbhsm rfbhsm rfadhs gfrmhut: Pk(s) + 1CKD0(bq)  PkD7(s) + 1KD7(e) + 7C7D(l) Gmlbkebk dhsmabsm dhsmabtdr abk cbsml rfauhsmkyb bablbc b. +2, Pk `. +1, KD7 f. +6, CKD0 g. +2, PPk kD7 a. +6, KD7 0. Amgfrmhbk abtb pfrsbibbk rfbhsm rfadhs sfgbebm

gfrmhut : 2. IkD1-  IkD171. NfD  Nf7D0 7. PD7  PD0 6. @l7 + 7f  7@l0. @7C1  @7C> _frsbibbk rfbhsm rfauhsm bablbc kdidr .... b. 2, 7 abk 0 `. 2, 2, 0 abk 6 f. 7, 7, 0 abk 6 g. 2, 0 abk 1 a. 7, 7, 0 abk 1

`. ifkecbsmlhbk 6 idl ebs @D7  a. sfbp idl @7D17‐ ifkecbsmlhbk 6 idl @D 7 f. sfbp idl IkD1 ‐ ifkecbsmlhbk 7 idl Ik7+ 2?. _bab rfbhsm rfadhs : HIkD1(bq) +H7@7D1(bq) +C7PD1 (bq) ↗ H7PD1 (bq) + IkPD1 (bq) + @D7 (e) + C7D(l) sftfkebc rfbhsm dhsmabsm abrm rfbhsm am btbs bablbc … b. IkD1 ‐ (bq) + 3C+ (bq) + 6f ↗ Ik 7+ (bq) + 1C7D(l) g. Ik7+ (bq) ↗ Ik5+ (bq) + 6f `. @7D17‐ (bq) ↗ 7@D7 (e) + 7f a. 1C+ (bq) + D7 (e) + 1f ↗7C7D(l) f. C7@7D1  (bq) + 7C+ (bq) + 7f ↗ 7@D7 (e) + 7C7D(l) 22. Wfbhsm rfadhs IkD1 ‐ (bq)+ @7D17‐ (bq) ↗Ik7+(bq)+@D7 (e)

gfrlbkesuke ablbi subsbkb gbsb.Pfbp ?,7 idl IkD1 ‐  ifkecbsml hbk ebs @D7 (PQ_) sfgbkybh ... b. 22,7 lmtfr `. 00,> lmtfr f. 6> lmtfr g. 77 77,1 lmlmtfr a. 11 11,3 lmlmtfr 27. Abtb pdtfksmbl rfauhsm stbkabr gfgfrbpb zbt bablbc:

Fd 9 +2,05> vdlt Fd 9 + ?,3? vdlt Fd 9 +?,5? vdlt

@l7(e) + 7f ↗ 7@l(bq)  Be+ + f ↗ Be Nf0+(bq) + 0f ↗ Nf(s)  7+

1. _bab pfrsbibbk rfbhsm rfadhs :  C7D(l)  @u 7+(bq) + KD(e) + a  C b @u(s) + g KD0 ‐(bq) + C+(bq) ↗ `  @u

Cbreb hdfnsmfk rfbhsm b, g, `, abk a gfrturut ‐ turut ... b. 7, 2, 7 abk 7 `. 0, 7, 0 abk 1 f. 1, 2, 7 abk 1 g. 7, 2, 7 abk 1 a. 1, 2, 7 abk 0 6. Ebs hldrmk abpbt amgubt afkebk ifrfbhsmhbk lbrutbk

hblmui pfribkebkbtf hf ablbi lbrutbk bsbi hldrmab ifkurut rfbhsm sfgbebm gfrmhut : b HIkD1 (bq) + g C@l (bq) ↗ `  Ik@l  Ik@l7(bq) + a  @l  @l7 (bq) + C7D (l) + H@l (bq)  Kmlbm hdfnsmfk rfbhsm g, `, abk a gfrturut‐turut bablbc … b. 3, 3, 6, abk 0 `. 27 27, 7, abk 6 f. 2> 2>, 7, abk 6 g. 2?, 2?, 7, ab abk k 6 a. 21, 21, 6, ab abk k7 >. _frcbhbk rfbhsm rfadhs :

d

@u  + 7f ↗ @u F  9 +?,01 vdlt Nf7+(bq) + 7f ↗ Nf(s)  Fd 9 -?,11 vdlt Fd 9 -2,>> vdlt Bl0+(bq) + 0f ↗ Bl(s)  Wfbhsm ybke abpbt gfrlbkesuke sf`brb spdktbk bablbc … b. @u(s) + Nf7+(bq) ↗ @u7+(bq) + Nf(s) g. Nf(s) + @u7+(bq) ↗ @u(s) + Nf0+(bq) `. 7@l-(s) + Nf7+(bq) ↗ @l7(s) + Nf (s) a. @u7+(s) + Be(s) ↗ @u(s) + Be+(bq) f. @u7+(s) + Bl(s) ↗ @u(s) + Bl0+(s) 20. Bkeebp rfbhsm gfrmhut mkm gfrlbkesuke sfipurkb

Bl + @a7+ ↗ Bl0+ + @a Km + Be+ ↗ Km7+ + Be @a + Km7+ ↗ @a7+ + Km Gbebmibkb urutbk afrft vdltbkyb, jmhb amiulbm abrm ldebi ybke pblmke rfbh(pblmke iuabc dhsmabsm)4

0+(bq)  7‐(bq)  7‐ (bq) (bq) + PD1 7‐(bq) @r7D5 7‐ (bq) + PD0 7‐ (bq)  ↗ @r0+ Pftflbc rfbhsm amsftbrbhbk, pfrgbkamkebk gbkybh idl mdk PD0 7‐ afkebk @r 0+ ablbi rfbhsm tfrsfgut bablbc .. b. 2 : 0 g. 0 : 2 `. 7 : 0 a. 0 : 7 f. 2 : >

b. Bl, @a, Km abk Be g. @a, Bl, Km abk Be `. Be Be,, Km, Km, @a abk abk Bl Bl

a. K Kmm, Be, @a abk Bl f. Bl B l, Km, @a abk Be

5.  Wfbhsm rfadhs :

Ldebi @ abpbt ifkafsbh ldebi G abrm lbrutbkkyb, tbpm abh abpbt ifkafsbh ldebi B. Vrutbk pdtfksmbl rfauhsm ybke sfibhmk kfeb bablbc .... b. B ; G ; @ `. @ ; G ; B f. @ ; B ; G g. B ; @ ; G a. G ; @ ; B

21. Ldebi B abpbt ifkafsbh ldebi G abrm lbrutbkkyb.

IkD1 ‐ (bq) + @7D17‐ (bq)  ↗Ik7+ (bq) + @D7 (e) Gfrlbkesuke ablbi subsbkb bsbi. Pfbp idl IkD 1 ‐  ififrluhbk C+ sfgbkybh …. b. 1 idl `. 3 idl f. 27 idl g. > idl a. 2? idl

 

3. Wfbhsm rfadhs :

26. Wfbhsm flfhtrdhmimb gfrmhut ybke abpbt gfrlbkesuke

IkD1 ‐ (bq) + @7D17‐ (bq)  ↗Ik7+ (bq) + @D7 (e) _frsbibbk rfbhsm IkD1 ‐ ↗ Ik7+ ifkyfrbp … flfhtrdk b. 2 g. 7 `. 0 a. 1 f. 6

sf`brb spdktbk bablbc ... b. 0 Be + @r0+↗ 0 Be+ + @r g. Pk7+ + Nf ↗ Pk + Nf7+  7+

=. Wfbhsm rfadhs : IkD  

+@D7 (e)  + @7D  ↗Ik Gfrlbkesuke ablbi subsbkb bsbi. _frkybtbbk ybke gfkbr bablbc … b. ifigutuchbk 2? flfhtrdk flfhtrdk uktuh ifkyftbrbh ifkyftbrbhbk bk rfbhsm g. ifigutuchbk ifigutuchb k 1 idl C7D am rubs hmrm 1 ‐ (bq)

PIB Kfefrm 2 Hdtb Pdldh

17‐ (bq)

7+(bq)

a. @u + 7C+ ↗ @u7+ + C7 f. _g + Zk7+  ↗ _g7+ + Zk

0+

`. 0 Ie + 7 Bl ↗ 7 Bl  + 0 Ie

 

FPPB] 2. Pftbrbhbk rfbhsm gfrmhut afkebk iftdaf

pfrugbcbk gmlbkebk dhsmsbsm (_GD) Zk (s) + KD0 ‐ (bq) ↗ ZkD7 7‐(bq) + KC0 (e) (subsbkb gbsb) 7. Pftbrbhbk rfbhsm gfrmhut afkebk iftdaf sftfkebc rfbhsm (mdk-flfhtrdk) IkD1 ‐ (bq) + @7D17‐ (bq) ↗Ik7+ (bq) + @D7 (e) (subsbkb bsbi) 0. Pftbrbhbk rfbhsm gfrmhut afkebk iftdaf pfrugbcbk gmlbkebk dhsmabsm (_GD) HIkD1 (bq)+ C@l (bq) ↗Ik@l7(bq) + @l7 (bq)+ H@l (bq)+ C7D (l) HA 0.1 PFL ^DLQB 2. Amhftbcum kdtbsf sfl ^dltb: Ie|Ie7+||Pk7+|Pk Fd 9 7,70 ^. Ebigbr sfl ^dltb ybke gfkbr bablbc ....

1. Amberbi sfl ybke tfpbt uktuh gfrlbkesukekyb rfbhsm

tfrsfgut bablbc ... b. Be/Be+ // Ie / Ie7+  a. Ie/Ie7+ // Be / Be+ g. Be+ /Be // Ie / Ie 7+ f. Be/Be+ // Ie7+ / Ie `. Ie/Ie7+ // Be+ / Be 6. Cbreb F? sfl abrm rfbhsm tfrsfgut bablbc … vdlt b. +2,66 `. ‐0,20 f. ‐0,3= g. +0,20 a. ‐2,66 >. Amhftbcum cbreb pdtfksmbl flfhtrdab stbkabr (F?) abrm

ldebi S abk ] sfgbebm gfrmhut : S7+ (bq)  ┇S (s) 8 F? 9 +?,0? vdlt 7+ (bq)

?

]   ┇] 8 F  9 ‐?,1? vdlt Hfaub ldebi mtu ameukbhbk uktuh ifkyusuk sfl ^dltb afkebk susukbk sfgbebm ebigbr am gbwbc mkm : (s)

] (s)

S (s)

b.

g.

a.

f.

`. 7. Ebigbr sfl ^dltb :

(S7+) 9 2I

(]7+) 9 2I

Ibkbhbc abrm pfrkybtbbk gfrmhut mkm ybke gfkbr uktuh susukbk am btbs 4 Flfhtrdab amibkb mdk F? sfl (^) pdsm ifibsuhm lbrutbk b. g. `. a. f.

S ] ] S S

?,2? ?,2? ?,5? ?,5? ?,56

5. Gmlb amhftbcum :

_frkybtbbk ybke gfkbr tfktbke sfl ^dltb am btbs bablbc.... b. rfbhsm am bkdab Nf7+ + 7f ↗ Nf g. rfbhsm am hbtdab Nf ↗ Nf 7+ + 7f `. ldebi Be gfrukesm sfgbebm sfgbebm hbtdab a. ldebi Nf gfrukesm gfrukesm sfgbebm sfgbebm hbtdab f. ldebi Be Be ifkeblbim ifkeblbim dhsmabsm 0. Amhftbcum rfbhsm flfhtrdaf sfgubc sfl ^dltb sfgbebm

gfrmhut. @r0+ + 0f ‐  ↗ @r F? 9 ‐?,51 vdlt @u7+ + 7f ↗ @u F? 9 +?,01 vdlt _frkybtbbk ybke sblbc bablbc .… b. flfhtrdaf @u sfgbebm sfgbebm hbtdaf hbtdaf g. flfhtrdaf @r sfgbebm sfgbebm bkdaf `. ldebi @r @r lfgmc lfgmc rfbh abrm @u a. ldebi @u ifkefkabp ifkefkabp pbab flfhtrdaf @u f. pdtfksmbl stbkabr stbkabr sfl bablbc bablbc +2,23 vdlt Mkndribsm gfrmhut ameukbhbk uktuh ifkjbwbg sdbl kd. 1 abk kd.6

_frcbhbk abtb pfrsbibbk rfbhsm gfrmhut ! Be+ (bq) + f ↗ Be(s) F? 9 +?,5= vdlt Ie7+ (bq) + 7f ↗ Ie(s) F? 9 ‐7,01 vdlt

PIB Kfefrm 2 Hdtb Pdldh

Km + Nf7+ ↗ Km7+ + Nf F? 9 ‐?,2= vdlt Bl 0+ + 0 f ↗Bl F? 9 ‐2,>> vdlt Nf 7+ + 7 f ↗Nf F? 9 ‐?,11 vdlt ibhb pdtfksmbl sfl stbkabr uktuh rfbhsm: 7 Bl + 0 Km7+ ↗ 7 Bl 0+ + 0 Km, bablbc ... b. + ?,=2 vdlt `. + 2,=2 vdlt f. + 1,?5 vdlt g. + 2,12 vdlt a. + 7,65 vdlt 3. Amhftbcum abtb pdtfksmbl flf`trdaf stbkabr sfgbebm

gfrmhut. Zk7+┇ Zk F? 9 ‐ ?,5> ^ Ie7+┇ Ie F? 9 ‐ 7,01 ^  @r0+┇ @r F? 9 ‐ ?,51 ^ @u7+┇ @u F? 9 +?,01 ^ Cbreb pdtfksmbl sfl ybke tfrgfsbr tfrabpbt pbab …. b. Zk ┇ Zk7+ ǂ @u7+┇@u a. Ie ┇ Ie7+ ǂ @u7+ ┇@u g. Zk ┇ Zk7+ ǂ @r0+┇@r f. @r ┇ @r0+ ǂ @u7+ ┇@u `. Ie ┇ Ie7+ ǂ @r0+ ┇@r =. Gbcbk ybke ameukbhbk sfgbebm flfhtrdab pbab sfl bhm

(b``u) bablbc ... b. _t _t abk @ `. _g _g abk _gD7 g. Zk Zk abk @ a. Zk Zk abk @u

f. @u abk _gD7

2?._bab sfl hfrmke ybke ifrupbhbk bkdaf bablbc ....

b. hbrgdk g. ibke ibkebk bk

`. Qmigbl a. Pf Pfke ke

f. gfsm

22.Ldebi L abpbt ifkefkabphbk tfigbeb abrm lbrutbk

@uPD1 tftbpm ldebi abh gfrfbhsm afkebk Zk@l 7, ibhb urutbk ldebi gfrmhut, ybke smbt rfauhtdrkyb ibhmk hubt bablbc .... b. Zk, @u, L `. @u L, Zk f. @u, Zk, L g. L, @u, Zk a. Zk, L, @u

 

27.Amhftbcum: Bl0+ |Bl F¿ 9 ‐2,>> ^ _g7+ |_g F¿ 9 ‐?,20 ^ 7+ Ie |Ie F¿ 9 ‐7,05 ^ Pk7+ |Pk F¿ 9 ‐?,21 ^ Zk7+   |Zk F¿ 9 ‐?,01 ^ Am bktbrb ldebi Bl, Ie, Zk, _g, abk Pk, jmhb amibsuhhbk hf ablbi lbrutbk Zk@l7, ibhb ldebi ybke abpbt lbrut bablbc b. Bl abk Ie a. _g, Pk, abk Zk g. _g abk Pk f. sfiubkyb lbrut `. Bl, Ie, abk Zk 20._frcbhbk sfl flfhtrdhmimb gfrmhut !

5. Qu Qulm lmsh shbk bk kdtb kdtbsm sm sflk sflkyb yb ! 3. Cmtuke Cmtukelbc lbc cbreb cbreb pdtf pdtfksm ksmbl bl sflk sflkyb! yb! HA 0.6 HDWDPM 2. _frcbhbk ebigbr pfr`dgbbk hdrdsm gfrmhut :

_bhu ybke ifkeblbim hdrdsm pblmke lbigbt tfrjbam pbab ebigbr kdidr ... b. 2 g. 7 `. 0 a. 1 f. 6 7. Amhftbcum pdtfksmbl flfhtrdab stbkabr Fd (vdlt) uksur ‐

_fkulmsbk amberbi ybke tfpbt abrm ebigbr bablbc…. b. Zk(s) / Zk7+(bq) // @u7+(bq) / @u(s) g. @u(s) / @u7+ (bq) // Zk7+(bq) / Zk(s) `. Zk7+(bq) / Zk (s) // @u(s) / @u7+(bq) a. @u7+ (bq) / @u(s) // Zk7+(bq) / Zk(s) f. Zk(s) / Zk7+ (bq) // @u(s) / @u7+(bq) 21._frcbhbk pdtfksmbl flfhtrdab stbkabr gfrmhut : @r0+ (bq) + 0f ↗ @r (s) Fd 9 ‐?,52 vdlt + Be  (bq) + f ↗ Be (s) Fd 9 +?,3? vdlt Bl0+ (bq) + 0f ↗ Bl (s) Fd 9 ‐2,>> vdlt 7+

uksur : _7+ (bq) + 7 f ‐  ↗ _ (s)  F? 9 ‐7,05 vdlt R 0+ (bq) + 0 f ‐  ↗ R (s)  F? 9 ‐2,>> vdlt W7+ (bq) + 7 f ‐  ↗ W (s)  F? 9 ‐?,73 vdlt Nf7+ (bq) + 7 f ‐  ↗ W (s)  F? 9 ‐?,11 vdlt P7+ (bq) + 7 f ‐  ↗ P (s)  F? 9 ‐?,20 vdlt Q7+ (bq) + 7 f ‐  ↗ Q (s)  F? 9 +?,01 vdlt Vksur ldebi ybke pblmke gbmh ifigfrmhbk pfrlmkaukebk hbtdamh tfrcbabp gfsm bablbc … b. _ g. R `. W a. P f. Q

d

Zk  (bq) + 7f ↗ Zk (s) F  9 ‐?,51 vdlt Kdtbsm sfl ybke abpbt gfrlbkesuke spdktbk bablbc ... b. Be/Be+ // @r0+ / @r a. Zk/Zk7+ // Bl0+ / Bl g. Be/Be+  // Zk7+ / Zk f. Zk/Zk7+  // Be+ / Be `. @r/@r0+  // Bl0+ / Bl 26.Pk + Pr[7+ ---; abh gfrfbhsm

Pk + _a[7+ ---; Pk[7+ + _a Pk + Ce[7+ ---; Pk[7+ + Ce Pr + Wg[+ ---; abh gfrfbhsm Ce + _a[7+ ---; Ce[7+ + _a Vrutbk ldebi-ldebi tfrsfgut gfrabsbrhbk smbt rfauhtdr ybke sfibhmk ifkuruk bablbc.. B. Pk < _a < Ce < Pr < Wg G. _a < Ce < Pk < Pr < Wg @. _a < Ce < Pr < Wg < Pk A. Ce < Pk Pk < Pr < Wg < _a _a F. Wg < Pr < Pk Pk < Ce < _a _a VWBMBK HA 0.1 : _frcbhbk ebigbr gfrmhut :

0. @brb ybke pblmke tfpbt amlbhuhbk uktuh iflmkaukem

cmbsbk ruibc ybke tfrgubt abrm gfsm abrm pfrmswb ‐ pfrmswb hdrdsm bablbc ... b. amlbpmsm afkebk afkebk pfrbh g. amlbpmsm afkebk bluimkmui bluimkmui `. prdtfhsm hbtdamh a. amluiurm afkebk dlm f. amlbpmsm afkebk sfke

1. _frlmkaukebk hdrdsm hdrdsm ybke pblmke tfpbt tfpbt amlbhuhbk uktuh

iflmkaukem ldebi pbab gbembk ifsmk ybke gfrputbr bablbc ... b. ifkef`bt a. ifluiurm afkebk dlm g. amgubt pbaubk ldebi f. amgblut afkebk fibs `. pfrlmkaukebk hbtdamh 6. Pfdrbke smswb iflbhuhbk pfr`dgbbk ifkyflmamhm

bhtdr-bhtdr pfkyfgbg hdrdsm pbab gfsm. Gbcbk gfsm ybke ameukbhbk bablbc pbhu ybke tflbc ambiplbs. Amberbi pfr`dgbbk ybke amlbhuhbk bablbc sfgbebm gfrmhut.

Hftfrbkebk: 

Jmhb F?rfa Zk79/Zk 9 ‐? ‐?,5> ,5> ^ F?rfa _g9/_g 9 ‐?,20 ^ 2. Qfktuhbk Qfktuhbk brbc blmrbk blmrbk flfhtr flfhtrdk dk abrm abrm ...... ....hf hf ..... ..... 7. Ldebi Ldebi bpb bpb ybke ybke gfrka gfrkabh bh sfgbe sfgbebm bm bkdab bkdab ! 0. Ldebi Ldebi bpb bpb ybke ybke gfrka gfrkabh bh sfgbe sfgbebm bm hbtda hbtdab b! 1. Qulmsh Qulmshbk bk rfbhsm rfbhsm ybke ybke tfrj tfrjbam bam am bkdab bkdab ! 6. Qulmsh Qulmshbk bk rfbhs rfbhsmm ybke ybke tfrjba tfrjbamm am hbtda hbtdab b! >. Qu Qulm lmss rfb rfbhs hsmm sfl sflky kyb b! PIB Kfefrm 2 Hdtb Pdldh

Mkamhbtdr fkdlptblfmk ifigfktuh wbib ifrbc iuab jmhb tfrabpbt mdk DC ‐.





@b@l7 bkcmarbt zbt ybke cmerdshdpms (ifkyfrbp bmr),ifrupbhbk sfcmkeeb uabrb ablbi tbguke gfgbs ubp bmr. Bmr ybke suabc amamamchbk hfcmlbkebk dhsmefk tfrlbrut.

 

H0Nf(@K)>  ifigfktuh hdiplfhs hdiplfhs wbrkb gmru gmru jmhb 7+ tfrabpbt mdk Nf Pftflbc 7cbrm hfiuambk ampfrdlfc abtb gfrmhut :

g. C7 abk D7



a. Kb abk abk C7

6. Pfkadh ldebi ybke tfrgubt abrm zmkh bhbk amsfpuc

afkebk ldebi tfigbeb'

Gfrabsbrhbk pfr`dgbbk tfrsfgut, bhtdr pfkyfgbg tfrjbamkyb hdrdsm gfsm bablbc ... b. gfsm ifimlm ifimlmhm hm hfibipubk hfibipubk ifkeblbi ifkeblbimm rfauhsm rfauhsm ; abrm Zk  ‐

g. `. a. f.

babk ba bkyb yb md mdk k DC DC  (subsbkb gbsb) am sfhmtbr gfsm Fd rfauhsm gfsm < F? rfauhsm bmr gfsm ifrupbhbk ifrupbhbk dhsmabtdr dhsmabtdr hubt babkyb ebs ebs dhsmefk dhsmefk abk abk ubp bmr am am sfhmtbr sfhmtbr gfsm gfsm

HA 0.> PFL FLFHQWDLMPMP 2. _frcbhbk ebigbr flfhtrdsms lbrutbk HM afkebk flfhtrdab hbrgdk. Zbt ybke tfrjbam pbab flfhtrdaf G bablbc … b. M7 g. ebs C7 `. ebs D7 a. C7D f. ldebi H 7. Flfhtrdlmsms subtu lbrutbk ifkecbsmlhbk rfbhsm sfpfr

gfrmhut.

7+ Wfbhsm am hbtdab bablbc b. @u+7ybke (bq) +tfrjbam Zk(s) ↗ @u(s) + Zk (bq)... g. Zk(s Zk(s)) ↗ Zk7+ (bq) + 7f `. Zk7+(bq) +7f ↗ Zk(s) a. @u(s @u(s)) ↗ @u7+(bq) + 7f f. @u7+ (bq) + 7f ↗ @u(s)

>. Juilbc Nbrbaby ybke ampfrluhbk uktuh abpbt

ifrfauhsm sbtu sbtu idl mdk mdk hldrbt @lD0 ‐ ifkjbam hldr @l7  ablbi lbrutbk bsbi bablbc .... Nbrbaby b. 2 g. 7 `.0 a. 6 f. 2? 5. Vktuh ifkefkabphbk 0,256 erbi @u abrm lbrutbk @u7+ 

sf`brb flfhtrdlmsms ampfrluhbk … (Br @u 9 >0,6) b. 7120 `duldig a. 21156 `duldig g. 1376 `duldig f. 2=0?? `duldig `. =>6? =>6? `du `duld ldig ig 3.

Ebigbr ybke tfpbt uktuh pfrmswb flfhtrdlmsms tfrsfgut bablbc ....

b.

a.

Huk`m ybke tfrgubt abrm gfsm bhbk amsfpuc afkebk ldebi fibs ifkeeukbhbk hubt brus 2? bipfrf sflbib =>6? afh, sfpfr ebigbr gfrmhut. _bab rfbhsm pfkyfpucbk huk`m gfsm afkebk ldebi fibs, ameukbhbk lbrutbk Bu0+, ibssb ldebi fibs ybke iflbpmsm huk`m gfsm tfrsfgut bablbc …. (Br Bu 9 2=5) b. ?,202 erbi a. >6,5 erbi g. 20,2 erbi f. 202 erbi `. >, >,6 65 er erbi

=. _rdsfs flfhtrdlmsms lflfcbk Kb@l afkebk flfhtrdab

hbrgdk, ameukbhbk brus sfgfsbr 2? bipfrf sflbib 0? ifkmt. Ibssb ldebi kbtrmui ybke ampfrdlfc bablbc ... (B r 8 Kb 9 70 8 @l 9 06,6) f.

g.

b.

g

`. `. 0. _bab flfhtrdlmsms lbrutbk @uPD1 afkebk flfhtrdab

tfigbeb, ibhb rfbhsm am bkdab bablbc ... b. @u ↗ @u7+ + 7f a. C7D ↗ 7DC ‐  g. @u7+ + 7f ↗ @u f. PD1 7‐ ↗ PD7 + D7 +

`. C7D ↗ D7 + 1C + 1f 1. _bab flfhtrdlmsms `bmrbk Kb@l afkebk ifkeeukbhbk flfhtrdab hbrgdk, pbab hbtdab abk bkdab gfrturut ‐ turut amgfgbshbk ... b. C7 abk @l7 `. Kb abk abk @l7 f. Kb abk abk D7 PIB Kfefrm 2 Hdtb Pdldh

70  x 2?  x 0?

a.

=>6??   70  x 2?  x 0?  x >? =>6??

f.

63,6  x 2?  x 0? =>6?? 63,3  x 2?  x 0?  x >? 7  x =>6??

  63,6  x 2?  x 0?  x >? =>6??

2?.Flfhtrdlmsms lbrutbk @u(KD0)7 ifkeeukbhbk brus lmstrmh

2? bipfrf afkebk flfhtrdab _t. Jmhb amcbrbphbk >,06 er tfigbeb ifkefkabp pbab hbtdab. _bab hfbabbk stbkabr vdluif ebs ybke amcbsmlhbk am bkdab bablbc ... (Br @u 9 >0,6) b. ?,6> L g. 2,27 L

`. 7,71 L a. 1,13 L

f. 3,=> L

22.Pfgbkybh 76? iL lbrutbk Kb@l ?,?2 I amflfhtrdlmsms

afkebk ifkeeukbhbk flf`trdaf hbrgdk. pC lbrutbk ybke tfrjbam am sfhmtbr hbtdaf, bablbc ....

 

b. 7 g. 7 ‐ lde 7

`. 7 ‐ 7 lde 7 a. 27

f. 27 + 7 lde 7

27.Pfjuilbc brus lmstrmh ybke sbib amblmrhbk hf ablbi aub

sfl flfhtrdlmsms ybke gfrgfab sfsubm ebigbr gfrmhut :

Flfhtrdab   Zk

Flfhtrdab   Pk

  Lbrutbk ZkPD1 Lbrutbk Pk@l1  Jmhb ablbi lbrutbk ZkPD1 bhbk ifkefkabp 20 erbi Zk (Br 9 >6), ibhb pbab lbrutbk Pk@l1 bhbk ampfrdlfc fkabpbk Pk (Br 9 22=) sfgbkybh ... b. ?,= erbi `. 23,0 erbi f. 6=6 erbi g. 22 22,= erbi a. 52 52,? erbi 20.Hf ablbi aub sfl ybke gfrmsm lbrutbk LPD 1 abk BeKD0 

ybke amsusuk sf`brb sfrm amblmrhbk brus lmstrmh tfr-kybtb amfkabphbk 0,76 erbi ldebi L abk 2?,3 erbi ldebi Be (Br Be92?3). Ibssb btdi rflb L bablbc ... b. 07,6 `. >6,? f. 57,? g. >0,6 a. 5?,6 21.Brus lmstrmh 2? bipfrf amblmrhbk hf ablbi lbrutbk @uPD1

sflbib =>6 afh. ^dluif ebs ybke amcbsmlhbk am bkdab (? ?@, 2 bti) bablbc … (Br @u9>0,68 D92>8 P9078 2 N9=>6?? b. ?, ?,6> @/idl) lmtfr g. 2,27 2,27 lm lmtf tfrr `. >,57 lmtfr

a. 22,7? lmtfr f. 77 77,1 ,1? ? lm lmtf tfrr

26.Flfhtrdlmsms lfgurbk H@l ifkeeukbhbk flfhtrdab

hbrgdk bhbk ifkecbsmlhbk …. b. lde ldebi bi H am hbtd hbtdab ab g. ebs C7 am  am hbtdab ebs D7 am bkdab HA 0.>

a. ebs @l7 am hbtdab f. lbrutbk gbsb am bkdab

2. Brus lmstrmh ?,??7 N amblmrhbk hf ablbi 2 lmtfr lbrutbk

NfPD1 afkebk flfhtrdab hbrgdk b. Qulms rfbhsm am hbtdab abk bkdab. g. Cmtuke ibssb fkabpbk pfrbh am hbtdab (Br Zk 96>). `. Cmtuke vdluif ebs am bkdab (PQ_) a. Cmtuke pC lbrutbk sftflbc flfhtrdlmsms tfrsfgut.

7. Hf ablbi lbrutbk BeKD0 abk lbrutbk @uPD1 ybke

amsusuk sfrm, amblmrhbk brus lmstrmh =>,6 `duldig. Qfktuhbk : b. Ibssb pfrbh ybke ifkefkabp (Br Be 9 2?3). g. Ibssb tfigbeb tfigbeb ybke ifkefkabp ifkefkabp (Br @u 9 >0,6).

PIB Kfefrm 2 Hdtb Pdldh